Chapter 17

PHYSICS OF SOLIDS
CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS
1. An element which has a definite volume and shape is called:
a) Liquid (b) Solid (c) Gas (d) Vapor
2. A solid in which atoms are in a regular order is called:
a) Crystalline solid (b) Amorphous solid (c) Polymeric solid (d) Glassy solid
3. Which of the following is a crystalline solid?
a) Copper (b) NaCl (c) Zirconia (d) All of above
4. Which of the following is polymeric solid?
(a) Nylon (b) Plastic (c) Polythene (d) All of above
5. Molecules of a solid possess:
(a) Rotational motion (b) Vibrational motion
(c) Translational motion (d) All of above
6. The number of crystal systems are:
(a) Three (b) Five (c) Seven (d) Fifteen
7. Which class of material would you classify for Nylon?
(a) Fibres (b) Polymer (c) Ceramics (d) Glass
8. A smallest three dimensional part of a crystal lattice is called:
(a) A particle (b) A molecules (c) A unit cell (d) An atom
9. The pattern of NaCl crystal have a………pattern:
(a) Triangular (b) Square (c) Cubic (d) Rectangular

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

10. The deformation of body is the change in its:
(a) Shape (b) Length (c) Area (d) All of above
11. Stress is defined as:
𝐹 𝐹 𝐴
(a) 𝐴 (b) 𝐴2 (c) 𝐹 (d) 𝐹 × 𝐴

12. When stress changes the shape then it is called _______ stress:
(a) Shear (b) Tensile (c) Compressive (d) volumetric
13. When stress changes the length of a body it is called _______ stress:
(a) Shear (b) Tensile (c) Compressive (d) volumetric
14. The unit N m–2 is also called as:
(a) coulomb (b) newton (c) pascal (d) ampere
15. S.I unit of stress is:
(a) 𝑁 𝑚−1 (b) 𝑁 𝑚 (c) 𝑁 𝑚−2 (d) newton
16. The deformation of a solid when stress is applied is called:
(a) Strain (b) Elasticity (c) Rigidity (d) Pressure
17. S.I unit of strain is:
(a) Newton (b) N m–2 (c) Pascal (d) no unit
18. The dimension of strain is
(a) [L] (b) [ML2T–2] (c) [M L–1 T–2] (d) Dimensionless
19. The strain due to tensile stress is called:
(a) Compressive strain (b) Shear strain
(c) Volumetric strain (d) Tensile strain
20. The volumetric strain is:
V 𝑉 V
(a) 𝑉 (b) V𝑜 (c) (d) None
𝑜 𝑡

21. The ratio of stress to strain is called:

(a) Modulus of conductivity (b) Modules of elasticity
(c) Modulus of electricity (d) Modulus of viscosity
22. The S.I unit of Modulus of elasticity is:
(a) pascal (b) coulomb (c) ampere (d) None
23. Young’s Modulus is given by
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
( ) ( ) (𝐹𝐴) ( )
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
(a) V (b) l (c) l (d) (V)
( ) ( ) ( )
𝑉 𝑙 𝑙

24. The ratio of shear stress to shear strain is:

(a) Shear Modulus (b) Young’s Modulus (c) Bulk Modulus (d) None of above
25. The ratio of volumetric stress to volumetric strain is called _______ modulus:

(a) Shear (b) Young’s (c) Bulk (d) elasticity

26. The ability of a body to return to its original shape is called:
(a) Plasticity (b) Elasticity (c) Strain (d) Stress
27. The substances which break just after the elastic limit is reached are called:
(a) Ductile (b) Brittle (c) Soft (d) Hard
28. The substances which undergo plastic deformation until break are:
(a) Brittle (b) Hard (c) Ductile (d) Soft
29. When stress is increased beyond the elastic limit and material is permanently
changed, then this property is called as:
(a) Permanent stress (b) Elasticity (c) Yield strength (d) Plasticity
30. The maximum stress that a body can tolerate is called:
(a) UTS (b) Permanent stress (c) Elastic strength (d) Plastic stress
31. The strain energy in a deformed material is:
1  E  1  EA1  1  EA 21  1  
(a)  1  (b)   (c)   (d)  E 1 
2  AL  2 L  2  L  2 L 

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

32. The substances with conductivities of the order of 10–6 – 10–4 ( m)–1 are :
(a) Insulators (b) Super conductors (c) Semiconductors (d)Good conductors

33. Substances of conductivity between 10–20 - 10–10 ( m )–1 are:

(a) Insulators (b) Semiconductors (c) Super conductors (d) Good conductors
34. Good conductors have conductivity of the order of:
(a) 10–10 ( m)–1 (b) 10–7 ( m)–1 (c) 10 7 ( m)–1 (d)10–9 ( m)–1
35. The electrons in the outermost orbit of atom are:
(a) Valance electrons (b) Static electrons (c) Tightly bound (d) Stationary
36. The band above the valance band is called:
(a) Conduction band (b) Filled band (c) Forbidden band (d) occupied band
37. The process of addition of impurity in pure semiconductor is:
(a) Insulating (b) Radiating (c) Mixing (d) Doping
38. A semiconductor formed by the addition of trivalent impurity is:
(a) Q–type (b) N–Type (c) P–Type (d) M–Type
39. Pure semiconductors silicon and germanium are:
(a) Extrinsic (b) Intrinsic (c) Insulator (d) Diodes
40. A doped semiconductor is called:
(a) Extrinsic (b) Intrinsic (c) Insulator (d) Conductor
41. Conductivity of semiconductor is increased by:
(a) Decrease of temperature (b) Keeping temperature constant
(c) Increase of temperature (d) None of above
42. A combination of N-type and P-type material is called:
(a) Diode (b) Transistor (c) Resistor (d) Capacitor
43. In a P-type semiconductor the charge carriers are:
(a) Electrons (b) Holes (c) Protons (d) Neutrons
44. In the N-type semiconductor the charge carriers are:
(a) Holes (b) Neutrons (c) Protons (d) Electrons
45. The majority charge carriers in N-type substance are:
(a) Holes (b) Protons (c) Neutrons (d) Electrons
46. Minority carriers in N-type are:
 (a) Holes (b) Electrons (c) Neutrons (d)Protons
SUPERCONDUCTORS
47. The temperature below which material show super conductivity is called _______
temperature:
(a) Super (b) Critical (c) Kelvin (d) Absolute
48. First super conductor was discovered by:
(a) Kamerlingh Ornes (b) Hertz (c) Einstein (d) Kelvin
49. The critical temperature for mercury is:
(a) 7.2 k (b) 4.2 k (c) 1.18 k (d) 3.7 k
50. Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide (𝒀𝑩𝒂𝟐 𝑪𝒖𝟑 𝑶𝟕 ) is super conductor at temperature:

(a) 163 k (b) 4.2 k (c) 125 k (d) 77 k

51. The critical temperature for lead is:
(a) 7.2 k (b) 3.72 k (c) 1.18 k (d) 3.7 k

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

52. A device used to detect very weak magnetic fields produced by brain is named as:

(a) MRI (b) CAT Scans (c) Squids (d) CRO

53. Domains contain nearly _____ atoms:
(a) 108 − 1010 (b) 1012 − 1016 (c)1015 − 1020 (d) 1015 − 1018
54. The substance in which the atoms do not form magnetic dipoles:

(a) Ferromagnetic (b) Paramagnetic (c) Diamagnetic (d) Conductors

55. The source of magnetism of an atom is the orbital and spin motion of an electron:

(a) Protons (b) Electrons (c) Neutrons (d) Positrons

56. Which one is not a ferromagnetic substance?
(a) Cobalt (b) Copper (c) Nickel (d) Iron
57. Above curie temperature iron is:
(a) Ferromagnetic (b) Paramagnetic (c) Diamagnetic (d) super magnet
58. The most suitable metal for making permanent magnet is:
(a) Iron (b) Steel (c) Silver (d) Copper
59. The energy required to magnetize and demagnetize a material is called:
(a) Saturation (b) Retentivity (c) Coercivity (d) Hysteresis loss
60. Which of the following has the least hysteresis loop area?
(a) Steel (b) Wrought Iron (c) Soft Iron (d) Cobalt
 Answer Key
1 B 13 B 25 C 37 D 49 B
2 A 14 C 26 B 38 C 50 A
3 B 15 C 27 B 39 B 51 A
4 D 16 A 28 C 40 A 52 C
5 B 17 D 29 D 41 C 53 B
6 C 18 D 30 A 42 A 54 C
7 B 19 D 31 C 43 B 55 B
8 C 20 A 32 C 44 D 56 B
9 C 21 B 33 A 45 D 57 B
10 D 22 A 34 C 46 A 58 B
11 A 23 B 35 A 47 B 59 D
12 A 24 A 36 A 48 A 60 C

Short Questions from Topics

Q.1 Define unit cell and crystal lattice.
Ans Unit cell:
The smallest three-dimensional basic structures which has all the properties of material is called unit
cell.
Crystal lattice:
The whole structure obtained by the repetition of unit cells is called the crystal lattice e.g. NaCl crystal.
Q.2 Distinguish between a donor atom and acceptor atom?
Ans Donor atom:
The impurity atom which donates a free electron in an extrinsic semiconductor material is called donor
atom e.g. Phosphorous (P), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb) etc.
Acceptor atom:
The impurity atom which accepts a free electron in an extrinsic semiconductor material is called
acceptor atom e.g. Aluminum (Al), Boron (B), Gallium (Ga) etc.
Q.3 Describe briefly about the formation of energy bands in semi-conductor?
Ans Electron of an isolated atom is bound to the nucleus and can only have distinct energy levels. However,
when a large number of atoms, say N, are brought close to one another to form a solid, each energy level of an
isolated atom splits into N sub levels, under the action of forces exerted by other atoms in the solid are called
states. These permissible energy states are discrete and closely spaced and they appear to form a
continuous energy band.
Q.4 What are the glassy solids? Do they possess property of flow?
Ans Glassy solids:
Ordinary glass is a solid at ordinary temperature and has no regular arrangement of molecules. On
heating, it gradually soften into paste like state before becomes a very viscous liquid at almost 800°C. Thus
glassy solids are called amorphous solids. They have no definite melting point. Yes they have property of
flow.
 Q.5 What is coercivity of material?
Ans Coercivity: The reverse magnetizing field is required to demagnetize the material completely. The
value of magnetizing current which make magnetization zero is called coercivity it is represented by C.
Q.6 Differentiate between ductile and brittle substance. Give an Example of each?
Ans Ductile substances:
Substances which undergo plastic deformation until they break are called ductile substances e.g. lead,
copper etc.
Brittle substances:
Substances which break just after the elastic limit is reached, are called brittle substances e.g. glass,
high carbon steel etc.
Q.6 Distinguish between elasticity and plasticity.
Ans Elasticity:
The ability of a body to return to its original shape when the stress is removed is called elasticity.
Plasticity:
If the stress is increased beyond yield stress or elastic limit of material, the specimen becomes
permanently deformed and does not regain its original shape or dimension after stress is removed this
kind of behavior is called plasticity.
Q.7 Explain what Curie temperature is?
Ans Curie temperature:
The temperature above which a ferromagnetic substance becomes paramagnetic, is called
Curie temperature. The Curie temperature for iron is about 750°C.
Q.8 What does area of hysteresis loop tell?
Ans The area of loop is measured of the energy needed to magnetize and demagnetized the specimen during

each cycle of the magnetizing current. It is called hysteresis loss. For hard magnetic materials, the area of
loop is large as compared to soft magnetic materials. So energy dissipated per second for iron is less than
for steel.
Q.9 Explain briefly insulator on the basic energy band theory?
Ans Insulators:
Insulators are those materials in which the valance electrons are bound very tightly to their
atoms and are not free. In terms of energy band theory, they have following properties:
i. An empty conduction band.
ii. A full valance band.
iii. A large energy gap (several eV) between them.
Q.10 Define valence band and conduction band.
Ans. Valence band:
The electron in the outer most orbit are called valance electron. The band occupied by these electrons
is called valance band.
Conduction band:
The band above the valance band is called conduction band. In this band, electrons move freely and
conduct electric current through the solids.
 Exercise Short Questions
Q.1 Distinguish between crystalline, amorphous and polymeric solids.
Ans Crystalline solids:
Solids which have a regular arrangement of molecules are called crystalline solids. Due to their regular
structure they have fixed melting point. All metals like copper, iron, aluminum etc. are crystalline
solids.
Amorphous solids:
Solids having a random arrangement of particles are called amorphous or glassy solids. Due to their
random structure they don’t have a fixed melting point. They are like liquids which are suddenly
frozen. Examples are wood, glass etc.
Polymeric solids:
Solids whose structure is in between crystalline and amorphous solids are called polymeric solids.
They consist of long chain carbon molecules due to chemical reaction called polymerization. Examples
are ceramics and polymers
Q.2 Define stress and strain. What are their SI units? Differentiate between tensile, compressive
and shear modes of stress and strain.
Ans Stress:
The applied force per unit area to change the length volume or shape of the object is called
stress. σ = F/A
S.I units: N m-2 or pascal
Strain:
The fractional change in the length, volume or shape of a body due to applied stress is called strain.
𝜀 = ∆𝑙/𝑙
S.I units: It is dimensionless and has no units.
Tensile stress:
The stress applied on a body to change its length is called tensile stress.
Volumetric stress:
It is applied stress which changes the volume of the object.
Shear stress:
It is a stress which changes the shape of the object.
Tensile strain:
It is the change in length divided by the original length of an object.
Ɛ = Δl / l
Volumetric strain:
The strain produced as a result of volumetric stress is called volumetric strain. It is equal to change in
volume divided by original volume.
Volumetric strain = ΔV/V
Shear strain:
The strain produced in the body due shear stress is called shear strain. Shear strain
(γ) = Δa/a = tanθ
Q.3 Define modulus of elasticity. Show that the units of modulus of elasticity and stress are the
same. Also discuss its three kinds.
Ans Modulus of elasticity:
The ratio of stress to the strain is called modulus of elasticity. It can be written as
Modulus of elasticity = Stress / Strain
Units of stress and modulus of elasticity
The units of stress are N m-2.
As the strain has no unit. Hence the units of modulus of elasticity are also N m-2 which is same as
units of stress.
Three Kinds of Modulus of Elasticity
i. Young’s Modulus
 The ratio of tensile stress to the tensile strain is called Young’s modulus.
Y= (F/A)/ (Δl / l)
ii. Bulk Modulus
The ratio of volumetric stress to the volumetric strain is called Bulk modulus.
K= (F/A)/ (ΔV/V)
iii. Shear Modulus
The ratio of shear stress to the shear strain is called Shear modulus.
G= (F/A)/ tanθ
Q.4 Draw a stress-strain curve for a ductile material, and then define the terms: Elastic limit, Yield
point and Ultimate tensile stress.
Ans See the long article in book for stress strain curve.
Elastic Limit (σe): It is the greatest stress that a material can endure without any permanent
change in its shape or dimension.
Yield Point: It is the point on the stress strain curve beyond which a material is permanently de-
shaped.
Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS): It is the maximum stress which a material can withstand without
breaking.
Q.5 What is meant by strain energy? How can it be determined from force-extension graph?
Ans Strain energy: The amount of work done on a body to deform it is known as strain energy. It can be
determined from the following formula:
1 EA×𝑙2
W.D = 2 [ L 1 ]
Q.6 Describe the formation of energy bands in solids. Explain difference amongst electrical
behavior of conductors, insulators and semiconductors in terms of energy band theory.
Ans See long article in book
Q.7 Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semi-conductors. How would you obtain n-type
and p-type material from pure silicon? Illustrate it by schematic diagram.
Ans Intrinsic semiconductor
A Pure semiconductor material is called intrinsic semiconductor. e.g. pure silicon, germanium etc.
Extrinsic semiconductor
The semiconductor material in which certain impurities are added is called extrinsic
semiconductor. This addition of impurities is called doping.
n-type material:
In pure silicon if we add pentavalent impurities like phosphorus it becomes n-type
semiconductor material.
p-type material:
In pure silicon if we add trivalent impurities like aluminum then it becomes p-type
semiconductor material.
Q.8 Discuss the mechanism of electrical conduction by holes and electrons in a pure semi- conductor
element.
Ans A pure semiconductor element consists of holes (+ve charge carriers) and free electrons
(-ve charge carriers; electrons). They are equal in number and move randomly but in opposite
direction. When some voltage is applied across the ends of the semiconductor, the free electrons move
towards the positive end and the holes move towards the negative end of the semiconductor.
Q.9 Write a note on superconductors.
Ans Superconductors:
The substances whose resistivity becomes zero at certain low temperature are called
superconductors. The temperature at which resistivity of material becomes zero is called
critical temperature represented by Tc.
Low temperature superconductors:
Some metals become superconductor at very low temperatures such as Al, Sn and Pb.
High temperature superconductors:
 Any superconductor with the critical temperature above 77 K (boiling point of liquid nitrogen) is called
high temperature superconductor. A class of ceramic materials have critical temperature 125 K.
Recently a complex crystalline structure known as Yttrium barium copper oxide (YBa2 Cu3 O7 ) have
been reported/
Applications:
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), magnetic levitation trains and faster computer chips
Q.10 What is meant by para, dia and ferromagnetic substances? Give examples for each.
Ans Paramagnetic substances:
The substances in which, the orbits and the spin axes of the electrons in the atom are so
oriented that their fields support each other, and the atoms behave like a tiny magnet. e.g. Na and
K.
Diamagnetic substances: The substances with such atoms in which there is no resultant field as the
magnetic fields produced by both orbital and spin motions of the electrons might add up to zero. e.g.
Cu, Bi & Sb.
Ferromagnetic substances: The substances in which domains cooperate with each other in such a way
so as to exhibit a strong magnetic effect on the application of external magnetic field or passing current
through them. e.g. Fe, Co & Ni.
Q.11 What is meant by hysteresis loss? How is it used in the construction of a transformer?
Ans Hysteresis loss:
The energy required to magnetize and demagnetize a material due to internal friction of
domains is called hysteresis loss. The magnetic materials for which the value of hysteresis loss is small
are called soft magnetic materials like soft iron. They are useful material for making the core of
transformer.

Long Questions
Q.1 Write a note on elastic limit and yield strength in detail with the graphical
Ans explanation.
Stress-strain curve:
A stress-strain curve is a graphical representation that describes the different mechanical
properties of solids when they are deformed.
C ( m)
Force-elongation diagram or stress-strain curve is
plotted. Stress-strain curve for a ductile material is shown B
( 0.2) D ( f)
in figure. A
Stress ( )

( p

Proportional Limit (𝛔𝐏 ): &

) e

The proportional limit (σP )is defined as the greatest

stress that a material can tolerate without losing straight
line proportionality between stressand strain.
In the initial stage of deformation i.e. from O to A stress is O Strain ( )
directly proportional to strain. OA is a straight line. The stress Stress-strain curve of a typical
σP and σe at point A are called proportional limit or elastic ductile material
limit. The proportional limit (σP ) is identical.
The elastic limit (σe ) is defined as, the greatest stress that a material can endure without any
permanent change in shape or dimensions.
Hooke’s law which states that strain is directly proportional to stress.
Elastic Deformation:
Deformation produced within OA region is temporary because the material can return to its original
shape or dimensions on removing the appliedstress. Such a temporary deformation is also known as
elastic deformation, and this process is called elasticity.
Yield Point:
Point B on the stress-strain curve is called the yield point. After thispoint Hooke’s law is not obeyed and
the stretched wire never comes to its original length.
 Plasticity:
If the stress is increased beyond the yield stress of the material and then there will be permanent
deformation. The original shape or dimensions isnot recovered when the stress is removed. This kind
of behavior is called plasticity.
Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS):
Point C on the stress strain curve represents the ultimate tensile stress(UTS) σm of the material UTS
is defined as the maximum stress that a material can bear.
Fracture Stress (σf ):
After crossing point C, the material breaks at point D. The value ofstress at this point where material
breaks is called fracture stress (σf ).
Ductile Substances:
Substances that undergo plastic (Permanent) deformation until they break are known as ductile
substances. e.g., Lead, copper and wrought iron.
Brittle Substances:
Substances which break just after the elastic limit is reached are called brittle substances. e.g., Glass,
high carbon steel.
Q.2 Discuss strain energy in deformed materials and drive its expression.
Definition:
It is the potential energy stored in the molecules of a deformed material and it is equal to the work
done by the deforming force.
Explanation:
Consider a wire is suspended vertically from one end. It is stretched
by attaching a weight at the lower end. A graph is drawn between F
force and extension of the wire. If the elastic limit is not crossed the C H
F2
graph, is straight line. When a force F stretches the wire by some
length l then work done is:
F1
Work = Force × Extension
Work = (F)(𝑙) F
As the force increases from zero to F1 , the extension increased from A D
O x I I2 G
zero to 𝑙1 . When the force is F, and ∆x is the small extension. ∆x is 1
I
so small that F may be assumed to be constant. Energy in stretched wire
Work done = F ∆x is equal to the shaded area. The total extension
𝑙 is divided into small elements and work for each small extension is calculated which is equal to the
area of triangle ∆ OAB.
Work done = Area of ∆ OAB
1
= 2 OA × AB
1
= 2 𝑙1 × F1 − − − − − (1)
This is the amount of energy stored in the wire. It is the gain in potential energy of the molecules due
to their displacement from their mean positions.
Let A = Area of cross section of the wire
L = Total length of wire
stress
E = Modulus of elasticity = strain
F1 L
E= A
× 𝑙1
EA × 𝑙
or F1 = L 1
Put the value of F1 in Eq. 1 we have
1 EA × 𝑙 2
Work done = Strain Energy = 2 [ L 1 ]
Conclusion:
(i) Graphical method for finding out the work done is a general method. If extension increases for 𝑙1 to 𝑙2
then work done is equal to the area of the trapezium ABCD.
(ii) This method is also valid for both linear and non-linear portion of the graph.
(iii) If extension is from O to G, then work done is equal to the area of OGH.
Q.3 Discuss energy band theory. Differentiate between insulator, conductor and semiconductor on the
basis of band theory.
Ans Energy Band Theory of Solids:
Formation of Energy Bands:
Electrons of an isolated atom are bound to the nucleus, have distinct energy levels. These sub-levels
are called permissible energy states. These are so closely spaced that they appear to form a continuous
energy band called permissible energy band.
Types of Energy Bands:
Forbidden Energy Band or Band Gap:
In between two consecutive permissible energy bands, there is an energy gap which cannot be
occupied by electrons. This is called forbidden energy band or band gap.
Valence Band:
It is the band which is occupied by the valence electrons. Valence electrons are those electrons which
are present in the outermost shell of an atom. It may be partially filled or completely filled with valence
electrons and never be empty.
Conduction Band:
The band above the valence band is called conduction band. In these bands free or conduction
electrons are available and conduct electric current through solids. It may be empty or partially filled
with conduction electrons. The bands below the valence band are normally filled and as such they do
not play any part in conduction process.
Difference between insulator, conductor and semiconductor on the basis of band theory:
Insulators:
Insulators are those materials in which valance electrons
Empty conduction
are bound very tightly to their atoms and are not free. In terms of Band
energy bands, insulator has
(a) An empty conduction band (no free electrons) Forbidden gap
(b) A full valance band
(c) A large energy gap (several eV) between them Full Valence
Conductors: Band

Conductors are those materials which have plenty of free electrons

for electrical conduction. In terms of energy bands, there is no
physical distinction between valance and conduction bands.
Semiconductors:
In semiconductors there is a narrow-forbidden energy gap between Conduction
the conduction band and valence band (energy gap is of the order of Band

1 eV). Valence
At room temperature some electrons may jump from the valence Band

band to conduction band.

Semiconductors such as Ge, Si are insulators at 0K and the
conduction band is empty, valence band is completely filled. As Conduction
temperature increases, some electrons possess sufficient energy to Band
jump across the energy gap from the valence band to the conduction
band. Hence the material becomes semiconductors. A narrow forbidden energy gap
In semiconductor:
(a) Partially filled conduction band Valence
(b) Partially filled valance band Band
(c) A very narrow forbidden energy gap (of order of 1 eV) between
the conduction and valance bands.
Q.4 What is hysteresis loop? Explain terms saturation, remanence and Coercivity.
Ans Hysteresis:
The phenomenon in which magnetism lags behind the magnetizing current is called hysteresis.
Hysteresis loop is formed when we plot a graph between magnetic flux density B and the
magnetizing current I.
Use:
Its objective is to give information about the different magnetic properties of ferromagnetic materials.
Explanation:
A bar of iron is placed inside a solenoid in which an alternating current is flowing. When the alternating
current is at positive peak value, it fully magnetizes the iron core in one direction. When the current is
at its negative peak it fully magnetizes it in opposite direction. Thus as one cycle of AC is completed,
then the same time specimen (iron core) completes one cycle of magnetization.
The graph between magnetic flux density B and the magnetizing current I is plotted by CRO.
Main Features:
1. Hysteresis:
The portion OA on the graph is obtained when the current I is increased. AR is the portion when I is
decreased. It is observed from graph that value of magnetic flux density B for any value of current I is
always greater when current is decreasing hence B lags I.
2. Saturation: +
A
When the current is increased from O to maximum value, the magnetic
flux density B reaches the maximum value. The material is said to be R
magnetically saturated. It is point A on the curve. B
3. Permanence or Retentivity ‘R’: I
When the current reduces to zero, the material still remain strongly C C’
magnetized B is not zero. This is represented by the point R on the O

curve. It is due to the tendency of domains to stay partly in line one they
have been aligned.
4. Coercivity ‘C’:
To demagnetize the material, the magnetizing current is reversed and D
increased to make the magnetization to zero. The reverse current at _
Hysteresis loop of steel
which the magnetization becomes equal o zero (B = 0) is called
(a)
coercive current. It is represented by point C on the curve. This property
is called coercivity and is represented by OC on the graph. The coercivity of steel is more that of iron
as more current is needed to demagnetize it. When the material is once magnetized, its magnetization
curve never passes through the origin. Instead, it forms a closed loop ACDC’A, which is called hysteresis
loop.
5. Area of the loop: + A’
The area of the loop is a measure of the energy needed to magnetize
and demagnetize the specimen during each cycle of the magnetizing
current. This is the energy required to do work against internal friction B
of the domains. This energy is dissipated as heat. It is called hysteresis
loss. I
C C’
Hard magnetic materials like steel cannot be easily magnetized or O
demagnetized.
So they have large loop area. Soft magnetic materials like soft iron
have small loop area. Hence energy dissipated per cycle for iron is
less than for steel.
_
D’
Hysteresis loop of soft iron
OR = Reentivity
OC = Coercivity
(b)
 NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
17.1 A 1.25 cm diameter cylinder is subjected to a load of 2500 kg. Calculate the stress on the bar in
mega Pascal’s.
Given data:
d = 1.25cm = 1.25x10−2 m
d 1.25x10−2
r=2= 2
r = 6.25x10−3 m
m = 2500kg
To find:
σ =?
Solution:
According to formula:
F w
σ = A = πr2
mg
= πr2
2500×9.8
= 3.14×(6.25x10−3 )2
= 1.997 × 108 Pa
= 199.7 × 106 P
= 200 × 106 Pa
𝛔 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐌𝐏𝐚 Ans.
17.2 A 1.0 m long copper wire is subjected to stretching force and its length increases by 20 cm.
calculate the tensile strain and the percent elongation which the wire undergoes.
Given data:
ℓ = 1.0 m
20
Δℓ = 20cm = 100 m
Δℓ = 0.20 m
To find:
ε =?
Solution:
According to formula:
Δℓ 0.2
ε= ℓ
= 1
= 0.2
Δℓ
Percentage elongation = ℓ × 100%
𝟎.𝟐
= 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐧𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 = 𝟐𝟎% Ans.
17.3 A wire 2.5 m long and cross-section area 10-5 m2 is stretched 1.5 mm by a force of 100 N in the
elastic region. Calculate (i) the strain (ii) Young’s modulus (iii) the energy stored in the wire.
Given data:
ℓ = 2.5m
A = 10−5 m2
Δℓ = 1.5mm = 1.5x10−3 m
F = 100N
To find:
i) ε = ?
ii) Y=?
iii) U=?
Solution:
i) For 𝛆
∆l
ε=
l
 1.5×10−3
ε= 2.5
−𝟒
𝛆 = 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎 Ans.
ii) For Y
F/A
Y = Δℓ/ℓ
F ℓ
= ×
A Δℓ
100 × 2.5
Y=
1x10−5 × 1.5 × 10−3
𝐘 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝐏𝐚. Ans.
iii) For U

1 FAΔℓ2
U= [ ]
2 ℓ
1 1.66x1010 x1x10−5 x(1.5x10−3 )2
= [ ]
2 2.5
= 7.47x10−2 J
𝐔 = 𝟕. 𝟓𝐱𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝐉 Ans.
17.4 What stress would cause a wire to increase in length by 0.01% if the Young’s modulus of the wire
is 12 x 1010 Pa. What force would produce this stress if the diameters of the wire is 0.56 mm?
Given data:
d = 0.56 mm
d = 0.56 × 10−3 m
Δℓ 0.01
% ℓ = 0.01% = 100
ε = 1.0 × 10−4
Y = 12 × 1010 Pa
d 0.56×10−3
r=2= 2
r = 0.28 × 10−3 m

To find:
σ =?
F =?
Solution:
For σ =?
ε
Y=
σ
σ=Y× ε
= 12 × 1010 × 1.0 × 10−4
= 12 × 106 Pa
𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 = 𝟏𝟐 𝐌𝐏𝐚 Ans.
For F =?
F
ε=
A
F=ε ×A
F = ε x πr 2
F = 12 × 106 × 3.14 × (2.8x10−4 )2
𝐅 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟔 𝐍 Ans.
17.5 The length of a steel wire is 1.0m and its cross-sectional area is 0.03 x 10-4 m2. Calculate the work
done in stretching the wire when a force of 100 N is applied within the elastic region. Young’s
modulus of steel is 3.0 x 1011 N m-2

Given data:
 ℓ = 1.0 m
A = 0.03 × 0−4 m2
F = 100 N
Y = 3.0 × 1011 N m−2
To find :
Work = W =?

Solution:
According to formula:
1 EAΔℓ2
W= [ ]
2 ℓ
1 YAΔℓ2
W= [ ]
2 ℓ
1 3×10 ×0.03×10−4 x
11
W= 2
[ 1
]
−𝟑
𝐖 = 𝟓. 𝟓𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎 𝐉 Ans.
17.6 A cylindrical copper wire and a cylindrical steel wire each of length 1.5 m and diameter 2.0 mm are
joined at one end to form a composite wire 3.0m long. The wire is loaded until its length becomes
3.003m. Calculate the strain in copper and steel wires and the force applied to the wire. (Young’s
modulus of copper is 1.2 x 1011 Pa and for steel is 2.0 x 1011 Pa).
Given data:
For Copper Wire
ℓ1 = 1.5m
d1 = 2mm
d 2mm
r1 = 1 = = 1mm = 1x10−3 m
2 2
Y1 = 1.2x1011 Pa
Δℓ1
For Steel Wire:
ℓ1 = 1.5m
d2 = 2mm
d 2mm
r2 = 2 = = 1mm = 1x10−3 m
2 2
Y2 = 2.0x1011 Pa
To find:
ε1 =?
ε2 =?
Solution:
Change in length of steel wire= Δℓ2
Final length of composite wire= 3.003m
Total change in length= Δℓ = Δℓ1 + Δℓ2
Δℓ2 = Δℓ − Δℓ1
Δℓ2 = 0.003 − Δℓ1
Δℓ Δℓ
ε1 = ℓ 1 = 1.51
1
Δℓ 0.003−Δℓ
ε1 = ℓ 2 = ( 1.5 1 )
2
σ
Y1 = ε 1 ∴ σ1 = Y1 ε1
1
σ
Y2 = ε 2 ∴ σ2 = Y2 ε2
2
As stress in equal on both the wires, so
σ1 = σ2
Y1 xε1 = Y2 xε2
Δℓ 0.003−Δℓ
1.2x1011 x 1.51 = 2.0x1011 x ( 1.5 1 )
1.2x Δℓ1 = 2(0.003 − Δℓ1 )
1.2x Δℓ1 = 0.006 − 2Δℓ1
1.2x ℓ1 + 2Δℓ1 = 0.006
3.2Δℓ1 = 0.006
0.006
Δℓ1 = 32 = 1.875x10−3 m
Δℓ2 = 0.003 − Δℓ1
= 0.003 − 1.875x10−3
Δℓ2 = 1.125x10−3 m
Δℓ1 1.875x10−3
ε1 = =
ℓ1 1.5
−𝟑
𝛆𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝐱𝟏𝟎 Ans.
0.003−Δℓ 0.003−1.875x10−3
ε2 = ( 1.5 1 ) = ( 1.5
)
2 = 7.5  10 -4
Ans.
stress F/A1 F ℓ
Y1 = = Δℓ1 = x 1
strain A1 Δℓ1
ℓ1
Y1 xA1 xΔℓ1 Y1 πr21 Δℓ1
F= ℓ1
= ℓ1
1.2x1011 x3.14x(1.0x10−3 )2 x1.875x10−3
F=
1.5
𝐅 = 𝟒𝟕𝟕𝐍 Ans.