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Contents
Documentsxix 2.3 Religion in India 49
Mapsxxii 2.3.1 “Hindu” and “Indian” 49
Prefacexxiv 2.3.2 Historical Background 49
Resources for the Tenth Edition xxix 2.3.3 The Upanishadic Worldview 50
Acknowledgmentsxxx 2.3.4 Mahavira and the Jain Tradition 53
About the Authors xxxi 2.3.5 The Buddha’s Middle Path 54

Part 1 Human Origins and Early A Closer Look: Statue of Siddhartha

Gautama as Fasting Ascetic
Civilizations to 500 b.c.e. (second century c.e.)55
1 The Birth of Civilization 1 2.4 The Religion of the Israelites 56
2.4.1 From Hebrew Nomads to the
Global Perspective: Civilizations 2
Israelite Nation 56
1.1 Early Humans and Their Culture 3 2.4.2 The Monotheistic Revolution 58
1.1.1 The Paleolithic Age 3
2.5 Greek Philosophy 60
1.1.2 The Neolithic Age 6
2.5.1 Reason and the Scientific Spirit 61
1.1.3 The Bronze Age and the Birth of Civilization 8
2.5.2 Political and Moral Philosophy 63
1.2 Early Civilizations in the Middle East to about Summary 67 • Key Terms 67 • Review Questions 68
1000 b.c.e.8
Religions of the World: Judaism 68
1.2.1 Mesopotamian Civilization 9
A Closer Look: Babylonian World Map
1.2.2 Egyptian Civilization
13
14
Part 2 Empires and Cultures
of the Ancient World,
1.3 Ancient Near Eastern Empires 20
1.3.1 The Hittites 20
1000 b.c.e. to 1000 c.e.
1.3.2 The Kassites
1.3.3 The Mitannians
21
21
3 Greek and Hellenistic
1.3.4 The Assyrians 21
Civilization70
1.3.5 The Second Assyrian Empire 22 Global Perspective: The Achievements of Greek
1.3.6 The Neo-Babylonians 22 and Hellenistic Civilization 72
1.4 Early Indian Civilization 23 3.1 The Bronze Age on Crete and on the Mainland
1.4.1 The Indus Civilization 23 to ca. 1150 b.c.e.73
1.4.2 The Vedic Aryan Civilization 26 3.1.1 The Minoans 73
1.5 Early Chinese Civilization 29 3.1.2 The Mycenaeans 74
1.5.1 Neolithic Origins in the Yellow River Valley 29 3.2 Greek “Middle Age” to ca. 750 b.c.e.75
1.5.2 Early Bronze Age: The Shang 30 3.2.1 The Age of Homer 75
1.5.3 Late Bronze Age: The Western Zhou 31 3.3 The Polis77
1.5.4 Iron Age: The Eastern Zhou 32 3.3.1 Development of the Polis77
1.6 The Rise of Civilization in the Americas 35 3.3.2 The Hoplite Phalanx 78
Summary 37 • Key Terms 38 • Review Questions 38 3.4 Expansion of the Greek World 78
3.4.1 Greek Colonies 78
2 Four Great Revolutions in Thought 3.4.2 The Tyrants (ca. 700–500 b.c.e.)80
and Religion39 3.5 Life in Archaic Greece 81
2.1 Comparing the Four Great Revolutions 40 3.5.1 Society 81
2.2 Philosophy in China 41 3.5.2 Religion 82
Global Perspective: Philosophy and Religion 42 3.5.3 Poetry 83
2.2.1 Confucianism 43 3.6 Major City-States 84
2.2.2 Daoism 46 3.6.1 Sparta 84
2.2.3 Legalism 47 3.6.2 Athens 85
vii
viii Contents

3.7 The Persian Wars 87 4.6.1 Political Background 125

3.7.1 Ionian Rebellion 87 4.6.2 The Mauryas 125
3.7.2 The War in Greece 88 4.7 The Consolidation of Indian Civilization
A Closer Look: The Trireme 89 (ca. 200 b.c.e.–300 c.e.)128
3.8 Classical Greece 90 A Closer Look: Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath 129
3.8.1 The Delian League 90 4.7.1 The Economic Base 130
3.8.2 The First Peloponnesian War 90 4.7.2 High Culture 130
3.8.3 The Athenian Empire 91 4.7.3 Religion and Society 130
3.8.4 Athenian Democracy 93 4.8 The Golden Age of the Guptas (ca. 320–550 c.e.)131
3.8.5 Women of Athens 93 4.8.1 Gupta Rule 131
3.8.6 The Great Peloponnesian War 94 4.8.2 Gupta Culture 132
3.8.7 Struggle for Greek Leadership 95 4.9 The Development of “Classical” Indian
3.8.8 Fifth Century b.c.e.96 Civilization (ca. 300–1000 c.e.)134
3.8.9 Fourth Century b.c.e.98 4.9.1 Society 134
3.9 Emergence of the Hellenistic World 98 4.9.2 Religion 134
3.9.1 Macedonian Conquest 98 Summary 137 • Key Terms 138 • Review Questions 139
3.9.2 Alexander the Great and His Successors 99 Religions of the World: Hinduism 139
3.10 Hellenistic Culture 103
3.10.1 Philosophy 103 5 Africa: Early History to 1000 c.e.141
3.10.2 Literature 104
Global Perspective: “Traditional” Peoples and
3.10.3 Architecture and Sculpture 104
Nontraditional Histories 142
3.10.4 Mathematics and Science 104
5.1 Issues of Interpretation, Sources, and Disciplines 143
Summary 106 • Key Terms 107 • Review Questions 108
5.1.1 The Question of “Civilization” 143
4 West Asia, Inner Asia, and 5.1.2 Source Issues 143
5.1.3 History and Disciplinary Boundaries 144
South Asia to 1000 c.e.109
5.2 Physical Description of the Continent 144
Global Perspective: Indo-Iranian Roles in the 5.3 African Peoples 146
Eurasian World before Islam 111 5.3.1 Africa and Early Human Culture 146
West and Inner Asia to 1000 c.e.112 5.3.2 Diffusion of Languages and Peoples 147
4.1 The Ancient Background 113 5.3.3 “Race” and Physiological Variation 148
4.1.1 The Elamites 113 5.4 The Sahara and the Sudan to the Beginning
4.1.2 The Iranian Peoples 113 of the Common Era 149
4.1.3 Ancient Iranian Religion 114 5.4.1 Early Saharan Cultures 149
4.1.4 Zoroaster and the Zoroastrian Tradition 114 5.4.2 Neolithic Sudanic Cultures 150
4.2 The First Persian Empire in the Iranian Plateau 5.4.3 The Early Iron Age and the Nok Culture 150
(550–330 b.c.e.)116 5.5 Nilotic Africa and the Ethiopian Highlands 151
4.2.1 The Achaemenids 116 5.5.1 The Kingdom of Kush 151
4.2.2 The Achaemenid State 116 5.5.2 The Napatan Empire 151
4.2.3 The Achaemenid Economy 117 5.5.3 The Meroitic Empire 151
4.3 The Seleucid Successors to Alexander in the 5.5.4 The Aksumite Empire 153
East (ca. 312–63 b.c.e.)117 5.5.5 Isolation of Christian Ethiopia 154
4.4 The Parthian Arsacid Empire 5.6 The Western and Central Sudan 155
(ca. 247 b.c.e.–223 c.e.)118 5.6.1 Agriculture, Trade, and the Rise
4.4.1 Indo-Greeks 119 of Urban Centers 155
4.4.2 Scythians 120 5.6.2 Formation of Sudanic Kingdoms in the
4.4.3 Kushans 120 First Millennium 157
4.5 The Sasanid Empire (224–651 c.e.)120 5.7 Central, Southern, and East Africa 157
4.5.1 Society and Economy 121 5.7.1 Bantu Expansion and Diffusion 157
4.5.2 Religion 122 A Closer Look: Four Rock Art Paintings from
4.5.3 Later Sasanid Developments 124 Tassili n-Ajjer (4000–2000 b.c.e.)158
South Asia to 1000 c.e.125 5.7.2 The Khoisan and Twa Peoples 161
4.6 The First Indian Empire: The Mauryas 5.7.3 East Africa 161
(321–185 b.c.e.)125 Summary 164 • Key Terms 164 • Review Questions 164
 Contents ix

6 Republican and Imperial Rome 165 6.10 The Late Empire

6.10.1 The Fourth Century and Imperial
192

Global Perspective: Republican and Imperial Rome 167 Reorganization192

6.1 Prehistoric Italy to ca. 400 b.c.e.167 6.10.2 Diocletian 193
6.2 Royal Rome 168 6.10.3 Constantine 193
6.2.1 Government 168 6.10.4 Triumph of Christianity 195
6.2.2 Family 168 6.10.5 Arts and Letters in the Late Empire 197
6.2.3 Clientage 168 6.11 The Problem of the Decline and Fall of the
6.2.4 Patricians and Plebeians 169 Empire in the West 198
6.3 The Republic 169 Summary 198 • Key Terms 200 • Review Questions 200

6.3.1 Government
6.3.2 Conquest of Italy
169
170
7 China’s First Empire and
6.3.3 Rome and Carthage 170
Its Aftermath, 221 b.c.e.–589 c.e.201
A Closer Look: Lictors 171 7.1 Qin Unification of China 202
6.3.4 The New Imperial System 172 Global Perspective: China’s First Empire 203
6.3.5 The Republic’s Conquest of the A Closer Look: The Terra-Cotta Army
Hellenistic World 173 of the First Qin Emperor 205
6.3.6 Civilization in the Early Roman
7.2 Former Han Dynasty (206 b.c.e.–8 c.e.)206
Republic: Greek Influence 174
7.2.1 The Dynastic Cycle 206
6.4 Roman Imperialism 175
7.2.2 Early Years of the Former Han Dynasty 206
6.4.1 Aftermath of Conquest 175
7.2.3 Han Wudi 206
6.4.2 The Gracchi 176
7.2.4 The Xiongnu 206
6.4.3 Marius and Sulla 177
7.2.5 Government during the Former Han 207
6.4.4 War against the Italian Allies (90–88 b.c.e.)178
7.2.6 The Silk Road 209
6.4.5 Sulla’s Dictatorship 178
7.2.7 Decline and Usurpation 210
6.5 The Fall of the Republic 178
7.3 Later Han (25–220 c.e.) and Its Aftermath 210
6.5.1 Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar 178
7.3.1 First Century 210
6.5.2 The First Triumvirate 178
7.3.2 Decline during the Second Century 211
6.5.3 The Dictatorship of Julius Caesar 179
7.3.3 Aftermath of Empire 211
6.5.4 The Second Triumvirate and the
Emergence of Octavian 179 7.4 Han Thought and Religion 213
6.5.5 The Augustan Principate 179 7.4.1 Han Confucianism 213
6.6 Civilization of the Late Republic and the 7.4.2 History 214
Age of Augustus 181 7.4.3 Neo-Daoism 214
6.6.1 The Late Republic 181 7.4.4 Buddhism 217
6.6.2 The Age of Augustus 181 Summary 218 • Key Terms 218 • Review Questions 219
6.7 Peace and Prosperity: Imperial Rome
(14–180 c.e.)183 Part 3 Consolidation and Interaction
6.7.1 Administration of the Empire 183
6.7.2 Culture of the Early Empire 184
of World Civilizations,
6.7.3 Life in Imperial Rome: The Apartment 500 c.e. to 1500 c.e.
House187
6.8 The Rise of Christianity 188
8 Imperial China, 589–1368 220
6.8.1 Jesus of Nazareth 188 Global Perspective: Imperial China 221
6.8.2 Paul of Tarsus 189 8.1 Reestablishment of Empire: Sui (589–618)
6.8.3 Organization 189 and Tang (618–907) Dynasties 222
6.8.4 Persecution of Christians 190 8.1.1 The Sui Dynasty 222
6.8.5 Emergence of Catholicism 190 8.1.2 The Tang Dynasty 223
6.8.6 Rome as a Center of the Early Church 191 A Closer Look: A Tang Painting of the
6.9 The Crisis of the Third Century 191 Goddess of Mercy 229
6.9.1 Barbarian Invasions 191 8.2 Transition to Late Imperial China:
6.9.2 Economic Difficulties 192 The Song Dynasty (960–1279) 232
6.9.3 The Social Order 192 8.2.1 Agricultural Revolution of the Song:
6.9.4 Civil Disorder 192 From Serfs to Free Farmers 233
x Contents

8.2.2 Commercial Revolution of the Song 233 10.3 Early Islamic Conquests 280
8.2.3 Government: From Aristocracy to 10.3.1 Course of Conquest 280
Autocracy235 10.3.2 Factors of Success 281
8.2.4 Song Culture 236 10.4 The New Islamic World Order 282
8.3 China in the Mongol World Empire: The Yuan 10.4.1 The Caliphate 282
Dynasty (1279–1368) 239 10.4.2 The Ulama282
8.3.1 Rise of the Mongol Empire 240 A Closer Look: The Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem
8.3.2 Mongol Rule in China 240 (Interior)284
8.3.3 Foreign Contacts and Chinese Culture 243
10.4.3 The Umma286
8.3.4 Last Years of the Yuan 245
10.5 The High Caliphate 288
Summary 246 • Key Terms 246 •
10.5.1 The Abbasid State 288
Review Questions 246
10.5.2 Society 288
9 Early Japanese History 247 10.5.3 Decline 288
10.6 Islamic Culture in the Classical Era 289
Global Perspective: East Asia 248
10.6.1 Intellectual Traditions 289
9.1 Japanese Origins 249 10.6.2 Language and Literature 290
9.1.1 The Jōmon, Japan’s Old Stone Age 249 10.6.3 Art and Architecture 291
9.1.2 The Yayoi Revolution 250 Summary 292 • Key Terms 292 •
9.1.3 Tomb Culture, the Yamato State, and Korea 250 Review Questions 292
9.1.4 Religion in Early Japan 252
9.2 Nara and Heian Japan 254 11 The Byzantine Empire and
9.2.1 Court Government 255 Western Europe to 1000 293
9.2.2 People, Land, and Taxes 256 11.1 The End of the Western Roman Empire and
9.2.3 Rise of the Samurai 257 the Rise of the Byzantine Empire 294
9.2.4 Aristocratic Culture and Buddhism 257 11.1.1 The Byzantine Empire: An Overview 294
9.2.5 Chinese Tradition in Japan 258 Global Perspective: The Early Middle Ages 295
9.2.6 The Birth of Japanese Literature 259
11.1.2 The Reign of Justinian 296
9.2.7 Nara and Heian Buddhism 261
11.1.3 The Empire after Justinian 298
9.3 Japan’s Early Feudal Age 262
11.2 The Impact of Islam on East and West 304
9.3.1 The Kamakura Era 262
11.2.1 Byzantium’s Contribution to Islamic
9.3.2 The Question of Feudalism 263 Civilization305
A Closer Look: The East Meets the East 265 11.2.2 The Western Debt to Islam 305
9.3.3 The Ashikaga Era 266 11.3 The Developing Roman Church 305
9.3.4 Women in Warrior Society 267 11.3.1 Monastic Culture 306
9.3.5 Agriculture, Commerce, and 11.3.2 The Doctrine of Papal Primacy 307
Medieval Guilds 267 11.3.3 Division of Christendom 308
9.3.6 Medieval Culture 268 11.4 The Kingdom of the Franks 309
9.3.7 Japanese Pietism: Pure Land and 11.4.1 Merovingians and Carolingians:
Nichiren Buddhism 268 From Clovis to Charlemagne 309
9.3.8 Zen Buddhism 269 11.4.2 Reign of Charlemagne (768–814) 310
9.3.9 Nō Plays 271 11.4.3 Breakup of the Carolingian Kingdom 314
Summary 271 • Key Terms 272 • A Closer Look: A Multicultural Book Cover 315
Review Questions 272
11.5 Feudal Society 317
Religions of the World: Buddhism 272
11.5.1 Origins 318
10 The Formation of Islamic 11.5.2 Vassalage and the Fief 318
11.5.3 Fragmentation and Divided Loyalty 319
Civilization, 622–1000 274
Summary 319 • Key Terms 320 •
10.1 Origins and Early Development 275 Review Questions 320
10.1.1 The Setting 275
10.1.2 Muhammad and the Qur’an 275 12 The Islamic World, 1000–1500 321
Global Perspective: The Early Islamic Worlds The Islamic Heartlands 323
of Arab and Persian Cultures 276 12.1 Religion and Society 323
10.2 Women in Early Islamic Society 279 12.1.1 Consolidation of a Sunni Orthopraxy 323
 Contents xi

Global Perspective: The Expansion of Islamic 13.10 The Middle Horizon through the Late
Civilization, 1000–1500 323 Intermediate Period 363
12.1.2 Sufi Piety and Organization 325 13.10.1 Tiwanaku and Huari 363
12.1.3 Consolidation of Shi’ite Traditions 325 13.10.2 The Chimu Empire 364
12.2 Regional Developments 326 13.11 The Inca Empire 364
12.2.1 Spain, North Africa, and the Western Summary 368 • Key Terms 368 •
Mediterranean Islamic World 326 Review Questions 368

14
12.2.2 Egypt and the Eastern Mediterranean
Islamic World 326 Africa ca. 1000–1700 369
12.2.3 The Islamic East: Asia before the Mongol Global Perspective: Africa, 1000–1700 370
Conquests330
14.1 North Africa and Egypt 372
12.2.4 Islamic Asia in the Mongol Age 331
14.2 The Spread of Islam South of the Sahara 372
A Closer Look: Al-Hariri, Assemblies (Maqamat)332
14.3 Sahelian Empires of the Western and
The Spread of Islam beyond the Heartlands 334
Central Sudan 373
12.3 Islamic India 335 14.3.1 Ghana 373
12.3.1 Muslim–Hindu Encounter 335 14.3.2 Mali 374
12.3.2 Islamic States and Dynasties 335 14.3.3 Songhai 376
12.3.3 Religious and Cultural Accommodation 337 14.3.4 Kanem and Kanem-Bornu 377
12.3.4 Hindu and Other Indian Traditions 338
14.4 The Eastern Sudan 379
12.4 Islamic Southeast Asia 339
14.5 Forestlands—Coastal West and Central Africa 380
Summary 340 • Key Terms 340 •
14.5.1 West African Forest Kingdoms:
Review Questions 340
The Example of Benin 380
14.5.2 European Arrivals on the Coastlands 380
13 Ancient Civilizations A Closer Look: Benin Bronze Plaque with Chief
of the Americas 341 and Two Attendants 381
Global Perspective: Ancient Civilizations 14.5.3 Central Africa 382
of the Americas 342 14.6 East Africa 384
13.1 Problems in Reconstructing the History 14.6.1 Swahili Culture and Commerce 384
of Native American Civilization 343 14.6.2 The Portuguese and the Omanis
13.2 Mesoamerica: An Overview and the of Zanzibar 385
Archaic Period 344 14.7 Southern Africa 386
13.2.1 Mesoamerican Ball Games 346 14.7.1 “Great Zimbabwe” 386
13.3 The Formative Period and the Emergence 14.7.2 The Portuguese in Southeastern Africa 387
of Mesoamerican Civilization 346 14.7.3 South Africa: The Cape Colony 387
13.3.1 The Olmec 347 Summary 388 • Key Terms 388 •
13.3.2 The Valley of Oaxaca and the Rise Review Questions 388

15
of Monte Alban 347
13.3.3 The Emergence of Writing and the
Europe to the Early 1500s: Revival,
Mesoamerican Calendar 348 Decline, and Renaissance 389
13.4 The Classic Period in Mesoamerica 348 15.1 Revival of Empire, Church, and Towns 390
13.4.1 Teotihuacán 348 15.1.1 Otto I and the Revival of the Empire 390
13.4.2 The Maya 349 15.1.2 The Reviving Catholic Church 390
A Closer Look: The Pyramid of the Sun Global Perspective: The High Middle Ages
in Teotihuacán 350 in Western Europe 391
13.5 The Post-Classic Period in Mesoamerica 354 15.1.3 The Crusades 392
13.5.1 The Toltecs 354 15.1.4 Towns and Townspeople 395
13.5.2 The Aztecs 355 A Closer Look: European Embrace of a Black Saint 396
13.6 Andean South America: An Overview 360
15.2 Society 399
13.7 The Preceramic Period and the Initial Period 361 15.2.1 The Order of Life 399
13.8 Chavín De Huantar and the Early Horizon 362 15.2.2 Medieval Women 401
13.9 The Early Intermediate Period 362 15.3 Growth of National Monarchies 402
13.9.1 Nazca 362 15.3.1 England and France: Hastings (1066)
13.9.2 Moche 362 to Bouvines (1214) 402
xii Contents

15.3.2 France in the Thirteenth Century: 16.2.10 Reaction against Protestants 432
Reign of Louis IX 403 16.2.11 The English Reformation to 1553 433
15.3.3 The Hohenstaufen Empire (1152–1272) 403 16.2.12 Catholic Reform and
15.4 Political and Social Breakdown 405 Counter-Reformation434
15.4.1 Hundred Years’ War: Causes and 16.3 The Reformation’s Achievements 435
Consequences405 16.3.1 Religion in Fifteenth-Century Life 435
15.4.2 The Black Death 405 16.3.2 Religion in Sixteenth-Century Life 436
15.4.3 New Conflicts and Opportunities 408 16.3.3 Family Life in Early Modern Europe 436
15.5 Ecclesiastical Breakdown and Revival: A Closer Look: A Contemporary Commentary
The Late Medieval Church 408 on the Sexes 437
15.5.1 Boniface VIII and Philip the Fair 408
16.4 The Wars of Religion 438
15.5.2 The Great Schism (1378–1417) and the
16.4.1 French Wars of Religion (1562–1598) 439
Conciliar Movement to 1449 408
16.4.2 Imperial Spain and the Reign
15.6 The Renaissance in Italy (1375–1527) 409 of Philip II (1556–1598) 441
15.6.1 The Italian City-State: Social Conflict 16.4.3 England and Spain (1558–1603) 441
and Despotism409
16.4.4 The Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) 442
15.6.2 Humanism 410
16.5 Superstition and Enlightenment:
15.6.3 Renaissance Art in and beyond Italy 411
The Battle Within 444
15.6.4 Italy’s Political Decline: The French
16.5.1 Witch Hunts 445
Invasions (1494–1527) 412
16.5.2 Writers and Philosophers 446
15.6.5 Niccolò Machiavelli 413
Summary 449 • Key Terms 449 • Review Questions 450
15.7 Revival of Monarchy: Nation-Building in
The Fifteenth Century 414 Religions of the World: Christianity 450
15.7.1 Medieval Russia 415
15.7.2 France 415 17 Conquest and Exploitation:
15.7.3 Spain 415 The Development of the
15.7.4 England 417 Transatlantic Economy 452
Summary 417 • Key Terms 418 • 17.1 Periods of European Overseas Expansion 453
Review Questions 418
Global Perspective: The Atlantic World 454
Part 4 The World in Transition, 17.2 Mercantilist Theory of Economic Exploitation 455
1500 to 1850 17.3 Establishment of the Spanish Empire in America 456
17.3.1 Conquest of the Aztecs and the Incas 456
16 Europe, 1500–1650: Expansion, 17.3.2 The Roman Catholic Church in Spanish
Reformation, and Religious Wars 419 America458

16.1 The Discovery of a New World 420 17.4 Economies of Exploitation in the Spanish Empire 459
17.4.1 Varieties of Economic Activity 459
Global Perspective: European Expansion 421
17.4.2 Commercial Regulation and the
16.1.1 The Portuguese Chart the Course 421 Flota System 461
16.1.2 The Spanish Voyages of Christopher
17.5 Colonial Brazil 461
Columbus423
17.6 French and British Colonies in North America 464
16.1.3 Impact on Europe and America 424
17.7 The Columbian Exchange: Disease, Animals, and
16.2 The Reformation 424
Agriculture466
16.2.1 Religion and Society 424
17.7.1 Diseases Enter the Americas 466
16.2.2 Popular Movements and Criticism
of the Church 425 17.7.2 Animals and Agriculture 468
16.2.3 Secular Control over Religious Life 425 17.8 Slavery in the Americas 469
16.2.4 The Northern Renaissance 426 17.8.1 The Background of Slavery 469
16.2.5 Martin Luther and the German 17.8.2 Establishment of Slavery 469
Reformation to 1525 426 17.8.3 The Plantation Economy and
16.2.6 Zwingli and the Swiss Reformation 429 Transatlantic Trade 470
16.2.7 Anabaptists and Radical Protestants 431 17.8.4 Slavery on the Plantations 471
16.2.8 John Calvin and the Genevan Reformation 431 17.9 Africa and the Transatlantic Slave Trade 472
16.2.9 Political Consolidation of the Lutheran 17.9.1 Slavery and Slaving in Africa 473
Reformation432 17.9.2 The African Side of the Transatlantic Trade 474
 Contents xiii

17.9.3 The Extent of the Slave Trade 475 19.1.3 France: The Rise of Absolute Monarchy
17.9.4 Consequences of the Slave Trade under Louis XIV 528
for Africa 476 A Closer Look: Versailles 530
A Closer Look: The Slave Ship Brookes478 19.1.4 Russia: The Romanovs and Peter the Great 531
Summary 479 • Key Terms 479 • Review Questions 480 19.1.5 The Habsburg Empire and the Pragmatic
Sanction533

18 East Asia in the Late 19.1.6 The Rise of Prussia 534

19.2 European Warfare: From Continental
Traditional Era 481
to World Conflict 535
Late Imperial China 482 19.2.1 The Wars of Louis XIV 536
18.1 Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1911) 19.2.2 The Eighteenth-Century Colonial Arena 536
Dynasties482 19.2.3 War of Jenkins’s Ear 537
18.1.1 Land and People 482 19.2.4 The War of the Austrian Succession
Global Perspective: East Asia in the Late (1740–1748)538
Traditional Era 483 19.2.5 The Seven Years’ War (1756–1763) 538
18.1.2 China’s Third Commercial Revolution 484 19.3 The Old Regime 539
18.1.3 Political System 485 19.3.1 Hierarchy and Privilege 540
18.1.4 Ming–Qing Foreign Relations 490 19.3.2 Aristocracy 541
18.1.5 Ming–Qing Culture 493 19.3.3 The Land and Its Tillers 541
Japan497 19.3.4 Peasants and Serfs 541
18.2 Warring States Era (1467–1600) 497 19.4 Family Structures and the Family Economy 542
18.2.1 War of All against All 497 19.4.1 The Family Economy 542
18.2.2 Foot Soldier Revolution 497 19.4.2 Women and the Family Economy 543
18.2.3 Foreign Relations and Trade 499 19.5 The Revolution in Agriculture 544
18.3 Tokugawa Era (1600–1868) 500 19.5.1 New Crops and New Methods 546
18.3.1 Political Engineering and Economic 19.5.2 Population Expansion 547
Growth during the Seventeenth Century 500 19.6 The Eighteenth-Century Industrial Revolution:
18.3.2 Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth An Event in World History 548
Centuries505 19.6.1 The Industrial Revolution and the
A Closer Look: Bridal Procession 507 Non-Western World 548
19.6.2 Industrial Leadership of Great Britain 549
18.3.3 Tokugawa Culture 508
19.7 European Cities 552
Korea and Vietnam 513
19.7.1 Patterns of Preindustrial Urbanization 552
18.4 Korea 513
19.7.2 Urban Classes 552
18.4.1 Early History 514
19.8 The Jewish Population: Age of the Ghetto 553
18.4.2 Choson Dynasty 515
Summary 555 • Key Terms 556 • Review Questions 556
18.5 Vietnam 517
18.5.1 Vietnam in Southeast Asia 517 20 The Last Great Islamic Empires,
18.5.2 Vietnamese Origins 518 1500–1800558
18.5.3 A Millennium of Chinese Rule:
111 b.c.e.–939 c.e.518 Global Perspective: The Last Great Islamic Empires 560
18.5.4 An Independent Vietnam 519 20.1 The Ottoman Empire and the Eastern Mediterranean
18.5.5 The March South 520 World561
Summary 522 • Key Terms 522 • Review Questions 522 20.1.1 Origins and Development of the Ottoman
State before 1600 561

19 State-Building and Society in

20.1.2 The “Classical” Ottoman Order 561
20.1.3 After Süleyman: Challenges and Change 563
Early Modern Europe 523 20.1.4 The Decline of Ottoman Military
Global Perspective: Early Modern Europe 524 and Political Power 566

19.1 European Political Consolidation 525 20.2 The Safavid Empire and the West Asian World 567
19.1.1 Two Models of European Political 20.2.1 Origins 567
Development525 20.2.2 Shah Abbas I 568
19.1.2 England: Toward Parliamentary 20.2.3 Safavid Decline 570
Government525 20.2.4 Culture and Learning 570
xiv Contents

20.3 The Mughals

20.3.1 Origins
571
571
22 Revolutions in the Transatlantic
World608
20.3.2 Akbar’s Reign 571
20.3.3 The Last Great Mughals 571 Global Perspective: The Transatlantic Revolutions 609
A Closer Look: The Mughal Emperor Jahangir 22.1 Revolution in the British Colonies in
Honoring a Muslim Saint over Kings and Emperors 572 North America 610
20.3.4 Sikhs and Marathas 573 22.1.1 Resistance to the Imperial Search
20.3.5 Political Decline 573 for Revenue 610
20.3.6 Religious Developments 573 22.1.2 American Political Ideas 610
20.4 Central Asia: Islamization in the Post-Timur Era 574 22.1.3 Crisis and Independence 611
20.4.1 Uzbeks and Chaghatays 574 22.2 Revolution in France, Napoleon, and the
20.4.2 Consequences of the Shi’ite Rift 575 Congress of Vienna 613
22.2.1 Revolutions of 1789 613
20.5 Power Shifts in the Southern Seas 575
20.5.1 Southern-Seas Trade 575 A Closer Look: Challenging the French
Political Order 614
20.5.2 Control of the Southern Seas 576
20.5.3 The East Indies: Acheh 576 22.2.2 Reconstruction of France 616
Summary 578 • Key Terms 578 • Review Questions 579
22.2.3 A Second Revolution 617
22.2.4 The Reign of Terror and Its Aftermath 619
Part 5 Enlightenment and Revolution in 22.2.5 The Napoleonic Era 623
the Atlantic World, 1700–1850 22.2.6 The Congress of Vienna and the
European Settlement626
21 The Age of European 22.3 Wars of Independence in Latin America 629
Enlightenment580 22.3.1 Eighteenth-Century Developments 629
22.3.2 Revolution in Haiti 629
Global Perspective: The European Enlightenment 581
22.3.3 First Movements toward Independence
21.1 The Scientific Revolution 582 on the South American Continent 630
21.1.1 Nicolaus Copernicus 582 22.3.4 San Martín in Río de la Plata 631
21.1.2 Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler 583 22.3.5 Simón Bolívar 632
21.1.3 Galileo Galilei 584 22.3.6 Independence in New Spain 632
21.1.4 Francis Bacon 585 22.3.7 Brazilian Independence 633
21.1.5 Isaac Newton 585 22.4 Toward the Abolition of Slavery
21.1.6 Women in the World of the Scientific in the Transatlantic Economy 634
Revolution586
Summary 636 • Key Terms 637 • Review Questions 637
21.1.7 John Locke 587
21.2 The Enlightenment
21.2.1 Voltaire
588
588
23 Political Consolidation in
Nineteenth-Century Europe
21.2.2 The Encyclopedia589
and North America 638
21.3 The Enlightenment and Religion 591
21.3.1 Deism 591 23.1 Nationalism and Liberalism in Early-Nineteenth-
21.3.2 Toleration 592 Century Europe 639
21.3.3 Islam in Enlightenment Thought 592 Global Perspective: European and North American
21.4 The Enlightenment and Society 594 Political Consolidation 640
21.4.1 Montesquieu and The Spirit of the Laws594 23.1.1 Creating Nations 641
21.4.2 Adam Smith and The Wealth of Nations595 23.1.2 Meaning of Nationhood 642
21.4.3 Jean-Jacques Rousseau 596 23.1.3 Regions of Nationalistic Pressure
21.4.4 Enlightenment Critics of European Empire 597 in Europe 642
21.4.5 Women and the Enlightenment 598 23.1.4 Liberalism 642
21.5 Enlightened Absolutism 599 23.1.5 Relationship of Nationalism and
Liberalism643
A Closer Look: An Eighteenth-Century Artist
23.1.6 Liberalism and Nationalism in
Appeals to the Ancient World 602
Modern World History 644
21.5.1 Joseph II of Austria 603 23.2 Efforts to Liberalize Early-Nineteenth-Century
21.5.2 Catherine the Great of Russia 604 European Political Structures 644
21.5.3 The Partitions of Poland 605 23.2.1 Russia: The Decembrist Revolt of 1825
Summary 606 • Key Terms 606 • Review Questions 607 and the Autocracy of Nicholas I 644
 Contents xv

23.2.2 Revolution in France (1830) 645 A Closer Look: Bloody Sunday, Saint
23.2.3 The Great Reform Bill in Britain (1832) 646 Petersburg, 1905 689
23.2.4 Revolutions of 1848 in Europe 648 24.4.6 European Socialism in World History 690
23.3 Testing the New American Republic 651 24.5 North America and the New Industrial Economy 690
23.3.1 Toward Sectional Conflict 651 24.5.1 European Immigration to the United States 691
23.3.2 The Abolitionist Movement 654 24.5.2 Unions: Organization of Labor 692
23.4 The Canadian Experience 657 24.5.3 The Progressives 693
23.4.1 Road to Self-Government 657 24.5.4 Social Reform 693
23.4.2 Keeping a Distinctive Culture 658 24.5.5 The Progressive Presidency 694
23.5 Midcentury Political Consolidation in Europe 658 24.6 The Emergence of Modern European Thought 697
23.5.1 The Crimean War 658 24.6.1 Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection 697
23.5.2 Italian Unification 658 24.6.2 The Revolution in Physics 698
A Closer Look: The Crimean War Recalled 659 24.6.3 Friedrich Nietzsche and the Revolt
against Reason 699
23.5.3 German Unification 661
24.6.4 The Birth of Psychoanalysis 699
23.5.4 The Franco-Prussian War and the
German Empire 662 24.7 Islam and Late-Nineteenth-Century
23.6 Unrest of Nationalities in Eastern Europe 663 European Thought 701
Summary 702 • Key Terms 702 • Review Questions 702
23.7 Racial Theory and Anti-Semitism 665
23.7.1 Social Darwinism 666
23.7.2 Anti-Semitism and the Birth of Zionism 666 25 Latin America from Independence
Summary 668 • Key Terms 668 • Review Questions 669
to the 1940s 704
Global Perspective: Latin American History 705

Part 6 Into the Modern World,

25.1 Independence without Revolution 706
25.1.1 Immediate Consequences of Latin
1815–1949 American Independence 706

24 Northern Transatlantic Economy

25.1.2 Absence of Social Change
25.1.3 Control of the Land
708
708
and Society, 1815–1914 670 25.1.4 Submissive Political Philosophies 709
24.1 European Factory Workers and Urban Artisans 671 25.2 Economy of Dependence 710
Global Perspective: The Building of Northern 25.2.1 New Exploitation of Resources 710
Transatlantic Supremacy 672 25.2.2 Increased Foreign Ownership and Influence 711
24.2 Nineteenth-Century European Women 674 25.2.3 Economic Crises and New Directions 712
24.2.1 Women in the Early Industrial 25.3 Search for Political Stability 712
Revolution674 25.4 Three National Histories 713
24.2.2 Social Disabilities Confronted by 25.4.1 Argentina 713
All Women 675 25.4.2 Mexico 715
24.2.3 New Employment Patterns for Women 677
A Closer Look: Benito Juárez 718
24.2.4 Late-Nineteenth-Century
Working-Class Women 678 25.4.3 Brazil 721
24.2.5 The Rise of Political Feminism 678 Summary 726 • Key Terms 726 • Review Questions 726

24.3 Jewish Emancipation 681

24.3.1 Early Steps to Equal Citizenship 681 26 India, the Islamic Heartlands, and
24.3.2 Broadened Opportunities 681 Africa, 1800–1945 727
24.4 European Labor, Socialism, and Politics Global Perspective: The Challenge of Modernity:
to World War I 682 India, Islam, and Africa 729
24.4.1 The Working Classes in the Late
The Indian Experience 730
Nineteenth Century682
26.1 British Dominance and Colonial Rule 730
24.4.2 Marxist Critique of the Industrial Order 683
26.1.1 Building the Empire: The First Half of the
24.4.3 Germany: Social Democrats and
Nineteenth Century 730
Revisionism684
26.1.2 British–Indian Relations 731
24.4.4 Great Britain: The Labour Party and
Fabianism686 26.2 From British Crown Raj to Independence 732
24.4.5 Russia: Industrial Development and the 26.2.1 The Burden of Crown Rule 733
Birth of Bolshevism 687 26.2.2 Indian Resistance 734
xvi Contents

A Closer Look: Gandhi and His Spinning Wheel 736 27.5 Japanese Militarism and German Nazism 776
26.2.3 Hindu–Muslim Friction on the Road to Modern China (1839–1949)776
Independence737 27.6 Close of Manchu Rule 777
The Experience in the Islamic Middle East 737 27.6.1 The Opium War 777
26.3 Islamic Responses to Declining Power and 27.6.2 Rebellions against the Manchu 779
Independence737 27.6.3 Self-Strengthening and Decline (1874–1895) 781
26.4 Western Political and Economic Encroachment 739 27.6.4 The Borderlands: The Northwest,
26.5 The Western Impact: The Case of Iran 740 Vietnam, and Korea 783
26.6 Islamic Responses to Foreign Encroachment 740 27.7 From Dynasty to Warlordism (1895–1926) 784
26.6.1 Emulation of the West 741 27.8 Cultural and Ideological Ferment: The May
26.6.2 Integration of Western and Islamic Ideas 742 Fourth Movement786
26.6.3 Women and Reform in the Middle East 743 27.9 Nationalist China 788
26.6.4 Purification and Revival of Islam 744 27.9.1 Guomindang Unification of China and
26.6.5 Nationalism 744 the Nanjing Decade (1927–1937) 788
The African Experience 744 27.9.2 War and Revolution (1937–1949) 791
26.7 New States and Power Centers 744 Summary 793 • Key Terms 793 • Review Questions 793

26.7.1 Southern Africa 745

26.7.2 East and Central Africa 746 Part 7 Global Conflict and Change,
26.7.3 West Africa 746 1900–Present
26.8 Islamic Reform Movements in Africa 747 28 Imperialism and World War I 794
26.9 Increasing European Involvement: Exploration
and Colonization749 28.1 Expansion of Western Power 795
26.9.1 Explorers 749 Global Perspective: Imperialism and the
26.9.2 Christian Missionaries 749 Great War 796
26.9.3 The Colonial “Scramble for Africa” 750 28.1.1 The “New Imperialism” 796
26.10 Patterns in European Colonial Rule and African 28.1.2 The “Scramble for Africa” 798
Resistance752 28.1.3 Asia, the Americas, the Pacific, and
26.11 The Rise of African Nationalism 753 the Emerging U.S. Role 802
Summary 754 • Key Terms 755 • Review Questions 755 28.2 Emergence of the German Empire 802
28.2.1 Formation of the Triple Alliance
Religions of the World: Islam 756
(1873–1890)802
28.2.2 Bismarck’s Leadership (1873–1890) 803
27 Modern East Asia 758 28.2.3 Forging the Triple Entente (1890–1907) 805
Global Perspective: Modern East Asia 760 28.3 World War I: From the Coming of War to the U.S.
Entrance807
Modern Japan (1853–1945)761
28.3.1 The Road to War (1908–1914) 807
27.1 Overthrow of the Tokugawa Bakufu (1853–1868) 761
28.3.2 Sarajevo and the Outbreak of War
A Closer Look: East Meets West 762 (June–August 1914) 809
27.2 Building The Meiji State (1868–1890) 763 28.3.3 Strategies and Stalemate (1914–1917) 810
27.2.1 Centralization of Power 763 A Closer Look: The Development of the
27.2.2 Political Parties 764 Armored Tank 812
27.2.3 The Constitution 765 28.4 The Russian Revolution 814
27.3 Growth of a Modern Economy 765 28.5 World War I: The End of War and the Aftermath 816
27.3.1 First Phase: Model Industries 766 28.5.1 Military Resolution 816
27.3.2 Second Phase: 1880s–1890s 766 28.5.2 Settlement at Paris 817
27.3.3 Third Phase: 1905–1929 766 28.5.3 Evaluation of the Peace 821
27.3.4 Fourth Phase: Depression Summary 822 • Key Terms 822 • Review Questions 822
and Recovery 767
27.4 The Politics of Imperial Japan (1890–1945) 769 29 Depression, European Dictators,
27.4.1 From Confrontation to the Founding
of the Seiyūkai (1890–1900) 769
and the American New Deal 823
27.4.2 The Golden Years of Meiji 769 29.1 After Versailles: Demands for Revision
27.4.3 Rise of the Parties to Power 771 and Enforcement 824
27.4.4 Militarism and War (1927–1945) 772 29.2 Toward the Great Depression in Europe 824
 Contents xvii

Global Perspective: The Interwar Period in 30.3 The Domestic Fronts 868
Europe and the United States 825 30.3.1 Germany: From Apparent Victory
29.2.1 Financial Tailspin 826 to Defeat 868
29.2.2 Problems in Agricultural Commodities 826 30.3.2 France: Defeat, Collaboration, and
Resistance870
29.2.3 Depression and Government Policy 827
30.3.3 Great Britain: Organization for Victory 870
29.3 The Soviet Experiment 827
30.3.4 The United States: American Women
29.3.1 War Communism 828
and African Americans in the War Effort 871
29.3.2 The New Economic Policy 828
30.3.5 The Soviet Union: “The Great Patriotic War” 871
29.3.3 Stalin versus Trotsky 828
A Closer Look: Rosie the Riveter 872
29.3.4 Decision for Rapid Industrialization 829
30.4 Preparations for Peace 873
29.3.5 The Purges 832
30.4.1 The Atlantic Charter 874
29.4 The Fascist Experiment in Italy 833
30.4.2 Tehran 874
29.4.1 Rise of Mussolini 834
30.4.3 Yalta 874
29.4.2 The Fascists in Power 835
30.4.4 Potsdam 875
29.5 German Democracy and Dictatorship 835
Summary 876 • Key Terms 876 • Review Questions 876
29.5.1 The Weimar Republic 835
29.5.2 Depression and Political Deadlock 839 31 The West since World War II 877
29.5.3 Hitler Comes to Power 840
Global Perspective: The West since 1945 879
29.5.4 Hitler’s Consolidation of Power 841
29.5.5 The Police State and the Persecution 31.1 The Cold War Era 880
of Jews 842 31.1.1 Areas of Early Cold War Conflict 880
29.5.6 Women in Nazi Germany 843 31.1.2 NATO and the Warsaw Pact 881
A Closer Look: The Nazi Party Rally 844 31.1.3 Crises of 1956 882
31.1.4 The Cold War Intensified 884
29.6 The Great Depression and the New Deal in
31.1.5 Détente and Afterward 885
the United States 845
29.6.1 Economic Collapse 845 31.2 Toward Western European Unification 886
29.6.2 New Role for Government 847 31.3 European Society in the Second Half of the
Twentieth Century and Beyond 889
Summary 848 • Key Terms 849 • Review Questions 849
31.3.1 Toward a Welfare State Society 889
31.3.2 Resistance to the Expansion of the
30 World War II 850 Welfare State 889
31.3.3 The Movement of Peoples 891
30.1 Again the Road to War (1933–1939) 851
31.3.4 The New Muslim Population 892
30.1.1 Hitler’s Goals 851
31.3.5 New Patterns in the Work and
30.1.2 Destruction of Versailles 851
Expectations of Women 893
Global Perspective: World War II 852
31.4 The American Domestic Scene since World War II 894
30.1.3 Italy Attacks Ethiopia 853 31.4.1 Truman and Eisenhower Administrations 894
30.1.4 Remilitarization of the Rhineland 853 31.4.2 Civil Rights 895
30.1.5 The Spanish Civil War 853 31.4.3 New Social Programs 895
30.1.6 Austria and Czechoslovakia 854 31.4.4 The Vietnam War and Domestic Turmoil 896
30.1.7 Munich 855 31.4.5 The Watergate Scandal 896
30.1.8 The Nazi–Soviet Pact 857 31.4.6 The Triumph of Political Conservatism 896
30.2 Global War and Total War (1939–1945) 857 31.5 The Soviet Union to 1989 898
30.2.1 German Conquest of Europe 857 31.5.1 The Khrushchev Years 898
30.2.2 Battle of Britain 858 31.5.2 The Brezhnev Years 899
30.2.3 German Attack on Russia 858 31.5.3 Communism and Solidarity in Poland 899
30.2.4 Hitler’s Europe 859 31.5.4 Gorbachev Attempts to Redirect the
30.2.5 Racism and the Holocaust 860 Soviet Union 899
30.2.6 The Road to Pearl Harbor 861 31.6 1989: Year of Revolutions in Eastern Europe 900
30.2.7 America’s Entry into the War 863 31.6.1 Solidarity Reemerges in Poland 900
30.2.8 The Tide Turns 863 31.6.2 Hungary Moves toward Independence 900
30.2.9 Defeat of Nazi Germany 866 31.6.3 The Breach of the Berlin Wall and German
30.2.10 Fall of the Japanese Empire 866 Reunification901
30.2.11 The Cost of War 868 31.6.4 The Velvet Revolution in Czechoslovakia 901
xviii Contents

A Closer Look: Collapse of the Berlin Wall

31.6.5 Violent Revolution in Romania
902
903
33 Postcolonialism and Beyond: Latin
America, Africa, Asia, and the
31.7 The Collapse of the Soviet Union 903
Middle East943
31.7.1 Renunciation of Communist
Political Monopoly 903 33.1 Beyond the Postcolonial Era 944
31.7.2 The August 1991 Coup 904 Global Perspective: Democratization,
31.7.3 The Yeltsin Years 904 Globalization, and Terrorism 945
31.7.4 The Putin Years 905
33.2 Latin America since 1945 947
31.8 The Collapse of Yugoslavia and Civil War 908 33.2.1 Revolutionary Challenges 950
31.9 Challenges to the Atlantic Alliance 909 33.2.2 Pursuit of Stability under the Threat
31.9.1 Challenges on the International of Revolution 952
Security Front 909 33.2.3 Continuity and Change in Recent Latin
31.9.2 Strains over Environmental Policy 911 American History 954
31.9.3 Strains over Economic and Foreign Policy 912 A Closer Look: Mexican Farmers Protest the North
Summary 912 • Key Terms 913 • Review Questions 913 American Free Trade Agreement 955

32
33.3 Postcolonial Africa 956
East Asia: The Recent Decades 914 33.3.1 The Transition to Independence 956
32.1 Japan 915 33.3.2 The African Future 961
32.1.1 The Occupation 915 33.3.3 Trade and Development 963
Global Perspective: Modern East Asia 917 33.4 The Islamic Heartlands 963
32.1.2 Parliamentary Politics 918 33.3.4 Turkey 964
32.1.3 Economic Growth 921 33.4.2 Iran and Its Islamic Revolution 965
32.1.4 Society and Culture 922 33.4.3 Afghanistan and the Former
Soviet Republics 967
32.1.5 Japan and the World 925
33.4.4 India 967
32.2 China 925
33.4.5 Pakistan and Bangladesh 969
32.2.1 Soviet Period (1950–1960) 926
33.4.6 Indonesia and Malaysia 969
A Closer Look: Trial of a Landlord 927
33.5 The Postcolonial Middle East 970
32.2.2 The Great Proletarian Cultural
33.5.1 Postcolonial Nations in the Middle East 970
Revolution (1965–1976) 928
33.5.2 The Arab–Israeli Conflict 972
32.2.3 China after Mao 929
33.5.3 Middle Eastern Oil 976
32.3 Taiwan 933
33.5.4 The Rise of Militant Islamism 976
32.4 Korea 935
33.5.5 The Modern Middle Eastern Background 976
32.4.1 Korea as a Japanese Colony 935
33.5.6 Iraq: Intervention and Occupation 979
32.4.2 North and South 935
Summary 980 • Key Terms 981 • Review Questions 981
32.4.3 The Korean War and U.S. Involvement 936
32.4.4 South Korea: Growth and Democracy 937
Glossary983
32.4.5 North Korea 938
32.5 Vietnam 938 Suggested Readings 993
32.5.1 The Colonial Backdrop 938
32.5.2 The Anticolonial War 939 Credits1019
32.5.3 The Vietnam War 939
Index1025
32.5.4 Vietnam’s War with Cambodia 940
32.5.5 Recent Developments 941
Summary 942 • Key Terms 942 • Review Questions 942
Documents
Chapter 1 1 Daily Life in a Roman Provincial Town: Graffiti
from Pompeii 187
The Code of Hammurabi 11 Mark Describes the Resurrection of Jesus 189

Chapter 7 201
Love Poems from the New Kingdom 19
An Assyrian Woman Writes to Her Husband,
ca. 1800 b.c.e.21 Chinese Women among the Nomads 208
Hymn to Indra 28 Ban Zhao’s Admonitions for Women212
Human Sacrifice in Early China 34 Sima Qian on the Wealthy 215
The Peach Blossom Spring 216
Chapter 2 39
Confucius Presents the Rules of Morality 45
Chapter 8 220
Daoism47 A Poem by Li Bo 230
Legalism48 “Chaste Woman” Shi 236
Discussions of Brahman and Atman from the Su Dungpo Imagined on a Wet Day, Wearing
Upanishads51 a Rain Hat and Clogs 239
The “Turning of the Wheel of the Dharma”: Marco Polo Describes the City of Hangzhou 244
Basic Teachings of the Buddha
God’s Purpose with Israel
52
59
Chapter 9 247
Plato on the Role of Women in His Utopian Republic 64 Darkness and the Cave of High Heaven 253
Aristocratic Taste at the Fujiwara Court:
Chapter 3 70 Sei Shōnagon Records Her Likes and Dislikes 260
The Arts and Zen Buddhism 270
Husband and Wife in Homer’s Troy 77
Hesiod’s Farmer’s Almanac 82 Chapter 10 274
The Delian League Becomes the Athenian Empire 92
The Qur’an, or “Recitation” 278
Medea Bemoans the Condition of Women 94
The Pillars of Islam and the Elements of Faith 279
Plutarch Cites Archimedes and Hellenistic Science 105
Al-Mawardi and al-Hilli 283

Chapter 4 109 Ibn Sina on Medicine 290

A Hymn of Zoroaster about the Spirits of Chapter 11 293

Good and Evil 114 The Character and “Innovations” of Justinian
Tansar’s Defense of His King, Ardashir I 123 and Theodora 298
The Edicts of Ashoka 127 The Nicene Creed 303
A Chinese Traveler’s Report on the Gupta Realm 132 The Benedictine Order Sets Its Requirements
Devoting Oneself to Krishna 135 for Entrance 307
The Bodhisattva Ideal 136
Chapter 12 321
Chapter 5 141 Jalaluddin Rumi: Attributes of the Sufi 325
Herodotus on Carthaginian Trade and the City A Muslim Biographer’s Account of Maimonides 327
of Meroe 152 The Mongol Catastrophe 333
A Tenth-Century Arab Description of the East How the Hindus Differ from the Muslims 338
African Coast 162
Chapter 13 341
Chapter 6 165 A Mayan Myth of Creation 352
The Ruin of the Roman Family Farm and the Nezahualcoyotl of Texcoco Sings of the Giver of Life 357
Gracchan Reforms 176 The Aztecs Economically Isolate an Enemy 358
An Ideal Roman Woman 182 The Incas Organize Their Empire 366
xix
xx Documents

Chapter 14 369 Rousseau Argues for Separate Spheres for

Men and Women 600
Ghana and Its People in the Mid-Eleventh Century 374 Mary Wollstonecraft Criticizes Rousseau’s
Muslim Reform in Songhai 378 View of Women 601

Chapter 22 608

Affonso I of Kongo Writes to the King of Portugal 383

Chapter 15 389 The Stamp Act Congress Addresses George III 612
Pope Urban II (r. 1088–1099) Preaches the Olympe de Gouges Issues the Declaration of the
First Crusade 393 Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen 618
Student Life at the University of Paris 398 A Free Person of Color from St. Domingue Demands
Pico della Mirandola States the Renaissance Recognition of His Status 619
Image of the Human Ideal 412 The Paris Jacobin Club Alerts the Nation to
Internal Enemies of the Revolution 622
Chapter 16 419
German Peasants Protest Rising Feudal Exactions 430
Chapter 23 638
Theodore Beza Defends the Right to Resist Tyranny 439 Parnell Calls for Home Rule for Ireland 649
John Locke Explains the Sources of Human Daniel A. Payne Denounces American Slavery 655
Knowledge448 Lord Acton Condemns Nationalism 665
Herzl Calls for the Establishment of a Jewish State 667
Chapter 17 452
A Spaniard Describes the Glory of the Aztec Capital 457
Chapter 24 670
A Contemporary Describes Forced Indian English Women Industrial Workers Explain
Labor at Potosí 460 Their Economic Situation 675
Visitors Describe the Portobello Fair 463 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels Describe the
A Slave Trader Describes the Atlantic Passage 477 Class Struggle 685
Lenin Argues for the Necessity of a Secret and
Chapter 18 481 Elite Party of Professional Revolutionaries 688
Theodore Roosevelt States His Progressive Creed 695
The Thin Horse Market 486
Darwin Defends a Mechanistic View of Nature 697
Qianlong’s Edict to King George III of England 494
A Star in Heaven 496 Chapter 25 704
The Virtuous Wife 506
Eva Perón Explains the Sources of Her Popularity 716
A Tokugawa Skeptic 511
A Brazilian Liberal Denounces Slavery 723
On Being a Concubine 520

Chapter 19 523 Chapter 26 727

John Locke Denounces the Idea of Absolute
Monarchy527
Bishop Bossuet Defends the Divine Right of Kings 529
Russian Serfs Lament Their Condition 543
Priscilla Wakefield Demands More Occupations
Macaulay Writes on Indian Education 733
Gandhi on Passive Resistance and Svarāj735
Tâhâ Hussein, “The Future of Culture in Egypt” 745
Usman Dan Fodio on Evil and Good Government 747
Oginga Odinga on European Influences 753

Chapter 27 758

Be Opened to Women 545
Belorussian Jews Petition Catherine the Great 554
On Wives and Concubines 764
Chapter 20 558 Natsume Sōseki on the Costs of Rapid Modernization 768
The Distinctiveness of Ottoman Identity and Culture 565 Commissioner Lin Urges Morality on Queen Victoria 778
Guru Arjun’s Faith 574 Liang Qichao Urges the Chinese to Reform (1896) 784
Chen Duxiu’s “Call to Youth” in 1915 787
Chapter 21 580
The Encyclopedia Praises Mechanical Arts
Chapter 28 794
and Artisans 590 Social Darwinism and Imperialism 799
Denis Diderot Condemns European Empires 597 Bismarck Explains His Foreign Policy 805
 Documents xxi

Chapter 29 823 Tony Blair Seeks to Redefine the British

Welfare State 891
Stalin Calls for the Liquidation of the Vladimir Putin Outlines a Vision of the
Kulaks as a Class 830 Russian Future 906
Hitler Denounces the Versailles Treaty 838
The Nazis Pass Their Racial Legislation 842 Chapter 32 914
Chapter 30 850 Two Views of the “Symbol Emperor”
U.S. Foreign Policy: A Chinese Dissident’s View
919
932
Winston Churchill Warns of the Effects of the
Munich Agreement 856 Chapter 33 943
Mass Murder at Belsen 862 Lourdes Arizpe Discusses the Silence of Peasant

Chapter 31 877 Women949

The Pan-African Congress Demands Independence 957
The United States National Security Council A Modernist Muslim Poet’s Eulogy for His Mother 964
Proposes to Contain the Soviet Union 883 The King-Crane Commission Report, August 28, 1919 973
Pope Benedict XVI Calls for the Recognition Jihad against Jews and Crusaders: World Islamic Front
of Religious Freedom as a Human Right 888 Statement, 1998 977
Maps
Map 1–1 Early Human Migrations 4 Map 8–2 Chang’an 225
Map 1–2 The Ancient Near East 9 Map 8–3 The Northern Song and Liao Empires (Top)
Map 1–3 The Near East and Greece, ca. 1400 b.c.e.17 and the Southern Song and Jin Empires (Bottom) 232
Map 1–4 Indus and Vedic Aryan Cultures 24 Map 8–4 The Mongol Empire in the Late
Map 1–5 Mohenjo-Daro 25 Thirteenth Century 241

Map 1–6 Bronze Age China during the Shang Map 9–1 Yamato Japan and Korea (ca. 500 c.e.)252
Dynasty, 1766–1050 b.c.e.30 Map 9–2 Medieval Japan and the Mongol Invasions 264
Map 1–7 Early Iron Age Territorial States in Map 10–1 Muslim Conquests and Domination of the
China during the Sixth Century b.c.e.32 Mediterranean to about 750 c.e.281
Map 1–8 Civilization in Mesoamerica and the Andes 36 Map 10–2 The Abbasid Empire, ca. 900 c.e.289
Map 2–1 Ancient Palestine 57 Map 11–1 Barbarian Migrations into the West in
the Fourth and Fifth Centuries 296
Map 2–2 Centers of Greek Philosophy 62
Map 11–2 Constantinople 299
Map 3–1 The Aegean Area in the Bronze Age 73
Map 11–3 The Byzantine Empire at the Death
Map 3–2 Phoenician and Greek Colonization 79
of Justinian 300
Map 3–3 The Peloponnesus 84
Map 11–4 The Empire of Charlemagne to 814 311
Map 3–4 Attica and Vicinity 86
Map 11–5 The Treaty of Verdun (843) and the Treaty
Map 3–5 Classical Greece 91
of Mersen (870 ) 316
Map 3–6 The Athenian Empire, ca. 450 b.c.e.92
Map 11–6 Viking, Magyar, and Muslim Invasions to the
Map 3–7 Alexander’s Campaigns 101 Eleventh Century 317
Map 3–8 The World According to Eratosthenes 106 Map 12–1 The Islamic World, 1000–ca. 1500 322
Map 4–1 West and Inner Asia 112 Map 12–2 The Seljuk Empire, ca. 1095 331
Map 4–2 Eurasian Trade Routes, ca. 100 c.e.113 Map 12–3 The Indian Subcontinent, 1000–1500 336
Map 4–3 International Trade Routes in Gupta Map 12–4 The Spread of Islam in Southeast Asia 339
and Sasanid Times 122 Map 13–1 Mesoamerica: The Formative and
Map 4–4 Southwest Asia and India, ca. 250 b.c.e.126 Classic Periods 344
Map 4–5 Indian Influence in Southeast Asia, ca. 650 c.e.133 Map 13–2 The Aztec and Inca Empires on the
Map 4–6 Spread of Buddhist Traditions Eve of the Spanish Conquest 356
throughout Southeast Asia 138 Map 13–3 Pre-Inca Sites Discussed in This Chapter 361
Map 5–1 Africa: Physical Features and Early Sites 145 Map 14–1 Major Cities and States in Africa, ca. 900–1500 371
Map 5–2 Ancient African Kingdoms and Empires 148 Map 14–2 Important Towns, Regions, Peoples,
Map 5–3 Africa: Early Trade Routes and Early and States in Africa, ca. 1500–1700 377
States of the Western and Central Sudan 156 Map 15–1 The Early Crusades 394
Map 6–1 Ancient Italy 168 Map 15–2 Medieval Trade Routes and
Map 6–2 The Western Mediterranean Area Regional Products 397
during the Rise of Rome 172 Map 15–3 Germany and Italy in the Middle Ages 404
Map 6–3 Roman Dominions of the Late Republic 175 Map 15–4 Spread of the Black Death 407
Map 6–4 Provinces of the Roman Empire to 117 185 Map 15–5 Renaissance Italy 410
Map 6–5 Divisions of the Roman Empire under Map 15–6 Russia, ca. 1500 416
Diocletian193 Map 16–1 European Voyages of Discovery and the
Map 6–6 The Empire’s Neighbors 194 Colonial Claims of Spain and Portugal in the
Map 6–7 The Spread of Christianity 196 Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries 422
Map 7–1 The Unification of China by the Qin State 202 Map 16–2 Martin Behaim’s “Globe Apple” 424
Map 7–2 The Han Empire, 206 b.c.e.–220 c.e.207 Map 16–3 The Empire of Charles V 428
Map 7–3 The Spread of Buddhism and Chinese Map 16–4 The Holy Roman Empire, ca. 1618 443
States in 500 217 Map 16–5 Religious Division, ca. 1600 444
Map 8–1 The Tang Empire at Its Peak during the Map 17–1 European Explorations and
Eighth Century 223 Conquests, ca. 1550 456

xxii
 Maps xxiii

Map 17–2 The Americas, ca. 1750 462 Map 26–2 West Asia, Central Asia, and the
Map 17–3 Biological Exchanges 467 Mediterranean, ca. 1850 738
Map 17–4 The Slave Trade, 1400–1860 470 Map 26–3 Islamic Reform Movements in
Map 17–5 Origins of African Slaves Sent to the Africa and Arabia in the Nineteenth Century 748
Americas475 Map 26–4 Partition of Africa, 1880–1914 751
Map 18–1 The Ming Empire and the Voyages Map 27–1 Formation of the Japanese Empire 770
of Zheng He 490 Map 27–2 The Taiping, Nian, and Muslim Rebellions 780
Map 18–2 The Qing Empire at Its Peak 492 Map 27–3 The Northern Expeditions of the
Map 18–3 Tokugawa Japan and the Korean Peninsula 502 Guomindang789
Map 18–4 Early Korean States 514 Map 27–4 The Long March, 1934–1935 790
Map 18–5 Korea during the Choson Era 515 Map 28–1 Asia, 1880–1914 797
Map 18–6 Vietnam and Neighboring Southeast Asia 518 Map 28–2 The Colonial Economy of Africa, 1885–1939 800
Map 19–1 The Austrian Habsburg Empire, 1521–1772  534 Map 28–3 The American Domain, ca. 1900 803
Map 19–2 Prussian Expansions, 1748–1795  536 Map 28–4 The Balkans, 1912–1913 808
Map 19–3 Europe in 1714 537 Map 28–5 The Schlieffen Plan of 1905 810
Map 19–4 The Colonial Arena 540 Map 28–6 World War I in Europe 813
Map 19–5 The Industrial Revolution in Britain 549 Map 28–7 World War I Peace Settlement in
Map 20–1 The Islamic Heartlands, ca. 1700 559 Europe and the Middle East 819

Map 20–2 The Ottoman Empire at Its Zenith 562 Map 30–1 The Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939 854

Map 20–3 The Safavid Empire 567 Map 30–2 Partitions of Czechoslovakia and Poland,
1938–1939855
Map 20–4 India under the Mughals 571
Map 30–3 Axis Europe, 1941 860
Map 20–5 The Spread of Islam in Southeast Asia,
1300–1900576 Map 30–4 The Holocaust 862

Map 20–6 European Commercial Penetration Map 30–5 The War in the Pacific 864
of Southeast Asia 577 Map 30–6 North African Campaigns, 1942–1945 865
Map 21–1 Subscriptions to Diderot’s Encyclopedia Map 30–7 Defeat of the Axis in Europe, 1942–1945 867
throughout Europe 592 Map 30–8 Territorial Changes in Europe after
Map 21–2 Expansion of Russia, 1689–1796 605 World War II 875
Map 22–1 North America in 1763 611 Map 31–1 Major Cold War European Alliance Systems 882
Map 22–2 Napoleonic Europe in Late 1812 627 Map 31–2 The Growth of the European Union 887
Map 22–3 Europe in 1815, after the Congress Map 31–3 Displaced Peoples in Eastern and Central
of Vienna 628 Europe, 1945–1950 892
Map 22–4 The Haitian Revolution 630 Map 31–4 The Commonwealth of Independent States 904
Map 22–5 The Independence Campaigns Map 31–5 Ethnic Composition of the Former
of San Martin and Bolívar 632 Yugoslavia908
Map 23–1 Languages of Europe 641 Map 32–1 Contemporary East Asia 916
Map 23–2 Centers of Revolution in 1848–1849 650 Map 32–2 The Korean War, 1950–1953 936
Map 23–3 The United States, 1776–1850 653 Map 32–3 Vietnam and Its Southeast Asian Neighbors 940
Map 23–4 The Unification of Italy 660 Map 33–1 Decolonization since World War II 946
Map 23–5 The Unification of Germany 662 Map 33–2 Contemporary Central and South America 948
Map 23–6 Nationalities within the Habsburg Empire 664 Map 33–3 Distribution of HIV Infection Rates in Africa 962
Map 24–1 Patterns of Global Migration, 1840–1900  691 Map 33–4 The Modern Middle East and the
Map 25–1 Latin America in 1830 707 Distribution of Major Religious Communities 971

Map 26–1 British India, 1820 and 1856 730

Preface
T
he global financial crisis that commenced in 2008 gave
this generation a new sense of the connectedness of in-
ternational economic events and financial forces. The
banking crisis in the United States, the burgeoning Chinese
economy, the debt upheaval within the E ­ uropean Union, the
rise and fall of commodity prices, and the entanglement of
the flows of capital from one part of the developed world to
another painfully demonstrated that events and decisions in
one nation or on one continent can affect millions of people
living far from the centers of those decisions. The economic
crisis followed fast upon a decade during which the military
forces of the United States and ­Europe invaded nations of
the Middle East in response to terrorist attacks. In the sec-
ond decade of the new century, it is proving hard for these
largely ill-advised interventions to be reversed, and global
terrorism has only increased. In addition, regional conflicts
and crises from Africa and the Middle East to Ukraine to
North Korea continue to make the world an unsettled one.
Environmental crises whether in the form of massive air
pollution, oceanic oil spills, or volcanic eruptions can inter-
fere with trade, commerce, and tourism, as can changes in
the price and availability of oil on which the United States,
Europe, Japan, China, and India, to mention only the largest
industrial economies, are dependent.
Economic problems, military clashes, and environmen-
tal crises on the global scene are the most dramatic and dis-
ruptive signs of the impact of globalization. However, more
quietly but not less dramatically, for the past two decades
the steady growth of the Internet has radically increased
worldwide cultural and commercial interconnectedness.
Whereas once American students might have gone to a
large reading room in their college or university library to
read newspapers from other countries days or even weeks
after their publication, today’s students can follow the daily
press anywhere in the world from smartphones, comput-
ers, and other electronic reading devices. The Internet per-
mits students to view museum collections located on every
continent. Books of great rarity and value once reserved
for students in a few elite universities are now available
electronically in all parts of the world. Students in classes
around the world can now share in the same discussions
online or even face-to-face through electronic interfaces.
United States colleges and universities are collaborat-
ing with sister institutions globally and even establishing
branches far beyond North America to an extent previously
unimagined. Whereas as recently as the 1970s American
students found almost half the world closed to travel, they
can now travel globally with almost no barriers.
xxiv
Today, the interconnectedness of cultures and peoples
as well as of economies is a fact of life. We dwell therefore
in an era in which no active citizen or educated person can
escape the necessity of understanding the past in global
terms. Both the historical experience and the moral, politi-
cal, and religious values of the different world civilizations
now demand our awareness and our understanding. It is
our hope that in these new, challenging times The Heritage
of World Civilizations will provide one path to such aware-
ness and understanding.
The Roots of Globalization
In recent decades the onset of rapid globalization—that
is, the increasing interaction and interdependency of the
various regions of the world—has resulted from two major
historical developments: the closing of the European era of
world history and the rise of technology.
From approximately 1500 c.e. to the middle of the
twentieth century, Europe, followed later by the United
States, gradually came to dominate the world through colo-
nization (in North and South America, Africa, and Asia),
state-building, economic productivity, and military power.
That era of European dominance ended during the last half
of the twentieth century after Europe had brought unprec-
edented destruction on itself during World War II; as the
United States eventually confronted limitations in its post-
war influence; and as the nations of Asia, the Near East,
and Africa achieved new, more prominent positions on the
world scene. Their new political independence, their con-
trol over strategic natural resources, the expansion of their
economies (especially those of the nations of the Pacific Rim
of Asia), and in some cases their access to nuclear weapons
(as in Israel, Pakistan, and India) have changed the shape of
world affairs.
Further changing the world political and social situa-
tion has been a growing discrepancy in the economic devel-
opment of different regions, which is often portrayed as a
disparity between the northern and southern hemispheres.
Beyond the emergence of this economic disparity has been
the remarkable advance of radical political Islamism dur-
ing the past forty years. In the midst of all these develop-
ments, as a result of the political collapse of the former
Soviet Union, the United States has emerged as the single
major world power, though its position is increasingly chal-
lenged by China, whose economic might now rivals that of
the United States and whose military has embarked on a
rapid buildup of its forces in Asia.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Mechanics of Reason
Aristotle fathered the syllogism, or at least was first to investigate it
rigorously. He defined it as a formal argument in which the
conclusion follows logically from the premises. There are four
common statements of this type:
All S (for subject) is P (for
predicate)
No S (for subject) is P
Some S (for is P
subject)
Some S (for is not P
subject)
Thus, Aristotle might say “All men are mortal” or “No men are
immortal” as his subject. Adding an M (middle term), “Aristotle is a
man,” as a minor premise, he could logically go on and conclude
“Aristotle, being a man, is thus mortal.” Of course the syllogism
unwisely used, as it often is, can lead to some ridiculously silly
answers. “All tables have four legs. Two men have four legs. Thus,
two men equal a table.”
Despite the weaknesses of the syllogism, nevertheless it led
eventually to the science of symbolic logic. The pathway was
circuitous, even devious at times, but slowly the idea of putting
thought down as letters or numbers to be logically manipulated to
reach proper conclusions gained force and credence. While the
Greeks did not have the final say, they did have words for the subject
as they did for nearly everything else.
Let us leave the subject of pure logic for a moment and talk of
another kind of computing machine, that of the mechanical doer of
work. In the Iliad, Homer has Hephaestus, the god of natural fire and
metalworking, construct twenty three-wheeled chariots which propel
themselves to and fro bringing back messages and instructions from
the councils of the gods. These early automatons boasted pure gold
wheels, and handles of “curious cunning.”
 Man has apparently been a lazy cuss from the start and began
straightway to dream of mechanical servants to do his chores. In an
age of magic and fear of the supernatural his dreams were fraught
with such machines that turned into evil monsters. The Hebrew
“golem” was made in the shape of man, but without a soul, and often
got out of hand. Literature has perpetuated the idea of machines
running amok, as the broom in “The Sorcerer’s Apprentice,” but
there have been benevolent machines too. Tik-Tok, a latter-day
windup man in The Road to Oz, could think and talk and do many
other things men could do. He was not alive, of course, but he had
the saving grace of always doing just what he “was wound up to do.”
Having touched on the subject of mechanical men, let us now
return to mechanical logic. Since the Greeks, many men have
traveled the road of reason, but some stand out more brightly, more
colorfully, than others. Such a standout was the Spanish monk
Ramón Lull. Lull was born in 1232. A court page, he rose in
influence, married young, and had two children, but did not settle
down to married domesticity. A wildly reckless romantic, he was
given to such stunts as galloping his horse into church in pursuit of
some lady who caught his eye. One such escapade led to a
remorseful re-examination of himself, and dramatic conversion to
Christianity.
He began to write books in conventional praise of Christ, but early
in his writings a preoccupation with numbers appears. His Book of
Contemplation, for example, actually contains five books for the five
wounds of the Saviour, and forty subdivisions for the days He spent
in the wilderness. There are 365 chapters for daily reading, plus one
for reading only in leap years! Each chapter has ten paragraphs,
symbolizing the ten commandments, and three parts to each
chapter. These multiplied give thirty, for the pieces of silver. Beside
religious and mystical connotations, geometric terms are also used,
and one interesting device is the symbolizing of words and even
phrases by letters. This ties in neatly with syllogism. A sample
follows:
… diversity is shown in the demonstration that the D makes of the E and the F
and the G with the I and the K, therefore the H has certain scientific knowledge of
Thy holy and glorious Trinity.

This was only prologue to the Ars Magna, the “Great Art” of
Ramón Lull. In 1274, the devout pilgrim climbed Mount Palma in
search of divine help in his writings. The result was the first recorded
attempt to use diagrams to discover and to prove non-mathematical
truths. Specifically, Lull determined that he could construct
mechanical devices that would perform logic to prove the validity of
God’s word. Where force, in the shape of the Crusades, had failed,
Lull was convinced that logical argument would win over the infidels,
and he devoted his life to the task.
Renouncing his estate, including his wife and children, Lull
devoted himself thenceforth solely to his Great Art. As a result of
dreams he had on Mount Palma, the basis for this work was the
assumption of simple premises or principles that are unquestionable.
Lull arranged these premises on rotating concentric circles. The first
of these wheels of logic was called A, standing for God. Arranged
about the circumference of the wheel were sixteen other letters
symbolizing attributes of God. The outer wheel also contained these
letters. Rotating them produced 240 two-term combinations telling
many things about God and His good. Other wheels prepared
sermons, advised physicians and scientists, and even tackled such
stumpers as “Where does the flame go when the candle is put out?”
 From the Enciclopedia universal
illustrada,
Barcelona, 1923

Lull’s wheel.

Unfortunately for Lull, even divine help did not guarantee him
success. He was stoned to death by infidels in Bugia, Africa, at the
age of eighty-three. All his wheelspinning logic was to no avail in
advancing the cause of Christianity there, and most mathematicians
since have scoffed at his naïve devices as having no real merit. Far
from accepting the Ars Magna, most scholars have been “Lulled into
a secure sense of falsity,” finding it as specious as indiscriminate
syllogism.
Yet Lull did leave his mark, and many copies of his wheels have
been made and found useful. Where various permutations of
numbers or other symbols are required, such a mechanical tool is
often the fastest way of pairing them up. Even in the field of writing, a
Lullian device was popular a few decades ago in the form of the “Plot
Genii.” With this gadget the would-be author merely spun the wheels
to match up various characters with interesting situations to arrive at
story ideas. Other versions use cards to do the same job, and one
called Plotto was used by its inventor William Wallace Cook to plot
countless stories. Although these were perhaps not ideas for great
literature, eager writers paid as much as $75 for the plot boiler.
Not all serious thinkers relegated Lull to the position of fanatic
dreamer and gadgeteer. No less a mind that Gottfried Wilhelm von
Leibnitz found much to laud in Lull’s works. The Ars Magna might
well lead to a universal “algebra” of all knowledge, thought Leibnitz.
“If controversies were to arise,” he then mused, “there would be no
more reason for philosophers to dispute than there would for
accountants!”
Leibnitz applied Lull’s work to formal logic, constructed tables of
syllogisms from which he eliminated the false, and carried the work
of the “gifted crank” at bit nearer to true symbolic logic. Leibnitz also
extended the circle idea to that of overlapping them in early attempts
at logical manipulation that foreshadowed the work that John Venn
would do later. Leibnitz also saw in numbers a powerful argument for
the existence of God. God, he saw as the numeral 1, and 0 was the
nothingness from which He created the world. There are those,
including Voltaire whose Candide satirized the notion, who question
that it is the best of all possible worlds, but none can question that in
the seventeenth century Leibnitz foresaw the coming power of the
binary system. He also built arithmetical computers that could add
and subtract, multiply and divide.
A few years earlier than Leibnitz, Blaise Pascal was also
interested in computing machines. As a teen-ager working in his
father’s tax office, Pascal wearied of adding the tedious figures so he
built himself a gear-driven computer that would add eight columns of
numbers. A tall figure in the scientific world, Pascal had fathered
projective geometry at age sixteen and later established
hydrodynamics as a science. To assist a gambler friend, he also
developed the theory of probability which led to statistical science.
Another mathematical innovation of the century was that of placing
logarithms on a stick by the Scot, John Napier. What he had done, of
course, was to make an analog, or scale model of the arithmetical
numbers. “Napier’s bones” quickly became what we now call slide
rules, forerunners of a whole class of analog computers that solve
problems by being actual models of size or quantity. Newton joined
Leibnitz in contributing another valuable tool that would be used in
the computer, that of the calculus.
The Computer in Literature
Even as Plato had viewed with suspicion the infringement of
mechanical devices on man’s domain of higher thought, other men
have continued to eye the growth of “mechanisms” with mounting
alarm. The scientist and inventor battled not merely technical
difficulties, but the scornful satire and righteous condemnation of
some of their fellow men. Jonathan Swift, the Irish satirist who took a
swipe at many things that did not set well with his views, lambasted
the computing machine as a substitute for the brain. In Chapter V,
Book Three, of Gulliver’s Travels, the good dean runs up against a
scheming scientist in Laputa:
The first Professor I saw was in a very large Room, with Forty
Pupils about him. After Salutation, observing me to look earnestly
upon a Frame, which took up the greatest part of both the Length
and Breadth of the Room; he said, perhaps I might wonder to see
him employed in a Project for improving speculative knowledge by
practical and mechanical Operations. But the World would soon be
sensible of its Usefulness; and he flattered himself, that a more
noble exalted Thought never sprang in any other Man’s Head. Every
one knew how laborious the usual Method is of attaining to Arts and
Sciences; whereas by his Contrivance, the most ignorant Person at
a reasonable Charge, and with a little bodily Labour, may write
Books in Philosophy, Poetry, Politicks, Law, Mathematicks, and
Theology, without the least Assistance from Genius or Study. He
then led me to the Frame, about the Sides whereof all his Pupils
stood in Ranks. It was a Twenty Foot Square, placed in the Middle of
the Room. The Superfices was composed of several Bits of Wood,
about the Bigness of a Dye, but some larger than others. They were
all linked together by slender Wires. These Bits of Wood were
covered on every Square with Papers pasted on them; and on these
Papers were written all the Words of their Language in their several
Moods, Tenses, and Declensions, but without any Order. The
Professor then desired me to observe, for he was going to set his
Engine to work. The Pupils at his Command took each the hold of an
Iron Handle, whereof there were Forty fixed round the Edges of the
Frame; and giving them a sudden Turn, the whole Disposition of the
Words was entirely changed. He then commanded Six and Thirty of
the Lads to read the several Lines softly as they appeared upon the
Frame; and where they found three or four Words together that
might make Part of a Sentence, they dictated to the four remaining
Boys who were Scribes. This work was repeated three or four Times,
and at every Turn the Engine was so contrived, that the Words
shifted into new Places, as the square Bits of Wood moved upside
down.
Six hours a-day the young Students were employed in this Labour;
and the Professor showed me several Volumes in large Folio already
collected, of broken Sentences, which he intended to piece together,
and out of those rich Materials to give the World a compleat Body of
Art and Sciences; which however might be still improved, and much
expedited, if the Publick would raise a Fund for making and
employing five Hundred such Frames in Lagado....
Fortunately for Swift, who would have been horrified by it, he
never heard Russell Maloney’s classic story, “Inflexible Logic,” about
six monkeys pounding away at typewriters and re-creating the world
great literature. Gulliver’s Travels is not listed in their
accomplishments.
The French Revolution prompted no less an orator than Edmund
Burke to deliver in 1790 an address titled “Reflections on the French
Revolution,” in which he extols the virtues of the dying feudal order in
Europe. It galled Burke that “The Age of Chivalry is gone. That of
sophists, economists, and calculators has succeeded, and the glory
of Europe is extinguished forever.”
Seventy years later another eminent Englishman named Darwin
published a book called On the Origin of Species that in the eyes of
many readers did little to glorify man himself. Samuel Butler, better
known for his novel, The Way of All Flesh, wrote too of the
mechanical being, and was one of the first to point out just what sort
of future Darwin was suggesting. In the satirical Erewhon, he
described the machines of this mysterious land in some of the most
prophetic writing that has been done on the subject. It was almost a
hundred years ago that Butler wrote the first version, called “Darwin
Among the Machines,” but the words ring like those of a 1962 worrier
over the electronic brain. Butler’s character warns:
There is no security against the ultimate development of mechanical
consciousness in the fact of machines possessing little consciousness now.
Reflect upon the extraordinary advance which machines have made during the last
few hundred years, and note how slowly the animal and vegetable kingdoms are
advancing. The more highly organized machines are creatures not so much of
yesterday, as of the last five minutes, so to speak, in comparison with past time.
Do not let me be misunderstood as living in fear of any actually existing
machine; there is probably no known machine which is more than a prototype of
future mechanical life. The present machines are to the future as the early
Saurians to man ... what I fear is the extraordinary rapidity with which they are
becoming something very different to what they are at present.

Butler envisioned the day when the present rude cries with which
machines call out to one another will have been developed to a
speech as intricate as our own. After all, “... take man’s vaunted
power of calculation. Have we not engines which can do all manner
of sums more quickly and correctly than we can? What prizeman in
Hypothetics at any of our Colleges of Unreason can compare with
some of these machines in their own line?”
Noting another difference in man and his creation, Butler says,
... Our sum-engines never drop a figure, nor our looms a stitch; the machine is
brisk and active, when the man is weary, it is clear-headed and collected, when the
man is stupid and dull, it needs no slumber.... May not man himself become a sort
of parasite upon the machines? An affectionate machine-tickling aphid?
It can be answered that even though machines should hear never so well and
speak never so wisely, they will still always do the one or the other for our
advantage, not their own; that man will be the ruling spirit and the machine the
servant.... This is all very well. But the servant glides by imperceptible approaches
into the master, and we have come to such a pass that, even now, man must
suffer terribly on ceasing to benefit the machines. If all machines were to be
annihilated ... man should be left as it were naked upon a desert island, we should
become extinct in six weeks.
 Is it not plain that the machines are gaining ground upon us, when we reflect on
the increasing number of those who are bound down to them as slaves, and of
those who devote their whole souls to the advancement of the mechanical
kingdom?

Butler considers the argument that machines at least cannot

copulate, since they have no reproductive system. “If this be taken to
mean that they cannot marry, and that we are never likely to see a
fertile union between two vapor-engines with the young ones playing
about the door of the shed, however greatly we might desire to do
so, I will readily grant it. [But] surely if a machine is able to reproduce
another machine systematically, we may say that it has a
reproductive system.”
Butler repeats his main theme. “... his [man’s] organization never
advanced with anything like the rapidity with which that of the
machine is advancing. This is the most alarming feature of the case,
and I must be pardoned for insisting on it so frequently.”
Then there is a startlingly clear vision of the machines “regarded
as a part of man’s own physical nature, being really nothing but
extra-corporeal limbs. Man ... as a machinate mammal.” This was
feared as leading to eventual weakness of man until we finally found
“man himself being nothing but soul and mechanism, an intelligent
but passionless principle of mechanical action.” And so the
Erewhonians in self-defense destroyed all inventions discovered in
the preceding 271 years!
Early Mechanical Devices
During the nineteenth century, weaving was one of the most
competitive industries in Europe, and new inventions were often
closely guarded secrets. Just such an idea was that of Frenchman
Joseph M. Jacquard, an idea that automated the loom and would
later become the basis for the first modern computers. A big problem
in weaving was how to control a multiplicity of flying needles to
create the desired pattern in the material. There were ways of doing
this, of course, but all of them were unwieldy and costly. Then
Jacquard hit on a clever scheme. If he took a card and punched
holes in it where he wanted the needles to be actuated, it was simple
to make the needles do his bidding. To change the pattern took only
another card, and cards were cheap. Patented in 1801, there were
soon thousands of Jacquard looms in operation, doing beautiful and
accurate designs at a reasonable price.
To show off the scope of his wonderful punched cards, Jacquard
had one of his looms weave a portrait of him in silk. The job took
20,000 cards, but it was a beautiful and effective testimonial. And
fatefully a copy of the silk portrait would later find its way into the
hands of a man who would do much more with the oddly punched
cards.
At about this same time, a Hungarian named Wolfgang von
Kempelen decided that machines could play games as well as work
in factories. So von Kempelen built himself a chess-playing machine
called the Maelzel Chess Automaton with which he toured Europe.
The inventor and his machine played a great game, but they didn’t
play fair. Hidden in the innards of the Maelzel Automaton was a
second human player, but this disillusioning truth was not known for
some time. Thus von Kempelen doubtless spurred other inventors to
the task, and in a short while machines would actually begin to play
the royal game. For instance, a Spaniard named L. Torres y
Quevedo built a chess-playing machine in 1914. This device played
a fair “end game” using several pieces, and its inventor predicted
future work in this direction using more advanced machines.
Charles Babbage was an English scientist with a burning desire
for accuracy. When some mathematical tables prepared for the
Astronomical Society proved to be full of errors, he angrily
determined to build a machine that would do the job with no
mistakes. Of course calculating machines had been built before; but
the machine Babbage had in mind was different. In fact, he called it
a “difference engine” because it was based on the difference tables
of the squares of numbers. The first of the “giant computers,” it was
to have hundreds of gears and shafts, ratchets and counters. Any
arithmetic problem could be set into it, and when the proper cranks
were turned, out would come an answer—the right answer because
the machine could not make a mistake. After doing some preliminary
work on his difference engine, Babbage interested the government in
his project since even though he was fairly well-to-do he realized it
would cost more money than he could afford to sink into the project.
Babbage was a respected scientist, Lucasian Professor of
Mathematics at Cambridge, and because of his reputation and the
promise of the machine, the Chancellor of the Exchequer promised
to underwrite the project.
For four years Babbage and his mechanics toiled. Instead of
completing his original idea, the scientist had succeeded only in
designing a far more complicated machine, one which would when
finished weigh about two tons. Because the parts he needed were
advanced beyond the state of the art of metalworking, Babbage was
forced to design and build them himself. In the process he decided
that industry was being run all wrong, and took time out to write a
book. It was an excellent book, a sort of forerunner to the modern
science of operations research, and Babbage’s machine shop was
doing wonders for the metalworking art.
Undaunted by the lack of progress toward a concrete result,
Babbage was thinking bigger and bigger. He was going to scrap the
difference engine, or rather put it in a museum, and build a far better
computer—an “analytical engine.” If Jacquard’s punched cards could
control the needles on a loom, they could also operate the gears and
other parts of a calculating machine. This new engine would be one
that could not only add, subtract, multiply, and divide; it would be
designed to control itself. And as the answers started to come out,
they would be fed back to do more complex problems with no further
work on the operator’s part. “Having the machine eat its own tail!”
Babbage called this sophisticated bit of programming. This
mechanical cannibalism was the root of the “feedback” principle
widely used in machines today. Echoing Watt’s steam governor, it
prophesied the coming control of machines by the machines
themselves. Besides this innovation, the machine would have a
“store,” or memory, of one thousand fifty-digit numbers that it could
draw on, and it would actually exercise judgment in selection of the
proper numbers. And as if that weren’t enough, it would print out the
correct answers automatically on specially engraved copper plates!
 Space Technology Laboratories

“As soon as an Analytical Engine exists, it will

necessarily guide the future course of science.
Whenever any result is sought by its aid, the question
will then arise—by what course of calculation can
these results be arrived at by the machine in the
shortest time?” Charles Babbage—The Life of a
Philosopher, 1861.

It was a wonderful dream; a dream that might have become an

actuality in Babbage’s own time if machine technology had been as
advanced as his ideas. But for Babbage it remained only a dream, a
dream that never did work successfully. The government spent
£17,000, a huge sum for that day and time, and bowed out. Babbage
fumed and then put his own money into the machine. His mechanics
left him and became leaders in the machine-tool field, having trained
in Babbage’s workshops. In despair, he gave up on the analytical
engine and designed another difference engine. An early model of
this one would work to five accurate places, but Babbage had his
eyes on a much better goal—twenty-place accuracy. A lesser man
would have aimed more realistically and perhaps delivered workable
computers to the mathematicians and businessmen of the day.
There is a legend that his son did finish one of the simpler machines
and that it was used in actuarial accounting for many years. But
Babbage himself died in 1871 unaware of how much he had done for
the computer technology that would begin to flower a few short
decades later.
Singlehandedly he had given the computer art the idea of
programming and of sequential control, a memory in addition to the
arithmetic unit he called a “mill,” and even an automatic readout such
as is now standard on modern computers. Truly, the modern
computer was “Babbage’s dream come true.”
Symbolic Logic
Concurrently with the great strides being made with mechanical
computers that could handle mathematics, much work was also
being done with the formalizing of the logic. As hinted vaguely in the
syllogisms of the early philosophers, thinking did seem amenable to
being diagrammed, much like grammar. Augustus De Morgan
devised numerical logic systems, and George Boole set up the logic
system that has come to be known as Boolean algebra in which
reasoning becomes positive or negative terms that can be
manipulated algebraically to give valid answers.
John Venn put the idea of logic into pictures, and simple pictures
at that. His symbology looks for all the world like the three
interlocking rings of a well-known ale. These rings stand for the
subject, midterm, and predicate of the older Aristotelian syllogism.
By shading the various circles according to the major and minor
premises, the user of Venn circles can see the logical result by
inspection. Implicit in the scheme is the possibility of a mechanical or
electrical analogy to this visual method, and it was not long until
mathematicians began at least on the mechanical kind. Among these
early logic mechanizers, surprisingly, was Lewis Carroll who of
course was mathematician Charles L. Dodgson before he became a
writer.
Carroll, who was a far busier man than most of us ever guess,
marketed a “Game of Logic,” with a board and colored cardboard
counters that handled problems like the following:

All teetotalers like sugar.

No nightingale drinks wine.

By arranging the counters on Carroll’s game board so that: All M are

X, and No Y is not-M, we learn that No Y is not-X! This tells the
initiate logician that no nightingale dislikes sugar; a handy piece of
information for bird-fancier and sugar-broker alike.
 Lewis Carroll’s “Symbolic Logic.”

Charles, the third Earl Stanhope, was only slightly less

controversial than his prime minister, William Pitt. Scientifically he
was far out too, writing books on electrical theory, inventing
steamboats, microscopes, and printing presses among an odd
variety of projects; he also became interested in mechanical logic
and designed the “Stanhope Demonstrator,” a contrivance like a
checkerboard with sliding panels. By properly manipulating the
demonstrator he could solve such problems as:

Eight of ten children are bright.

Four of these children are boys.

What are the minimum and maximum number of bright boys? A

simple sliding of scales on the Stanhope Demonstrator shows that
two must be boys and as many as four may be. This clever device
could also work out probability problems such as how many heads
and tails will come up in so many tosses of a coin.
In 1869 William S. Jevons, an English economist and expert
logician, built a logic machine. His was not the first, of course, but it
had a unique distinction in that it solved problems faster than the
human brain could! Using Boolean algebra principles, he built a
“logical abacus” and then even a “logical piano.” By simply pressing
the keys of this machine, the user could make the answer appear on
its face. It is of interest that Jevons thought his machine of no
practical use, since complex logical questions seldom arose in
everyday life! Life, it seems, was simpler in 1869 than it is today, and
we should be grateful that Jevons pursued his work through sheer
scientific interest.
More sophisticated than the Jevons piano, the logic machine
invented in America by Allan Marquand could handle four terms and
do problems like the following:
 There are four schoolgirls, Anna, Bertha, Cora, and Dora.
When Anna or Bertha, or both, remain home, Cora is at home.
When Bertha is out, Anna is out.
Whenever Cora is at home, Anna is too.
What can we tell about Dora?

The machine is smart enough to tell us that when Dora is at home

the other three girls are all at home or out. The same thing is true
when Dora is out.
The Census Taker
Moving from the sophistication of such logic devices, we find a
tremendous advance in mechanical computers spurred by such a
mundane chore as the census. The 1880 United States census
required seven years for compiling; and that with only 50 million
heads to reckon. It was plain to see that shortly a ten-year census
would be impossible of completion unless something were done to
cut the birth rate or speed the counting. Dr. Herman Hollerith was the
man who did something about it, and as a result the 1890 census,
with 62 million people counted, took only one-third the time of the
previous tally.
Hollerith, a statistician living in Buffalo, New York, may or may not
have heard the old saw about statistics being able to support
anything—including the statisticians, but there was a challenge in the
rapid growth of population that appealed to the inventor in him and
he set to work. He came up with a card punched with coded holes, a
card much like that used by Jacquard on his looms, and by Babbage
on the dream computer that became a nightmare. But Hollerith did
not meet the fate of his predecessors. Not stoned, or doomed to die
a failure, Hollerith built his card machines and contracted with the
government to do the census work. “It was a good paying business,”
he said. It was indeed, and his early census cards would some day
be known generically as “IBM cards.”
While Jacquard and Babbage of necessity used mechanical
devices with their punched cards, Hollerith added the magic of
electricity to his card machine, building in essence the first electrical
computing machine. The punched cards were floated across a pool
of mercury, and telescoping pins in the reading head dropped
through the holes. As they contacted the mercury, an electrical circuit
was made and another American counted. Hollerith did not stop with
census work. Sagely he felt there must be commercial applications
for his machines and sold two of the leading railroads on a punched-
card accounting system. His firm merged with others to become the
Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company, and finally International
Business Machines. The term “Hollerith Coding” is still familiar today.