DC GENERATORS:

Introduction

A Single Loop Generator / Simple Loop Generator is a basic concept of the

DC Generator. It is a conductor placed between the magnet bars. These magnetic
bars may be of permanent magnet or electro-magnet. The basic working of the
simple loop generator is that when the two wires, conductors or coils are placed
between the magnet bars and imagine the coil is rotating clockwise, the flux starts
changing its value and as a result EMF is induced in it.

Construction

A Simple/Single Loop Generator basically consists of two conductors or coils,

two magnet bars and two slip rings (which are insulated with each other and
from central shaft) and a normal wire for connection as required. The rotating coil
may be assumed as armature and the magnet bars field magnets.

Working Principle

Assume that the coil or the two conductors are rotating in a clock-wise direction. The
coil has a fixed position between the field and the flux linked with it starts changing
its value. As a result, EMF is induced in it and it is proportional to the rate of change
of flux linkage. When the coil reaches at 90 degree in the process of rotating, the
coil slides don’t cut the flux and the flux move parallel between them. As a result,
EMF is not induced in the coil. As the coil continues its rotation, the amount
increases to its maximum and when the coil reaches again at 90 degrees then in this
case maximum EMF is induced in the coil this is because of the maximum flux is
produced.
The result is that when the coil rotates from 90 to 180 degrees, the flux increases
gradually and the rate of change of flux linkage decreases.
When the coil rotates from 180 to 360 degrees the variation occurs in the magnitude
of the EMF. At first EMF remains similar on the middle position EMF reaches to its
maximum and at the end minimum EMF is produced.

Conclusion

Remember that the current produced in the coils is alternating and we get this
current rectified by the split rings. Hence it is cleared that the armature of the DC
Generator also provides Alternating Voltage.

Action of Commutator in DC Generator

The currents induced in the armature winding of a DC generator are alternating in nature

action of commutator (called commutation) involves the change from a generated alternating
current to a direct current.

DC Generator

A DC generator is an electromechanical energy conversion device that converts mechanical

power into DC electrical power through the process of electromagnetic induction.

A DC generator operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction i.e. when the magnetic
flux linking a conductor changes, an EMF is induced in the conductor. A DC generator has a
field winding and an armature winding.

The EMF induced in the armature winding of a DC generator is alternating one and is
converted into direct voltage using a commutator mounted on the shaft of the generator. The
armature winding of DC Generator is placed on the rotor whereas the field winding is placed
on the stator.
Construction of a DC Generator

Here is the schematic diagram of a DC Generator

A DC generator consists of six main parts, which are as follows

Yoke

The outer frame of a DC generator is a hollow cylinder made up of cast steel or rolled steel is
known as yoke. The yoke serves following two purposes

 It supports the field pole core and acts as a protecting cover to the machine.
 It provides a path for the magnetic flux produced by the field winding.

Magnetic Field System

The magnetic field system of a DC generator is the stationary part of the machine. It produces
the main magnetic flux in the generator. It consists of an even number of pole cores bolted to
the yoke and field winding wound around the pole core. The field system of DC generator
has salient poles i.e. the poles project inwards and each pole core has a pole shoe having a
curved surface. The pole shoe serves two purposes

 It provides support to the field coils.

 It reduces the reluctance of magnetic circuit by increasing the cross-sectional area of it.

The pole cores are made of thin laminations of sheet steel which are insulated from each
other to reduce the eddy current loss. The field coils are connected in series with one another
such that when the current flows through the coils, alternate north and south poles are
produced in the direction of rotation.

Armature Core

The armature core of DC generator is mounted on the shaft and rotates between the field
poles. It has slots on its outer surface and the armature conductors are put in these slots. The
armature core is a made up of soft iron laminations which are insulated from each other and
tightly clamped together. In small machines, the laminations are keyed directly to the shaft,
whereas in large machines, they are mounted on a spider. The laminated armature core is
used to reduce the eddy current loss.

Armature Winding

The insulated conductors are put into the slots of the armature core. The conductors are
suitably connected. This connected arrangement of conductors is known as armature winding.
There are two types of armature windings are used – wave winding and lap winding.

Commutator

A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the alternating emf generated in the
armature winding into the direct voltage across the load terminals. The commutator is made
of wedge-shaped copper segments insulated from each other and from the shaft by mica
sheets. Each segment of commutator is connected to the ends of the armature coils.

Brushes

The brushes are mounted on the commutator and are used to collect the current from the
armature winding. The brushes are made of carbon and is supported by a metal box called
brush holder. The pressure exerted by the brushes on the commutator is adjusted and
maintained at constant value by means of springs. The current flows from the armature
winding to the external circuit through the commutator and carbon brushes.

Working of a DC Generator

Consider a single loop DC generator (as shown in the figure), in this a single turn loop
‘ABCD’ is rotating clockwise in a uniform magnetic field with a constant speed. When the
loop rotates, the magnetic flux linking the coil sides ‘AB’ and ‘CD’ changes continuously.
This change in flux linkage induces an EMF in coil sides and the induced EMF in one coil
side adds the induced EMF in the other.

The EMF induced in a DC generator can be explained as follows

  When the loop is in position-1, the generated EMF is zero because, the movement of coil
sides is parallel to the magnetic flux.
 When the loop is in position-2, the coil sides are moving at an angle to the magnetic flux and
hence, a small EMF is generated.
 When the loop is in position-3, the coil sides are moving at right angle to the magnetic flux,
therefore the generated EMF is maximum.
 When the loop is in position-4, the coil sides are cutting the magnetic flux at an angle, thus a
reduced EMF is generated in the coil sides.
 When the loop is in position-5, no flux linkage with the coil side and are moving parallel to
the magnetic flux. Therefore, no EMF is generated in the coil.
 At the position-6, the coil sides move under a pole of opposite polarity and hence the
polarity of generated EMF is reversed. The maximum EMF will generate in this direction at
position-7 and zero when at position-1. This cycle repeats with revolution of the coil.

It is clear that the generated EMF in the loop is alternating one. It is because any coil side
(say AB) has EMF in one direction when under the influence of N-pole and in the other
direction when under the influence of S-pole. Hence, when a load is connected across the
terminals of the generator, an alternating current will flow through it. Now, by using a
commutator, this alternating emf generated in the loop can be converted into direct voltage.
We then have a DC generator.

EMF Equation of DC Generator

For one revolution of the conductor,
Let,
Φ = Flux produced by each pole in weber (Wb)
and
P = number of poles in the DC generator.

therefore,
Total flux produced by all the poles
And,

Time taken to complete one revolution

Where,
N = speed of the armature conductor in rpm.
Now, according to Faraday’s law of induction, the induced emf of the armature conductor is
denoted by “e” which is equal to rate of cutting the flux.

Therefore,
Induced emf of one conductor is
Induced emf of one conductor is
Let us suppose there are Z total numbers of conductor in a generator, and arranged in such a
manner that all parallel paths are always in series.
Here,
Z = total numbers of conductor
A = number of parallel paths
Then,
Z/A = number of conductors connected in series
We know that induced emf in each path is same across the line
Therefore,
Induced emf of DC generator
E = emf of one conductor × number of conductor connected in series.

Induced emf of DC generator is

Construction of a Commutator

Commutator is cylindrical in shape and changes the direction of current by the rotation of the
coil winding inside. Every half rotation of the winding changes the direction of the flow of
current.

 It is composed of several subunits and segments, which are made up of copper.

 A commutator is divided into several sections, and these sections are known as
commutator segments.
 These segments are made up of conducting materials like copper, silver, etc.
 Commutator segments are also attached to the armature windings and metallic brushes.
 This, in turn, depends on the speed and voltage of the machine.
 In between the two segments, there is a layer of insulation which is made up of mica.
 Below the commutator, there is a laminated core that is composed of coiled circuits.
 The number of coils is half the number of commutator segments.
 The metallic brushes ensure good physical contact between the generator and the load.
 In the case of a motor, magnetic fields are applied in the direction of rotation of a device.
 On the other hand, in the case of a generator, mechanical torque is applied to maintain
current in the device.
 Construction of Commutator

Working of a Commutator

The working of a commutator depends on the arrangement in which the shaft, commutator,
and armature are winded together. Whenever the shaft rotates, the current flowing through
the shaft is rotated by the commutator and is then transmitted to the armature. When a shaft
completes half a rotation, the current is reversed.

 In the commutator, segments are attached to each other.

 They are pointed towards a revolving shaft in the electronic appliance.
 The commutator segments are also attached to the armature windings along with the
metallic brush.
 It has two major functions, which include keeping the torque of the armature fixed and
converting alternating current into direct current.
 The number of segments of the commutator is equal to the number of armature coils
present.

Physical Concept of Commutation in DC Machine

https://www.electrical4u.com/images/commutation-process-1.jpg?ezimgfmt=rs:661x229/rscb38/
ng:webp/ngcb38

For the explanation of commutation process, let us consider a DC machine having an

armature wound with ring winding. Let us also consider that the width of the commutator bar
is equal to the width of the brush and current flowing through the conductor is IC.
Let the commutator is moving from left to right. Then the brush will move from right to left.
At the first position, the brush is connected the commutator bar b (as shown in fig 1). Then
the total current conducted by the commutator bar b into the brush is 2IC.

When the armature starts to move right, then the brush comes to contact of bar a. Then the
armature current flows through two paths and through the bars a and b (as shown in fig 2).
The total current (2IC) collected by the brush remain same.
As the contact area of the bar a with the brush increases and the contact area of the bar b
decreases, the current flow through the bars increases and decreases simultaneously. When
the contact area become same for both the commutator bar then same current flows through
both the bars (as shown in fig 3).
When the brush contact area with the bar b decreases further, then the current flowing
through the coil B changes its direction and starts to flow counter-clockwise (as shown in fig
4).
When the brush totally comes under the bar a (as shown in fig 5) and disconnected with the
bar b then current IC flows through the coil B in the counter-clockwise direction and the short
circuit is removed.
In this process the reversal of current or the process of commutation is done.

Definition of Lap Winding

In lap winding, the consecutive coils overlap each other. The first end of the winding is
connected to the one segment of the commutator, and the starting end of the other coil is
placed under the same magnet (different pole) and join with the same segment of the
commutator.

Definition of Wave Winding

The one end of the coil is connected to the starting end of the other coil which has the same
polarity as that of the first coil. The coils are connected in the wave shape and hence it is
called the wave winding. The conductor of the wave winding are split into two parallel paths,
and each path had Z/2 conductors in series. The number of brushes is equal to 2, i.e., the
number of parallel paths.

Basis For
Lap Winding Wave Winding
Comparison
The coil is lap back to the succeeding The coil of the winding form the
Definition
coil. wave shape.
The end of the armature coil is The end of the armature coil is
Connection connected to an adjacent segment on connected to commutator segments
the commutators. some distance apart.
The numbers of parallel path are The number of parallel paths is equal
Parallel Path
equal to the total of number poles. to two.
Parallel Winding or Mulitiple
Other Name Two-circuit or Series Winding.
Winding
EMF Less More
Number of Equal to the number of parallel
Two
Brushes paths.
Progressive and Retrogressive wave
Types Simplex and Duplex lap winding.
winding
Efficiency Less High
Additional Coil Equalizer Ring Dummy coil
 Basis For
Lap Winding Wave Winding
Comparison
High (because more conductor is
Winding Cost Low
required)
In low voltage, high current In high voltage, low current
Uses
machines. machines.

## There are two methods of excitation used for d.c. generators.

1. Separate excitation

2. Self excitation

In separately excited generator, a separate external d.c. supply is used to

provide exciting current through the field winding.

The d.c. generator produces d.c. voltage. If this generated voltage itself is used
to excite the field winding of the same d.c. generator, it is called self excited
generator.

# BACK EMF AND ARMATURE REACTION:

What is the relation between back emf and armature reaction?

The armature flux is responsible is for both back emf and armature reaction. Back emf:
The armature flux produces back emf (due to variation in feild flux produced by rotation of
conductor) which is opposite to the supply voltage. This makes the motor self regulating.
Back emf is necessary for self regulating action.

Voltage build up in the Generator

 When the mechanical input power is given to the DC

Generator, some emf and therefore current would be
generated due to residual magnetism in the poles.
 This current while passing through field coils, it will
strengthen the magnetism of the poles which further
generates emf.
 This mutual reinforcement of field flux and emf
proceeds till equilibrium condition is reached.
  The rated terminal voltage is achieved at balanced
condition.

Condition must be necessary in order to build up voltage in

the generator

 There must be some residual magnetism in the poles of

DC generator.
 The shunt field coils connection must be connected
correctly to the armature.
 The term – correctly – means that the flux produced by
the shunt field aids residual flux. This will result in build
up voltage in the DC generator.
 If the direction of shunt field winding connection
reverses, it will reduces net flux and therefore DC
generator does not build up voltage.
 The direction of rotation of the armature must be such
that the current produces by it always aids the residual
flux.
 The shunt field resistance should be less than the critical
resistance if it is excited to open circuit.
What is Critical Field Resistance of DC Shunt Generator ?

It is defined as the amount of field resistance required to generate emf in the armature
winding. (or) The critical field resistance is defined as the field resistance of the generator
which holds the rated voltage of it. (or) It is the value of field resistance beyond which the
generator fails to build up the voltage if there is a further increase in the field resistance.

What is Critical Speed of DC Shunt Generator ?

Critical speed is defined as the speed at which the given shunt field resistance is equal to the
critical resistance. It is the speed at which the shunt generator just fails to build up its voltage
without any external resistance in the field circuit. It is denoted by Nc
Characteristics of DC Generators
Generally, following three characteristics of DC generators are taken into considerations: (i) Open
Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.), (ii) Internal or Total Characteristic and (iii) External Characteristic.
These characteristics of DC generators are explained below.

1. Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.) (E0/If)

Open circuit characteristic is also known as magnetic characteristic or no-load saturation
characteristic. This characteristic shows the relation between generated emf at no load (E0) and the
field current (If) at a given fixed speed. The O.C.C. curve is just the magnetization curve and it is
practically similar for all type of generators. The data for O.C.C. curve is obtained by operating the
generator at no load and keeping a constant speed. Field current is gradually increased and the
corresponding terminal voltage is recorded. The connection arrangement to obtain O.C.C. curve is as
shown in the figure below. For shunt or series excited generators, the field winding is disconnected
from the machine and connected across an external supply.

Now, from the emf equation of dc generator, we know that Eg = kɸ. Hence, the generated emf
should be directly proportional to field flux (and hence, also directly proportional to the field
current). However, even when the field current is zero, some amount of emf is generated
(represented by OA in the figure below). This initially induced emf is due to the fact that there exists
some residual magnetism in the field poles. Due to the residual magnetism, a small initial emf is
induced in the armature. This initially induced emf aids the existing residual flux, and hence,
increasing the overall field flux. This consequently increases the induced emf. Thus, O.C.C. follows a
straight line. However, as the flux density increases, the poles get saturated and the ɸ becomes
practically constant. Thus, even we increase the If further, ɸ remains constant and hence, Eg also
remains constant. Hence, the O.C.C. curve looks like the B-H characteristic.
The above figure shows a typical no-load saturation curve or open circuit characteristics for all types
of DC generators.

2. Internal or Total Characteristic (E/Ia)

An internal characteristic curve shows the relation between the on-load generated emf (Eg) and the
armature current (Ia). The on-load generated emf Eg is always less than E0 due to the armature
reaction. Eg can be determined by subtracting the drop due to demagnetizing effect of armature
reaction from no-load voltage E0. Therefore, internal characteristic curve lies below the O.C.C. curve.

3. External Characteristic (V/IL)

An external characteristic curve shows the relation between terminal voltage (V) and the load
current (IL). Terminal voltage V is less than the generated emf Eg due to voltage drop in the armature
circuit. Therefore, external characteristic curve lies below the internal characteristic curve. External
characteristics are very important to determine the suitability of a generator for a given purpose.
Therefore, this type of characteristic is sometimes also called as performance characteristic or load
characteristic.

Internal and external characteristic curves are shown below for each type of generator.
Characteristics of separately excited DC Generator

If there is no armature reaction and armature voltage drop, the voltage will remain constant for any
load current. Thus, the straight line AB in above figure represents the no-load voltage vs. load current
IL. Due to the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction, the on-load generated emf is less than the
no-load voltage. The curve AC represents the on-load generated emf Eg vs. load current IL i.e. internal
characteristic (as Ia = IL for a separately excited dc generator). Also, the terminal voltage is lesser due
to ohmic drop occurring in the armature and brushes. The curve AD represents the terminal voltage
vs. load current i.e. external characteristic.

Characteristics of DC Shunt Generator

To determine the internal and external load characteristics of a DC shunt generator the machine is
allowed to build up its voltage before applying any external load. To build up voltage of a shunt
generator, the generator is driven at the rated speed by a prime mover. Initial voltage is induced due
to residual magnetism in the field poles. The generator builds up its voltage as explained by the
O.C.C. curve. When the generator has built up the voltage, it is gradually loaded with resistive load
and readings are taken at suitable intervals. Connection arrangement is as shown in the figure below.

Unlike, separately excited DC generator, here, IL≠Ia. For a shunt generator, Ia=IL+If. Hence, the internal
characteristic can be easily transmitted to Eg vs. IL by subtracting the correct value of If from Ia.
During a normal running condition, when load resistance is decreased, the load current increases.
But, as we go on decreasing the load resistance, terminal voltage also falls. So, load resistance can be
decreased up to a certain limit, after which the terminal voltage drastically decreases due to
excessive armature reaction at very high armature current and increased I2R losses. Hence, beyond
this limit any further decrease in load resistance results in decreasing load current. Consequently, the
external characteristic curve turns back as shown by dotted line in the above figure.

Characteristics of DC Series Generator

The curve AB in above figure identical to open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.) curve. This is because in
DC series generators field winding is connected in series with armature and load. Hence, here load
current is similar to field current (i.e. IL=If). The curve OC and OD represent internal and external
characteristic respectively. In a DC series generator, terminal voltage increases with the load current.
This is because, as the load current increases, field current also increases. However, beyond a certain
limit, terminal voltage starts decreasing with increase in load. This is due to excessive demagnetizing
effects of the armature reaction.
Characteristics of DC Compound Generator

The above figure shows the external characteristics of DC compound generators. If series winding
amp-turns are adjusted so that, increase in load current causes increase in terminal voltage then the
generator is called to be over compounded. The external characteristic for over compounded
generator is shown by the curve AB in above figure.

APPLICATIONS OF DC GENERATORS:

DIFFERENTIAL COMPOUND GENERATOR  WIELDING PURPOSE