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 • Updated research and new examples of effective practices for children with diverse
abilities, particularly children with autism spectrum disorder.
• Expanded discussion of current research on brain development and executive
­function and implications for teaching.
• New artifacts and examples of children’s work, especially from children in the
­primary grades.

Book Organization Reflects

Guidelines for Developmentally
Appropriate Practice
This book is designed to teach the concept of developmentally appropriate practice for
students because an understanding of its principles is the foundation on which to build
early childhood programs and schools for children from birth through age 8. Chapters
are organized according to NAEYC’s guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice,
which I have coauthored for 30 years.
Part 1, Foundations of Early Childhood Education, describes the current p ­ rofession
and the issues and trends effecting it today (Chapter 1), the rich history from which
developmentally appropriate practices evolved (Chapter 2), and an overview of its
­
­principles and guidelines, which are described in depth in later chapters (Chapter 3).
Part 2, Dimensions of Developmentally Appropriate Practice, includes chapters
­describing the key factors teachers must consider as they make professional decisions.
Chapter 4 presents an overview of current knowledge about how all children develop and
learn. Chapter 5 addresses the unique, individual differences among children, including
children with diverse abilities. Chapter 6 discusses the critical role of social, cultural, and
linguistic contexts on all children’s development and learning and how teachers must
­embrace a diverse society to help every child succeed in school and life.
Part 3, Intentional Teaching: How to Teach, describes the role of the teacher in
­implementing developmentally appropriate practices. Each of the interconnected aspects
of the teacher’s role is addressed in separate chapters: building effective partnerships with
families (Chapter 7), creating a caring community of learners and guiding young children
(Chapter 8); teaching to enhance learning and development (Chapter 9); planning e­ ffective
curriculum (Chapter 10); and assessing children’s learning and development (Chapter 11).
Part 4, Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach, describes both
how and what to teach children from birth through age 8 in language, literacy, the arts,
­mathematics, science, technology, social-emotional development, social studies, physical
development, and health. Each chapter demonstrates how the continuum of children’s
development ­determines the appropriateness of curriculum content and intentional,
­effective teaching strategies for children of different ages.
Early childhood educators join this profession and stay in it because they believe their
work can make a difference in the lives of children and their families. But to make a last-
ing difference, our practices must be effective—they must contribute to children’s learning
and development. This book reflects this core goal by building on the basic framework
of developmentally appropriate practice while going beyond to emphasize intentional
­teaching, challenging and interesting curriculum, and evidence-based, effective practices
for a new generation of early childhood educators. Each of these key themes is discussed
on the following pages.

vii
 Intentional Teaching of Young Children
Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education This text builds on the framework of developmentally appropriate practice emphasizing
that effective teachers are intentional, thoughtful, and purposeful in everything they do.
should not be viewed in isolation. All three considerations, in fact, interact with and
influence each other; they are always intertwined in shaping children’s development and
behavior. For example, children all over the world follow a similar developmental pat-
tern when learning language. They all progress from cooing, to babbling, to one-word
utterances, to telegraphic speech (“Daddy up”), to short sentences, and finally to more
complex sentences. However, a wide range of individual variation exists in language
Intentional teachers know not only what to do with children
acquisition of children who are roughly the same age, because of differences in language
experience as well as developmental variation. At age 3, Joey speaks in three-word ut-
but also why they are doing it and can explain the rationale
terances, whereas his same-age cousin, Michael, expounds in paragraphs. Finally, each
child speaks the language, including the dialect, of his or her own cultural group. Six-
for the decisions they make to other teachers, a­ dministrators,
year-old Amelia speaks English to her mother and Spanish to her father. All of these fac-
tors influence children’s language development and how teachers think about supporting
and families. To help students understand this concept,
it optimally for all children.
Now let’s look at how the meshing of the three considerations plays out in the deci-
­Becoming an Intentional Teacher features reveal what
sions of one primary grade teacher:
teachers are thinking
children in herin classroom challenge each yearhow
class. Her firstsituations, is to and why
Frida Lopez has 22 first-grade
get to know the children well. She meets with their families, engages in one-on-one
theyconversations
select the strategies they do,andand skills challenge students to
with children, observes their behavior throughout the day,
and sets up specific tasks to evaluate their skills such as literacy tasks or solving math
reflect further
problems on these scenarios.
with counters.
As she gets to know her students, she regularly assesses their abilities and in-
terests in relation to what she knows from her study of child development, the cur-
riculum goals, and her experiences teaching other 6- and 7-year-olds. She finds that
a few children exceed her expectations in reading or social skills, whereas others are
significantly behind their peers in some areas. Each child has a unique personality
and profile of abilities, and Frida becomes more aware of these.
Neela has Down syndrome, and Frida has already met with her parents and the
team of special education professionals who create and implement an individualized
educational plan for her. After a few weeks, Frida becomes concerned that another
child, Almonzo, might have an undiagnosed language delay. In the case of the six
children whose home languages are not ones Frida knows, she recognizes that she
must take extra steps to find out about them. Using community volunteers and, in
one case, a paid translator, Frida connects with the families of her students to build
relationships and to learn what capabilities the children exhibit in their homes and
communities.
So we see that in meeting the children, Frida seamlessly draws on her knowledge
of child development and learning, as well as her knowledge of them as individuals and
members of cultural groups. Precisely because children are so different and their abilities
vary so greatly, Frida will need to draw from a wide repertoire of teaching strategies to
help them achieve developmentally appropriate goals.
So far we have described the areas of knowledge that teachers consider in making
decisions about developmentally appropriate practice—what teachers need to know and
think about. Now we turn to the work of the teachers—what do early childhood teachers
do? What are the dimensions of practice that describe the teacher’s role?
✓ Check Your Understanding 3.3: Developmentally Appropriate Decision Making
The Complex Role of the Teacher
According to the NAEYC’s (2009) guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice,
the complex job of an early childhood teacher has five interrelated dimensions: (1)
creating a caring community of learners, (2) teaching to enhance learning and devel-
opment, (3) planning curriculum to achieve important goals, (4) assessing children’s
learning and development, and (5) establishing reciprocal relationships with families.
_C03.indd 84
Intentional teachers must reflect and apply their knowl-
edge using a broad repertoire of effective teaching strat-
egies. Demonstrate Your Learning features at the end
of each chapter require students to practice these skills.
This end-of-chapter quiz appears only in REVELTM and
includes feedback.
viii
118 Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach
Becoming an Intentional Teacher
Teaching in the “Zone”
Here’s What Happened In my kindergarten, we are to solve the problem, ex-
working on the basic mathematical number operations— plaining each of their steps.
adding and subtracting. In our classroom, children work in
After about two weeks of this more
centers for part of the morning. Through assessments that I
do during center time, I learned that Miguel can add two sin-
intensive approach, Miguel demonstrates ability to subtract
single-digit numbers on his own, and begins to experiment
gle-digit numbers on his own. I also learned that he is strug-
gling with subtracting single-digit numbers, but is successful
when I talk through the subtraction activities with him. I also
with double-digit numbers. He insists on being the employee
at checkout in the Home Improvement Store to showcase his
adding and subtracting.
observed that Miguel is able to subtract more successfully
when the problem is applied, such as when he is playing
cashier and giving “change” in our Home Improvement Store
Here’s What I Was Thinking As a kindergarten teach-
er, I know that understanding and applying these founda-
center. Miguel especially likes to play there because his Dad tional mathematical concepts is essential for building chil-
works in construction. I decided on a three-pronged approach
dren’s later competence in math. I also understand that
to support his understanding and application of subtraction: children learn best in the context of supportive relation-
ships, and I structure interactions in my classroom to in-
1) I set aside 5–10 minutes twice a week to work individ-
tentionally support each learner. I do this by: (1) assessing
ually with Miguel. Using manipulatives, including an
abacus and small counting trains. Miguel loves trains!
each child’s level of independent performance on a skill,
(2) assessing each child’s level of supported (with help)
During this time, I verbally support Miguel’s grouping
performance on a skill, and (3) developing lessons that al-
and counting, using short word problems and number
cards.
low a child to practice in their supported level, until the
child can do the skill independently. I then set the next
2) I also intentionally join Miguel and other children in
higher level of skill as the child’s goal skill.
the Home Improvement Store at center time. I intro-
duce the concept of “Supply Lists” to the center, using Vygotsky used the term zone of proximal development
cards with pictures and labels of the different supplies. (ZPD) to describe the child’s skill level when supported by
Children can add nuts, bolts, and tools to their baskets, an adult or more experienced peer. He believed that by as-
according to the list, and return (subtract) things they sessing only what a child knows, a teacher does not have
no longer need for their building projects. As Miguel information on how to support the child’s progress. But by
purchases and returns items for his building project, I assessing a child’s ZPD, I am able to structure for progres-
support and make explicit his adding and subtracting, sive development and learning.
pointing out to Miguel how successfully he uses math
for his project. Reflection How did this teacher use assessment to
3) Finally, during the morning math challenge, I pair guide her intentional teaching? What other strategies could
Miguel with a friend who understands subtraction con- she have used to teach Miguel in his Zone of Proximal
cepts well, and is very verbal. I have them work together Development?
gets over the last hurdle herself. Ave gives him a big smile as she pushes off with her feet
zone of proximal development
and makes a circle around the room.
(ZPD) The distance between
the actual developmental level By giving Ave “a leg up,” Khari helped her accomplish a goal that she couldn’t do on
an individual has achieved (her her own, but could achieve with his assistance. Vygotsky (1978) identified this as the
independent level of problem zone of proximal development (ZPD)—the distance between the actual developmental
solving) and the level of po- level an individual has achieved (their independent level of problem solving) and the
tential development she could level of potential development they could achieve with adult guidance or through
achieve with adult guidance
or through collaboration with
collaboration with other children. The assistance, guidance, and direction teachers pro-
other children.
vide children in their ZPD is called scaffolding. To gain deeper understanding of how
children learn in their ZPD, read the feature Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Teaching
scaffolding The assistance,
in the “Zone.”
guidance, and direction teach-
ers provide children to help
Social Construction of Knowledge Scaffolding does not mean that teachers
them accomplish a task or
learn a skill (within their ZPD)
that they could not achieve on
control or shape learning, as behaviorists believe (see p. 124). Instead, children learn by
solving problems collaboratively with the teacher’s support or by working with peers,
their own. which is called co-construction, or social construction of knowledge.
Effective teachers are informed decision makers who adapt
for individual differences, including for children with dis-
abilities and special needs. Check Your Understanding
features engage students in assessing their own learning.
Some questions involve critical thinking about a complex
teaching situation or issue confronting the early childhood
Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 99
field. TheseKey
quizzes
Terms appear only in REVELTM and include
feedback.
10/8/15 11:56 AM ■ age appropriate ■ culture ■ intentional teachers ■ push-down curriculum
■ assessment ■ curriculum ■ learning centers ■ reciprocal relationships
■ caring community of ■ developmentally appro- ■ position statement ■ scientifically based
learners priate practice (DAP) curriculum
■ culturally appropriate ■ individually appropriate
✓ Demonstrate Your Learning
Click here to assess how well you’ve learned the content in this chapter.
Readings and Websites
Carter, M., & Curtis, D. (2014). Designs for living and National Association for the Education of Young
learning: Transforming early childhood environments. Children
St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.
Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (Eds.). (2009). Devel-
NAEYC’s website has a special section on resources for
developmentally appropriate practice and play, plus cop-
opmentally appropriate practice in early childhood
programs serving children from birth through age 8
ies of all their position statements.
ZERO to THREE—National Center for Infants,
(3rd ed.). Washington, DC: National Association for the
Education of Young Children.
Toddlers, and Families
This website provides resources and practical tips for
Epstein, A. S. (2014). The intentional teacher: Choosing working with infants, toddlers, and their families.
the best strategies for young children’s learning (Rev.
ed.). Washington, DC: National Association for the Edu-
cation of Young Children.
ASCD Whole Child Initiative
This website provides resources promoting elementary
education that supports all areas of children’s develop-
ment and learning.
Current Research on Effective Practices
In an era of Common Core State Standards and Early Learning standards, accountability,
and rapid change in the field, the text makes research understandable and meaningful for
students and illustrates the connections between child development, curriculum content,
assessment, and intentional teaching.
Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 449

What Works
Teaching STEM to Dual Language Learners
Considerable attention is paid to research on how dual language
learners acquire English and learn to read. At times, there is an as-
sumption that because mathematics is about numbers and quan-
tity, language is less of a barrier. However, mathematics itself is
a language, and as we have seen, math talk is what makes its ab-
graders used to interpret their graphs in
Figure 13.1.
What Works features present research-based practices in
action, including descriptions of demonstrated effective
Problem solving is playing a larger role in
today’s curriculum due to the Common Core standards, but word
problems complicate the challenge of math instruction for dual

practices such as teaching mathematics to dual language

stract concepts comprehensible for children. Other areas of STEM language learners. Teachers should avoid tricky word problems
have their own vocabulary and involve academic language that that create confusion, such as: “Jonas has 2 cars and 3 trucks;
children do not encounter in everyday interactions. In short, STEM how many vehicles does he have?” Such a question poses a lan-
learning presents unique challenges for dual language learners. guage test rather than a math problem. A related challenge pre-

learners, father involvement, and using evidence-based cur-

Many of the same strategies for teaching dual language sented by word problems is the culturally implicit knowledge they
learners in general are effective in teaching STEM. For example, often require. Solving a problem usually requires that a child un-
gestures such as a circling motion are useful in helping young derstand the situation in which it occurs, whether it’s purchasing
children understand basic concepts such as the whole amount or groceries or driving a car at a certain speed.

riculum to narrow the achievement gap.

putting together and taking apart. Children readily count or form Manipulatives are hailed as an excellent tool to teach STEM,
shapes with their fingers. Teachers can set up an obstacle course and yet many children cannot relate to these toys. Few such toys
for children to use their whole bodies to learn position words such reflect the racial, cultural, and gender diversity of our classrooms.
as above, below, between, and through. A strategy for older chil- For example, Lego® has introduced some plastic figures portray-
dren is to create a math, science, or technology dictionary of rel- ing people of color as doctors, scientists, architects, and other
evant terms. Such a resource engages children in using different STEM occupations. However, most STEM toys still promote ste-
ways of representing a concept—in this case, words that can be reotypes of only white males in these roles.
referred to later. What works most effectively are the practices that are de-
Another effective strategy is having children talk to one another velopmentally appropriate for all children—hands-on, meaning-
in pairs or small groups. When children are learning a new lan- ful experiences coupled with teacher scaffolding, as opposed
guage, it is important not to put them on the spot. They shouldn’t to worksheets that test what children should have already
be expected to respond in front of the whole class. In a small group, learned. Dual language learners need to actively “do” science,
it is easier to practice concepts and “errors” are more likely to be technology, and engineering tasks—as teachers and other chil-
viewed as part of the learning process. This is especially important dren supply the words. And most important of all, teachers need
with a topic like math that may have only one correct answer. to have high expectations that all children can learn challenging
Introducing a math or science concept to the whole class can STEM content.
be done effectively using an interactive whiteboard. Then chil- Sources: Based on “6 Tips When Discussing Math with the English Language
dren can be prompted to respond to questions chorally as a whole Learner,” by B. Austin, 2014, Chicago, Erikson Early Math Collabora-
group. Not every child will answer correctly, and no one child’s tive, retrieved March 17, 2015, from http://earlymath.erikson.edu/6-tips-
response will be singled out. discussing-math-english-language-learner; “It’s Time for More Racial 192 Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach
Diversity in STEM Toys” by M. Weinstock, 2015, Scientific American,
Another proven strategy when introducing a math or science
Voices: Exploring and Celebrating Diversity in Science, retrieved March
concept is to explicitly teach it by modeling, supplying the spe- 8, 2015, from http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/voices/2015/02/23/
cific name, and having children repeat the word. Also helpful is its-time-for-more-racial-diversity-in-stem-toys/?WT.mc_id=SA_sharetool_
Dual language learners are individuals. They need differentiated instruction to devel-
introducing and using a consistent sentence such as the one first Twitter. op their English skills, to maintain and further develop their home language, and achieve
in school. Today’s vast array of digital tools make individualizing instruction for multi-
language learners much easier than in the past, as described in the feature Language Lens:
STEM skills and understanding, with T standing for technology. In other words, children Using Technology to Teach Dual Language Learners.
need to think critically about how technology is used to solve problems as well as learn Awareness and responsiveness to all forms of diversity must be integrated across all
how to use technological tools in intentional and creative ways. areas of curriculum and teachers’ relationships with children to ensure that all children
Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 81
succeed in school. But more than that, schools have a responsibility to provide today’s
A Developmentally and Technologically children with the skills to function in a complex, global society. In short, they benefit from
Appropriate Classroom
A preschool teacher creates a class website that is updated regularly. The children create Including All Children an anti-bias education, which we describe in the next section.
a slide show about their class pet using Kid Pix software to share with families. For an
Developmentally Appropriate Practice
integrated science study on the properties of water, kindergartners produce information
books on the computer using digital photos of their water experiments.
Anti-Bias Education
and Children with Disabilities
anti-bias education Learning The early childhood field has embraced the concept of an anti-bias education. Anti-bias
People sometimes wonder if developmentally appro- up from school, his teacher describes how often he
experiences and teaching education includes learning experiences and teaching strategies that are specifically

Lens features present insights on culture, language, and in-

priate practices are that
strategies effective for children with dis-
are specifically used his words and which friends he played with
abilities. The fact is that the basic elementsdesigned
designed not only to prepare all
of de- not onlycenter
during to prepare
time. all children for life in a culturally rich society but also
velopmentally appropriate practice are necessary to counter
for the stereotyping of diverse groups and to guard against expressions of bias
children for life in a culturally By contrast, when children with disabilities are included
( Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010). In this section, we discuss goals of culturally
cluding all children. These features discuss practice through
inclusion to succeed. Consider the following example:
rich society, but also to counter in programs that are not developmentally appropriate,
Isaac is 4the years old and has
stereotyping a diagnosis of autism. it becomes difficult for theand
of diverse responsive, anti-bias education ways
child with of helping
special needs—children achieve those goals. The
He is sitting
groups,on and
a brightly against carpetoverarching
to guard colored square indeed, goal for
of all
anti-bias education ismake
of the children—to to help all children reach their full potential.
meaningful

diverse lenses, expanding the sources of information teach-

between
Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, two
Literacy, of his
and preschool
the Arts
expressions of bias. peers at circle
393To do so, anti-bias education focusesexperience
time. progress. Compare this child’s to Isaac’s:
on four core goals for children (Derman-Sparks &
His teacher is reading a book the class made called
Edwards, 2010; Tara, Teaching Tolerance,
also a 4-year-old 2012):is sitting next to
with autism,
Friends, Friends, Who Do You See? It is adapted
her teacher
1. Identity. at circle
Teachers time.and
foster The support
teacher ischildren’s
reading fromself-awareness, confidence, and
from Brown Bear, Brown Bear (Martin, 1996), but
Stage Description How Teachers Can Help
ers use to make decisions and helping them look at questions
a small-sized book, and many of the children can-
features pictures of the children in the class pairedpride in their family and own identity.
not see the pictures very well, including Tara. Circle
Stage 6: Advanced Children have developed understanding with their names.
Teachers Isaac loves
intentionally teachthe the book,
vocabu- and reads
time has been in progress for over 20 minutes and
Language Proficiency of specialized, content-related vocabu- along lary with the teacher.
and language Asrequired
skills the teacherfor reads each many of the children are getting restless. Tara begins

or problems from broader perspectives. Widening the lens

child’s name in the story, he or she stands up and
lary. It can take from 5 to 7 years for academic achievement in school. For rocking back and forth and looking at the door. With-
moves. After the story, it is time for singing. Isaac
children to master this level of cogni- example, mathematics out warning, the teacher stops reading the book and
knows this because circle requires
time happensknowingin a similar
tively demanding language. wordseach
routine like day.
Language Lens
addend or double-digit mul- tells the children to stand up for a finger play. Tara

with which teachers view their practice is a strategy to move

bolts from the circle and runs to the water table. She
The teacher
tiplication that pulls
are not outused
the “song chart” featur-
in everyday
begins splashing and yelling. The teacher stops and
ingspeech.
Using Technology to Teach Dual Language Learners
the pictures and titles of eight different songs.
One song is about a train. Isaac loves trains and
asks Tara to return to circle. When Tara does not re-

beyond the persistent educational tendency to dichotomize

Sources: Based on Getting It Right for Young Children from Diverse Backgrounds: turn on her own volition, the assistant teacher physi-
seems eager to hear the new song. He points to the
Applying Research to Improve Practice, by L. M. Espinosa, 2010, Upper Saddle River, With growing numbers of dual and multi-language cally moves her back to spellings)
learn- the circle, to
and help children learn routines and safety pre-
a 10-minute
“Trains on the track.” The teacher helps Isaac re-
NJ: Pearson; Oral Language and Early Literacy in Preschool: Talking, Reading, and struggle ensues. When Tara’s father On
cautions. comesthetoInternet
pick hershe finds images, songs, and
move the song ers card. inIsaac
our classrooms,
holds the card allwhile
teachers
the need to be prepared
Writing. 2nd edition, by K. A. Roskos, P. O. Tabors, and L. A. Lenhart, 2009, Newark, to support English language acquisition up,while
the teacher describesstories
also pro- “her bad day”
that and asks depict
accurately him children’s homelands, and

difficult or controversial issues into “either/or” choices, and

children sing. Then Isaac makes the sign for “play”
DE: International Reading Association. to talk to Tara about listening
uses at school.
these to spark conversations among small groups of
with his hands.motingThe teachercontinued homeIsaac,
says, “Yes, language
it is development. Using
time for centers.” technology
She letsexponentially
Isaac choose increases
a center teachers’
A child with options to acts
a disability children. She teaches
like a magnifying glassall
onthe children to use iTranslate
first because she achieve
knowsthese
it is goals,
hard for ashim
these to examples
wait. theillustrate: on classroom
developmental appropriateness of antablets to aid communication and support
early child-

move toward “both/and” thinking. Isaac brings the teacher the song card and then hood program. As is clearburgeoning from Isaac’s friendships.
case and by The class uses Skype to com-
Yao ofisthea Chinese speaker who doesn’t talk at all in
points to the picture water table. His teacher contrast Tara’s experience,municate with children’s
developmentally appropri-relatives in other parts of the
Culture Lens models, “I want preschool.
“Water table.” His
to play at the.
won’t
He is. .isolated
playproud
teacher, with of
.” Isaacfrom
him.his His
says,the ate
other
teacher knows
increasing
children
practice
successful
who the necessary
provides
thatinclusion
country orfoundation
without in theincluding
world. Within
program.native
for hisa few weeks, all the children,
But individually
English speakers, enjoy helping each
Understanding and Responding to Code verbal skills, givessocial
Switching him ainteraction,
hug and says, his “Off
English
you skills won’t develop.
go appropriate She are
adaptations also explore
other essential for children
different languages and learn together.
to the water table.” loansWhenhisIsaac’s
familymother
an iPad andhim
picks with the
withhelp of a trans-
disabilities and other special needs.
lator shows him a digital storytelling app to create a Children all over the world speak multiple languages. The
Code switching is the ability to understand and use both using the same strategies that promote language learning
story about his family with photos and narration in both opportunity to become bilingual or multilingual awaits
the commonly accepted version of English and the home in all children: listening and responding in a meaningful
language or dialect. When children are learning a second English
way, using real objects and nonverbal cues, Chinese. When he shares the story with the every child in America if schools take advantage of young
andintentionally
language, they often code switch, usually beginning a teaching new words, and extendingother conversations
children, they
withrealize that Yao has an interesting children’s inborn ability to learn language and the afford-
sentence in one language and then switching to the other quietly with
questions life andAseveral
a puzzle or pegboard.
and ideas. secondofgrader
them decide
loves totoread
use and
the spends all of herable,
app to create free technological resources now available.
as in: “I drew a picture de mi madre” or “Mi mano es stories about
time with abilingual
Sometimes book, while
teachersanother
think that they themselves.
struggles with
can reading but looks forward to math because
sup- Sources: Digital Story Helps Dual Language Learner Connect
dirty.” Code switching is not limited to children. In fact,
bilingual people of all ages alternate between languages
it’s her
port dualbest subject.
language learning by alternating languages
Kara’s kindergarten includes speakers of four different
with Classmates, by D. Bates, no date, Washington, DC: National
themselves.
The term Again, the opposite appropriate
individually is true. Children’s brains
refers to teachers aboutAssociation for the Education of Young Children, retrieved August
depending on the setting and the topic of conversation.
will automatically listen and respond home languages, some
to the language of whomusing whatarrived
are newly they know
immi- the individually
27, 2014,
appropriate
from http://www.naeyc.org/technology/digital-story-
Many bilingual individuals find that they can best ex- personality, strengths, interests,
grants. and abilities
She
they know best and tune out the other one. To promote relies of
on each individual
technology to child
create in
an the group
accessible to adapt Information about the strengths,
press their feelings and personal thoughts in their native helps-dual-language-learner;
interests, abilities, and“Using
needs Technology as a Teaching
for and
dual be responsive
language development, to bilingual
individual
environment variation.
teachers forcan Consider,
allread
the childrenfor instance,
as they two
acquire tricycle riders:
sufficient Tool for Dual Language Learners
language. of each individual child inin
thePreschool through Grade 3,”
The fearless
books in each rider maybut
language need more
should
English careful
do to
sonavigatesupervision
at separatethe school.to prevent injury,
Kara posts whileand
pictures the warier
by K. N. group
Nemeth
In the past, it was assumed that code switching meant times. that enables teachers2013,
and F. S. Simon, to Young Children, 68(1),
child may need extra encouragement and support
labels in various to develop
languages (in somehiscases
large motor skills. Similar-
with phonetic 48–52. adapt to and be responsive to
that children were confused or incompetent. But now we
know that the opposite is true: children are able to sepa-
ly, some children
Encouraging childrenwilltoneed
code enriched
switch and experiences
respondingto accelerate their language development, individual variation.
positively
while a few honorsmay theneed
language system support
individual that they toalready
continue to build on their precocious reading
rate the languages in their brains and apply the differ-
possess and helps them adapt to different communica-
ent rules of grammar of each language. Code switching ability. A withdrawn, timid child may need a great deal of emotional support to cope with
tion requirements in different situations. And it also
is actually a sign of children’s growing communicative life’s challenges, while another needs helpbecause
controlling aggression to make friends.
respects and supports their cultural identity
competence. They are using all they know to communi-
Withand
language the culture
individual differenceslinked.
are inextricably that exist,
Teach-teachers clearly cannot expect all children
cate as clearly as they can.
in ashould
ers groupalways
to learn theasame
create warm,thing
positivein classroom
the same way at the same time. Even when the
So what should teachers do about code switching? First, climate in which children feel safe
teacher introduces a concept or reads a book to express them-
to a whole group, each child will take away
they should expect code switching as a normal aspect selves. Capable code switchers acquire the ability to
of dual language learning. The most important thing is something
think about different
their own fromuse ofthe learning
language, experience.
which serves Therefore, to help children progress,
not to correct children when they mix languages. Cor- them well in other learning situations and has long-
recting children’s language attempts sends a signal that lasting positive effects on language, cognition, and so-
they’ve done something wrong. They may stop trying to cial development.
communicate in order to avoid making the “mistake” of
code switching. Source: Code Switching: Why It Matters and How to Respond, by
National Center on Cultural and Linguistic Responsiveness, no
Instead of focusing on children’s “errors,” teachers date, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human
should focus on understanding the child’s message. They Services, Office of Head Start. Retrieved January 26, 2015, from
should view code switching as a strength. As always, http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/cultural-linguistic
teachers should be good language models themselves, /fcp/docs/code-switching.pdf.

• Current research findings, such as effective strategies for teaching dual language learn-
ers or children with autism spectrum disorder, are brought to life and made meaningful
by connections to classroom and community examples.
• The terms and definitions used in this text contribute to establishing a shared v­ ocabulary
for all of those in and entering the field.
• Approximately 40% of the references are from 2012 and beyond.

ix

In the Developmental Continuum feature, the text provides
an overview of the continuum of learning in the areas of
language, literacy, mathematics, and cognitive, social, emo-
tional, and physical development and describes how child
development is linked to curriculum planning for children
from birth through age 8.
Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education
Promoting Play
Addressing Threats to Children’s Play
Pediatricians and psychologists agree that too many
children today experience high levels of unrelent-
ing stress. Factors such as poverty and violence are
the primary sources, but stress affects the lives of
all children to some extent. Teachers today report
that more children are aggressive and disruptive as
a result of stressful events. Increasing numbers of
children, especially boys, are inaccurately diagnosed
as hyperactive and needlessly medicated. Childhood
obesity is also endemic.
Research demonstrates that exercise and child-
initiated play are effective stress-relievers. Ironically,
however, a survey of child care, preschool, and Head
Start teachers found that they tend to limit chil-
dren’s opportunities for active play, especially out-
doors, due to safety concerns and the need to pre-
pare children academically for school. And children
living in poverty are most likely to suffer because
they have less access to safe outdoor play areas and
programs feel extra pressure to focus on academic
instruction to close the school readiness gap.
Part of the solution is that teachers, parents, and
administrators need to understand that play and
school readiness is not an either/or choice. The
American Academy of Pediatrics emphasizes that
play is essential for children’s physical health, emo-
tional and mental well-being, social relationships,
and brain development and cognition. Vigorous play
develops large motor skills, and can reduce obesity.
In short, play contributes to all areas of develop-
ment and learning.
Continuity and Change
One overarching trend always affecting education is continuity and change. As the field
expands and changes occur in response to new political and economic realities, many
longtime early childhood professionals are concerned that the fundamental values of the
field will be lost. Development, including development of professions, is characterized by
both continuity and change. In this book we describe how the fundamental values of early
childhood education can be retained and enhanced (thus maintaining continuity with the
important tenets of the past), while also presenting what is known from new research
about effective teaching practices for all children. Some ways of thinking and practicing
should be cherished and held onto, whereas others may need to be updated or abandoned.
x
Connections between Curriculum and
Child Development
Unlike many early childhood texts that focus on child development only, this text shows
how child development and curriculum content knowledge are connected.
Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 383
Developmental Continuum
Oral Language
Age of Child Developmental Expectations
Birth to about
8 months
• Communicate through behaviors rather than words; signal distress by crying. Caregivers
need to interpret babies’ sounds and gestures.
• Smile or vocalize if they want someone to pay attention or play.
• Begin vocalizing vowel sounds called cooing. Soon after, they begin to babble, producing
consonant/vowel sounds such as “ba.”
• Continue to babble using all kinds of sounds and will play with sounds when alone.
• Begin to understand familiar names such as those of siblings or pets.
• Laugh and appear to listen to conversations.
Between 8 and • Become more purposeful in their communications.
18 months • Use facial expressions, gestures, and sounds to get their needs met. (If a bottle falls from
a high chair tray, instead of just crying, the 14-month-old may grunt and wave at the floor.)
• Understand many more words than they can say.
• Speak in long, babbled sentences that mirror the cadence of conventional speech.
• Soon start to shake their head “no” and begin to use the word me.
• Usually crack the language code and begin to use their first words between 12 and
18 months.
From 18 to • Experience a burst in vocabulary and begin to combine words into two-word utterances
24 months called telegraphic speech. Like old-fashioned telegrams, they waste no words in commu-
nicating their message: “No nap.”
Ages 2 to 3 • Progress from using two-word combinations (my truck) to three- and four-word sentences
with words in the correct order more often (Where’s my truck?).
• Speaking vocabulary may reach 200 words.
• Use adjectives and adverbs. (Give me my blue truck now.)
• Most children’s speech becomes more understandable. Constantly ask, “Wassat?” as
they seem to want to name everything.
Ages 3 to 6 • Have a vocabulary of about 1,000 words.
• Although some may still have difficulty, most are better able to articulate some of the
more difficult sounds, like s, th, z, r, and l.
• Can initiate and engage in more complex conversations.
• Use 1,500 to 2,000 words as vocabulary expands rapidly during kindergarten.
• Usually speak clearly and are lively conversation partners with adults and other children.
The primary grades • Language development continues at a rapid pace.
• During these years, children need a large vocabulary to learn to read and to comprehend
what they read. Explicit teaching of vocabulary needs to be an instructional goal.
• At the same time, the more children read, the more words they learn because the lan-
guage of books is more elaborate than everyday conversation. Some researchers estimate
that children need to learn 3,000 words a year throughout the elementary school years.
Sources: Based on Assessing and Guiding Young Children’s Development and Learning, 6th
edition, by O. McAfee, D. Leong, and E. Bodrova, 2015, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson;
Learning Language and Loving It: A Guide to Promoting Children’s Social, Language,
and Literacy Development in Early Childhood Settings, 2nd edition, by E. Weitzman and
J. Greenberg, 2002, Toronto: The Hanen Centre.
• Chapters 12 to 15 help early childhood teachers understand right from the start
that there is content in the curriculum for young children. They describe the goals
for young children’s learning and development that predict success in school and
life. Each of these chapters includes examples of effective strategies such as teach-
ing children of diverse abilities in inclusive classrooms or ways to promote dual
language learning.
31
A new feature, Promoting Play, presents new research on the
important role of play in development and effective strategies
In an attempt to get children ready for school and
protect them from injury, early childhood programs
to help children learn through play or protect their right to play.
may actually be contributing to children’s stress by
minimizing children’s large muscle activity and child-
initiated play time. Because children spend so much
These features address play across the full age range, from birth
time in early childhood programs and school, it may
be their only opportunity to have physical activity or
through age 8. Discussions of play are also integrated in each
outdoor play.
Early educators need to draw on the support of
chapter throughout this book as an effective means to support
physicians and other experts to help educate parents
and policy makers about the importance of play in
children’s lives and its essential role in helping chil-
all domains of development and promote learning in all cur-
dren cope with stress and improve school success.
They also need to advocate for funding to provide
safe playgrounds and adequate spaces indoors and
riculum areas. Today many people are concerned about how the
outdoors for active engagement. Play spaces and
opportunities must be designed to protect children
standards movement is negatively impacting play. We often hear
from injury, but protecting them from stress is
equally important.
Sources: “Societal Values and Policies May Curtail
statements such as “We can’t let children play because we have
Preschool Children’s Physical Activity in Child Care
Centers,” by K. A. Copeland, S. N. Sherman, C. A.
Kendeigh, H. J. Kalkwarf, & B. E. Saelens, 2012,
to teach literacy,” or “We don’t have time for outdoor play in
Pediatrics, 129(2), retrieved from http://pediatrics.
aappublications.org/content/early/2012/01/02/
peds.2011-2102.full.pdf+html; “The Importance of
primary grades because we have to get children ready for stan-
Play in Promoting Healthy Child Development and
Maintaining Strong Parent-Child Bond: Focus on
Children in Poverty,” by R. M. Milter, K. R. Ginsburg, &
dardized tests.” Play should not be treated as a separate part of
Council on Communications and Media Committee
on Psychological Aspects of Child and Family Health,
Pediatrics, 129(1), e204–e213, retrieved from http://
an early childhood program or day that can be cut if someone
www.pediatrics.aappublications.org.
deems it unimportant. Therefore, you will find a discussion of
play in every chapter of this book.
• The emphasis on implementing effective curriculum reflects current trends such
as the goal of aligning prekindergarten and primary education, NAEYC accredita-
tion and CAPE professional preparation standards, and enhanced expectations for
teacher qualifications as described in the 2015 report, Transforming the Workforce
for Children Birth through Age 9: A Unifying Foundation by the Institute of Medicine
and the National Research Council.
 Acknowledgments
Over more than four decades in early childhood education, I have had the
privilege of working with and learning from countless friends, colleagues, teachers, and
children. This book would not have been possible without the help and encouragement of
the following people:
My deepest appreciation goes to Kathleen Cranley Gallagher, my collaborator on this
edition, who revised Chapters 4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 14, and 15. Kate’s vast experience with chil-
dren, with and without disabilities, as well as her research on children’s social-emotional
development and mental health greatly inform this edition. Kate contributed research and
effective practices on early intervention, teaching children with autism spectrum disorder,
and other cutting-edge topics. Without Kate’s help, I can’t imagine completing this work
in a timely fashion.
I especially wish to thank Carol Copple, with whom I have collaborated on Devel-
opmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs for several decades, and
who contributed features as well as invaluable assistance in conceptualizing aspects of the
book. Thanks also to Laura Colker for her overwhelming generosity, sharing of ideas, and
gracious support.
I want to acknowledge Carol Brunson Day for teaching me so much about diver-
sity, anti-bias education, and cultural influences on development. Her work contributed
greatly to the Culture and Language Lens features and Chapter 6.
Thank you to Gail E. Joseph, who was especially helpful on the first edition, and many
of her contributions are still present in Chapters 5 and 14 and the Including All Children
lenses.
Thanks to my longtime friend Kay M. Albrecht, who contributed to Chapter 15 and
provided numerous examples from her extensive classroom experience.
I wish to thank Linda Espinosa and Luis Hernandez for helping ensure that the book
reflects the most current research and practical examples for teaching dual language
learners.
Close colleagues whose wisdom and encouragement have educated and sustained me
for decades include Marilyn Smith, J. D. Andrews, Barbara Willer, and Barbara Bowman.
My deepest gratitude goes to Sharon Lynn Kagan for writing the foreword to this edi-
tion. The debt is never paid to the late Carol Seefeldt, who taught the first early childhood
course I ever took and mentored me through my dissertation. I hope that my work con-
tinues to reflect her vision.
A sincere thank you and acknowledgment of support to Arlington Public Schools
(APS) in Arlington, Virginia. Those assisting in the effort include: Arlington Public
Schools administrative personnel Regina Van Horne, Lisa Stengle, and Linda Erdos;
K. W. Barrett Elementary principal, Mr. Dan Redding; and K. W. Barrett instructional
staff Joshua McLaughlin, Anastasia Erickson, Emily Sonenshine, Stephanie Shaefer, Judy
Concha, Jennifer Flores, Elizabeth Jurkevics, and Richard Russey. Also, a big thanks to
those students and their parents who allowed us to use the student artwork and artifacts
found in this book.
I am also grateful to the many other schools, teachers, and administrators who
welcomed me as an observer, shared examples, and contributed artifacts, including:
Cathy ­Polanski, Second Grade, Arcola Elementary School; Hoaliku Drake Preschool,
Kamehameha Schools Community-Based Early Childhood Education; the Center
­
for Young Children at the University of Maryland; The Shoenbaum Family Center in
­Columbus, Ohio, including Anneliese Johnson; Wickliffe Progressive Community School
and the Jentgen family; Linden, New Jersey, Public Schools; Far Hills Country Day School
in Far Hills, New Jersey; the HighScope Demonstration Preschool in Ypsilanti, Michigan;
and Easter Seals Blake Children’s Achievement Center in Tucson, Arizona.
I continue to be indebted to Julie Peters, my editor at Pearson, for contributing her
wealth of knowledge about early childhood teacher education, and her unwavering s­ upport
for my work. I also wish to thank Linda Bishop for leading me through the d ­ evelopment
xi
 of an Interactive eText for the first time. Thanks also for the creative contributions to the
first edition of Max Effenson Chuck and Kelly Villella Canton.
My life and work continue to be inspired by Patty Smith Hill, founder of NANE,
whose vision for early childhood education laid the foundation for NAEYC’s commitment
to developmentally appropriate practice.
I would also like to thank the many reviewers who contributed to the development
of this book. They are: Margaret Charlton, Tidewater Community College; Jody Eberly,
The College of New Jersey; Amy Howell, Central Oregon Community College; Claire
Lenz, St. Joseph’s College; Marilyn Roseman, Mount Aloysius College; and Lois Silvernail,
Spring Hill College.

Instructor Supplements
The following instructor tools supplement, support, and reinforce the content presented
throughout the text. All supplements are available for download for instructors who adopt
this text. Go to http://www.pearsonhighered.com, click “Educators,” register for access,
and download files. For more information, contact your Pearson representative.
• Online Instructor’s Manual (013402687X). The Instructor’s Resource Manual pro-
vides chapter-by-chapter tools to use in class. Lecture or discussion outlines, teach-
ing strategies, in-class activities, student projects, key term definitions, and helpful
resources will reinforce key concepts and applications and keep students engaged.
• Online Test Bank (0134026756). These multiple-choice and essay questions tied to
each chapter provide instructors the opportunity to assess student understanding
of the chapter content. An answer key is provided.
• Online PowerPointTM Slides (0134026829). Each slide reinforces key concepts and
big ideas presented throughout the text.
• TestGen (013402673X). This powerful test generator contains the same items that
are in the Online Test Bank, but you may add or revise items. Assessments may be
created for print or testing online. You install TestGen on your personal computer
(Windows or Macintosh) and create your own tests for classroom testing and for
other specialized delivery options, such as over a local area network or on the web.

The tests can be downloaded in the following formats:

TestGen Testbank file - PC • TestGen Testbank file - MAC • TestGen Testbank -
Blackboard 9 TIF • TestGen Testbank - Blackboard CE/Vista (WebCT) TIF •
Angel Test Bank • D2L Test Bank • Moodle Test Bank • Sakai Test Bank

xii
 Foreword
Like all Sue Bredekamp’s work, Effective Practices in Early Childhood Education:
Building a Foundation has become a landmark. Since its publication, it has been
the major benchmark against which all volumes related to early childhood practice are
­measured, domestically and internationally. Indeed, it has been a driving force, not only
guiding practice and scholarship, but also serving as a seminal vehicle to codify and
chronicle the impact of history, the experiences of practitioners and leaders, and the im-
pact of policy on the changing field of early education. In so doing, it has converted static
assumptions and understandings about early childhood pedagogy into living, dynamic,
and far more intentional practices.
Since its appearance, Effective Practices has been widely read and used to guide early
childhood teacher preparation and practice. Its popularity has placed a special burden on
the work; it, like the field, cannot remain stagnant or isolated from changes in the social
context. Precisely because it is so well used and because the field is changing so rapidly, a
new edition is necessary. Consider for example, the impact that the emergence of the K–12
Common Core has had on early education: whether one favors or disparages the Common
Core ideologically, it is here to stay and is having profound impacts on American educa-
tion generally, and American early education specifically. In addition, the revitalization
of an emphasis on continuity and transition, emerging currently in the form of the “P–3
Movement,” is altering the way early educators conceptualize and actualize the linkages
between pre-primary and primary education. Within the birth to 5-year-old component
of early childhood, a renewed emphasis on supporting the infrastructure through the Ear-
ly Learning Challenge Fund, with its focus on Quality Rating and Improvement Systems,
standards, and assessments, is precipitating dramatic changes in the way early childhood
education services are being designed and delivered. Finally, new research related to the
way children learn and process information is calling forth compelling pedagogical align-
ments that address the importance of dual language learners, executive functioning, early
mathematics, and learning progressions.
With the early childhood field changing so rapidly, time-honored questions are be-
ing catapulted to new prominence, often begging for urgent response: What should be
the balance between cognitive development and other domains historically important to
early childhood? What should be the balance between a focus on learning processes and
content? What should be the balance between teacher-guided, intentional pedagogy and
child-guided experiential learning? Note that none of these questions is new and that each
recognizes the critical importance of balance.
Indeed, the majesty of this volume is that it, too, understands and addresses the im-
portance of the contemporary context and the balance in perspective and practice it de-
mands. In this volume, Bredekamp takes a long-haul view; she renders solid definitions
of the field, situating the reader firmly in reality, and provides one of the most thorough
historical overviews available. But Bredekamp does not stop there, nor does she skirt the
tough issues, the new research, or the new demands being placed on early educators.
Rather, with clarity and grace, she systematically addresses them all, setting before the
field a rich compendium of research, firsthand and extremely well-cultivated practice,
and ever-wise counsel. Readers will be impressed by the currency, practicality, and clear
intentionality of the volume, evoking the same from those who regard it with the care with
which it was written.
Of particular importance in this ever-changing and increasingly connected world
is the role of culture and language. Bredekamp addresses these issues with honesty and
integrity, treating readers to a richly nuanced understanding of the important roles of
each in the development of young children. Cautiously, she reminds us that the words
“developmentally appropriate”—although bywords of the profession—must be deeply
contextualized in order to be understood and mastered. Indeed, in discussing how to
­balance ­developmentally, individually, and contextually appropriate practices, ­Bredekamp
­brilliantly notes that “a child with a disability acts like a magnifying glass on the
xiii
 ­ evelopmental appropriateness of an early childhood classroom.” In turn, early educators
d
must regard this seminal edition as the best possible lens through which to see and enlarge
what matters most in our field; with wisdom and prescience, it sheds all the light necessary
to advance our evolving, joyous profession and our critically important work on behalf of
children, their families, and their countries.

Sharon Lynn Kagan, Ed.D.

Virginia and Leonard Marx Professor of Early Childhood and Family Policy,
Teachers College, Columbia University;
and Professor Adjunct, Yale University’s Child Study Center

xiv
 Brief Contents

Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education 2

Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
 6

Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice. . . . . . . . . 68

Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach 100
Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development. . . . . 1
 00

Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

 38

Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach 204

Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children. . . . . 2
 38

Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
 08

Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach 378

Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy,
and the Arts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
 78

Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems:

Mathematics, Science, and Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Chapter 14 Teaching Children to Live in a Democratic Society: Social-Emotional
Learning and Social Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
 54

Chapter 15 Teaching Children to Be Healthy and Fit:

Physical Development and Health. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Chapter 16 Putting It All Together in Practice: Making a Difference for Children. . . 516

xv
 Table of Contents

Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education 2

Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
What Is Early Childhood Education?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Why Early Childhood Education Is a Field on the Rise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
The Landscape of Early Childhood Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
How Early Childhood Education Is Expanding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Access to Early Childhood Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
How Early Childhood Education Is Changing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Why Become an Early Childhood Educator? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
The Joys of Teaching Young Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Dimensions of Effective, Intentional Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Career Options for Early Childhood Educators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
The Culture of Early Childhood Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Early Childhood Program Quality and Effectiveness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Setting Standards for Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Measuring Quality in Early Childhood Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Measuring Effectiveness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
The Positive Effects of Early Childhood Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Brain Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Lasting Benefits of Early Childhood Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
The Positive Effects of Prekindergarten, Head Start, and Child Care . . . . . . . . 24
Social Justice and Closing the Achievement Gap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Current Trends in Early Childhood Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
New Federal and State Policy Initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Standards and Accountability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Higher Teacher Qualifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Alignment of Services from Birth Through Age 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Advances in Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Stress in Children’s Lives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Continuity and Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Learning from the Past. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Why History Is Relevant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
The Changing View of Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
European Influences on American Early Childhood Education. . . . . . . . . . 41
John Amos Comenius. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

xvi
 Johann Pestalozzi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Friedrich Froebel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Maria Montessori. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Early Childhood Movements in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
The Kindergarten Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Progressive Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
The Nursery School Movement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
The Child Care Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
A Wider View of Early Childhood History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
African Americans in Early Childhood History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Native American Early Childhood History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Latino Early Childhood History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Bringing the Stories Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
The Story of Head Start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
The Prekindergarten Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Building on a Tradition of Excellence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate

Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
What Is Developmentally Appropriate Practice?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
NAEYC’S Position Statement on Developmentally Appropriate Practice. . . . . . 70
Current Issues in Developmentally Appropriate Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Developmentally Appropriate Practice in the Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Intentional Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Purposeful Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Understand and Explain Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Developmentally Appropriate Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Make Informed Decisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Consider All You Know When Making Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
The Complex Role of the Teacher. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Create a Caring Community of Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Teach to Enhance Learning and Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Plan Curriculum to Achieve Important Goals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Assess Children’s Development and Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Build Relationships with Families and Communities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
The Teacher’s Role in Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Widening the Lens: Moving from Either/Or to Both/And Thinking . . . . . . . . . . 89
Developmentally Appropriate Learning Environments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Organize the Physical Space. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Organize the Day. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Research on Developmentally Appropriate Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Research Reviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Research on Elements of Developmentally Appropriate Practice. . . . . . . . . . . 95
The Future of Developmentally Appropriate Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach 100
Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning
and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Understanding Development and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
What Is Development? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
What Is Learning?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
The Role of Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
The Relationship between Theory, Research, and Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Why Study Child Development and Learning?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Brain Development and Implications for Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
How the Brain Promotes Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Implications for Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Implications for Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Child Development Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Human Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Maslow’s Self-Actualization Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Piaget and Cognitive Developmental Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Vygotsky and Sociocultural Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory of Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Learning Theories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
B. F. Skinner and Behaviorism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Albert Bandura and Social Cognitive Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
The Role of Play in Development and Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Types of Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
The Benefits of Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Play and Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Connecting Theory and Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

The Importance of Individual Differences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Why Pay Attention to Individual Differences?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Where Do Individual Differences Come From?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
How Experience Affects Outcomes for Children: Risk or Resilience. . . . . . . . . . 142
What We Know About Individual Differences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Gender Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Cognitive Development and Abilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Emotional and Social Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Approaches to Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Physical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Seeing Each Child as an Individual. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Multiple Intelligences: A Theory of Individual Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Gifted and Talented Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Responsive Education for All Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Differentiating Instruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Response to Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

xviii
 Individual Differences in Ability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
The Language of Early Childhood Special Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
What Teachers Should Know about Children with Disabilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Seeing Children with Disabilities as Individuals: The Case of Autism . . . . . . . . . 155
What Teachers Should Know about Legal Requirements
for Children with Disabilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Embracing Natural Learning Environments and Inclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Effective Practices for Children with Diverse Abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Work on a Team. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Assess Young Children of Diverse Abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Plan Individualized Instructional Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World . . . . . . . . . . 170

Understanding Cultural Diversity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
What Is Culture?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
The Role of Culture in Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
How Culture Functions: Principles to Keep in Mind. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
A Framework for Thinking About Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Individualistic Cultural Orientation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Interdependent Cultural Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Continuum of Common Cultural Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Applying the Continuum in Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Understanding Your Own Cultural Perspective. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Become Aware of Your Own Cultural Experiences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Learn about the Perspectives of Various Cultural Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Teaching in a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Why Does Culture Matter to Teachers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Embracing Linguistic Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Cultural Competence: The Key to Effective Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Cross-Cultural Communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Effective Practices for Diverse Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Culturally Responsive Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Linguistically Responsive Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Anti-Bias Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach 204

Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Today’s Families. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Welcoming Diverse Families. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Family Dynamics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Family Circumstances and Challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Reciprocal Relationships with Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Roles of Teachers and Parents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Family-Centered Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

xix
 Communication with Families. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Barriers to Effective Communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Effective Communication Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Family Engagement in Programs and Schools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Benefits of Family Involvement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Opportunities for Meaningful Family Engagement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Community Partnerships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
A Framework for Building Partnerships with Families. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Clarify Preferences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Communicate Preferences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Negotiate Successfully. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Demonstrate Willingness to Learn and Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding

Young Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
A Caring Community of Learners: The Teaching Pyramid Model . . . . . . . . 240
The Value of a Caring Community of Learners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
The Teaching Pyramid Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Positive Relationships with Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
The Importance of Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Effective Strategies to Build Positive Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
High-Quality Supportive Environments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Establish Clear, Consistent, Fair Rules for Behavior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Support Children to Do Their Best . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Teaching Social-Emotional Competence and Guiding Behavior. . . . . . . . . 255
Guidance and Punishment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Teach Emotional Literacy and Social Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Conflict Resolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Intensive Individualized Interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Understand Challenging Behaviors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Assess and Address the Function of the Child’s Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Team with Families and Professionals to Implement Individualized Plans . . . . . 261
Use Positive Behavior Support. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Applying the Teaching Pyramid Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Apply the Pyramid Model to Teaching Boys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Apply the Pyramid Model to Address Biting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Apply the Pyramid Model to Alleviate Bullying. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

Teaching: Both a Science and an Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
The Science of Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
The Art of Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
A Repertoire of Effective Teaching Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
What Are Teaching Strategies? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Teacher-Initiated and Child-Initiated Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Using an Array of Teaching Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
The Power of Scaffolding: An Integrated Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Connecting Teaching Strategies and Learning Goals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
xx
 Reflect on Your Own Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Strategies That Make Learning Meaningful. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Strategies That Develop Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Strategies That Promote Higher-Level Thinking and Problem Solving. . . . . . . . . 292
Grouping as an Instructional Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
The Learning Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Play as a Context for Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Teachers’ Involvement during Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Teachers’ Role during Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Teaching with Digital Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Research on Digital Media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Using Technology and Digital Media to Teach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Assistive Technology for Children with Diverse Abilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

Defining Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
What Is Curriculum?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Curriculum Models, Approaches, and Frameworks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Written Curriculum Plans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
The Teacher’s Role. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Components of Effective Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
The Role of Standards in Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
What Are Standards? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
How Do Standards Affect Curriculum? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Alignment of Standards and Curriculum across Age Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Approaches to Planning Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Emergent Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Integrated Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Thematic Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Webbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
The Project Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Scope and Sequence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Research-Based Early Childhood Curricula. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Comprehensive Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Focused Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
The Reggio Emilia Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Research on Preschool Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
A Model for Planning Effective Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
The Child in the Sociocultural Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Sources of Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Applying the Curriculum Model in Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Adapting for Individual Differences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

Learning the Language of Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Formative and Summative Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Informal and Formal Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Observation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
xxi
 Performance Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Dynamic Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Standardized Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Types of Standardized Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Purposes of Assessment: Why Assess?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Assessing to Improve Teaching and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Identifying Children with Special Learning or Developmental Needs . . . . . . . . . 351
Evaluating Program Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Assessing for Accountability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Connecting Purposes and Types of Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Indicators of Effective Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Developmentally Appropriate Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Culturally and Linguistically Responsive Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Individually Appropriate Assessment for Children with Special Needs. . . . . . . . 358
Observation and Recording to Improve Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Observing and Gathering Evidence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Recording What Children Know and Can Do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Interpreting and Using Evidence to Improve Teaching and Learning . . . . . . . . . 369
Standardized Testing of Young Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Types of Standardized Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Appropriate Uses of Standardized Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Concerns about Standardized Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Assessment and the Common Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Kindergarten Entry Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375

Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach 378

Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts. . . . 378
Children’s Language Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
The Critical Importance of Language Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Types of Language. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Language Differences in Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Developmental Continuum: Oral Language. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Impact of Common Core Speaking and Listening Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Scaffolding Children’s Language Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Supporting Language Development in Babies and Toddlers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Scaffolding Preschoolers’ Language Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Dual Language Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
How Children Learn a Second Language. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Developmental Continuum: Dual Language Acquisition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Teaching Dual Language Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Early Literacy: Birth through Age 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Developmental Continuum: Early Literacy Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Literacy-Rich Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Early Literacy from Birth to Kindergarten. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Literacy in the Primary Grades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
xxii
 Learning to Read. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Developmental Continuum: Literacy in Kindergarten and Primary Grades. . . . . 404
Evidence-Based Reading Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Digital Literacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Impact of the Common Core State Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Communicating Through the Arts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
The Value of Creative Arts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Visual Arts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Music, Movement, and Dance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Drama. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Seeing the Arts with New Eyes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416

Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems:

Mathematics, Science, and Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
The Importance of Mathematics and Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
The Need for an Educated Workforce. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
The Mathematics Achievement Gap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
The Cognitive Foundations of Early Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
The Continuum of Cognitive Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Executive Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Children’s Thinking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Language and Cognition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Mathematical Language and the Achievement Gap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Effective Mathematics Curriculum and Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Mathematics Curriculum Content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Mathematics Process Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
Effective Mathematics Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Effective Mathematics Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
The Role of Play in Teaching and Learning Mathematics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Effective Science Curriculum and Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Science and Technology in the Early Childhood Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Science Content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Effective Science Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Teaching about and with Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
A Developmentally and Technologically Appropriate Classroom. . . . . . . . . . . . . 449

Chapter 14 Teaching Children to Live in a Democratic Society:

Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Social-Emotional Foundations of Early Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Emotional Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Self-Regulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Social Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Stress in Children’s Lives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Continuum of Social and Emotional Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Infants and Toddlers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Preschool and Kindergarten. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Primary Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
xxiii
 Diversity and Social-Emotional Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
The Role of Play in Social-Emotional Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Emotional Development and Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Social Development and Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Effective Social-Emotional Curriculum and Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Social and Emotional Curriculum Goals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Effective Social Studies Curriculum and Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
What Is Social Studies?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Social Studies Content Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
Effective Strategies for Teaching Social Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480

Chapter 15 Teaching Children to Be Healthy and Fit: Physical

Development and Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
The Importance of Physical Fitness and Health. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Benefits of Physical Fitness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Childhood Obesity Crisis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Implications for Early Childhood Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
How Physical Development Occurs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
The Continuum of Physical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Phases of Motor Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Gross-Motor Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
Fine-Motor Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
The Role of Play in Physical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Childhood Experiences with the Natural Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
Outdoor Play Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
The Value of Rough-and-Tumble Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
Health and Safety Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
The Teacher’s Role in Health and Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Effective Curriculum and Teaching to Promote Physical
Fitness and Health. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
Curriculum for Physical Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
Effective Health Curriculum and Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

Chapter 16 Putting It All Together in Practice: Making a Difference

for Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Life as an Early Childhood Educator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Caring for and Educating Infants and Young Toddlers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Teaching the Whole Child in the Preschool. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Teaching the Whole Child in the Kindergarten. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Teaching the Whole Child in the Primary Grades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
Beginning Your Journey as an Early Childhood Professional . . . . . . . . . . . 526
Become a Professional. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Protect Children from Abuse and Neglect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Join a Profession That Makes a Difference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
Author Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
xxiv Subject Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
Another random document with
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escape, he took the pet from the basket, and placed him in Lady
Jane’s arms.
“See here,” he said, “I’ve sewed this band of leather around his
leg, and you can fasten a strong string to it. If your mama allows you
to have him, you can always tie him to something when you go out,
and leave him alone, and he will be there quite safe when you come
back.”
“I should never leave him alone. I should keep him with me
always,” said the child.
“But, if you should lose him,” continued the boy, spreading one of
the pretty wings over Lady Jane’s plump little arm, “I’ll tell you how
you can always know him. He’s marked. It’s as good as a brand. See
those three black crosses on his wing feathers. As he grows larger
they will grow too, and no matter how long a time should pass
without your seeing him, you’d always know him by these three little
crosses.”
“If mama says I can have him, I can take him with me, can’t I?”
“Certainly, this basket is very light. You can carry it yourself.”
“You know,” she whispered, glancing at her mother, who had
leaned her head on the back of the seat in front of her, and appeared
to be sleeping, “I want to see Carlo and kitty, and the ranch, and all
the lambs; but I mustn’t let mama know, because it’ll make her cry.”
“You’re a good little girl to think of your mother,” said the boy, who
was anxious to cultivate her confidence, but too well-bred to question
her.
“She has no one now but me to love her,” she continued, lowering
her voice. “They took papa from us, and carried him away, and
mama says he’ll never come back. He’s not gone to San Antonio,
he’s gone to heaven; and we can’t go there now. We’re going to New
York; but I’d rather go to heaven where papa is, only mama says
there are no trains or ships to take us there, now, but by-and-by
we’re going if we’re very good.”
 The boy listened to her innocent prattle with a sad smile, glancing
uneasily now and then at the mother, fearful lest the plaintive little
voice might reach her ear; but she seemed to be sleeping, sleeping
uneasily, and with that hot flush still burning on her cheeks.
“Have you ever been in New York?” he asked, looking tenderly at
the little head nestled against his arm. She had taken off her hat, and
was very comfortably curled up on the seat with Tony in her lap. The
bird also seemed perfectly satisfied with his position.
“Oh, no; I’ve never been anywhere only on the ranch. That’s
where Carlo, and kitty, and the lambs were, and my pony, Sunflower;
he was named Sunflower, because he was yellow. I used to ride on
him, and papa lifted me on, and took me off; and Sunflower was so
gentle. Dear papa—I—loved him best of all and now he’s gone
away, and I can’t see him again.”
Here the rosy little face was buried in Tony’s feathers, and
something like a sob made the listener’s heart ache.
“Come, come,” he said softly, “you mustn’t cry, or I shall think you
don’t care for the blue heron.”
In a moment, her little head was raised, and a smile shone through
her tears. “Oh, I do, I do. And if I can have him I won’t cry for the
others.”
“I’m quite sure your mama will consent. Now, let me tell you about
my home. I live in New Orleans, and I have lots of pets,” and the boy
went on to describe so many delightful things that the child forgot her
grief in listening; and soon, very soon the weary little head drooped,
and she was sleeping with her rosy cheek pressed against his
shoulder, and Tony clasped close in her arms.
And so the long, hot afternoon passed away, and the train sped on
toward its destination, while the mother and the child slept, happily
unconscious of the strange fate that awaited them in that city, of
which the spires and walls were even now visible, bathed in the red
light of the evening sun.
 CHAPTER II
TONY GOES WITH LADY JANE

A ND now that the end of the journey was so near, the drowsy
passengers began to bestir themselves. In order to look a little
more presentable, dusty faces and hands were hastily wiped, frowsy
heads were smoothed, tumbled hats and bonnets were arranged,
and even the fretful babies, pulled and coaxed into shape, looked
less miserable in their soiled garments, while their mothers wore an
expression of mingled relief and expectation.
Lady Jane did not open her eyes until her companion gently tried
to disengage Tony from her clasp in order to consign him to his
basket; then she looked up with a smile of surprise at her mother,
who was bending over her. “Why, mama,” she said brightly, “I’ve
been asleep, and I had such a lovely dream; I thought I was at the
ranch, and the blue heron was there too. Oh, I’m sorry it was only a
dream!”
“My dear, you must thank this kind young gentleman for his care of
you. We are near New Orleans now, and the bird must go to his
basket. Come, let me smooth your hair and put on your hat.”
“But, mama, am I to have Tony?”
The boy was tying the cover over the basket, and, at the child’s
question, he looked at the mother entreatingly. “It will amuse her,” he
said, “and it’ll be no trouble. May she have it?”
“I suppose I must consent; she has set her heart on it.”
The boy held out the little basket, and Lady Jane grasped it
rapturously.
“Oh, how good you are!” she cried. “I’ll never, never forget you,
and I’ll love Tony always.”
 At that moment the young fellow, although he was smiling brightly,
was smothering a pang of regret, not at parting with the blue heron,
which he really prized, but because his heart had gone out to the
charming child, and she was about to leave him, without any
certainty of their ever meeting again. While this thought was vaguely
passing through his mind, the lady turned and said to him:
“I am going to Jackson Street, which I believe is uptown. Is there
not a nearer station for that part of the city, than the lower one?”
“Certainly, you can stop at Gretna; the train will be there in a few
minutes. You cross the river there, and the ferry-landing is at the foot
of Jackson Street, where you will find carriages and horse-cars to
take you where you wish to go, and you will save an hour.”
“I’m very glad of that; my friends are not expecting me, and I
should like to reach them before dark. Is it far to the ferry?”
“Only a few blocks; you’ll have no trouble finding it,” and he was
about to add, “Can’t I go with you and show you the way?” when the
conductor flung open the door and bawled, “Grate-na! Grate-na!
passengers for Grate-na!”
Before he could give expression to the request, the conductor had
seized the lady’s satchel, and was hurrying them toward the door.
When he reached the platform, the train had stopped, and they had
already stepped off. For a moment, he saw them standing on the
dusty road, the river and the setting sun behind them—the black-
robed, graceful figure of the woman, and the fair-haired child with her
violet eyes raised to his, while she clasped the little basket and
smiled.
He touched his hat and waved his hand in farewell; the mother
lifted her veil and sent him a sad good-by smile, and the child
pressed her rosy fingers to her lips, and gracefully and gravely threw
him a kiss. Then the train moved on; and the last he saw of them,
they were walking hand in hand toward the river.
 As the boy went back to his seat, he was reproaching himself for
his neglect and stupidity. “Why didn’t I find out her name?—or the
name of the people to whom she was going?—or why didn’t I go with
her? It was too bad to leave her to cross alone, and she a stranger
and looking so ill. She seemed hardly able to walk and carry her bag.
I don’t see how I could have been so stupid. It wouldn’t have been
much out of my way, and, if I’d crossed with them, I should have
found out who they were. I didn’t want to seem too presuming, and
especially after I gave the child the heron; but I wish I’d gone with
them. Oh, she’s left something,” and in an instant he was reaching
under the seat lately occupied by the object of his solicitude.
“It’s a book, ‘Daily Devotions,’ bound in russia, silver clasp,
monogram ‘J. C.,’” he said, as he opened it; “and here’s a name.”
On the fly-leaf was written
Jane Chetwynd.
From Papa,
New York, Christmas, 18—.
“‘Jane Chetwynd,’ that must be the mother. It can’t be the child,
because the date is ten years ago. ‘New York.’ They’re from the
North then; I thought they were. Hello! here’s a photograph.”
It was a group, a family group—the father, the mother, and the
child; the father’s a bright, handsome, almost boyish face, the
mother’s not pale and tear-stained, but fresh and winsome, with
smiling lips and merry eyes, and the child, the little “Lady Jane,”
clinging to her father’s neck, two years younger, perhaps, but the
same lovely, golden-haired child.
The boy’s heart bounded with pleasure as he looked at the sweet
little face that had such a fascination for him.
“I wish I could keep it,” he thought, “but it’s not mine, and I must try
to return to it the owner. Poor woman! she will be miserable when
she misses it. I’ll advertise it to-morrow, and through it I’m likely to
find out all about them.”
Next morning some of the readers of the principal New Orleans
journals noticed an odd little advertisement among the personals:
 Found, “Daily Devotions”; bound in red russia-leather, silver clasp,
with monogram, “J. C.” Address,
Blue Heron, P. O. Box 1121.

For more than a week this advertisement remained in the columns

of the paper, but it was never answered, nor was the book ever
claimed.
 CHAPTER III
MADAME JOZAIN

M ADAME JOZAIN was a creole of mixed French and Spanish

ancestry. She was a tall, thin woman with great, soft black
eyes, a nose of the hawk type, and lips that made a narrow line
when closed. In spite of her forbidding features, the upper part of her
face was rather pleasing, her mild eyes had a gently appealing
expression when she lifted them upward, as she often did, and no
one would have believed that the owner of those innocent, candid
eyes could have a sordid, avaricious nature, unless he glanced at
the lower part of her face, which was decidedly mean and
disagreeable. Her nose and mouth had a wily and ensnaring
expression, which was at the same time cruel and rapacious. Her
friends, and she had but few, endowed her with many good qualities,
while her enemies, and they were numerous, declared that she was
but little better than a fiend incarnate; but Father Ducros, her
confessor, knew that she was a combination of good and evil, the
evil largely predominating.
With this strange and complex character, she had but two
passions in life. One was for her worthless son, Adraste, and the
other was a keen desire for the good opinion of those who knew her.
She always wished to be considered something that she was not,—
young, handsome, amiable, pious, and the best blanchisseuse de fin
in whatever neighborhood she hung out her sign.
And perhaps it is not to be wondered at, that she felt a desire to
compensate herself by duplicity for what fate had honestly deprived
her of, for no one living had greater cause to complain of a cruel
destiny than had Madame Jozain. Early in life she had great
expectations. An only child of a well-to-do baker, she inherited quite
a little fortune, and when she married the débonnair and handsome
André Jozain, she intended, by virtue of his renown and her
competency, to live like a lady. He was a politician, and a power in
his ward, which might eventually have led him to some prominence;
but instead, this same agency had conducted him, by dark and
devious ways, to life-long detention in the penitentiary of his State—
not, however, until he had squandered her fortune, and lamed her for
life by pushing her down-stairs in a quarrel. This accident, had it
disabled her arms, might have incapacitated her from becoming a
blanchisseuse de fin, which occupation she was obliged to adopt
when she found herself deprived of her husband’s support by the too
exacting laws of his country.
In her times of despondency it was not her husband’s disgrace,
her poverty, her lameness, her undutiful son, her lost illusions, over
which she mourned, as much as it was the utter futility of trying to
make things seem better than they were. In spite of all her painting,
and varnishing, and idealizing, the truth remained horribly apparent:
She was the wife of a convict, she was plain, and old, and lame; she
was poor, miserably poor, and she was but an indifferent
blanchisseuse de fin, while Adraste, or Raste, as he was always
called, was the worst boy in the State. If she had ever studied the
interesting subject of heredity, she would have found in Raste the
strongest confirmation in its favor, for he had inherited all his father’s
bad qualities in a greater degree.
On account of Raste’s unsavory reputation and her own
incompetency, she was constantly moving from one neighborhood to
another, and, by a natural descent in the scale of misfortune, at last
found herself in a narrow little street, in the little village of Gretna,
one of the most unlovely suburbs of New Orleans.
The small one-story house she occupied contained but two rooms,
and a shed, which served as a kitchen. It stood close to the narrow
sidewalk, and its green door was reached by two small steps.
Madame Jozain, dressed in a black skirt and a white sack, sat upon
these steps in the evening and gossiped with her neighbor. The
house was on the corner of the street that led to the ferry, and her
greatest amusement (for, on account of her lameness, she could not
run with the others to see the train arrive) was to sit on her doorstep
and watch the passengers walking by on their way to the river.
 On this particular hot July evening, she felt very tired, and very
cross. Her affairs had gone badly all day. She had not succeeded
with some lace she had been doing for Madame Joubert, the wife of
the grocer, on the levee, and Madame Joubert had treated her
crossly—in fact had condemned her work, and refused to take it until
made up again; and Madame Jozain needed the money sorely. She
had expected to be paid for the work, but instead of paying her that
“little cat of a Madame Joubert” had fairly insulted her. She, Madame
Jozain, née Bergeron. The Bergerons were better than the Jouberts.
Her father had been one of the City Council, and had died rich, and
her husband—well, her husband had been unfortunate, but he was a
gentleman, while the Jouberts were common and always had been.
She would get even with that proud little fool; she would punish her
in some way. Yes, she would do her lace over, but she would soak it
in soda, so that it would drop to pieces the first time it was worn.
Meantime she was tired and hungry, and she had nothing in the
house but some coffee and cold rice. She had given Raste her last
dime, and he had quarreled with her and gone off to play “craps” with
his chums on the levee. Besides, she was very lonesome, for there
was but one house on her left, and beyond it was a wide stretch of
pasture, and opposite there was nothing but the blank walls of a row
of warehouses belonging to the railroad, and her only neighbor, the
occupant of the next cottage, had gone away to spend a month with
a daughter who lived “down town,” on the other side of the river.
So, as she sat there alone, she looked around her with an
expression of great dissatisfaction, yawning wearily, and wishing that
she was not so lame, so that she could run out to the station, and
see what was going on: and that boy, Raste, she wondered if he was
throwing away her last dime. He often brought a little money home. If
he did not bring some now, they would have no breakfast in the
morning.
Then the arriving train whistled, and she straightened up and her
face took on a look of expectancy.
“Not many passengers to-night,” she said to herself, as a few men
hurried by with bags and bundles. “They nearly all go to the lower
ferry, now.”
In a moment they had all passed, and the event of the evening
was over. But no!—and she leaned forward and peered up the street
with fresh curiosity. “Why, here come a lady and a little girl and
they’re not hurrying at all. She’ll lose the ferry if she doesn’t mind. I
wonder what ails her?—she walks as if she couldn’t see.”
Presently the two reached her corner, a lady in mourning, and a
little yellow-haired girl carefully holding a small basket in one hand,
while she clung to her mother’s gown with the other.
Madame Jozain noticed, before the lady reached her, that she
tottered several times, as if about to fall, and put out her hand, as if
seeking for some support. She seemed dizzy and confused, and was
passing on by the corner, when the child said entreatingly, “Stop
here a minute, mama, and rest.”
Then the woman lifted her veil and saw Madame Jozain looking up
at her, her soft eyes full of compassion.
“Will you allow me to rest here a moment? I’m ill and a little faint,—
perhaps you will give me a glass of water?”
“Why, certainly, my dear,” said madame, getting up alertly, in spite
of her lameness. “Come in and sit down in my rocking-chair. You’re
too late for the ferry. It’ll be gone before you get there, and you may
as well be comfortable while you wait—come right in.”
The exhausted woman entered willingly. The room was neat and
cool, and a large white bed, which was beautifully clean, for madame
prided herself upon it, looked very inviting.
The mother sank into a chair, and dropped her head on the bed;
the child set down the basket and clung to her mother caressingly,
while she looked around with timid, anxious eyes.
Madame Jozain hobbled off for a glass of water and a bottle of
ammonia, which she kept for her laces; then, with gentle, deft hands,
she removed the bonnet and heavy veil, and bathed the poor
woman’s hot forehead and burning hands, while the child clung to
her mother murmuring, “Mama, dear mama, does your head ache
now?”
“I’m better now, darling,” the mother replied after a few moments;
then turning to madame, she said in her sweet, soft tones, “Thank
you so much. I feel quite refreshed. The heat and fatigue exhausted
my strength. I should have fallen in the street had it not been for
you.”
“Have you traveled far?” asked madame, gently sympathetic.
“From San Antonio, and I was ill when I started”; and again she
closed her eyes and leaned her head against the back of the chair.
At the first glance, madame understood the situation. She saw
from the appearance of mother and child, that they were not poor. In
this accidental encounter was a possible opportunity, but how far she
could use it she could not yet determine; so she said only, “That’s a
long way to come alone”; then she added, in a casual tone,
“especially when one’s ill.”
The lady did not reply, and madame went on tentatively, “Perhaps
some one’s waiting for you on the other side, and’ll come back on
the ferry to see what’s become of you.”
“No. No one expects me; I’m on my way to New York. I have a
friend living on Jackson Street. I thought I would go there and rest a
day or so; but I did wrong to get off the train here. I was not able to
walk to the ferry. I should have gone on to the lower station, and
saved myself the exertion of walking.”
“Well, don’t mind now, dear,” returned madame, soothingly. “Just
rest a little, and when it’s time for the boat to be back, I’ll go on down
to the ferry with you. It’s only a few steps, and I can hobble that far.
I’ll see you safe on board, and when you get across, you’ll find a
carriage.”
“Thank you, you’re very good. I should like to get there as soon as
possible, for I feel dreadfully ill,” and again the weary eyes closed,
and the heavy head fell back against its resting-place.
 Madame Jozain looked at her for a moment, seriously and silently;
then she turned, smiling sweetly on the child. “Come here, my dear,
and let me take off your hat and cool your head while you’re waiting.”
“No, thank you, I’m going with mama.”
“Oh, yes, certainly; but won’t you tell me your name?”
“My name is Lady Jane,” she replied gravely.
“Lady Jane? Well, I declare, that just suits you, for you are a little
lady, and no mistake. Aren’t you tired, and warm?”
“I’m very hungry; I want my supper,” said the child frankly.
Madame winced, remembering her empty cupboard, but went on
chatting cheerfully to pass away the time.
Presently the whistle of the approaching ferryboat sounded; the
mother put on her bonnet, and the child took the bag in one hand,
and the basket in the other. “Come, mama, let us go,” she cried
eagerly.
“Dear, dear,” said madame, solicitously, “but you look so white and
sick. I’m afraid you can’t get to the ferry even with me to help you. I
wish my Raste was here; he’s so strong, he could carry you if you
gave out.”
“I think I can walk; I’ll try,” and the poor woman staggered to her
feet, only to fall back into Madame Jozain’s arms in a dead faint.
 CHAPTER IV
AN INTERRUPTED JOURNEY

F OR a moment, madame debated on what was best to be done;

then, finding herself equal to the emergency, she gently laid the
unconscious woman on the bed, unfastened her dress, and slowly
and softly removed her clothing. Although madame was lame, she
was very strong, and in a few moments the sufferer was resting
between the clean, cool sheets, while her child clung to her cold
hands and sobbed piteously.
“Don’t cry, my little dear, don’t cry. Help me to bathe your mama’s
face; help me like a good child, and she’ll be better soon, now she’s
comfortable and can rest.”
With the thought that she could be of some assistance, Lady Jane
struggled bravely to swallow her sobs, took off her hat with womanly
gravity, and prepared herself to assist as nurse.
“Here’s smelling salts, and cologne-water,” she said, opening her
mother’s bag. “Mama likes this; let me wet her handkerchief.”
Madame Jozain, watching the child’s movements, caught a
glimpse of the silver fittings of the bag, and of a bulging pocket-book
within it, and, while the little girl was hanging over her mother, she
quietly removed the valuables to the drawer of her armoire, which
she locked, and put the key in her bosom.
“I must keep these things away from Raste,” she said to herself;
“he’s so thoughtless and impulsive, he might take them without
considering the consequences.”
For some time madame bent over the stranger, using every
remedy she knew to restore her to consciousness, while the child
assisted her with thoughtfulness and self-control, really surprising in
one of her age. Sometimes her hot tears fell on her mother’s white
face, but no sob or cry escaped her little quivering lips, while she
bathed the pale forehead, smoothed the beautiful hair, and rubbed
the soft, cold hands.
At length, with a shiver and a convulsive groan, the mother partly
opened her eyes, but there was no recognition in their dull gaze.
“Mama, dear, dear mama, are you better?” implored the child, as
she hung over her and kissed her passionately.
“You see she’s opened her eyes, so she must be better; but she’s
sleepy,” said madame gently. “Now, my little dear, all she needs is
rest, and you mustn’t disturb her. You must be very quiet, and let her
sleep. Here’s some nice, fresh milk the milkman has just brought.
Won’t you eat some rice and milk, and then let me take off your
clothes, and bathe you, and you can slip on your little nightgown
that’s in your mother’s bag; and then you can lie down beside her
and sleep till morning, and in the morning you’ll both be well and
nicely rested.”
Lady Jane agreed to madame’s arrangements with perfect docility,
but she would not leave her mother, who had fallen into a heavy
stupor, and appeared to be resting comfortably.
“If you’ll please to let me sit by the bed close to mama and eat the
rice and milk, I’ll take it, for I’m very hungry.”
“Certainly, my dear; you can sit there and hold her hand all the
time; I’ll put your supper on this little table close by you.”
And madame bustled about, apparently overflowing with kindly
attentions. She watched the child eat the rice and milk, smiling
benevolently the while; then she bathed her, and put on the fine little
nightgown, braided the thick silken hair, and was about to lift her up
beside her mother, when Lady Jane exclaimed in a shocked voice:
“You mustn’t put me to bed yet; I haven’t said my prayers.” Her
large eyes were full of solemn reproach as she slipped from
madame’s arms down to the side of the bed. “Mama can’t hear them,
because she’s asleep, but God can, for he never sleeps.” Then she
repeated the touching little formula that all pious mothers teach their
children, adding fervently several times, “and please make dear
mama well, so that we can leave this place early to-morrow
morning.”
Madame smiled grimly at the last clause of the petition, and a
great many curious thoughts whirled through her brain.
As the child rose from her knees her eyes fell on the basket
containing the blue heron, which stood quite neglected, just where
she placed it when her mother fainted.
“Oh, oh!” she cried, springing toward it. “Why, I forgot it! My Tony,
my dear Tony!”
“What is it?” asked madame, starting back in surprise at the
rustling sound within the basket. “Why, it’s something alive!”
“Yes, it’s alive,” said Lady Jane, with a faint smile. “It’s a bird, a
blue heron. Such a nice boy gave it to me on the cars.”
“Ah,” ejaculated madame, “a boy gave it to you; some one you
knew?”
“No, I never saw him before.”
“Don’t you know his name?”
“That’s funny,” and the child laughed softly to herself. “No, I don’t
know his name. I never thought to ask; besides he was a stranger,
and it wouldn’t have been polite, you know.”
“No, it wouldn’t have been polite,” repeated madame. “But what
are you going to do with this long-legged thing?”
“It’s not a thing. It’s a blue heron, and they’re very rare,” returned
the child stoutly.
She had untied the cover and taken the bird out of the basket, and
now stood in her nightgown and little bare feet, holding it in her arms,
and stroking the feathers softly, while she glanced every moment
toward the bed.
“I’m sure I don’t know what to do with him to-night. I know he’s
hungry and thirsty, and I’m afraid to let him out for fear he’ll get
away”; and she raised her little anxious face to madame inquiringly,
for she felt overburdened with her numerous responsibilities.
“Oh, I know what we’ll do with him,” said madame, alertly—she
was prepared for every emergency. “I’ve a fine large cage. It was my
parrot’s cage; he was too clever to live, so he died a while ago, and
his empty cage is hanging in the kitchen. I’ll get it, and you can put
your bird in it for to-night, and we’ll feed him and give him water; he’ll
be quite safe, so you needn’t worry about him.”
“Thank you very much,” said Lady Jane, with more politeness than
warmth. “My mama will thank you, too, when she wakes.”
After seeing Tony safely put in the cage, with a saucer of rice for
his supper, and a cup of water to wash it down, Lady Jane climbed
up on the high bed, and not daring to kiss her mother good-night lest
she might disturb her, she nestled close to her. Worn out with
fatigue, she was soon sleeping soundly and peacefully.
For some time Madame Jozain sat by the bed, watching the sick
stranger, and wondering who she was, and whether her sudden
illness was likely to be long and serious. “If I could keep her here,
and nurse her,” she thought, “no doubt she would pay me well. I’d
rather nurse than do lace; and if she’s very bad she’d better not be
moved. I’d take good care of her, and make her comfortable; and if
she’s no friends about here to look after her, she’d be better off with
me than in the hospital. Yes, it would be cruel to send her to the
hospital. Ladies don’t like to go there. It looks to me as if she’s going
to have a fever,” and madame laid her fingers on the burning hand
and fluttering pulse of the sleeper. “This isn’t healthy, natural sleep.
I’ve nursed too many with fever, not to know. I doubt if she’ll come to
her senses again. If she doesn’t no one will ever know who she is,
and I may as well have the benefit of nursing her as any one else;
but I must be careful, I mustn’t let her lie here and die without a
doctor. That would never do. If she’s not better in the morning I’ll
send for Doctor Debrot; I know he’ll be glad to come, for he never
has any practice to speak of now, he’s so old and stupid; he’s a good
doctor, and I’d feel safe to have him.”
 After a while she got up and went out on the doorstep to wait for
Raste. The night was very quiet, a fresh breeze cooled the burning
heat, the stars shone brightly and softly, and as she sat there alone
and lifted her mild eyes toward the sky no one would have dreamed
of the strange thoughts that were passing through her mind. Now
she was neither hungry nor lonesome; a sudden excitement thrilled
her through and through. She was about to engage in a project that
might compensate her for all her misfortunes. The glimpse she had
of money, of valuables, of possible gain, awakened all her cupidity.
The only thing she cared for now was money. She hated work, she
hated to be at the beck and call of those she considered beneath
her. What a gratification it would be to her to refuse to do Madame
Joubert’s lace, to fling it at her, and tell her to take it elsewhere! With
a little ready money, she could be so independent and so
comfortable. Raste had a knack of getting together a great deal in
one way and another. He was lucky; if he had a little to begin with he
could, perhaps, make a fortune. Then she started, and looked
around as one might who suddenly found himself on the brink of an
awful chasm. From within she heard the sick stranger moan and toss
restlessly; then, in a moment, all was quiet again. Presently, she
began to debate in her mind how far she should admit Raste to her
confidence. Should she let him know about the money and valuables
she had hidden? The key in her bosom seemed to burn like a coal of
fire. No, she would not tell him about the money. While taking the
child’s nightgown from the bag, she had discovered the railroad
tickets, two baggage checks, and a roll of notes and loose change in
a little compartment of the bag. He would think that was all; and she
would never tell him of the other.
At that moment, she heard him coming down the street, singing a
rollicking song. So she got up, and hobbled toward him, for she
feared he might waken the sleepers. He was a great overgrown, red-
faced, black-eyed fellow, coarse and strong, with a loud, dashing
kind of beauty, and he was very observing, and very shrewd. She
often said he had all his father’s cunning and penetration, therefore
she must disguise her plans carefully.
 “Hallo, mum,” he said, as he saw her limping toward him, her
manner eager, her face rather pale and excited; “what’s up now?” It
was unusual for her to meet him in that way.
“Hush, hush, Raste. Don’t make a noise. Such a strange thing has
happened since you went out!” said madame, in a low voice. “Sit
down here on the steps, and I’ll tell you.”
Then briefly, and without much show of interest, she told him of
the arrival of the strangers, and of the young woman’s sudden
illness.
“And they’re in there asleep,” he said, pointing with his thumb in
the direction of the room.
“That’s a fine thing for you to do—to saddle yourself with a sick
woman and a child.”
“What could I do?” asked madame indignantly. “You wouldn’t have
me turn a fainting woman into the street? It won’t cost anything for
her to sleep in my bed to-night.”
“What is she like? Is she one of the poor sort? Did you look over
her traps? Has she got any money?” he asked eagerly.
“Oh, Raste, Raste; as if I searched her pockets! She’s beautifully
dressed, and so is the child. She’s got a fine watch and chain, and
when I opened her bag to get the child’s nightgown, I saw that it was
fitted up with silver.”
“What luck!” exclaimed Raste brightly. “Then she’s a swell, and to-
morrow when she goes away she’ll give you as much as a ‘fiver.’”
“I don’t believe she’ll be able to go to-morrow. I think she’s down
for a long sickness. If she’s no better in the morning, I want you to
cross and find Dr. Debrot”
“Old Debrot? That’s fun! Why, he’s no good—he’ll kill her.”
“Nonsense; you know he’s one of the best doctors in the city.”
“Sometimes, yes. But you can’t keep the woman here, if she’s
sick; you’ll have to send her to the hospital. And you didn’t find out
her name, nor where she belongs? Suppose she dies on your
hands? What then?”
“If I take care of her and she dies, I can’t help it; and I may as well
have her things as any one else.”
“But has she got anything worth having? Enough to pay you for
trouble and expense?” he asked. Then he whistled softly, and added,
“Oh, mum, you’re a deep one, but I see through you.”
“I don’t know what you mean, boy,” said madame, indignantly. “Of
course, if I nurse the woman, and give up my bed to her, I expect to
be paid. I hate to send her to the hospital, and I don’t know her
name, nor the name of her friends. So what can I do?”
“Do just what you’ve planned to do, mum. Go right ahead, but be
careful and cover up your tracks. Do you understand?”
Madame made no reply to this disinterested piece of advice, but
sat silently thinking for some time. At last she said in a persuasive
tone, “Didn’t you bring some money from the levee? I’ve had no
supper, and I intend to sit up all night with that poor woman. Can’t
you go to Joubert’s and get me some bread and cheese?”
“Money, money—look here!” and the young scapegrace pulled out
a handful of silver. “That’s what I’ve brought.”
An hour later madame and Raste sat in the little kitchen, chatting
over their supper in the most friendly way; while the sick woman and
the child still slept profoundly in the small front room.
 CHAPTER V
LAST DAYS AT GRETNA

T HE next morning, Madame Jozain sent Raste across the river for
Dr. Debrot, for the sick woman still lay in a heavy stupor, her dull
eyes partly closed, her lips parched and dry, and the crimson flush of
fever burning on cheek and brow.
Before Raste went, Madame Jozain took the traveling bag into the
kitchen, and together they examined its contents. There were the
two baggage-checks, the tickets and money, besides the usual
articles of clothing, and odds and ends; but there was no letter, nor
card, nor name, except the monogram, J. C., on the silver fittings, to
assist in establishing the stranger’s identity.
“Hadn’t I better take these,” said Raste, slipping the baggage-
checks into his pocket, “and have her baggage sent over? When she
comes to, you can tell her that she and the young one needed
clothes, and you thought it was best to get them. You can make that
all right when she gets well,” and Raste smiled knowingly at
madame, whose face wore an expression of grave solicitude as she
said:
“Hurry, my son, and bring the doctor back with you. I’m so anxious
about the poor thing, and I dread to have the child wake and find her
mother no better.”
When Doctor Debrot entered Madame Jozain’s front room, his
head was not as clear as it ought to have been, and he did not
observe anything peculiar in the situation. He had known madame,
more or less, for a number of years, and he might be considered one
of the friends who thought well of her. Therefore, he never suspected
that the young woman lying there in a stupor was any other than the
relative from Texas madame represented her to be. And she was
very ill, of that there could be no doubt; so ill as to awaken all the
doctor’s long dormant professional ambition. There were new