DC MOTORS:

It operates on the Lorentz principle, which states that "a current-carrying

conducter placed in a magnetic and electric field experiences a force." That
force is known as the Lorentz force . Fleming's Left-hand Rule determines the
direction of the mechanical force.
Working principle or Principle of Operation for DC Motor
The operation of a direct current (DC) motor is based on the principle that when
a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor
experiences a mechanical force. The direction of force is given by Fleming's
left-hand rule and the magnitude of this force is given by:
F= BIL Newtons
Where B is a magnetic field, I is current and L is the length of the conductor.

A DC motor is an electromechanical energy conversion device, which converts electrical

energy input into the mechanical energy output.

The operation of the DC motor is based on the principle that when a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a mechanical force acts on the conductor. The
magnitude of the force is given by,

F=BIlNewtons

The direction of this is given by the Fleming's left hand rule.

Construction of a DC Motor
Here is the schematic diagram of a DC Motor

A DC motor consists of six main parts, which are as follows

Yoke

The outer frame of a DC motor is a hollow cylinder made up of cast steel or rolled steel is
known as yoke. The yoke serves following two purposes

 It supports the field pole core and acts as a protecting cover to the machine.
 It provides a path for the magnetic flux produced by the field winding.

Magnetic Field System

The magnetic field system of a DC motor is the stationary part of the machine. It produces
the main magnetic flux in the motor. It consists of an even number of pole cores bolted to the
yoke and field winding wound around the pole core. The field system of DC motor has
salient poles i.e. the poles project inwards and each pole core has a pole shoe having a curved
surface. The pole shoe serves two purposes

 It provides support to the field coils.

 It reduces the reluctance of magnetic circuit by increasing the cross-sectional area of it.

The pole cores are made of thin laminations of sheet steel which are insulated from each
other to reduce the eddy current loss. The field coils are connected in series with one another
such that when the current flows through the coils, alternate north and south poles are
produced.

Armature Core

The armature core of DC motor is mounted on the shaft and rotates between the field poles. It
has slots on its outer surface and the armature conductors are put in these slots. The armature
core is a made up of soft steel laminations which are insulated from each other and tightly
clamped together. In small machines, the laminations are keyed directly to the shaft, whereas
in large machines, they are mounted on a spider. The laminated armature core is used to
reduce the eddy current loss.

Armature Winding

The insulated conductors are put into the slots of the armature core. The conductors are
suitably connected. This connected arrangement of conductors is known as armature winding.
There are two types of armature windings are used – wave winding and lap winding.

Commutator

A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the direct current input to the motor
from the DC source into alternating current in the armature winding. The commutator is
made of wedge-shaped copper segments insulated from each other and from the shaft by mica
sheets. Each segment of commutator is connected to the ends of the armature coils.
Brushes

The brushes are mounted on the commutator and are used to inject the current from the DC
source into the armature windings. The brushes are made of carbon and is supported by a
metal box called brush holder. The pressure exerted by the brushes on the commutator is
adjusted and maintained at constant value by means of springs. The current flows from the
external DC source to the armature winding through the carbon brushes and commutator.

Working of DC Motor
Consider a two pole DC motor as shown in the figure. When the DC motor is connected to an
external source of DC supply, the field coils are excited developing alternate N and S poles
and a current flows through the armature windings.

All the armature conductors under N pole carry current in one direction (say into the plane of
the paper), whereas all the conductors under S pole carry current in the opposite direction
(say out of the plane of the paper). As each conductor carrying a current and is placed in a
magnetic field, hence a mechanical force acts on it.

By applying Fleming’s left hand rule, it can be seen that the force on each conductor is
tending to move the armature in anticlockwise direction. The force on all the conductors add
together to exert a torque which make the armature rotating. When the conductor moves from
one side of a brush to the other, the current in the conductor is reversed and at the same time
it comes under the influence of next pole of opposite polarity. As a result of this, the direction
of force on the conductor remains the same. Therefore, the motor being rotating in the same
direction.
Application of DC Motor:

Back emf Equation of Diff: DC Motor :--

DC Shunt Motor :
IL = Ia + Ish
V = Eb + Ia Ra + BCD
DC Series Motor :
IL = Ise Rse = Ia
V = Eb + Ise Rse + Ia Ra + BCD
= Eb + Ia ( Rse+ Ra ) + BCD
Short Shunt Compound
Motor :
IL = Ise = Ia + Ish
V = Eb+ Ise Rse + Ia Ra + BCD
Long Shunt Compound Motor:
Ise = Ia
IL = Ise + Ish = Ia + Ish
V = Eb + Ise Rse + Ia Ra + BCD
ARMATURE MMF WAVE :

TORQUE EQUATON:
ARMATURE REACTION:
Significance of Back EMF in DC Motor
The armature current drawn by the DC motor is given by,

Ia=V−EbRa
Hence, the back emf makes the DC motor a self-regulating machine i.e. it makes the motor to
draw as much armature current as is needed to develop the torque required by the load.
Therefore, it automatically changes the armature current to meet the load requirement as
follows

 When the motor is running at no-load, a small torque is required to overcome the
mechanical losses. Hence, the Ia is small and back emf is nearly equal to the applied
voltage.
 Now, if the load is connected to the motor, it causes the armature to slow down and
hence, the back emf decreases. The decreased back emf causes the larger current to
flow through the armature and the large armature current means increased developed
torque by the motor. Hence, the torque is increased when the motor slows down. The
motor will stop slowing down when the armature current is sufficient to produce the
increased torque required by the load
 When the load on the motor is decreased, then the torque is momentarily more than
the requirement so that the armature is accelerated. As the speed of the armature
increases, the back emf also increases and causes the armature current is decrease.
 The motor will stop accelerating when the armature current is sufficient to develop
the torque required by the load.

Characteristics of DC motors
Generally, three characteristic curves are considered important for DC motors which are, (i) Torque
vs. armature current, (ii) Speed vs. armature current and (iii) Speed vs. torque. These are explained
below for each type of DC motor. These characteristics are determined by keeping the following two
relations in mind.
Ta ∝ ɸ.Ia and N ∝ Eb/ɸ
These above equations can be studied at - emf and torque equation of dc machine. For a DC motor,
magnitude of the back emf is given by the same emf equation of a dc generator i.e. Eb = PɸNZ / 60A.
For a machine, P, Z and A are constant, therefore, N ∝ Eb/ɸ

Characteristics of DC series motors

Torque vs. armature current (Ta-Ia)
This characteristic is also known as electrical characteristic. We know that torque is directly
proportional to the product of armature current and field flux, Ta ∝ ɸ.Ia. In DC series motors, field
winding is connected in series with the armature, i.e. Ia = If. Therefore, before magnetic saturation of
the field, flux ɸ is directly proportional to Ia. Hence, before magnetic saturation Ta α Ia2. Therefore,
the Ta-Ia curve is parabola for smaller values of Ia.

After magnetic saturation of the field poles, flux ɸ is independent of armature current Ia. Therefore,
the torque varies proportionally to Ia only, T ∝ Ia.Therefore, after magnetic saturation, Ta-Ia curve
becomes a straight line.
The shaft torque (Tsh) is less than armature torque (Ta) due to stray losses. Hence, the curve Tsh vs Ia
lies slightly lower.

In DC series motors, (prior to magnetic saturation) torque increases as the square of armature
current, these motors are used where high starting torque is required.

Speed vs. armature current (N-Ia)

We know the relation, N ∝ Eb/ɸ

For small load current (and hence for small armature current) change in back emf Eb is small and it
may be neglected. Hence, for small currents speed is inversely proportional to ɸ. As we know, flux is
directly proportional to Ia, speed is inversely proportional to Ia. Therefore, when armature current is
very small the speed becomes dangerously high. That is why a series motor should never be started
without some mechanical load.

But, at heavy loads, armature current Ia is large. And hence, speed is low which results in decreased
back emf Eb. Due to decreased Eb, more armature current is allowed.

Speed vs. torque (N-Ta)

This characteristic is also called as mechanical characteristic. From the above two characteristics of
DC series motor, it can be found that when speed is high, torque is low and vice versa.
Characteristics of DC shunt motors
Torque vs. armature current (Ta-Ia)
In case of DC shunt motors, we can assume the field flux ɸ to be constant. Though at heavy loads, ɸ
decreases in a small amount due to increased armature reaction. As we are neglecting the change in
the flux ɸ, we can say that torque is proportional to armature current. Hence, the Ta-Ia characteristic
for a dc shunt motor will be a straight line through the origin.
Since heavy starting load needs heavy starting current, shunt motor should never be started on a
heavy load.

Speed vs. armature current (N-Ia)

As flux ɸ is assumed to be constant, we can say N ∝ Eb. But, as back emf is also almost constant, the
speed should remain constant. But practically, ɸ as well as Eb decreases with increase in load. Back
emf Eb decreases slightly more than ɸ, therefore, the speed decreases slightly. Generally, the speed
decreases only by 5 to 15% of full load speed. Therefore, a shunt motor can be assumed as a
constant speed motor. In speed vs. armature current characteristic in the following figure, the
straight horizontal line represents the ideal characteristic and the actual characteristic is shown by
the dotted line.

Characteristics of DC compound motor

DC compound motors have both series as well as shunt winding. In a compound motor, if series and
shunt windings are connected such that series flux is in direction as that of the shunt flux then the
motor is said to be cumulatively compounded. And if the series flux is opposite to the direction of
the shunt flux, then the motor is said to be differentially compounded. Characteristics of both these
compound motors are explained below.
(a) Cumulative compound motor
Cumulative compound motors are used where series characteristics are required but the load is likely
to be removed completely. Series winding takes care of the heavy load, whereas the shunt winding
prevents the motor from running at dangerously high speed when the load is suddenly removed.
These motors have generally employed a flywheel, where sudden and temporary loads are applied
like in rolling mills.
(b) Differential compound motor
Since in differential field motors, series flux opposes shunt flux, the total flux decreases with increase
in load. Due to this, the speed remains almost constant or even it may increase slightly with increase
in load (N ∝ Eb/ɸ). Differential compound motors are not commonly used, but they find limited
applications in experimental and research work.

Speed of a DC motor
Back emf Eb of a DC motor is nothing but the induced emf in armature conductors due to rotation of
the armature in magnetic field. Thus, the magnitude of Eb can be given by EMF equation of a DC
generator.

Eb =
PØNZ
/60A
(where, P = no. of poles, Ø = flux/pole, N = speed in rpm, Z = no. of armature conductors, A = parallel
paths)

Eb can also be given as,

Eb = V- IaRa

thus, from the above equations

N= b
E 60A
/PØZ
but, for a DC motor A, P and Z are constants
Therefore, N ∝ K Eb/Ø (where, K=constant)

This shows the speed of a dc motor is directly proportional to the back emf and inversely
proportional to the flux per pole.

Speed control methods of DC motor

Speed control of Shunt motor
1. Flux control method

It is already explained above that the

speed of a dc motor is inversely
proportional to the flux per pole. Thus by
decreasing the flux, speed can be
increased and vice versa.
To control the flux, a rheostat is added in
series with the field winding, as shown in
the circuit diagram. Adding more
resistance in series with the field winding
will increase the speed as it decreases the
flux. In shunt motors, as field current is relatively very small, Ish2R loss is small.
Therefore, this method is quite efficient. Though speed can be increased above
the rated value by reducing flux with this method, it puts a limit to maximum
speed as weakening of field flux beyond a limit will adversely affect the
commutation.
2. Armature control method

Speed of a dc motor is directly proportional

to the back emf Eb and Eb = V - IaRa. That
means, when supply voltage V and the
armature resistance Ra are kept constant,
then the speed is directly proportional to
armature current Ia. Thus, if we add
resistance in series with the armature, Ia
decreases and, hence, the speed also
decreases. Greater the resistance in series with the armature, greater the
decrease in speed.
3. Voltage Control Method

a) Multiple voltage control:

In this method, the shunt field is connected to a fixed exciting voltage and
armature is supplied with different voltages. Voltage across armature is changed
with the help of suitable switchgear. The speed is approximately proportional to
the voltage across the armature.

b) Ward-Leonard System:
This system is used where very sensitive speed control of motor is required
(e.g electric excavators, elevators etc.). The
arrangement of this system is as shown in the
figure at right.
M2 is the motor to which speeLosses in DC
Machines

LOSSES IN A DC MACHINE:
In DC machines (generator or motor), the losses may be classified into three categories
namely,

 Copper losses
 Iron or core losses
 Mechanical losses

All these losses appear as heat and hence raise the temperature of the machine. They also
reduce the efficiency of the machine.

Copper Losses
In dc machines, the losses that occur due to resistance of the various windings of the machine
are called copper losses. The copper losses are also known as I2R losses because these losses
occur due to current flowing through the resistance of the windings.

The major copper losses that occur in dc machines are as,

 Armaturecopperloss=I2aRa
Seriesfieldcopperloss=I2seRse
Shuntfieldcopperloss=I2shRsh

In dc machines, there is also a brush contact loss due to brush contact resistance. In practical
calculation, this loss is generally included in armature copper loss.

Iron Losses
The iron losses occur in core of the armature of a DC machine due to rotation of the armature
in the magnetic field. Because these losses occur in core of the armature, these are also called
core losses.

There are two types iron or core losses namely hysteresis loss and eddy current loss.

Hysteresis Loss
The core loss that occurs in core of the armature of a dc machine due to magnetic field
reversal in the armature core when it passes under the successive magnetic poles of different
polarity is called hysteresis loss. The hysteresis loss is given by the following empirical
formula,

Hysteresisloss,Ph=khB1.6maxfV

Where, kh

is the Steinmetz’s hysteresis coefficient, Bmax

the maximum flux density,f is the frequency of magnetic reversal, and V is the volume of
armature core.

The hysteresis loss in dc machines can be reduced by making the armature core of such
materials that have a low value of Steinmetz’s hysteresis coefficient like silicon steel.

Eddy Current Loss

When the armature of a DC machine rotates in the magnetic field of the poles, an EMF is
induced in core of the armature which circulates eddy currents in it. The power loss due to
these eddy currents is known as eddy current loss. The eddy current loss is given by,

Eddycurrentloss,Pe=keB2maxf2t2V

Where,Ke

is a constant of proportionality, and tis the thickness of lamination.

From the expression for eddy current loss it is clear that the eddy current loss depends upon
the square of thickness of lamination. Therefore, to reduce this loss, the armature core is built
up of thin laminations that are insulated from each other by a thin layer of varnish.

Mechanical Losses
The power losses due to friction and windage in a dc machine are known as mechanical
losses. In a dc machine, the friction loss occurs in form of bearing friction, brush friction, etc.
while the windage loss occurs due to air friction of rotating armature.

The mechanical losses depend upon the speed of the machine. But these losses are practically
constant for a given speed.

Note− Iron or core losses and mechanical losses together are known as stray losses.

Constant and Variable Losses

In DC machines, we may group the above discussed losses in the following two categories −

 Constant Losses
 Variable Losses

Those losses in a DC machine that remain constant at all loads are called constant losses.
These losses include − iron losses, shunt field copper loss, and mechanical losses.

Those losses in a DC machine that vary with load are known as variable losses. The variable
losses in a DC machine are − armature copper loss and series field copper loss.

Total losses in a DC machine = Constant losses + Variable losses

d control is required.