Organic chemistry

Organic chemistry dives into the world of carbon-based compounds, the building blocks of life.
Unlike early beliefs, these can be made in labs, not just living things. Carbon's unique ability to bond
with itself and other elements like hydrogen and oxygen lets it form millions of varied molecules,
from plastics to drugs. By understanding their structure, reactions, and properties, we unlock their
potential in medicine, materials science, and more.

Organic compounds
An organic compound is any compound that contains carbon atoms. These carbon atoms
form the backbone of the molecule and are usually covalently bonded to other elements,
most commonly hydrogen, oxygen, or nitrogen. The specific arrangement of these atoms d
etermines the compound's structure and properties.

Inorganic compounds
Inorganic compounds are generally those that don't have carbon-hydrogen bonds. They
form the vast majority of the Earth's crust, with minerals being a key example. Minerals are
naturally occurring, inorganic, solid substances with a definite chemical composition and an
ordered atomic arrangement. They are the building blocks of rocks and provide us with many
important elements and compounds.

Unique nature of carbon atom

Tetravalency

Carbon's 4 outer electrons (tetravalency) let it form 4 covalent bonds for a stable
outer shell (octet rule), enabling vast organic molecule diversity (C-C, C-H, C-O, etc.)
in single, double, or triple bonds.

Key points:

 Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds (tetravalency)

 Creates diverse organic molecules (C-C, C-H, C-O, etc.)
 Foundation of organic chemistry

Carbon's ability to form four covalent bonds (tetravalency) is key to organic

chemistry. It lets carbon bond with various elements (C-C, C-H, C-O, etc.) in single,
double, or triple bonds, resulting in a massive variety of organic molecules.

Catenation
Catenation refers to the amazing ability of carbon atoms to link up with each other and form
long chains, branches, and even rings. This property is what sets carbon apart from other
elements and allows for the incredible diversity of organic compounds.

Formation of multiple bonds

Carbon forms double
bonds with other
carbon atoms by
undergoing sp2
hybridization. In this
process, four orbitals
on a carbon atom mix
to form four sp2
hybrid orbitals, which
bond with other atoms
in a trigonal planar
geometry. A double
bond consists of a
sigma bond from
overlapping sp2
orbitals and a pi bond
from sideways overlap
of unhybridized p
orbitals.
Comparision between
organic and inorganic
compounds

Feature Organic Compounds Inorganic Compounds

 Almost always contain Generally lack carbon
Carbon
carbon (exceptions exist)

Carbon-Hydrogen Almost always contain C- Typically don't have C-H

Bonds H bonds bonds

Can be ionic or covalent

Bonds Primarily covalent bonds
bonds

DNA, proteins, Water, table salt (NaCl),

Examples
carbohydrates, plastics metals, minerals

Formed from geological

Source Often from living things
processes or man-made

Extremely diverse
Diversity Less diverse structures
structures

Can vary depending on Often soluble in water (ionic

Solubility
structure compounds)

Poor conductors of heat Can be good or bad

Conductivity
and electricity conductors depending on type

Field of Study Organic Chemistry Inorganic Chemistry

Isomerism
Isomers are molecules with the same formula but different structures and properties.
They come in two main types:

 Structural isomers: Different arrangements of atoms (chain, position,

functional group).
 Stereoisomers: Same atomic arrangement, but different spatial arrangement
(like mirror images).

Isomers are important in understanding molecules' behavior and have applications in

medicine, where a molecule's shape can affect its effectiveness.

Homologous series

A homologous series is a captivating realm of

organic compounds that exhibit a kinship due
to their structural similarities. Imagine these
series as extended families of organic
molecules, where each member possesses a
core structure, like a family resemblance, and
a functional group, which acts as a unique
identifier within the family. The key difference
between family members, however, lies in the
length of their carbon chain, akin to variations
in height among siblings.

Characteristics of homologous series

 Shared Functional Group: Members share a

functional group (like OH in alcohols) that dictates
their chemistry.
 General Formula: A formula reveals the
relationship between carbon atoms (n) and other
elements in the series.
 Gradual Change in Physical Properties: As
chain length increases, boiling point, melting
point, and viscosity generally increase due to
stronger London dispersion forces.
 Similar Chemical Properties: Shared
functional groups lead to similar chemical
reactions.
 Differ by CH₂: Each member differs from the
previous one by a methylene group (CH₂).

Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons are the building blocks of a vast and important

group of organic molecules. They consist solely of two
elements:
 Carbon (C): The backbone of most hydrocarbons,
carbon atoms can bond with each other to form chains of
varying lengths and structures.
 Hydrogen (H): Hydrogen atoms attach to the carbon
atoms, "filling up" their outer electron shells and creating
n stable structures.
Here are some key points about hydrocarbons:

 Structure: Hydrocarbons can be classified based on the arrangement of their carbon

atoms and the types of bonds between them. The main categories include:
o Alkanes: Simplest hydrocarbons, containing only single carbon-carbon bonds
and with the general formula CnH2n+2 (e.g., methane, ethane, propane).
o Alkenes: Contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond (C=C) and have the
general formula CnH2n (e.g., ethene, propene).
o Alkynes: Have at least one carbon-carbon triple bond (C≡C) (e.g., ethyne,
propyne).
o Aromatic hydrocarbons: Characterized by a specific ring structure with
alternating single and double bonds between carbon atoms (e.g., benzene,
toluene).

Classification of hydrocarbons
1. Alkanes:

 Also known as saturated hydrocarbons because all the carbon-carbon bonds are single
bonds.
 Simplest hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2 (where n is the number of
carbon atoms).
 Alkanes are non-polar molecules, making them not very soluble in water but good at
dissolving other non-polar substances like oils and greases.
 pen_spark

 Examples: methane (CH₄), ethane (C₂H₆), propane (C₃H₈), butane (C₄H₁₀)

2. Alkenes:

 Contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond (C=C).

 Have the general formula CnH2n (where n is the number of carbon atoms).
 Due to the presence of the double bond, alkenes are more reactive than alkanes and
can undergo reactions like addition reactions where other atoms or molecules are
added across the double bond.
 Examples: ethene (C₂H₄), propene (C₃H₆), butene (C₄H₈)

3. Alkynes:

 Contain at least one carbon-carbon triple bond (C≡C).

 Have the general formula CnH2n-2 (where n is the number of carbon atoms).
 Similar to alkenes, alkynes are even more reactive due to the presence of the triple
bond and can undergo addition reactions.
 Examples: ethyne (C₂H₂), propyne (C₃H₄), butyne (C₄H₆)

4. Aromatic Hydrocarbons:

 Characterized by a specific ring structure with alternating single and double bonds
between carbon atoms. The most common aromatic hydrocarbon is benzene (C₆H₆).
 Due to their unique structure, aromatic hydrocarbons exhibit a special stability and
undergo substitution reactions rather than addition reactions.
 Example: Benzene (C₆H₆)

Nomenclature of hydrcarbons
1. Alkanes (Saturated Hydrocarbons):

 Identify the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms as the parent chain. This forms
the base name of the molecule. The number of carbon atoms in the chain determines
the prefix used (e.g., meth- for 1 carbon, eth- for 2 carbons, and so on).
 Number the carbon atoms in the parent chain, starting from the end that gives the
attached substituent groups (if any) the lowest possible numbers.
 Identify any branches (alkyl groups) attached to the parent chain. These are named
using prefixes like methyl (CH₃-), ethyl (C₂H₅-), and so on.
 Combine the branch names (in alphabetical order) with the parent chain name, using
numbers to indicate their position on the chain. If there are multiple branches of the
same type, use prefixes like di-, tri-, etc. before the branch name.

Example:

Consider the molecule CH₃CH₂CH(CH₃)CH₂CH₃.

 Longest chain: 5 carbons (pent-)

  Numbering: Start from the right (gives the methyl groups positions 2 and 4).
 Branches: Two methyl groups at positions 2 and 4.

Name: 2,4-dimethylpentane

2. Alkenes (Unsaturated Hydrocarbons with C=C Double Bond):

 Similar to alkanes, identify the longest carbon chain containing the double bond.
 Use the same prefixes based on the number of carbon atoms in the chain, but with a
suffix "-ene" to indicate the presence of a double bond.
 The position of the double bond is indicated by a number before the "-ene" suffix. Use
the lowest possible numbers for both carbons involved in the double bond.
 Numbering starts from the end that gives the double bond the lowest number.
 Branching is named following the same rules as alkanes.

Example:

Consider the molecule CH₃CH=CHCH₂CH₃.

 Longest chain with double bond: 5 carbons (pent-)

 Double bond: Between carbons 2 and 3.
 Numbering: Start from the left (gives the double bond the lower number 2).
 Branches: Methyl group at position 1.

Name: 1-methylpent-2-ene

3. Alkynes (Unsaturated Hydrocarbons with C≡C Triple Bond):

 The naming follows a similar logic as alkenes, with some key differences.
 The suffix "-yne" is used to indicate the presence of a triple bond.
 The position of the triple bond is indicated by a number before the "-yne" suffix.

Example:

Consider the molecule HC≡CCH₂CH₃.

 Longest chain with triple bond: 4 carbons (but-)

 Triple bond: Between carbons 1 and 2.
 Numbering: Start from the right (gives the triple bond the lower number 1).
 No branches.

Methane
Methane (CH₄) is the simplest hydrocarbon molecule. Here's a breakdown of its key
characteristics:

Chemical Formula: CH₄ - One carbon atom bonded to four hydrogen atoms.
Structure: Methane has a tetrahedral structure, meaning the four hydrogen atoms are
arranged around the central carbon atom in a three-dimensional space, forming a symmetrical
molecule.

Properties:

 State: Methane is a colorless, odorless gas at room temperature and pressure.

 Melting Point: -182.5 °C (-296.5 °F)
 Boiling Point: -162 °C (-259.6 °F)
 Flammability: Highly flammable and burns in air with a pale blue flame, producing
carbon dioxide and water vapor (CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O).
 Solubility: Slightly soluble in water.

Occurrence:

 Methane is the main constituent of natural gas, a fossil fuel found underground.
 It's also produced by the decomposition of organic matter in the absence of oxygen
(anaerobic decomposition), such as in landfills and swamps.
 Methane is a major component of the atmospheres of the outer gas giants in our solar
system, like Jupiter and Saturn.

Importance:

 Methane is an important fuel source, used for heating, cooking, and electricity
generation.
 It's also a raw material for various industrial processes, such as the production of
plastics and other chemicals.
 However, methane is a potent greenhouse gas, contributing to global warming when
released into the atmosphere.

Ethane
Ethane (C₂H₆) is the second simplest alkane, containing two carbon atoms and six hydrogen
atoms. Here's a breakdown of its key characteristics:

Chemical Formula: C₂H₆

Structure: Ethane has a linear structure with the two carbon atoms linked by a single
covalent bond. Each carbon atom bonds with three hydrogen atoms in a tetrahedral
arrangement.

Properties:

 State: Ethane is a colorless, odorless gas at room temperature and pressure.

 Melting Point: -182.8 °C (-297 °F)
 Boiling Point: -88.6 °C (-127.5 °F)
 Flammability: Highly flammable and burns in air with a pale blue flame, producing
carbon dioxide and water vapor (C₂H₆ + 3O₂ → 2CO₂ + 3H₂O).
 Solubility: Slightly soluble in water.
Occurrence:

 Ethane is a minor component of natural gas, typically present in a few percentage

points compared to methane, the main constituent.
 It can also be produced from the processing of petroleum and natural gas liquids.

Importance:

 While not as widely used as methane, ethane is a valuable hydrocarbon feedstock in

the chemical industry.
 It serves as a starting material for the production of ethylene (C₂H₄), a crucial
building block for numerous plastics and other chemicals.
 Ethane can also be used as a clean-burning fuel source.

Laboratory Preparation of Ethane:

There are a couple of ways to prepare ethane in a laboratory setting. Here's a common
method:

 Reaction: Sodium propionate (C₂H₅COONa), when heated with sodium hydroxide

(NaOH) in the presence of soda lime (CaO), decomposes to yield ethane (CH₃CH₃)
and sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃).

Chemical Equation:

C₂H₅COONa (aq) + NaOH (aq) + CaO (s) → Δ Na₂CO₃ (aq) + CH₃CH₃ (g)

This method works similarly to the preparation of methane, but uses sodium propionate,
which has a two-carbon chain, as the starting material.

Other methods:

 Reduction of ethyl iodide (CH₃CH₂I) using a metal like zinc (Zn) in an alcoholic
solution can produce ethane.
 Electrolysis of an aqueous solution of sodium acetate (CH₃COONa) can also yield
ethane, though this method is less common.

Safety Considerations:

 Similar to methane preparation, laboratory procedures for ethane involve flammable

materials and require following safety protocols:
o Wear safety goggles and gloves.
o Conduct the experiment in a well-ventilated area.
o Use a Bunsen burner or other heating source cautiously.
o Dispose of waste materials according to proper guidelines.

Alkenes
Alkenes are a fascinating class of hydrocarbons characterized by the presence of a carbon-
carbon double bond (C=C). This double bond makes them unsaturated, meaning they have
fewer hydrogen atoms than the maximum possible for their number of carbon atoms
compared to alkanes (single bonds only). Here's a deeper dive into alkenes:

Structure and Bonding:

 The carbon atoms in the double bond share four electrons instead of the usual single
bond's two electrons. This creates a rigid structure with restricted rotation around the
double bond.
 The remaining electron on each carbon atom forms single bonds with hydrogen atoms
or other atoms/groups.

Types of Alkenes:

 Chain Structure: Alkenes can be straight-chain (linear) or branched, depending on

the arrangement of the carbon atoms.
 Position of the Double Bond: The position of the double bond within the carbon
chain is indicated by a number. For example, but-2-ene has the double bond between
the second and third carbon atoms in a four-carbon chain.
 Geometric Isomers: Certain alkenes with more than one double bond and non-
identical substituents around the double bond can exhibit geometric isomerism. This
means they have the same molecular formula and connectivity but differ in the spatial
arrangement of their atoms around the double bond. The two geometric isomers are
cis (similar groups on the same side) and trans (similar groups on opposite sides).

Properties:

 Physical State: Lower molecular weight alkenes are gases or liquids at room
temperature. As the chain length increases, they become solids.
 Boiling and Melting Points: Generally lower than those of corresponding alkanes
with the same number of carbon atoms due to weaker intermolecular forces (weaker
van der Waals forces compared to alkanes).
 Solubility: Insoluble in water due to their non-polar nature, but soluble in organic
solvents like benzene.
 Reactivity: More reactive than alkanes due to the presence of the double bond. They
readily undergo addition reactions where other atoms or molecules add across the
double bond, forming new single bonds.

Examples:

 Ethene (C₂H₄): The simplest alkene.

 Propene (C₃H₆): A three-carbon alkene with various industrial uses.
 Butene (C₄H₈): A four-carbon alkene that can have cis and trans isomers.

Importance:h

 Alkenes are essential building blocks for numerous industrial processes.

 They are used in the production of plastics (e.g., polyethylene from ethene), synthetic
fibers, and various chemicals.
  Some alkenes, like ethylene (ethene), are important ripening agents for fruits.

Alkynes
Alkynes, like alkenes, are unsaturated hydrocarbons, but with a triple bond (C≡C) instead of
a double bond. This triple bond makes them unique and very reactive.

 Structure: Rigid due to limited rotation around the triple bond. Each carbon shares 6
electrons in the bond.
 Types: Linear or branched, with positions of triple bonds numbered (e.g., 3-hexyne).
 Properties: Similar to alkenes (gases/liquids, low boiling points, insoluble in water).
 Reactivity: Highest among hydrocarbons due to the triple bond. They undergo
addition reactions.
 Examples: Ethyne (C₂H₂) is the simplest alkyne.
 Importance: Used in organic synthesis, welding (acetylene), and plastics production.

Ethyne
Ethyne, or acetylene (C₂H₂), is the simplest alkyne, featuring a linear structure with a
carbon-carbon triple bond and two hydrogen atoms. A colorless gas at room temperature, it's
highly flammable and burns with a bright white flame. Ethyne's exceptional reactivity makes
it valuable in organic synthesis and industrial applications like welding (due to its high
burning temperature). It's also a starting material for various chemicals and a potential future
fuel source.

Alcohols
Alcohols are a broad class of organic compounds characterized by the presence of a
hydroxyl group (OH) bonded to a carbon atom. This hydroxyl group gives them
distinct properties and functionalities compared to other hydrocarbon families like
alkanes and alkenes. Here's a breakdown of the key aspects of alcohols:

Structure and Bonding:

 The hydroxyl group (OH) is the functional group responsible for the
characteristic behavior of alcohols.
 The oxygen atom in the hydroxyl group forms a single bond with the carbon
atom and a single bond with a hydrogen atom.
 The carbon atom bonded to the OH group can also be linked to other
hydrogen atoms or carbon atoms, forming a variety of alcohol structures.

Classification of Alcohols:

 Alcohols are classified based on the number of carbon atoms bonded to the
carbon atom containing the hydroxyl group.
 Primary (1°): The carbon with the OH group is bonded to only one other
carbon atom. (e.g., Ethanol - CH₃CH₂OH)
 Secondary (2°): The carbon with the OH group is bonded to two other carbon
atoms. (e.g., Isopropanol - CH₃CH(OH)CH₃)
  Tertiary (3°): The carbon with the OH group is bonded to three other carbon
atoms. (e.g., tert-Butyl alcohol - (CH₃)₃COH)

Properties:

 Physical State: Lower molecular weight alcohols are typically liquids or

colorless gases at room temperature. As the chain length increases, they
become more viscous and can even be solids.
 Boiling Point: Generally higher than alkanes with the same number of
carbon atoms due to hydrogen bonding between alcohol molecules.
 Solubility: Alcohols with shorter carbon chains are soluble in water due to the
ability to form hydrogen bonds with water molecules. Solubility decreases as
the carbon chain lengthens.
 Density: Alcohols are generally less dense than water, except for methanol
and ethanol.
 Flammability: Most alcohols are flammable and can burn with a blue flame.

Examples:

 Methanol (CH₃OH): The simplest alcohol, also known as wood alcohol.

 Ethanol (CH₃CH₂OH): The alcohol found in alcoholic beverages.
 Isopropanol (CH₃CH(OH)CH₃): Rubbing alcohol used for disinfection.
 Glycerol (C₃H₅(OH)₃): A trihydroxy alcohol with various industrial uses.

Importance:

 Alcohols have a wide range of applications in various industries:

o Solvents: Used in paints, coatings, and pharmaceuticals due to their
ability to dissolve many substances.
o Fuels: Ethanol (bioethanol) is a renewable fuel source derived from
fermented sugars.
o Chemical Feedstocks: Starting materials for the production of many
other chemicals, such as plastics and antifreeze.
o Beverages: Ethanol is the intoxicating ingredient in alcoholic drinks.
o Cosmetics and Personal Care Products: Used in
lotions, creams, and sanitizers.
o Medical Applications: Certain alcohols like ethanol and isopropanol
are used as disinfectants and antiseptics.