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Psychology
from inquiry to understanding

Lilienfeld
edition Lynn
Namy
Woolf
Jamieson
Marks
Slaughter
 Contents vii

Natu?e and nurture: did your genes-or parents-make you Behavioural genetics: how we study heritability 120
do It? 118 Yow complete review system 123
How we came to be who we are I 18

4 Sensation and perception

HOW WE SENSE AN D CONCEPTUALISE THE WORLD 130
Two sides ot the coin: sensation ond perception 132 OUr body senses: touch, body position and balance 153
Sensation: our senses as detectives 133 The somatosensory system: touch and pain I53
The role o f attention 135 Proprioception and wstibular sense: body position and balance 155
The bindi~ problem: putting the pieces together 136 Ergonomics: human engineering 156
from inquiry to understanding How doc-.s magic w ork? 13 7 Perception: when our senses meet our mind 157
Seeing: the visual system 138 Parallel processing: the way our bnin multitasks 157
Light the energy of life 138 Perceptual hypotheses: guessing what is out there I 58
The eye: how we represent the visual realm 139 When perception deceives us 162
When we cannot see or pe:rceive visually 143 S..blimiMI pen!tptioo 164
psychomythology Delboeuf s illusion and the dentist's drill 14S Subliminal pe:rsuasion 164
Hearing: the auditory system 146 evaluating CLAIMS Subliminal persuasion CD-s 165
Sound: mechanical vibration 146 Extrasensory perception: fact or fiction? 165
The structure and function of the car 147 What is ESP? I 65
Auditory perception 148 Beliefs about ESP 166
Smell ond taste: the sensual senses 149 Scientific evidence for ESP 166
What are odours and flavours? 150 Why people believe in ESP 168
Sense receptors for smell and taste 150 Tricks of the psychics 169
O lfactory and gustatory perception 151 Yow complete review system 171
When we cannot smell or taste I 52

5 Consciousness
EXPANDING THE BOUNDARIES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY 178
The biology of sleep 181 Out-of-body experiences 191
The circadian rhythm: the cycle of t!Veryday life 181 Near-death experiences 192
Stages of sleep 182 from inquiry to under-standing Why do we experience
Lucid dreaming I S4 dhJ<i vu? 193
Disorders of sleep 185 Meditation 194
The psychology of dreams 188 Hypnosis 195
Freud and wish flAfilment: the dream protection theory 188 psychcmythology Age ._ess1on and past lives 198
A.ctivation- -synthesis theory 189
Drugs ond consciousness 200
Dreaming and the forebrain 189
Substance use cisorder-s 200
evaluating CLAIMS Dream interpretations 190 The depressant drugs 202
Neurocognitive pe:rspectives: dreaming and cognitive The stimulant drugs 205
dt!'Velopment 190 The opiate narcotic drugs 206
Alterations of waking consciousness and anomalous The psychcdelks 20 7
experiences 191 Yow complete review system 210
Hallucinations: experiencing what isn't there 19 1

6 Learning
HOW NURTURE CHANGES US 218
Classical conditioning 221 Operant condltionlng 228
Pavlov's discovery of classical conditioning 222 Oistinglishi~ opennt conditioning from classical conditioning 229
The dassical con<ftioning phenomenon 222 The law o f effect 229
Principles of classical conditioning 223 8. F. Skinner and reinforcement 230
Higher-order conditioning 224 Terminology of opennt conditioning 230
Applications of classical conditioning to daily life 225 Sche<i.des o f reinforcement 234
psychomythology Are we w hat we eat? 227 Applications o f operant con<ftioning 236

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viii Contents

from Inquiry to understanding Why arc we superstitious! 237 Leaming lads: do they work? 249
Putting classical and operant con<ftioning together 239 Sleep-assisted learning 249
Cognitive models ol learnlng 240 evaluating CLAIMS Sleep-assisted learning 250
S-0-R psychology: throwing thinking back into the mix 24 1 Accelerated l~ming 250
Latent learning 24 1 Discovery l~ming 25 I
Ob~rvational Seaming 242 Leam ing styles 251
Mirror neurons and obsc:rvationa.l l~ming 245
Yow- complete review system 253
Insight learning 245
Biological lnlluences on leomlng 246
Conclitionl!d taste aversions 246
Preparedness and phobias 247

7 Memory
CONSTRUCTING AND RECONSTRUCTING OUR PASTS
How memory operates 262
The paradox of memory 263
The fallibility of memory 264
The rc,constructivc nature of memory
Thrtt systems of memory 265
The three processes of memory 275
Encoding: th!! 'call numbers' of the mind
psychomythology Smart pills 277
Storage: filing our memories away
evaluating CLAIMS Memory boosten
Retril!val: h~ding for the 'stacks' 280
The biology of memory 285
The neural basis of memory storage
260
Where is rnt?mory stored? 286
The biology of rnt?mory deterioration 288
The development ot memory: acquiring a personal history 290
265 Memory owr time 290
Infants' irYl)licit memory: talking with their feet 290
from Inqui ry to understanding Why can't we remember the first
275 few years of our lives! 291
When good. memory goes bad: talse memodes 292
278 False memoril!s 292
280 Implanting false memories in the lab 294
Generalising from lab to r~I world 296
Suggestibility and child testimony 297
Leam ing tips: getting the science of memory to wort( for us 298
285
Yow- complete review system 300

8 Language, cognition and decision-making

GETTING INSIDE OUR TALKING HEADS 308
How does language work? 311 evaluating CLAIMS Speed-reading courses 331
The f~turc:s of language 3 I I psychomythology Docs writing lnHucncc how we perceive
H ow did language evolve. and why? 31<'1 words/ 332
How do children learn language? 3 16
Judgement and decision-making 333
Cr itical periods for language l~ming 3 19
Cognitive economy: i~sing order on our world 333
Special cases of language Seaming 320
Heuristics and biasc-s 335
Communication and language in non-human animals 324
Do we think in words? The relationship between language from Inqui ry to understanding Do we worry about the wrong
things/ 336
and thought 327
Linguistic determinism: 'WC speak. therefore we think 327 The risks of economising: you get what you pay for 337
Linguistic relativity: language gives thought a gentle nudge 328 Problem-solving: more thinking hurdles 338
Models of cognition 339
Reading: recognlslng the wtltten word 330
H ow does reading work? 330 Yow- complete review system 342

9 Intelligence and IQ testing

CONTROVERSY AND CONSENSUS 348
What Is Intelligence? DIJlerences In definition 350
Intelligence as sensory capacity: out of sighL out of mind
Intelligence as abstract thinking 35 I
Intelligence as general versus spcciftc abilities 352
Fluid and crystallised intelligence 353
Multiple intelligences: <ifferent ways of being smart 353
350 Biological bases of intelligence 355
Intelligence testing: the good, the bad and the ugly 357
How we calculate IQ 358
The eugenics movement: misuses and abuses of IQ testing 358

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IQ testing today 359
Standardised tests: what do they measufe'? 361
The reliability of tQ scores: is tQ forever? 362
psychomythology Do standardised t c-.sts predict grades? 362
The validity of tQ scores: pre<ftcting life outcomes 364
A tale of two tails: from intellectual cisabilff.y to genius 364
Genetic and environmental in.Ouences on IQ 367
Exploring genetic influences on IQ 368
Exploring environmental influenc:es on tQ 370
evaluating CLAIMS IQ boo sters 373
10 Human development
HOW A ND WHY W E CHANGE 394
Special considerations in human development 397
Post hoc fallacy 397
Bidirectional influences 397
Keeping an eye on cohort effects 397
The influence of early experienc:e 398
Clarifying the natur~urture debate 399
The developing body: physical and motor development 40 I
Conception and prenatal development: from zygote to baby 40 I
Infant motor d~elopment: how babies get going 403
Growth and physical d~elopment throughout childhood 404
Physical maturation in adolesc::ence: the powe:r of puberty 405
Physical development in adulthood 406
evaluating CLAIMS anti·agcing treatments 407
11 Emotion and motivation
W HAT MOVES US 446
Theories ot emotion: what causes our feelings? 449
Discrete emotions theory: emotions as evolved expressions
Cognitive theories of emotion: think first feel later 452
Unc:onscious influenc:es on emotion 455
from inquiry to understanding Why do we cry? 456
Nonverbal expression ot emotion: the eyes, bodies and cultures
havelt 458
Body language and gestures 458
Lyi~ and lie detection 460
psychomythology Is 'truth serum' really a truth serum? 463
Happiness and sell-esteem: science confronts
POP psychology 464
What happiness is good for 464
What makes us happy: the myths 465
What makes us happy: the realities 466
12 Stress, coping and health
THE MIND-BODY INTERCO NNECTION
What Is stress? 503
Stress in the eye of the beholder: three approaches 503
No two stresses are created equal: measuring stress 504
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Contents ix
Group dlflereru::es In IQ: the science and the politics 374
Sex differences in IQ and mental abilities 374
Racial Qfferences in IQ 376
The rest ot the story: other dimensions of Intellect 381
Creativity 381
Personality. interests and intellect 382
Emotional intelligence: is EQ as important as IQ? 383
from inquiry co understanding Why smart people believe strange
things 384
Yow complete review system 386
The developing mlncl: cognitive development 408
Theories of cognitive d~elopment 408
Cognitive landmarks of early d~elopment 41 3
from inquiry co understanding Why is science difficult? 4 14
psychomythology The Mozart effect. baby Einst ein and creating
·supcrbabic-s' 4 1S
Cognitive cha~es in adolescenc:e 4 17
Cognitive function in adulthood 4 19
The developing personality: social tmd moral development 419
Social development in infancy and childhood 420
Social and emotional d~elopment in adolesc:ence 4 29
Life transitions in adulthood 433
Social transitions in later years 435
Yow complete review system 437
Forecasting happiness 467
449 Self.esteem: important or overhyped? 468
Positive psychology: psyehology's future or psychology's fad? 469
Motivation: our wants and needs 470
Motivation: a beginner's guide 470
Our needs: physical and psyehological urges 4 73
Hunger. eating and eating cisorders 473
evaluating CLAIMS Dices and wcight·lo ss plans 477
Sexual motivation 478
Attraction, love cmd hate: the greatest mysteries of them all 482
Social influences on interpersonal attraction 482
Love: science confronts the mysterious 486
Hate: a neglected topic 486
Yow complete review system 488
500
How we adapt to stress: chtmge cmd challenge 506
The mechanics of stress: Selye's general adaptation syndrome 506
The diversity of stress responses 508
Long.lasting stress reactions 509
x Contents

psychomythology A lmost all people are traumatised by h ighly Social wpport 5 17

aversive events 509 Gaining control 5 17
How stress Impacts our health 510 ln<ividual d ifferences in coping: attitud es. beliefs and personality 519
The immu ne system 5 I I Flexible coping 520
Psychoneuroiml'M.lno logy: our body. o ur envir onment and our Promoting good heol-d less stress! 521
health SI I Towards a healthy lifestyle 522
Stress-related illness~: a biopsychosocial view S I 2 evaluating CLAIMS Stress reduction and relaxation
Morgellons disease how can
from inquiry to understanding techniques 527
healthy people become convinced they are seriously ID? 513
Yow- complete review system 529
Coping with stress 516

13 Social psychology
HOW OTHERS AFFECT US 538
What Is social psychology? 540 Prosocial behaviour and altruism 560
Humans as a social ~ s 54 I Aggression: why we hurt others 562
rrom inquiry to understanding Why are yawns contagious? 543 Attitudes and persuasion: c hanging minds 565
The gt"eat lesson of social psyehology: the fundamental attribution Attitudes and behavio ur 5 65
error 5+1 Origins of attit~s 566
Attitude change: wait wait. I just changed my mind 5 67
Social lnlluence: conformity and obedience 545
Persuasiort humans as ~ speople 568
Co nformity: the A.sch paradigm 545
Oeindividuation: losing our typical identiti~ 54 7 evaluating CLAIMS Work-from- home jobs 572
Groupthink 550 Prejudice and cllscrlmlnat!on 572
O bedience: the p sychology of following orders 552 The nat11e of prejudice 573
Helping and harming others: proooclal behaviour Discr imination 574
and aggression 557 Stereotypes 575
Safety in numbers or danger in nu mbers? Bystander Roots of prejudice: a tangled ~b 576
non-intervention 558 Prejudice behind the seen~ 577
Social loafing: w ith a little too much help from my friends 559 Combating prejudice: some r e medies 578

psychomythology Is brainstorming in groups a good way to Yow- complete review system 581
generate ideas! 559

14 Cross-cultural psychology
HOW CULTURE AFFECTS US 590
What Is culture and how does It lnllueru::e behaviour? 592 Models o f acculturation 608
D efinitions of culture 593 Changing concepts of acculturation 6JYJ
What Is cross-cultural psychology and how does it evaluating CLAIMS Tourism adverts 61 3
operate? 597 MultlculturalJsm and prejudice 613
psychomythology Does 'cross-cultural' mean the same as 'cultural' Multicultural societies 6141
in psychology! 598 Identity 61 5
Theoretical issues 598 Psychological servic~ 6 16
Methodology in cross<ultural psychology 599 Prejudice 6 17
Safeguards 600 from inquiry to understanding Where do prejudicial ideas come
Concep ts of sell 602 from? 6 18
Emotion 602 Indigenous psychology 620
Personality 604 Early r esearch 620
Crossing cultures 605 An~ focus 62 1
Why people mo ve from o ne place to another 605 An Indigenous psychology 623
Cultural syndromes 606 Yow- complete review system 627

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 Contents xi

15 Personality
W HO W E ARE 632
Personality: what Is it and bow can we study It? 634 Humanlsttc models of personality: the third force 653
Studying personality: nomothetic versus id iographic approaches 635 Rogers and Maslow: self-actualisation realised and unrealised 653
The causes of personality differences: how we come to be 6 35 Humanistic models evaluated scientifically 654
from inquiry to understanding W here is the environmental Trait models of personality: consistencies In our behaviour 655
influence o n person ality? 638 Trait models: key challenges 655
Psychoanalytic theory: the controversial legacy of Sigmund The Big Five model of pe,-sonality: the geography of the psyche 655
Cultural influences on personality 657
Freud and his followers 639
Psyehoanalytic theory: the foundation of Freud's thinking 639 Basic tendencies wrsus characteristic adaptations 658
Cor-e assumptions of p sychoanalytic theory 640 Can personality traits change? 658
The structure of personality: the id. the ego and the superego 642 Trail models evaluated scientifically 659
Anxiety and the defence m~hanisms 643 Personality assessment: measuring and mis-measuring
Freud's theory of personality development 645 the psyche 660
Psyehoanalytic theory evaluated scientifically 646 Famous--and infamous-error-s in per-sonality assessmenl 661
Freud's follOWC'rs: the neo-Freudians 647 Struct.sed personality lests 662
Behavioural and social JeamJng theories of personality 649 Projective lests 664
Behavioural views o f the causes of personality 650 Common pitfalls in personality ass~smenl 667
Social learning theories of personality. the causal role of psychomythology C r iminal profiling 668
thinking resurrected 650 evaluating CLAIMS O nline pcr-sonality tests 670
Yow complete review system 672

16 Psychological disorders
WHEN ADAPTATION BREAKS DOWN 680
Concepts of mental Illness: yesterday and today 682 The roots of pathological anxiety. fear. and repetitive thoughts and
What is mental illn~s? A dec:eptively complex qu~tion 683 beha..;our-s 700
Historical concepts of mental illn~s: from demons lo asylums 684
Mood disorders and suicide 701
Psychiatric d iagnosis across cultures 685 Major depressive disorder: common. but not the common cold 701
Special considerations in psychiatric classification and diagnosis 687 Explanations for major depressive disorder: a tangled web 702
Psychiatric d iagnosis today. the OSM-5 689 Bipolar disorder: when mood goes to extremes 706
evaluating CLAIMS O nline tests fo r m e ntal d isor ders 69 1 Suicide: facts and fiction 707
psychomythology The insa nity defence; free will versus Personality and dissociative disorders: the disrupted and
dete rminism 692 divided seU 708
Anxiety disorders: the many faces of worry and fear 694 Personality disorders 709
Generalised anxiety disorder: perpetual 'WOrry 695 Dissociative disorders 7 1 I
Panic disorder: terror that comes out of the blue 695 The enigma ol schizophrenia 714
Phobias: irrational fears 696 Symptoms of schizophrenia: the shattered mind 7141
Posttraumatic str~s disorder: the enduring effects of experiencing Explanations for schizophrenia: the roots of a 4iattered mind 716
horror 697 Cblldbocxl disorders: recent controvetsies 719
Obsessive-compulsiw and related disorders: trapped in one's thoughts Autism spectrtm disorders 7 19
and behaviours 698 Atlention-deficit.lhyperactivity disorder and earty<inset b ipolar
from il'\Quiry to understanding More than a pack rac why do cisorder 72 I
people hoard1 699
Yow complete review system 723

17 Psychological and biological treatments

HELPING PEOPLE TO CHANGE 736
Psychotherapy: cllents and practtttoners 738 Insight therapies: acqulrlng understanding 742
Who seeks and benefits from treatment? 738 Psychoanalytic and psychodynamic therapies: Freud's legacy 742
Who practises psychotherapy? 739 Humanistic therapies: achi~ ing our potential 745
Professionals versus paraprofessionals: a difference that makes Group thempies: the more, the merrier 747
a Qfference? 740 Alcoholics Anonymous 748
What docs it take to be an effective psychotherapist~ 740 Family therapies: treating the dysfunctional family system 7419

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xii Contents

Behavioural approaches: changing maladaptive actions 750 Empirically supported treatments 763
Systematic ~sensitisation and exposure therapies: learning principl~ evaluating CLAIMS Psychotherapies 764
in action 750
Evidence-based psychological practic:e 764
M odelling in therapy: leaming by watchi~ 753
Operant and classical conditioning procedures 7541 psychomythology Are self-help books always helpful? 765
Cognitive-beha'Aoural and thir d wave therapies: learning to think Biological treatments: drugs, physical stimulation and
differently 755 surgery 766
The trend towards eclecticism and integration 758 Pharmac:otherapy. targeting brain chemistry 766
Is psycholberapy ettect!ve? 759 Electrical stimulation: concep tions and msconc:eptions no
The Dodo b ird verdict: alive or extinct? 760 Psychosurgery: an absolute last resort 77 1
Ho w different gt"OUps of people respond to psychotherapy 760 Yow- complete review system 773
Common factors 76 1
from inquiry to understanding Why can il\Cffcctivt: therapies
appear to be helpful ~How we can~ fooled 762

Glossary 783
Name index 794
Subject index 811

Copyright C Pearson Australia ( a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 201 S - 9781486006786 • Lilienfeld/Psychology 2e
 Preface
'What did that frightening dream I had last night mean?' 'Why do I often
forget where I parked my car?' 'Why do I sometimes become angry at
the people I love?' 'How can I better manage my stress levels?' 'Why do I
find some people attractive?' 'Why do I sometimes feel depressed for no
apparent reason?' 'Why am I so similar to my parents in some ways, yet
so different in others?' 'Why do I sometimes go along with the group even
when I don't agree with them?'
Every day. each of us encounters a host of questions that challenge our under·
standing of ourselves and others. In many v.•ays, these are the same fascinating questions
about the mind and brain that psychologists confront in their research, teaching and
practice.

Approach: we are all pSychologists

As you begin your study of psychology, it is crucial to understand that we are all
psychologists. We need to be. We are incessantly bombarded with a bewildering variety
of claims from the vast world of popular psychology. Whether it is from the internet,
television programmes, talkback radio sho,Ys, movies, self-help books or advice from
friends, our daily lives are a continual stream of information- and often misinforma·
tion-about intelligence testing, parenting, romantic relationships, mental illness, drug
abuse, psychotherapy and a host of other topics.
Although often relevant to our everyday lives, a great deal of this psychological
information comes across as conflicting or confusing. It is no surprise that we find claims
regarding memory- and mood-enhancing drugs, the usefulness of lie detector tests, IQ
tests and personality assessments, and the causes of psychiatric disorders-to name but
a fe\v examples-to be difficult to evaluate. because these and other topic.s are the subject
of much current research, which is both complex and constantly being updated. Media
reports claiming to 'expose the truth' about these things usually contain only part of
the whole story. at best. and, as a result of the media's often misleading coverage. most
of us hold misconceptions regarding many everyday psychological claims. For example,
because many of us mistakenly believe that memory operates like a tape or DVD recorder,
we may find it difficult to accept findings that recovered memories of child abuse can be
false. What's more, because the popular psychology industry rarely provides us with the
tools for evaluating both ordinary and extraordinary claims about everyday life. most us
are left to our ovfn devices to sort out ,yhat is true from what is not.
Our goal in this text) therefore, is to empower student readers of the t,venty·first
century to apply scientific thinking to the psychology of their everyday lives. By applying
scientific thinking-thinking that helps protect us against our tendencies to make
mistakes-we can better evaluate claims about both laboratory research and daily life.
In the end, we hope that students will emerge with the 'psychology-wise' mindset and
open-minded scepticism they need to distinguish psychological misinformation from
psychological information. We will consistently urge students to keep an open mind to
ne\\' claims. but to insist on evidence. Indeed. our overarching motto is that of space
scientist James Oberg (sometimes referred to as 'Oberg's dictum'): Keeping an open mind
is a virtue, just so long as it is not so open that our brains fall out.

What's new in this edition?

Psychology: Fro,n Inquiry to Understanding continues its commitment to emphasise the
importance of scientific·thinking skills. In the Second Australian Edition) our focus has
been to better convey the excitement of psychological science to the reader, and to help
the reader to connect the dots bel\Yeen inquiry and understanding. In addition, thanks to xiii

Copyright C Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 201 S - 9781486006786 • Lilienfeld/Psychology 2e
xiv Preface

the ongoing support and feedback from instructors and students of our text, the Second
Edition reflects many insightful and innovative updates that we believe enhance the text.
Among the key changes made to the Second Edition are the following.

General changes
For the Second Edition, we took great care to revise the narrative throughout to
improve flo,v and to strike a better balance bet,veen presenting the value and fun of
sound psychological science on the one hand, and the warning signs and dangers
of pseudoscience on the other.
The ne,v ·From Inquiry to Understanding' feature in every chapter shows the po,ver of
psychological science to ans\\ier enduring mysteries about human behavior, emotion,
and thought. Features examine such questions as 'Ho,v do ,ve recognise faces?'; 'Ho\\'
do magic tricks work?' and ·why do ,ve experience deja vu?'
Updated coverage throughout based on the Fifth Edition of the Diagnostic and Statis·
tical Manual ofMental Disorders (DSM-5).

New content and updated research

Chapter 1 (Science and pseudoscience in psychology) features new coverage of sources
of public scepticism of psychology (and why such scepticism is often unwarranted),
as well as updated coverage on recent challenges to psychology's scientific status (for
example, the decline effect) and on how psychology is responding to them.
Chapter 2 (Research methods) includes a ne,v section on Daniel Kahneman's t,vo
modes of thinking ('System l' and 'System 2') and a revised discussion of correlation
versus causation.
Chapter 3 (Biological psychology) includes new research on oxytocin, a reorganised
discussion of the brain, and more case studies and real·life examples throughout.
Chapter 4 (Sensation and perception) has been fully reorganised so that sensation and
perception are discussed separately. The section on extrasensory perception extends
its coverage to include the recent controversy surrounding the use of meta·analysis as
an alternative to replication of research findings.
Chapter 5 (Consciousness) includes an updated discussion of substance use disorders,
reflecting language and categories identified in DSM-5. There are also new or expanded
findings or discussion of near·death experiences, sleep and dreaming, deja vu, medita·
tion, hypnosis, and substance use.
Chapter 6 (Learning) includes a reorganised and updated section on schedules of
reinforcement, ne\v research on sleep·assisted learning, and a ne\v section on mirror
neurons and observational learning.
Chapter 7 (Memory) includes updated coverage on the reconstructive nature of
memory and the false memory debate.
Chapter 8 (Language, cognition and decision-making) has been reorganised to include
coverage of heuristics and biases (formerly in Chapter 2). The section on language and
reading has also been reorganised and updated, with nev.• research on language acqui·
sition and bilingualism.
Chapter 9 (Intelligence and IQ testing) includes new research on working memory
and intelligence, and an updated discussion of ho,v poverty may impact the herita·
bility of intelligence.
Chapter 10 (Human development) includes updated research and examples regarding
gene·environment interaction and physical development, more comprehensive expla·
nation of the Strange Situation paradigm as a measure of infant attachment, and
increased coverage of cross·cultural variability in parenting practices and their impact
on child development.
Chapter 11 (Emotion and motivation) features updated coverage of challenges to
discrete emotion theories and alternative models of emotion.

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 Preface xv

Chapter 12 (Stress, coping and health) includes new research on resilience in the face
ofstressors, hov.• healthy people can become convinced they are seriously ill. achieving
a healthy weight, and a critical discussion of psychological debriefing.
Chapter 13 (Social psychology) features expanded coverage of prejudice, including
sexual orientation; new research on the psychological effects of social rejection; and
ne,v work on persuasion techniques.
Chapter 14 (Cross-cultural psychology) looks in depth at how differences in culture
can give rise to variations in the emotional, interpersonal and cognitive behaviours
of people across the world. ln so doing, it focuses on a number of social and political
issues ,vhich face contemporary Australia. including those related to immigration and
the relationship between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians.
Chapter 15 (Personality) includes updated coverage on cultural influences on person-
ality, ne,v models of personality structure, and on line personality tests.
Chapter 16 (Psychological disorders) has been fully updated based on DSM-5, and
includes revised discussions of disorders and ofstatistics regarding the epidemiology
of mental disorders. The chapter includes ne,v findings concerning hoarding and
body dysmorphic disorder. depressive realism, sleep disturbances and dissociation)
and autism spectrum disorders. The chapter includes ne,v findings-and contro·
versies-concerning autism. attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, auditory
hallucinations, delusions, posttraumatic stress disorder. and major depression and
bipolar disorder.
Chapter 17 (Psychological and biological treatments) includes new research or
expanded discussion of: culture and psychotherapy; mindfulness. acceptance. and
third wave cognitive-behavioural therapies; virtual reality and cycloserine; placebos;
pharmacotherapy; and deep brain stimulation.

From inquiry to understanding: the framework

inaction
As instructors) ,ve find that students ne\\' to psychology tend to learn best ,vhen infor· EXTRAORDINARY CLAIMS
mation is presented ,vithin a clear, effective and meaningful frame\\•ork- one that Is the evidence as strong as the claim?
encourages inquiry along the path to understanding. As part of the inquiry to under-
standing frame,vork, our pedagogical features and assessment tools ,vork to empower • TESTABll.lTY
Can the claim be tested scientifically?
students to develop a more critical eye in understanding the psychological world and
their place in it. • OCCAM'S RAZOR
Does a simpler explanation fit the data
just as well?
Thinking scientifically
In Chapter l, we introduce six key scientific thinking principles that we return to • REPUCABIUTY
repeatedly in later chapters. We denote each principle in the margin with a coloured Can the results be duplicated in other
studies?
·aag' ,vhenever this principle appears in the text. In this ,vay, ,ve reinforce these scien·
tific thinking principles as key skills for evaluating claims in scientific research and in
RULING OUT RIVAL HYPOTHESES
everyday life. Have important aftemative explanations
A new feature for the Second Edition, From Inquiry to Understanding, tells the for the find ings been excluded?
story of how psychological science has helped to shed light on a longstanding psychological
mystery. We begin with a question that many students may have asked at some point before • CORRELATION VS CAUSATION
their study of psychology, and then we step through the methods and processes used by Can we be sure that A causes B?
psychological scientists to gain a better understanding of human behaviour and thought

Applications of scientific thinking

In keeping with the text's theme, the Evaluating Claims feature prompts students to use
scientific thinking skills to evaluate claims they are likely to encounter in various forms
of media.

Copyright C Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 201 S - 9781486006786 • Lilienfeld/Psychology 2e
xvi Preface

Apply Your Scientific Thinking Skills questions, located at the end of each
chapter. invite students to investigate current topics of debate or controversy, and use
their scientific thinking skills to make informed judgements about them. Model answers
to these questions are supplied in the Educator's Solution Manual.
Each chapter also contains a PsychoMytbology box focusing a critical spotlight
on a widespread psychological (mis)conception. ln this way, students will come to
recognise that apparently commonsense intuitions about the psychological ,vorld are not
ahvays correct. and that scientific methods are needed to separate accurate from inac·
curate claims. Located in the margins of every chapter, Factoids present interesting and
surprising facts discovered by psychological science.

Australian cultures
Australia is truly a melting pot of different people with different experiences and inter·
pretations, so wherever applicable we highlight noteworthy research findings bearing on
cultural differences. By doing so, you will come to understand that many psychological
principles have boundary conditions. and that much of contemporary psychology focuses
on differences as much as commonalities. A separate chapter (Chapter 14) is dedicated
to covering cross-cultural psychology and the specific issues unique to the culture of
Indigenous Australians. This ground-up chapter ,vas ,vritten by Associate Professor Alex
Main, Honorary Fellow at Murdoch University.

A focus on meaningful pedagogy: helping students

succeed in psychology
Our goal of applying scientific thinking to the psychology of everyday life is reflected
in the text's pedagogical plan. The features in the text, the end-of-chapter revie,v, our
online MyPsychl.ab resource, and the print and media supplements were designed to
help students achieve a mastery of the subject and succeed in the course.
Think Preview questions, located at the beginning of every chapter, highlight
some of the common questions that students have about psychology. They also serve to
preview the key topics that will be discussed in each chapter. Each chapter is organised
around numbered Learning Objectives, which are listed in full at the start of the chapter
and again at each major section under \\•hich they are covered. The end-of-chapter
summary and assessment material is also organised around these objectives. Students'
understanding of important terminology is enhanced ,vith our on-page Margin Defini·
lions, listed in full in an end-of-book Glossary.
Colour-coded biological art orients students at both the micro and macro levels
as they move throughout the text and forge connections among concepts.
At the end of each major topic heading, we provide an Assess Your Knowledge:
Fact or Fiction? revie\\' of selected material to further reinforce concept comprehension
and foster students' ability to distinguish psychological fact from fiction.
Your Comple.t e Review Syste.m , located at the end of every chapter, includes a
summary and quiz questions. all organised by the major chapter sections and tied to
chapter learning objectives. Apply Your Scientific Thinking Principl es questions
challenge students to research and evaluate current event topics.

Copyright C Pearson Australia ( a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 201 S - 9781486006786 • Lilienfeld/Psychology 2e
 Preface xvii

Acknowledging our amazing psychology

community
When we began this undertaking) ,ve could never have imagined the number of
committed, selfless and enthusiastic colleagues in the psychology community who ,vouJd
join us on this path to making our textbook a reality. During the long months of writing
and revising. the feedback and support from fellow instructors, researchers and students
helped keep our energy high and our minds sharp. We stand in awe of their love of the
discipline. and of the enthusiasm and imagination each of these individuals brings to the
psychology classroom every day. This text is the culmination of their ongoing support
from first to final draft, and we are forever grateful to them. We would also like to
acknowledge the previous edition author Nick Haslam for his work on adapting a number
of chapters for the first edition. As mentioned earlier, Alex Main wrote Chapter 14 for
both the first and this edition. We are grateful for his continued contribution.
In addition, ,ve would like to extend our heartfelt gratitude and sincere thanks
to a host of people on the Pearson Australia team. Particular thanks go to Learning
Architect Lucy Elliott, Development Editors Katie Pittard and Judith Bamber, Project
Manager Katie Millar, and Copyright and Pictures Editor Lisa Woodland.

Reviewers
We would like to thank the reviewers of the first edition and those who contributed to the
second edition. Their highly diverse backgrounds, areas of expertise and styles ofinstruc~
tion added to the text's universal perspective and evolution.
Anna Chur-Hansen, University of Adelaide
Geoffrey J. Fraser, Flinders University
Jillian Dorrian, University of South Australia
Lynne Cohen, Edith Cowan University
Dr Mary Flaherty, Edith Cowan University
Dr Mike Garry, University of Tasmania
Peter Newcombe. University of Queensland
Sari a Sujan, University of Notre Dame
Lisa Williams, University of New South Wales
Peter Allen, Curtin University
Dr Patricia Obst, Queensland University of Technology
Peter Tranent, University of Tasmania
Dr Einar B. Thorsteinsson, University ofNe,v England
Dr Rhonda Shaw, Charles Sturt University
Stephanie Quinton, Charles Sturt University

Meet the authors

Scott 0. Lilienfeld received his BA in Psychology from Cornell University in 1982 and
his PhD in Clinical Psychology from the University of Minnesota in 1990. He completed
his clinical internship at Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic in Pittsburgh, Pennsyl-
vania from 1986 to 1987. He was Assistant Professor in the Department of Psychology at
SUNY Albany from 1990 to 1994, and now is Professor of Psychology at Emory Univer-
sity. He recently was appointed a Fellow of the Association of Psychological Science
and was the recipient of the 1998 David Shakow Award from Division 12 (Clinical
Psychology) of the American Psychological Association for Early Career Contributions
to Clinical Psychology. Dr Lilienfeld is a past president of the Society for a Science of
Clinical Psychology within Division 12. He is the founder and editor of the Scientific
Review ofMental Health Practice, Associate Editor of Applied and Preventive Psychology,

Copyright C Pearson Australia ( a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 201S - 9781486006786 • Lilienfeld/Psychology 2e
xviii Preface

and a regular columnist for Scientific An,ericnn MIND magazine. He has authored or
co-authored six books and more than 160 journal articles and chapters. Dr Lilienfeld has
also been a participant in Emory University's ·creat Teachers' lecturer series, as ,vell as
the Distinguished Speaker for the Psi Chi Honor Society at the American Psychological
Association and Mid,vestern Psychological Association conventions.

Steven Jay Lynn received his BA in Psychology from the University of Michigan and
his PhD in Clinical Psychology from Indiana University. He completed an NIMH Post·
doctoral Fellowship at Lafayette Clinic, Detroit, Michigan, in 1976 and is now Professor
of Psychology at Binghamton University (SUNY), where he is the director of the Psycho-
logical Oinic. Dr Lynn is a Fello,v of numerous professional organisations, including the
American Psychological Association and the American Psychological Society, and he ,vas
the recipient of the Chancellor's Award of the State University of New York for Scholar-
ship and Creative Activities. Dr Lynn has authored or edited 17 books and authored more
than 230 journal articles and chapters. He has served as the editor of a book series for the
American Psychological Association, and he has served on 11 editorial boards, including
the Journal of Abnormal Psychology. His research has been supported by the National
Institute of Mental Health and the Ohio Department of Mental Health.

Laura L. Namy received her BA in Philosophy and Psychology from Indiana Univer-
sity in 1993 and her PhD in Cognitive Psychology at Northwestern University in 1998.
She is no\\' Associate Professor of Psychology at Emory University. Dr Namy ,vas
recently appointed editor of the journal of Cognition and De.velopnient, and serves as
the Treasurer of the Cognitive Development Society. She is also coordinator of the joint
major in Psychology and Linguistics, and the director of the graduate programme in
Cognition and Development at Emory. Her research focuses on the origins and develop·
ment of verbal and nonverbal symbol use in young children) and the role of comparison
in conceptual development.

Nancy J. Woolf received her BSc in Psychobiology at UCLA in 1978 and her PhD
II in Neuroscience at UCLA School of Medicine in 1983. She is Adjunct Professor in the
Department of Psychology at UCLA. Her specialisation is behavioural neuroscience,
and her research spans the organisation of acetylcholine systems) neural plasticity,
memory. neural degeneration) Alzheimer's disease and consciousness. In 1990) she ,von
the Colby Prize from the Sigma Kappa Foundation, awarded for her achievements in
scientific research in Alzheimer's disease. In 2002. she received the Academic Advance·
ment Program Faculty Recognition Award. Dr Woolf is currently on the editorial
boards of Science and Consciousness Revielv and Nanoneuroscience.

Graham Jamieson received his BSc from the University of Queensland in 1983 and
his MSc in 1987. He worked as a researcher in the world-leading University of Queens-
land hypnosis laboratory led by Peter Sheehan, submitting his PhD there in 2000. He
is currently Lecturer in Human Neuropsychology at the University of Ne,v England,
Armidale. Dr Jamieson's primary research focus is the cognitive neuroscience of
hypnosis and conscious states, and in particular the testing and development of disso·
ciation theories of trance states. He has recently edited a collection promoting a nev.•
generation of research leaders in this field. He has become a specialist in the applica·
tion of advanced signal processing techniques to the analysis of EEG data, a passion he
further developed as a postdoctoral researcher in the Division of Cognitive Neurosci·
ence at Imperial College London. As an educator, he aims to pass his skills and passion
to developing Australian research students. Dr Jamieson is the editor of the Australian
Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis for the Australian Society of Hypnosis.

Copyright C Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 201S - 9781486006786 • Lilienfeld/Psychology 2e
 Pleface xix

Anthony Marks received his BSc in Applied Psychology from the University of Southern
Queensland, and his BA with Honours in Psychology and PhD from the University of
New England. His research interests include adolescent psychology, with an emphasis
on risk perception, decision-making and problem behaviours in adolescence. He also
has an interest in the assessment of relevant socio-cognitive psychological constructs in
adolescence through the development or adaptation of measurement instruments and
in structural equation modelling applications related to this and other areas of psychology
more broadly. Dr Marks has designed learning materials and successfully coordinated
large 6rst-year Psychology classes for the past 6ve years at the University of New England,
and in 2011 ,vas awarded an Australian Learning and Teaching Council Citation for an
Outstanding Contribution to Student Learning.

Virginia Slaughter received her BA in Liberal Arts from Sarah Lawrence College
(New York) in 1985 and her PhD in Developmental Psychology from the University of
California at Berkeley in 1994. She held a postdoctoral research fellowship at the Massa·
chusetts Institute of Technology until 1996, when she moved to Queensland. She is now
Professor of Psychology at the University of Queensland. Dr Slaughter's research focuses
on social and cognitive development in infants and young children. She has published
two edited books and authored more than 60 articles and chapters, including a book·
length monograph for the Society for Research in Child Development. Dr Slaughter
serves as an associate editor for the Australian Journal of Psychology and for the British
Journal of Developmental Psychology, and she is on the editorial boards of the Journal of
Experimental Child Psychology and Cognitive Development. Dr Slaughter is the recipient
of several teaching awards, including the University of Queensland Teaching Excellence
Award (1999) and an Australian Award for University Teaching (in the category Teaching
Large First Year Classes; 2005).

Copyright C Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 201 S - 9781486006786 • Lilienfeld/Psychology 2e
xx Preface

A valuable learning package

MyPsychLab for Lilienfeld et al

Psychology: From Inquiry to Understanding, 2nd edition
A guided tour for students and educators

Tests and assignments Hy Upcoming AsslgA-nwnts MyRHult.s

0¥.n,H &c.t•
Each Mylab comes with • ,Cbi~«J..,8:_
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pre-loaded assignments, all • JlliOJ.e.r.2..lt$.t

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mint 90 ,,. ,......., c,¢ou. """ •Mitt ~ to .... 11111 !'.-•·

Copyright C Pearson Australia ( a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 201 S - 9781486006786 • Lilienfeld/Psychology 2e
MyPsychlab www.pearson.eom.au/lilienfeld2

Psyth .. YIDlO U IIIH '

Learning resources
To further reinforce
understanding, Study Plan
~I.Ac• i,,,;,,,,oh\'ooW ¥.tw{> t,,,r,,.t.~? problems link to additional
P~M
learning resource,s, such
as relevant sections of
the e Text. Videos and
simulations are also available
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"""'"""'
l'STCHOlOGY

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,.,. Sedlons to practice 111,d Jltfflct Xi~r( 11 Jiluipj,:c1
each student's results on

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assignments or sample tests.
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-~ ,.,1 .2 bl)llill"'°"" s.olfflec un ~rc,.,...re ~ 1 1hc major
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* OollMP

Copyright C Pearson Australia ( a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 201 S - 9781486006786 • Lilienfeld/Psychology 2e
I Science and
pseudoscience
in psychology
SKILLS FOR TH INKING SCIENTIFICALLY IN
EVERYDAY LIFE
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO I.I Define psychology.
LO 1.2 Explain how science can safeguard against the major fallacies of human thinking.
LO 1.3 Describe the features of psychological pseudoscience, and distinguish it from psychological
science.
LO 1.4 Identify reasons ,ve are dra,vn to pseudoscience.
LO 1.5 Identify the key features of scientific scepticism.
LO 1.6 Explain the basic principles of scientific thinking.
LO 1.7 Identify and outline the major theoretical frameworks of psychology.
LO 1.8 Describe different types of psychologists and outline their roles.
LO 1.9 Describe the two great debates that have shaped the field of psychology.
LO I.JO Describe how psychological research applies to our daily lives.
LO I.I I Explain how evidence-based practice can help bridge the scientist-practitioner gap.

Copyright C Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 201S - 9781486006786 • Lilienfeld/Psychology 2e
THINK:
PREVIEW
First, think about these questions.
Then, as you read, think again ...
• Is psychology mostly just
commonsense?
• How should we judge what we read
in self-help b ooks?
• Is psychology really a science?
• Are we good at evaluating evidence
that contradicts our views?
• Are claims that cannot be tested
observation unscientific?
• Is anecdotal evidence that a
treatment works good evidence for
its effectiveness?
• Is the number of people who share
a belief a dependable guide to its
accuracy?
For most of you reading this book, this is your first or second psychology unit. But it is
a safe bet that you have learned an awful lot of beliefs about psychology already. Pause
for a moment and ask yourself these questions: Where have 1 learned my beliefs about
psychology? How do I know whether they are true'
If you are like most beginning psychology students, you have gleaned much of
,vhat you knov.• about psychology from ,vatching television programmes and movies,
listening to talkback radio shows, reading self-help books and popular magazines, surfing
the internet and talking to friends. In short, most of your psychology knowledge probably
derives from the popular psychology industry: a sprawling network of everyday sources
of information about human behaviour.
TEST OF POPULAR PSYCHOLOGY KNOWLEDGE
by
tr~·~····· ~~~.! .........~:...~~~.~~..~~~·i·~·~..~~.~..~~~
.~~·~·'·'X.~!.i~.~.~~.~.~.~!: ......................................
cru_e..... t3.1s.e. .........3.•...~Y.~ll()sis..e~!'3_11ee~_th.e__3.e_e_u_r_a.o/..~.f.<>.ur.."'.!"''>.".e.s ...........................
true false 4. All people with dyslexia see words backwards (for example, 'tac·
instead of 'cat').
...................................................................................................................................................
true .....~!~~ .........s·...1n.general..it.is.better.to. express.anger than.to hold.it.in..........................
true false 6. The lie-detector (polygraph) test is 90 to 95 per cent accurate at
.................. ........~~~~~~.i.~.~~.~~~.~~·~:.............................................................................................
true false 7. People tend to be romantically attracted to individuals who are the
opposite to them in personality and attitudes.
...................................................................................................................................................
true false 8. The more people present at an emergency, the more likely it is that
at least one of them will help.
......... ............. ..............................................................................................................................................
true
......... false 9. Schizophrenics have more than one personality.
......... ............................................................................................................................................. .
true false I 0. All effective psychotherapies require clients to get to the root of
their problem.s in childhood .
...................................................................................................................................................

Take a moment to review the preceding 10 questions. Beginning psychology students

typically assume that they know the answers to most of them. That's hardly surprising,
as these assertions have become part of popular psychology lore. Yet most students are
surprised to learn that all 10 of these statements are false! This little exercise illustrates
a take-home message we ,vill emphasise throughout the text: Although con1n1onsense
can be enorn,ously 11seful for son,e purposes. it's son1etin1es co,npletely wrong (Chabris &
Simons, 2010). This can be especially true in psychology, a field that strikes many of us
as self-evident, even obvious. In a sense. ,ve are all psychologists. because ,ve deal ,vith
psychological phenomena such as love. friendship, anger. stress, happiness, sleep, memory
and language in our daily lives (Lilienfeld, Ammirati & Landfield, 2009). As we will
discover, everyday experience can often be helpful in allo,ving us to navigate the psycho·
logical world, but it doesn't necessarily make us an expert (Kahneman & Klein, 2009).

What is psychology? Science versus intuition

LO I. I Define psychology.
LO 1.2 Explain how scicl'M:e can safeguard
against the ma;or fallacies of human thinking.
popular psychology industry
sprawling netwoll< of everyday sou-ces of
information about tunan behaviour
William James (1842-1910), one of the great pioneers in psychology, once described
psychology as a 'nasty little subject'. As James noted, psychology is difficult to study, and
simple explanations of behaviour are fe,v and far behveen. If you enrolled in this unit
expecting cut-and-dried a.ns,vers to psychological questions, such as ,vhy you become
angry or fall in love, you might emerge disappointed. But if you enrolled in the hopes of
acquiring more insight into the ho,vs and ,vhys of human behaviour. stay tuned. because
a host of delightful surprises are in store. When reading this textbook, prepare to find
many of your preconceptions about psychology challenged; to encounter ne,v ,vays of
thinking about the causes of your everyday thoughts, feelings and actions; and to apply
these ways of thinking to evaluating psychological claims in everyday life.

Copyright C Pearson Austr lia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 201 S - 9781486006786 • Lilienfeld/Psychology 2e
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Iguassú R., 289, 294, 306, 333, 343, 385, 393
Ilo, 154, 169, 175
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R., 384, 406

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La Guayra Falls, 289, 306, 333, 343, 385, 393
Laguna, 406
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La Merced, 178
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Isl., 144
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Lake, 252

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Macora, 146
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Machalilla, 136
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Madeira-Mamoré Ry., 183, 225, 227, 228, 243, 383, 412
Madera R., 212
Madidi R., 212, 227, 237, 241
Madre de Dios, 152, 173, 199;
R., 159, 172, 183, 192, 212, 219, 227, 238, 241, 383
Magallanes, 246, 247, 260, 275, 278
Magangué, 34
Magdalena, 9, 10, 21;
R., 16, 17, 18, 22, 32-35, 37, 38
Magellan Strait, 251
Mahogany, 90
Maipo R., 246
Maipures Rapids, 17, 75
Maize, see Corn
Majes R., 168, 180
Mal Abrigo, 366
Malabrigo, 165
Maldonado, (Peru), 152;
(Urug.), 356, 363, 367, 370
Malleco, 247, 259;
R., 264
Mamoré R., 160, 211, 212, 219, 227, 383, 412, 413
Manabí, 116, 117, 131, 142, 144, 146
Manaos, 26, 43, 179, 375, 378, 403, 406, 413
Mandioca, 142, 349, 400, 419
Manganese, 145, 325, 352, 370, 428
Manglar Alto, 136, 146
Mangrove, 90
Manizales, 10, 23, 35
Manta, 131, 136, 144;
Bay, 131
Mantaro R., 159, 170, 171
Mantiqueiro, Serra de, 385, 428
Manufactures, 51, 52, 98, 202, 203, 278, 327-329, 352, 371, 426,
427
Manzanares R., 79
Mapocho R., 254
Mar, Serra do, 1, 380, 381, 385, 388
Maracaibo, 41, 55, 57, 64, 78, 82, 83, 84, 91, 94, 98
Maracaibo Channel, 78, 96;
Lake, 16, 31, 36, 46, 48, 53, 59, 61, 62, 64, 78, 82, 84, 87, 94,
95, 96
Maracajú, Serra de, 385
Maracay, 55, 57, 67, 79, 80, 83, 87, 92, 98
Marajós Isl., 382, 406
Maranhão, 375, 377, 401, 406, 415, 418, 430
Marañón R., 119, 124, 125, 138, 159, 170, 182, 192
Mar del Plata, 302, 309, 326, 330
Margarita Isl., 69, 70, 79, 98
Mariquita, 35
Maroni R., 109, 113
Marowijne R., 111, 112, 113
Martinez, 317
Martinique Isl., 112
Matahuasi, 183
Matarani, 168
Matto Grosso, 289, 339, 348, 375, 383, 386, 403, 413, 415, 422,
424, 425, 426, 428, 429
Matucana, 178
Maturín, 55, 70
Mauá, 407, 411
Maués, 406
Maule, 247, 258;
R., 252
Medellín, 10, 12, 13, 19, 23, 35, 37, 38, 51
Medicinal Plants, 44
Meiggs, Henry, 165, 177, 179, 196
Mejillones, 256, 266, 267
Melo, 356, 363, 366
Mendoza, 269, 281, 283, 288, 296, 297, 303, 309, 310, 320, 322,
323, 325, 326, 329;
Pedro de, 281, 333
Mene Grande, 95, 96
Mercedario Mt., 251
Mercedes, 356, 361, 365, 366
Mérida, 55, 57, 72, 81, 84, 93, 98
Mesopotamia, 288, 290, 317
Mestizos, 209
Meta, 10, 26;
R., 17, 27, 61, 62, 65, 84
Minas, 356, 364, 370
Minas Geraes, 375, 381, 388, 404, 414, 418, 424, 425, 426, 428,
429, 430, 432
Mining-Minerals, 45-50, 52, 92-97, 107, 108, 111, 112, 144, 145;
194-202, 229-238, 270-275, 324-326, 352, 370, 427-433
Miranda, 54, 55, 66, 68, 79, 80
Mirím Lake, 354, 359, 363, 386, 387, 407
Misiones, 283, 287, 293, 311, 313, 321, 322, 324, 328, 331, 422;
Sierra de, 211
Mocoa, 10, 26, 38
Mojos Plains, 384
Molybdenum, 201
Mollendo, 161, 168, 175, 179, 192, 221, 222, 243, 261
Monagas, 54, 55, 70, 82
Monazite, 398
Monday R., 339
Montaña, 153, 154, 156, 159, 161, 172, 174, 178, 181, 188, 210
Montecristi, 131, 146
Monteria, 22, 38
Montevideo, 354, 355, 356, 357, 360, 364, 365, 366, 367, 370,
371, 392, 404, 410
Moquegua, 152, 169, 255
Moriche Palm, 91
Morococha, 177, 195, 196, 200, 224
Morona R., 124, 125
Moropán, 163
Morrisquillo Bay, 44
Motatán, 72, 81, 84, 85
Moyabamba, 152

Nacion La, (Newspaper), 285

Nacunday, 347
Nahuel Huapi Lake, 288, 299, 313, 324
Naiguatá Falls, 98;
Mt., 60
Nanay R., 124, 126
Napo, 126;
R., 26, 115, 118, 124, 126, 138, 139
Naranjal, 139
Naricual, 82, 93
Nariño, 9, 10, 25, 50, 51
Natal, 375, 400, 412
Nazareth, 412
Nechi R., 34, 50
Negra Muerta, 312
Negritos, 202
Negro R., (Amazon), 17, 26, 43, 76, 384, 403, 406;
(Arg.), 288, 290, 309;
(Urug.), 358, 359, 361, 365;
(South Brazil), 393
Neiva, 10, 28, 35, 39
Nemocón, 37
Nepeña R., 167
Neuquen, 283, 299, 309, 322, 324, 325, 326
Neveri R., 68, 82
New Amsterdam, 103, 104
New Granada, 8, 115
Nico Peréz, 366
Nictheroy, 375, 396, 411
Nichare R., 74
Nirgua, 66, 93
Nitrates, 270
North Coast, 7-113
Nuble, 247, 258
Nueva Esparta, 55, 69
Nueva Germania, 347
Nuevo Gulf, 304
Nuts, 417

Obidos, 403, 406

Ocaña, 35
Ocumare de la Costa, 67, 79, 83
Ocumare del Tuy, 55, 68, 80, 89
O’Higgins, 247, 258, 272, 276
Ojeda, Alonzo de, 8, 53
Olinda, 426
Olmas, 367
Ollague, 223, 268, 275
Orán, 223, 306
Oranges, 349, 419
Orellana, 154;
Francisco de, 115, 126
Oriente, 116, 117, 123, 134, 140, 145
Orinoco R., 3, 16, 17, 18, 26, 48, 59, 60, 61, 73, 74, 75, 76, 84, 90,
92, 94, 99, 101
Oro, Rio de, 28, 48, 96
Orocué, 31
Oroya, 177, 178, 179, 183, 200
Ortíz, 83
Orton R., 227
Oruro, 207, 209, 210, 215, 223, 224, 232, 233, 234, 243
Osasco, 424
Osorno, 313
Otuzco, 188, 198
Ouro Preto, 405
Ovalle, 273
Oyack R., 112
Oyapock R., 112, 406
Oyón, 198

Pacaraima Mts., 101

Pacasmayo, 164, 169, 175, 188, 189
Pacific Ry., 37
Pachacamac R., 183
Pachacayo, 197, 198
Pacheco, 238
Pachitea R., 169, 170
Paita, 131, 156, 163, 175, 182, 201, 202
Paja Toquilla, 146
Palcazú, 170
Palma Sola, 81
Palmira, 25, 36, 37, 38
Paloma, 367
Pampa Aullagas Lake, 212
Pampa Central, See La Pampa
Pampatar, 70, 79
Pamplona, 38
Panamá, 7, 8, 15, 18, 107, 133
Panamá Hats, 25, 26, 51, 131, 146, 163, 201
Pan American Ry., 38, 137, 175, 179, 184, 223
Pando, 361
Pangoa R., 183
Pantana, 42
Paper, 91, 98, 107, 146, 328
Pará, 174, 179, 182, 375, 383, 401, 402, 406, 408, 412, 417, 420,
425, 432;
R., 382, 402
Paracas Penin., 198
Paraguarí, 335, 337, 342, 352
Paraguay, 205, 220, 332-353, 368, 369, 422
Paraguay R., 205, 212, 220, 226, 304, 313, 333, 338, 339, 343,
383, 386, 409, 410
Parahyba, 375, 400, 412, 417, 429, 432
Parahyba do Norte R., 400
Parahyba do Sul R., 386, 396, 411
Paramaribo, 109, 110, 111
Paramos, 19, 28, 72, 122, 129
Paraná, (Arg.), 283, 289, 298, 305;
(Brazil), 375, 385, 388, 393, 394, 419, 422, 424, 425, 429, 430,
431
Paraná R., 288, 289, 304, 305, 306, 311, 333, 339, 340, 343, 347,
374, 381, 385, 388, 393, 407, 410
Paranaguá, 394, 410, 422, 425
Paranahyba R., 385
Paranapanema R., 385, 393
Paria Gulf, 60, 69, 70, 76, 78, 97;
Penin., 69, 97
Parime Mts., 60
Parnahyba R., 386, 401
Pastaza R., 124, 125
Pasto, 10, 12, 25, 38, 51, 133
Patagonas, 275
Patagonia, 287, 288, 299, 309, 310, 313, 317, 324
Patapó, 164
Patía R., 16, 17, 25, 36
Patiño Simón, J., 224, 233
Pato R., 50
Patos, Lagôa dos, 386, 387, 392, 407
Paucartambo, 199; R., 159;
V., 188
Paulo Affonso Falls, 386
Pauta R., 124
Paysandú, 356, 357, 362, 365, 367, 370
Pearls, 94, 144
Pedernales, 76;
Isl., 97
Pedro, Dom II., 374
Pelotas, 392, 425, 431
Perené R., 159, 170, 178, 183;
V., 178
Pericos, 84
Perija, 84, 96;
Sierra de, 18, 59, 61
Peripe R., 127
Pernambuco, 367, 374, 375, 387, 399, 406, 412, 414, 416, 418,
422, 426, 428, 431, 432
Peru, 4, 5, 118, 121, 122, 123, 125, 148-204, 275, 278, 281, 382,
383, 384, 406, 457
Petare, 80
Petroleum, 46, 95, 144, 201, 237, 275, 325, 371, 432
Petropolis, 396, 407, 411
Philip II., 374
Piar District, 73
Piauhy, 375, 388, 401, 428
Pichilemu, 264
Pichincha, 115, 116, 117, 133, 139, 144, 145;
 Volc., 123
Pichis R., 170
Pilar, 335, 336, 342
Pilcomayo R., 212, 217, 226, 288, 289, 339
Pimentel, 164
Pintados, 266
Pirámides, 304
Pirapora, 406
Piria, Señor, 364
Piriápolis, 363, 367
Piracicaba, 425, 432
Pisagua, 255, 266, 270, 271
Pisco, 154, 168, 175, 199, 200
Piura, 152, 163, 182, 187, 201
Pizarro, 163
Pizarro, Francisco, 115, 149, 164, 169, 172, 245, 281
Pizarro, Gonzales, 115, 126
Plaisance, 104
Plantains, 41, 106, 142
Platinum, 7, 48, 144, 145, 432
Pomasqui, 145
Pongo de Manseriche, 124, 138, 182
Ponta Grossa, 394, 410
Poopo, Lake, 212, 226
Popayán, 10, 12, 25, 36, 38, 39
Porce R., 50
Port of Spain, 69, 78
Porto Alegre, 375, 392, 410
Porto Esperança, 409
Porto Velho, 413
Portoviejo, 117, 131;
R., 131
Portuguesa, 55, 60, 71, 77, 88
Posadas, 283, 294, 306, 311, 337, 342, 343
Potaro R., 104
Potash, 271
Potosi, 207, 209, 216, 224, 225, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 237
Prat, 267
Prensa, La, (newspaper), 285
Providencia, 10
Pucalpa, 182
Pucasuro R., 125
Puente del Este, 367
Puerto Aiguirre, 306
Puerto Asís, 38
Puerto Belgrano, 312
Puerto Beltrán, 33, 34, 37
Puerto Bermudez, 179
Puerto Berrío, 35
Puerto Bolívar, 138
Puerto Brais, 224
Puerto Cabello, 66, 67, 77, 80, 81, 83, 92, 98
Puerto Colombia, 12, 30, 32
Puerto del Sauce, 367
Puerto Deseado, 313, 330
Puerto Galileo, 345
Puerto Gallegos, 283, 304, 313, 314
Puerto Galván, 303
Puerto Jessup, 179
Puerto Limón, 182
Puerto Madryn, 304, 311
Puerto Max, 343
Puerto Mendez, 343
Puerto Militar, 326
Puerto Molendez, 182
Puerto Montt, 247, 252, 259, 264, 266, 269, 278
Puerto Pando, 227
Puerto Pinasco, 345, 350
Puerto Suarez, 207, 210, 218, 220, 225, 238, 243
Puerto Tablas, 73
Puerto Villamizar, 36
Puerto Wertheman, 183
Puerto Wilches, 34, 37
Pulacayo, 232
Puna, 212
Puná Isl., 122, 127, 131, 135, 139
Puno, 152, 172, 180, 181, 188, 193, 199, 221
Punta Arenas, 193, 247, 249, 253, 261, 263, 278, 304, 313
Punta de Lobos, 275
Purús, 405; R., 172, 227, 384
Putumayo, 10, 26;
R., 17, 26, 38, 126
Pyreneos Mt., 381, 385

Quarahim, 367, 411

Quebracho, 323, 345
Quelez, 428
Queruvilca, 164, 198
Quesada, Gonzalo Jimenez de, 8
Quespesisa Cerro, 199
Quevado R., 127
Quibdó, 10, 24, 35, 43, 48
Quichuas, 172, 179, 181, 208
Quicksilver, 133, 144, 200
Quilca, 168
Quiloaza R., 305
Quimsa Cruz Range, 234
Quinine, 142, 242
Quinua, 191, 241
Quiquió, 352
Quishuarcancha, 179, 196
Quispicanchis, 199
Quito, 115, 116, 117, 119, 120, 122, 127, 130, 136, 137, 139

Rancagua, 247, 272

Rauco Lake, 252
Rawson, 283, 304
Recife, 375, 377, 399, 406, 417
Reconquista, 314
Recuay, 166, 183, 184
Reloncavi Gulf, 266
Remate dos Males, 406
Resistencia, 283, 293, 312, 321
Reventazón, 163
Riachuelo, 330;
R., 301
Riberalta, 207, 210, 219, 225, 227, 413
Rice, 42, 105, 110, 189, 241, 322, 350, 419
Rimac R., 149, 162;
V., 177
Riobamba, 117, 125, 136, 137, 145
Rio Branco, 405
Rio Chico, 68, 80
Rio de Janeiro, 254, 367, 374, 375, 377, 381, 388, 390, 395, 396,
406, 407, 408, 411, 414, 416, 418, 427, 432, 454, 456
Rio Grande, 392;
R., 385
Rio Grande do Norte, 375, 381, 400, 412, 416, 423, 429, 432
Rio Grande do Sul, 375, 380, 385, 386, 387, 388, 391, 410, 411,
416, 418, 422, 425, 426, 427, 429, 430, 431, 432
Riohacha, 21, 30, 31, 46
Rio Limón, 82
Rio Mulato, 224