University of Algiers 2 Research Methodology 3LMD

Department of English Ms. Daghi

Data Collection Methods (research tools)

Data collection in applied research can be classified as either primary or secondary.

Primary Data Collection: refers to the data being collected by the researcher himself using methods
such as questionnaires and interviews. This data is unique to the researcher and to his research, and
until it is published, no one else has access to.

Secondary Data Collection: because of the lack of primary data access, the researcher analyses data
already collected by another researcher and generates it to his research.

There are many methods for collecting primary data in applied linguistics and educational research
such as; tests, questionnaires, interviews, focus group interviews, observation and diaries.

The primary data, gathered by the aforementioned, may be qualitative in nature i.e usually in form of
words or quantitative usually in form of numbers where we make counts of words used.

1. Tests: they are quantitative methods for evaluating the individual’s competence, abilities or skills.
“A test measures how well someone can do something” (Dӧrnyei, 2007). There are several types
of tests, for instance; “[…] language tests or psychological tests such as aptitude tests or
personality batteries” (Dӧrnyei, 2007. p. 95).

2. Questionnaires: they are popular means of collecting data applied in social sciences. “The
popularity of questionnaires is due to the fact that they are relatively easy to construct, extremely
versatile and uniquely capable of gathering a large amount of information quickly…” (Dӧrnyei, 2007.
p. 101).
The questionnaires are “any written instruments that present respondents with a series of questions or
statements to which they are to react either by writing out their answers or selecting from among
existing answer” (Brown, 2001. P. 6). This leads to say that many questionnaires do not contain any
real questions that end with a question mark. They include different forms of questions/statements
namely; open-ended questions and closed-ended like yes/no questions, scale questions (rating scale)
and multiple choice questions (MCQ), for this, questionnaires are also referred to as “form”,
“checklists”, “scales”, “surveys” …. or simply “sheets”.
The questionnaires result in typically quantitative data, although the instrument may also contain
some open-ended questions that will require qualitative analysis.

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3. Interviews: the most often used method in qualitative inquiries. The interview is a “professional
conversation” (Kvale, 1996. P. 5, as cited in Dӧrnyei, 2007) built on conversation skills where the
interview participants often generate knowledge through conversation (Kvale, 1996, as cited in
Dӧrnyei, 2007) that leads to obtain descriptions of the life world of the interviewee; their attitudes,
preferences, behaviour, experiences, feelings, thoughts….
The typical qualitative interview is undertaken on a personal one-to one basis, as it can also be
conducted in a group. Interviews help to obtain truthful insights and data of an in-depth study.
Interviews’ types are; structured, unstructured and semi structured.

3.1. Structured Interviews: they are pre-prepared and tightly controlled based on “interview
schedule/guide” where the interviewer records the responses according to a coding scheme. This type
contains a list of questions to be covered closely with every interviewee. Structured interviews ensure
that the interviewee focuses on the target topic area and the interview covers a well-defined domain.
Some researchers consider the structured interview as a questionnaire in a theory where the written
format is not feasible for some reason.
3.2. Unstructured interview: also referred to as “ethnographic interview” ((Dӧrnyei, 2007. P.135-
136) or an in-depth one. The interviewer begins by asking a general question, and then he encourages
the respondent to talk freely. The respondent’s initial reply determines the interview direction. The
interviewer then probes for elaboration using for example (That’s interesting, tell me more, Would
you like to add anything else?). By using this type, the interviewer intends to create a relaxed
atmosphere for the respondent to reveal more about the topic.
3.3 Semi-structured interview: the interview is focused by asking certain questions but with scope
for the respondent to express himself at length. Although there is a set of pre-prepared guiding
questions, the format is open-ended where the interviewee is encouraged to elaborate on the issue
raised.

4. Observation: is an interesting research instrument in providing direct information rather than

questioning that gives self-report accounts. It involves recording the behavioural patterns of people,
objects and events in a systematic manner. Observation is known to be an internal part of the research
repertoire of ethnography, but it can also be used in other research fields and types among them
classroom research.
Observation methods are subdivided into two dichotomies; “participant versus non-participant” and
“structured versus unstructured” (Dӧrnyei, 2007).
4.1. Participant observation: in this approach, the observer is a full member of the group being
observed, taking part of all the activities. Participant observation is frequently used in ethnographic
and non-experimental studies.
Non-participant observation: implies the observer not being or minimally being involved in the
setting.
4.2. Structured/Unstructured are distinguished as qualitative (unstructured) and quantitative
(structured) in observation terms (Cohen et al.2000, as cited in Dӧrnyei, 2007).

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 Structured observation: the researcher observes with a specific focus and with concrete
observation categories and schemes (quantitative). This approach is often used in classroom research.
Unstructured observation: is less clear, the researcher observes first what is taking place before
deciding on its significance for the research (qualitative). This approach involves completing narrative
field notes.

5. Diaries: they are one of the qualitative research tools. They imply regular records and keeping
journals of certain aspects of one’s daily life, learning process….
In applied linguistics, diaries have been used since the beginning of 1980s to obtain personal accounts
of the experience of language learning by both learners themselves and by parents documenting their
children L2 development.

6. Focus group interviews: are qualitative research methods that are sometimes treated as a subtype
of interviewing.
As the name suggests, they involve a group format where the interviewer records the responses of a
small group (6-12). The interviewees are given the opportunity to interact with each other which can
provide high-quality data.
The interview format used in focus group is semi-structured where both open-and closed-ended
questions posed by the researcher are used. This means that the researcher relies on the interview
guide/protocole rather than giving the participants the freedom to discuss topic (Dӧrnyei, 2007).

At last, it is worth noting that the selection of the appropriate data tools relies on the nature and the
type of the research. Besides, in order to obtain reliable data it is always required to use the
triangulation of the instruments, which stands for utilising more than one research tool in collecting
data.

References

Brown, J., D. (1998). Understanding Research in Second Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.

Cohen, L., L. Manion, and K. Morrison. (2000). Research Methods in Education, 5th Edition. London:
RoutledgeFalmer.

Dӧrnyei, Z. (2007). Research Methods in Applied Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Kvale, S. (1996). Interviews: An Introduction to Qualitative Research Interviewing. Thousand Oaks,

Kalif.: Sage.