Broadband Connectivity in 5G and Beyond_ Next Generation Networks

Simranjit Singh
Gurpreet Kaur
Mohammad Tariqul Islam
R.S. Kaler Editors
Broadband
Connectivity
in 5G and
Beyond
Next Generation Networks
Broadband Connectivity in 5G and Beyond
Simranjit Singh • Gurpreet Kaur •
Mohammad Tariqul Islam • R.S. Kaler
Editors
Broadband Connectivity
in 5G and Beyond
Next Generation Networks
Editors
Simranjit Singh Gurpreet Kaur
Department of Electronics Department of Electronics
and Communication Engineering and Communication Engineering
Punjabi University Chandigarh University
Patiala, India Mohali, India
Mohammad Tariqul Islam R.S. Kaler

Electrical Electronic and Systems Department of Electronics
Engineering and Communication Engineering
Department of Electrical Electronic Thapar Institute of Engineering
and Systems Engineering and Technology
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Patiala, India
Bangi, Malaysia
ISBN 978-3-031-06865-2 ISBN 978-3-031-06866-9 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-06866-9
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland
AG 2022
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Preface
In broadband network connectivity, the chunk that connects the central office to
remote head to serve the large number of cellular subscribers is termed as fronthaul
network, which contains multiple optical line terminals (baseband units) and optical
network units, respectively. Research on fronthaul network is spurred by 5G and
future vision of beyond network in terms of data rate and spectrum efficiency in
multiple gigabits or terabits, extended fronthaul coverage distance, and ultra-low
latency to deal with the growing explosion in mobile population, smart gadgets, and
machines. The large volume of subscribers in 2022 has already hit assumed peak
levels, ushering a new generation. Therefore, critical fronthaul network demands the
strongest broadband network connectivity that can be feasible by the rolling out of
5G and beyond. For broadband, 5G and beyond network would provide us a afresh
network infrastructure that can beat the previous generation with the huge vision that
presents 1000 speed, flexibility, capacity, and efficient network. Broadband
always considers the locations, whether urban or rural, to implement the various
transmission technologies as per requirements like fiber, wireless, and satellite.
To match the vision of 5G and beyond, researchers are focusing to enhance the
network performance efficiently to meet the mobile subscriber’s demands. For these
scenarios, there are some aspects that are needed to be investigated in depth, such as
enhanced fiber optic–based communication network system, along with the robust
massive MIMO antenna. To enhance the efficiency of wired fronthaul network, fiber
is the most attractive and potential medium for transmission that can provide ultra-
high bit speeds, efficient utilization of large volume of bandwidth, unused millimeter
wave spectrum band, and low jitter. Optical technologies are very reliable in
transmitting electronic signals in form of light, which is more durable. Various
transmission techniques have been experimentally tested by installing the fiber-
based network in limited areas. Therefore, telecommunication organizations are
highly recommended to extend the deployment of fiber broadband after getting the
positive results. Under the ITU-T and IEEE standards, passive optical network
technologies like E-PON, G-PON, 10G-PON, and NGPON2 have been recognized
under the different series with different features and their specifications.
Corresponding these technologies, many existing multiplexing techniques that are
v
vi Preface
TDM-PON, WDM-PON, OFDM-PON and TWDM-PON available to boost up the

system infrastructure under the different standardizations. The advance modulation
techniques are compatible to meet the future fronthaul network demands in terms of
multiple Tb/s of bit rate and ultra-low latency. with the help of above-mentioned
multiplexing techniques under the specified parametric scales of telecommunication
mobile unions. Fronthaul frames some special key points to augment the objectives
such as long distance to be covered, latency discount, traffic balancing, to modulate
the high frequency and utilization of network resources in efficient manner. The
convergence of the MMWoF and NGPON will provide great potentials to the future
fronthaul network.
To achieve the expected outcomes, researchers are focusing on exploring the area
of antenna to enhance wireless network performance by densifying the small cells in
urban areas. As per the network requirements, massive-MIMO is the center of
attraction that will be compatible to enhance the mobile subscriber’s experience
and overall efficiency of network. The telecommunication market is also showing its
interest for the innovative and smart fronthaul network development to utilize the
heterogeneous networks. The MIMO antennas are capable of modulating the high
spectrum band millimeter waves that enhance the utilization of large bandwidth to
accommodate the giant subscribers. With the perspective of beyond network, the
massive-MIMO will be the backbone of the broadband network for ubiquitous
connectivity. The concept of beamforming is useful technology that will be benefi-
cial to reduce the interference between the large number of mobile users. The present
state of research of broadband connectivity for 5G and beyond fronthaul network
needs to be more exploratory. There is still a necessity to take the steps forward to
investigate the better next-generation network. This book aims to discuss the
fronthaul network for 5G and beyond under the context of broadband network.
We focus on the pivotal role of PON technologies using multiplexing techniques and
different antenna designs to meet the requirements of MIMO. In addition, this book
presents a comprehensive analysis of different transmission technologies that dis-
plays the innovative fronthaul architectures.
This volume presents the massive experience and leads the research arena under
the standardization. In this book, the editor has discussed openly about broadband
connectivity for the 5G and beyond fronthaul network, and the book will serve as a
useful reference for both postgraduate students as well as telecommunication
researchers for learning more and taking further pioneering strides.
Patiala, India Simranjit Singh

Mohali, India Gurpreet Kaur
Bangi, Malaysia Mohammad Tariqul Islam
Patiala, India R.S. Kaler
Contents
1 Coexistence of Next-Generation Passive Optical Network

Stage 2 and 5G Fronthaul Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Rajandeep Singh, Ritika Mahajan, and Ramandeep Kaur
2 Design of Wideband MIMO Patch Antenna Array
for Millimeter-Wave-Based 5G Wireless Communications . . . . . . . . 31
Mandeep Singh and Simranjit Singh
3 Fronthauling for 5G and Beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Harpreet Kaur, Simranjit Singh, and Ranjit Kaur
4 M-Ary Signaling for FSO Under Different
Atmospheric Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Harsimran Jit Kaur and Rubina Dutta
5 Multiple Input-Multiple Output Antenna for Next-Generation
Wireless Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Manish Sharma
6 Next-Generation Optical Wireless System
for 5G and Beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Sahil Nazir Pottoo, Rakesh Goyal, Amit Gupta,
and Monika Rani
7 Performance Evaluation of 80-Gbps TWDM-Based
NG-PON2 for Various Network Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Ramandeep Kaur, Simranjit Singh Tiwana,
and Rajandeep Singh
vii
viii Contents
8 Performance Evaluation of Path Computation Algorithms

in Generalized Multiprotocol Label-Switched
Optical Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Monika, Simranjit Singh, and Amit Wason
9 Radio over Fiber (RoF) for Future Generation Networks . . . . . . . . . 161
Baljeet Kaur and Neha Sharma
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Contributors
Rubina Dutta Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology,

Chitkara University, Patiala, Punjab, India
Rakesh Goyal Department of ECE, IK Gujral Punjab Technical University,
Kapurthala, Punjab, India
Amit Gupta Department of ECE, IK Gujral Punjab Technical University,
Baljeet Kaur ECE Department, GNDEC College, Ludhiana, Punjab, India
Harpreet Kaur Department of Computer Science, Punjabi University, Patiala,
Punjab, India
Harsimran Jit Kaur Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Chitkara University, Patiala, Punjab, India
Ramandeep Kaur Department of ECE, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India
Ranjit Kaur Department of ECE, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India
Ritika Mahajan Department of Electronics Technology, Guru Nanak Dev Univer-
sity, Amritsar, Punjab, India
Monika Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India
Sahil Nazir Pottoo Department of ECE, IK Gujral Punjab Technical University,
Monika Rani Department of Mathematics, Kanya Maha Vidyalaya, Jalandhar,
Punjab, India
Manish Sharma Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Chitkara University, Rajpura, Punjab, India
ix
x Contributors
Neha Sharma ECE Department, Apeejay Institute of Management and Engineer-

ing Technical Campus, Jalandhar, Punjab, India
Mandeep Singh Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
Punjabi University Patiala, Patiala, Punjab, India
Rajandeep Singh Department of Electronics Technology, Guru Nanak Dev Uni-
versity, Amritsar, Punjab, India
Simranjit Singh Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
Punjabi University Patiala, Patiala, Punjab, India
Simranjit Singh Tiwana Department of ECE, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab,
India
Amit Wason Ambala College of Engineering and Applied Research, Devsthali,
Ambala, Haryana, India
About the Editors
Simranjit Singh is an assistant professor in the Depart-

ment of Electronics and Communication Engineering at
Punjabi University, Patiala. He is the author and
co-author of about 106 research journal articles, nearly
34 conference articles, few book chapters, and book on
various topics related to optical fiber communication,
information security, optical sensors, and antenna
design. Thus far, his publications have been cited
714 times and his H-index is 15 (Source: Scopus). His
Google scholar citation is 908, i10: 26, and H-index is
17. His Research Gate citation is 698, score: 24.78, and
H-index is 14. The total impact factor of his SCI journal
published is greater than 70. He is recipient of more than
six research grants from the Empowerment and Equity
Opportunities for Excellence in Science, SERB, Gov-
ernment of India; ASEAN-India STI Cooperation,
Department of Science and Technology (International
Multilateral and Regional Cooperation Division), Gov-
ernment of India; Visvesvaraya PhD Scheme for Elec-
tronics and IT, funded by MeitY, Government of India
(two projects); Raman fellowship funded by the Univer-
sity Grants Commission (India); and Host Scientist of C
V Raman International Fellowship for African
Researchers 2016 of FICCI, Government of India.
Dr. Singh currently serves as associate editor of IET
Electronics Letters (SCI journal, Feb. 2021 to till date)
and of IET Journal of Engineering (ESCI journal, Feb.
2021 to till date). Dr. Singh received best paper award
for his paper published in Optics and Laser Technology
Journal. He received Host Scientist of C V Raman
xi
xii About the Editors
International Fellowship for African Researchers 2016

of FICCI, Govt. of India and was selected for Marquis
Who’s Who: 2017 Albert Nelson Marquis Lifetime
Achievement Award. He was nominated by the Institute
of Optics at the University of Rochester for Steadman
Interdisciplinary Award for Postdocs during Postdoc
Appreciation Week from 19.09.2016 to 23.09.2016.
He has supervised about 2 PhD theses and 19 MTech
theses as well as 8 BTech. He is a life member of the
Institution of Engineers (India) and the International
Society for Technical Education.
Associate Editor of IET Electronics Letters, Associate

Editor of IET Journal of Engineering, Punjabi Univer-
sity Patiala, Patiala, Punjab, India
Gurpreet Kaur obtained her bachelor’s degree in ECE

from IET, Bhaddal, Ropar, India, and a master’s degree
from Punjabi University, Patiala, India. She obtained her
PhD degree from Thapar Institute of Engineering and
Technology, Patiala. Her field of interest is fiber
nonlinearity, optical communication system, optical
sensor, and optical networks. Presently, she is working
as an assistant professor at CU, Mohali.
She has published 31 research papers out of which
26 are in international journals (SCI) and 5 in interna-
tional conferences.
R.S. Kaler is a senior professor in the Department of

Electronics & Communication Engineering, Thapar
University, Patiala. He is the author and co-author of
approximately 193 research journal articles, nearly
111 conference articles, and a few book chapters on
various topics related to digital signal processing, micro-
processors, and microcontrollers. Thus far, his publica-
tions have been cited 1169 times and his H-index is
19 (Source: Scopus). His Google scholar citation is
2091, i10-index is 66, and H-index is 24. He is recipient
of more than five research grants from the University
Grant Commission, New Delhi; All India Council of
Technical Education, New Delhi; and the Ministry of
Human Resource Development (MHRD), Govt. of
India, New Delhi. His research interests include fiber
optics communications, optical networks, optical
About the Editors xiii
sensors, free space optics, and communication systems.

Dr. Kaler currently serves as the deputy director (equiv-
alent to pro vice chancellor of university). He received
Shiksha Rattan Puraskar from India International
Friendship Society in 2007 and Best Paper Award in
International Conference on Information & Communi-
cation Technology by IICT. He also got recognition of
research work by NASA, USA, in 2002 and was hon-
ored, in 2014, as best author (India) under research
publications in engineering domain by Career 360 Mag-
azine. He has supervised 14 PhD theses and 37 ME
theses. He is a life member of the Institution of Engi-
neers (India) and the International Society for Technical
Education.
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineer-

ing, Thapar University, Patiala, Punjab, India
Mohammad Tariqul Islam (Senior Member, IEEE) is

currently a professor in the Department of Electrical,
Electronic and Systems Engineering, Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), and a visiting professor
at the Kyushu Institute of Technology, Japan. He is
author and coauthor of about 600 research journal arti-
cles, nearly 250 conference articles, and a few book
chapters on various topics related to antennas,
metamaterials, and microwave imaging with 23 inven-
tory patents filed. Thus far, his publications have been
cited 9400 times and his H-index is 44 (Source: Scopus).
His Google scholar citation is 15,000 and H-index is 52.
He was a recipient of more than 40 research grants from
the Malaysian Ministry of Science, Technology and
Innovation, Ministry of Education, UKM research
grant, and international research grants from Japan,
Saudi Arabia, and Kuwait. His research interests include
communication antenna design, metamaterial, satellite
antennas, and microwave imaging. Dr. Islam served as
an executive committee member of IEEE AP/MTT/
EMC Malaysia Chapter from 2019 to 2020 and is a
Chartered Professional Engineer (CEng); a fellow of
IET, UK; and a senior member of IEICE, Japan. He
has received several international gold medals, a Best
Invention in Telecommunication Award for his research
and innovation, and best researcher awards at UKM. He
was a recipient of 2018, 2019, and 2020 IEEE AP/MTT/
EMC Malaysia Chapter Excellent Award. He also won
the best innovation award and the Best Research Group
xiv About the Editors
in ICT niche by UKM, in different years. Dr. Islam was

a recipient of the Publication Award from Malaysian
Space Agency, for several years. He has supervised
about 50 PhD theses and 30 MSc theses, and has
mentored more than 10 postdocs and visiting scholars.
Dr. Islam has developed the Antenna Measurement
Laboratory which includes antenna design and measure-
ment facility till 40 GHz. He was an associate editor of
IET Electronics Letter. He also serves as the guest editor
of SENSORS and as associate editor for IEEE ACCESS.
Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engi-
neering, UKM, Bangi, Malaysia
Chapter 1
Coexistence of Next-Generation Passive
Optical Network Stage 2 and 5G Fronthaul
Network
Rajandeep Singh, Ritika Mahajan, and Ramandeep Kaur
1.1 Evolution from 4G to 5G
There are two segments in 4G networks, the connection between evolved packet
core (EPC) and baseband unit (BBU) is called backhaul segment, whereas the
connection between BBU and remote radio head (RRH) is called as fronthaul
segment. Fronthaul in 4G is an inefficient mechanism because it uses CPRI protocol.
The CPRI allows the transmission of data without considering the factor that
whether the user traffic is present or not [1]. In 5G networks, a centralized network
to connect many devices simultaneously has been designed with redistribution of
radio signal functions to new processing elements. All the BBUs are centralized to
one location. In the 5G network, the BBU segment is further subdivided into
distributed unit (DU), control unit (CU), and active antenna units (AAU). Fronthaul
segment is the connection between AAU and DU. The midhaul segment is the
connection between DU and CU, and the backhaul segment is the connection
between CU and CN [2] (Fig. 1.1).
To meet the requirements of 5G such as low latency, broad bandwidth, and low
cost, optical networks need to be enhanced. However, these technological advance-
ments bring challenges to the transport network of 5G. The mobile fronthaul link
imposes stringent requirements for latency, bandwidth, and cost since it uses Com-
mon Public Radio Interface (CPRI) for the data transmission. Fronthaul interface can
be constructed in many ways such as copper, microwave, optical fiber, free-space
optical communication, and millimeter waves. Among these mediums, optical fiber
is preferred due to its capability to handle gigabits with low latency. To meet the
R. Singh (*) · R. Mahajan

Department of Electronics Technology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab, India
e-mail: rajandeep.ece@gndu.ac.in
R. Kaur
Department of ECE, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 1

S. Singh et al. (eds.), Broadband Connectivity in 5G and Beyond,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-06866-9_1
2 R. Singh et al.
Fig. 1.1 Evolution from 4G

to 5G
requirements of 5G such as low latency, broad bandwidth, and low cost, optical
networks need to be enhanced. 5G new radio design has some limitations. It requires
a large number of active antenna units (AAU) which means a large amount of optical
fiber is needed in the network. Moreover, it is not possible to provide a separate
wavelength to each antenna unit. This implies that CPRI is quite expensive as it
imposes high data rates and low latency requirements. So, it is important to build a
cost-effective 5G fronthaul network. Network technology plays an imperative role in
building 5G networks. Various competing technologies include point-to-point opti-
cal access, Ethernet, passive optical networks (PON), optical transport network
(OTN), and free-space optics.
Therefore, various optical network technologies are discussed in this work. 5G
new radio design has some limitations. It requires a large number of active antenna
units (AAU) which means a huge amount of optical fiber is needed in the network.
So, it is important to build a cost-effective 5G fronthaul network. Network technol-
ogy plays an imperative role in building 5G networks. Various competing technol-
ogies include point-to-point optical access, Ethernet, passive optical networks
(PON), optical transport network (OTN), and free-space optics [1]. Which technol-
ogy is best among all? Different operators have a different answer to this question as
it depends upon their deployment plans and market timing.
Due to the huge demand for high data services, higher-speed PONs are needed.
Various PON technologies have been discussed in this work which includes
TDM-PON and WDM-PON. The mapping of CU/DU/RU to PON has been ana-
lyzed in this work.
1 Coexistence of Next-Generation Passive Optical Network Stage 2 and 5G. . . 3
1.2 Access Network Technologies
There is a need for broadband access networks as the users traffic as well as their
demands have been increasing day by day. Video on demand, multimedia services,
online gaming, etc. impose stringent requirements on the access networks. Access
networks are the last mile connection between the central office and the user end
system. Access networks can be categorized based on the transmission medium
used. It includes copper-based access networks, cable modem-based access net-
works, and wireless networks.
1.2.1 Copper-Based Access Networks
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is the first broadband access network
that belongs to the digital subscriber line (DSL). In these access networks, the data
rate for upstream and downstream was just 144 kbps. It limits the transmission
distance as well as the data rates. The signal gets degraded, and there are more losses
in this medium as compared to others.
1.2.2 Cable Modem-Based Access Networks
One-way broadcast systems in the United States were cable modem access networks.
The upstream data range lies between 0 and 45 MHz. The coupling from electrical
gadgets degrades the channel properties in this frequency range. A cable modem
termination system acts as a central office with which cable modems are connected.
The time-division multiplexing technique is used to multiplex individual
subscribers.
1.2.3 Wireless Networks
In wireless access networks, the transmission medium is wireless. Wireless access

networks include WiMAX, UMTS, GSM, etc. WiMAX (worldwide interoperability
for microwave access) provides services for the fourth generation (4G). In the same
way, UMTS provides services for the third generation.
1.2.4 Optical Fiber Access Networks
Since optical fiber has low attenuation and high bandwidth and provides long reach,
it has been observed that fiber optics-based access networks are the best alternative
for future access networks. There are two types of fiber access networks.
4 R. Singh et al.
1.2.5 Active Optical Networks (AON)
AON is the point-to-point Ethernet network. It uses active components like Ethernet
for the transmission of data to users. In AON, the transmission distance is large and
troubleshooting is easy. But it uses more energy and has a high operational cost.
Therefore, passive optical networks are coming out as a good candidate.
1.2.6 Passive Optical Networks
A passive optical network (PON) is a point-to-multipoint optical communication

system. It uses only passive components. The optical splitters used in PON require
no electrical power.
1.3 Advantages of PON
1. Fiber utilization: Efficient use of fiber resources.

2. Future proof: Low maintenance requirements will reduce the operating expendi-
tures. The whole fiber plant is passive since the remote node does not contain any
electrical components. Therefore, the upgradation of bandwidth can be easily
achieved by replacing the central office components and user’s components.
3. Cable cost: There is a reduction in cable cost as each fiber can be shared with
multiple users.
4. Energy consumption: Due to the use of passive components and low attenuation
of fiber, energy consumption is low.
1.4 PON Components
The major components in the passive optical network include OLT, ONU, and
splitters/combiners.
1.4.1 Optical Line Terminal (OLT)
OLT is the control point for the entire PON. It acts as a service provider endpoint to
PON. Using distributed feedback (DFB) laser, OLT transmits the downstream data
through a wavelength of 1490 nm. Through the use of a 1310 nm detector at the
receiving end, the upstream voice and data traffic are received from ONUs.
Data flow across the optical distribution network (ODN) is controlled by the
OLT. OLT does multiplexing using TDM and WDM techniques in the downstream
direction and thereby launches the optical signal to the ONUs. Meanwhile, all the
user traffic from ONUs is received by the OLT.
1.4.2 Optical Network Unit (ONU)
It is device that converts optical signals to electrical signals at the user’s premises.
ONUs are located near the customer premises. A single ONU is connected to
multiple users. ONT refers to an optical network terminal. The term ONT is coined
by IEEE, whereas the term ONU is coined by ITU-T. ONU provides triple-play
services in the gigabit PON (GPON) diagram of ONU. The optical signal is
converted into an electrical signal by the PIN/APD photodiode. Then the signal is
passed through the low-pass Bessel filter and transmitted to 3R regenerator. Bit error
rate (BER), Q-factor, and eye diagram are recorded and observed in the BER
analyzer.
1.4.3 Optical Splitter
It is a passive device in the PON and acts as a power divider. It is a bidirectional

element that divides the downstream optical signal from OLT to the outputs of the
splitter connected with ONU. In the same way, it combines the optical signals from
all the ONUs to the single fiber which is connected with OLT. In PON, the splitter
acts as a splitter as well as a coupler. In the upstream direction, signals are combined
from different ONUs, while signals are splitted in the downstream direction [3]. Fig-
ure 1.2 shows the passive optical splitter widely used in passive optical networks.
Many parameters affect the working of the optical splitters such as insertion loss,
return loss, splitting ratio, isolation, etc. The two widely used splitters include FBT
and PLC splitters. For split ratios below 1 4, FBT splitters are preferred, whereas
for split ratios above 1 8, PLC splitters are preferred. In PON, a PLC splitter is
considered a better option to use.
Fig. 1.2 Passive splitter

6 R. Singh et al.
1.4.4 Arrayed Waveguide Grating (AWG)
In WDM systems, AWG is an optical planar device that can be used as a multiplexer
as well as a demultiplexer. AWGs multiplex various channels of different wave-
lengths onto a single fiber in the downstream direction and demultiplex channels of
different wavelengths in the upstream direction. Multiple optical channels with
different wavelengths can be transmitted over a single fiber because light waves of
different wavelengths interfere linearly with each other. This induces minimal cross
talk between the channels. Silica-on-silicon- and indium phosphide (InP)-based
semiconductors are widely used technologies in the AWG market (Fig. 1.3).
According to the position of the fiber nearby the users, the P2MP is categorized
as [4].
FTTC (Fiber to the Curb): The optical fiber cable runs from the central office to the
street cabinet which is 300 m away from the home or the building (curb). The
final connections to the user premises are built through copper cables.
FTTB (Fiber to the Building): The optical fiber reaches the boundary of the building,
and the final connection to the user is made using other alternatives as in FFTC.
FTTN (Fiber to the Node): The optical fiber terminated in the street cabinet which is
located within 1000 m from the home or the building (curb).
FTTH (Fiber to the Home): PON provides triple-play services over FTTH networks
directly from the central office. The optical fiber cable runs from the central office
to the home [5] (Fig. 1.4).
1.5 PON Standards
The first PON standard was based on asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) which was
termed as ATM-PON or APON. After the introduction of broadband services over
PON, the previous standard was renamed to broadband access network (BPON).
Figure 1.5 shows the evolution of different standards of PON including the data
rates.
Fig. 1.3 Schematic diagram of AWG

Fig. 1.4 Optical access networks services
Fig. 1.5 Evolution of PON [6]
1.5.1 APON/BPON
The first PON technology that ITU adopted was FSAN’s APON standard. APON is
also termed as asynchronous transfer mode passive optical network (ATM-PON)
since it provides fiber to the home services that are based on ATM. Due to the higher
transmission speeds, broadband services, video distribution, protection, and other
functions, this standard was later renamed broadband PON (BPON).
8 R. Singh et al.
Fig. 1.6 BPON schematic diagram
It supports downstream data rates of 622 Mbps and upstream data rates of
155 Mbps. 1550 nm is the downstream wavelength, while 1310 nm is the upstream
wavelength. The optical fiber length limits to 20 km only. ATM virtual circuits
support the communication between ONU and OLT. Disadvantages of APON are
listed below:
• ATM switches and network cards are very expensive.
• The IP datagram will be quashed if any cell is sullied, and the network resources
will be used unnecessarily by the remaining cells.
• Cell tax is charged on IP packets of different lengths [7] (Fig. 1.6).
1.5.2 EPON
EPON stands for Ethernet PON. They carry Ethernet frames to all ONUs. In the
downstream direction, EPON acts as a broadcast network. The ONU accepts only
that packet that contains its media access control (MAC) address. In the upstream
direction, ONUs send data in the time slots assigned to them which makes EPON a
time-shared network. The downstream and upstream wavelengths are 1410 nm and
1310 nm. The disadvantage of EPON is that it requires quality of service (QoS) for
real-time traffic.
1.5.3 GPON
To meet the demands of high data rates and more efficient bandwidth, FSAN
developed a new standard which was standardized by ITU-T in 2003. It was
named Gigabit PON (GPON). It provides a data rate of 2.488 Gbits/s downstream
and 1.244 Gbits/s upstream. It provides triple-play services. Figure 1.7 shows the
GPON architecture [8].
Fig. 1.7 GPON architecture
1.6 NGPON2 Technology Options
Different technologies can be used in passive optical networks. The following are
some of the technologies that can be used in passive optical networks.
1.6.1 TDM-PON
The transmission medium in PON needs to be synchronized to avoid collisions as it

is shared by all the users. Time-division multiple access (TDMA) is used for
transmission synchronization. In TDMA, a time slot is assigned to each user and
the user transmits data in that time slot only. TDM-PON uses a passive splitter as the
remote node which divides the power to different ONUs. PON standards such as
APON, BPON, EPON, G-PON, and XG-PON, which have been recently widely
deployed, use this architecture [9] (Fig. 1.8).
1.6.2 WDM-PON
In WDM-PON, each user can access the entire bandwidth, and there is no need to
share the bandwidth as in TDM-PON. Multiple wavelengths are passed through a
single fiber which further improves the capacity of the medium. Since each home
receives its wavelength, these networks are secure and scalable [10]. Figure 1.9
shows the block diagram of the WDM-PON.
10 R. Singh et al.
Fig. 1.8 TDM-PON architecture
Fig. 1.9 WDM-PON architecture
1.6.3 TWDM-PON
TWDM-PON is time wavelength division multiplexing. TWDM-PON is a combi-

nation of TDM and WDM-PON. In this work, an NGPON2 setup has been made
which uses the TWDM technology. In the downlink direction, WDM is used, while
in the upstream direction, TDM is used. The advantage of using this technology is
the use of the same optical distribution network (ODN) and splitters as the previous
PON standards [11].
TWDM-PON stacks multiple XG-PONs. ONUs contain tunable transmitters and
receivers. The transmitters are tunable to upstream wavelengths while receivers to
downstream wavelengths. In TWDM-PON, multiple wavelengths pass through the
WDM feeder fiber, and the power splitter broadcasts it to all the users. ONUs contain
tunable transmitters and receivers. The transmitters are tunable to upstream wave-
lengths while receivers to downstream wavelengths.
1.7 Literature Review
To build a cost-effective 5G fronthaul network, different authors discussed various

optical access technologies for building the network considering the factors of low
latency, broadband width, low cost, and low power. Therefore, optical networks
need to be enhanced and improved to meet the requirements of 5G.
The performance of coherent WDM-PON technology was analyzed by W. Shbair
et al. The experimental setup shows that 800 Gbps bidirectional mobile fronthaul
and mobile backhaul which is suitable for 5G have been achieved using 100 Gb/s per
wavelength-based coherent WDM-PON technology [12]. The pros and cons of
different optical technologies were presented by Muhammad Waqar et al. as
shown in Table 1.1 [13].
Zhou et al. has presented how mobile PON is merging TDM-PON with mobile
and PON scheduler [14]. The bandwidth can be shared with other remote sites with
the use of this interface. The increase in bandwidth is due to the new physical layer
split and modulation decoding.
Table 1.1 Optical transport technologies proposed for FH networks [13]

Optical
technology Contribution Limitation
TDM-PON [14] For the cost-effective PON, it improves Scheduling causes an increase in
the performance of the network without the FH interface and overhead at
additional scheduling delay. Also, it switches. There will be an infi-
increases the fronthaul bandwidth by ten nite delay if more than 18 RRUs
times over CPRI operate simultaneously
WDN-OTN [15] Provide solutions to connect RRHs with The employment cost increases
BBU in dense areas to achieve speeds with the use of WDM-OTN and
from 10 Mbps to 1 Gbps colored fiber
Nonhierarchical Improve the transparency and network Increases installation cost. Traf-
and point-to-point cost in centralized base stations fic monitoring is required to
WDM [16] retain the network performance
SCM-DWDM High spectral efficiency and throughput Increase the cost
[10]
DWDM-PON, Reduces the cost due to the utilization of Expensive and complex
coherent optical existing PON infrastructure and small
OFDM [17] channel spacing methods
Uni-PON, OFDM- Multiplexed and transported 14 wave- Increases the complexity and
WDM [18] lengths per fiber successfully while causes high attenuation in the
maintaining the BER within limits FH network
DWDM [19] Reduces network complexity SNR increases and expensive
Multicore fiber Proposed MIMO-based transmissions to Increases the implementation
[20] achieve better performance and capacity complexity and cost of the
at low inter-core cross talk network
Photonics-aided Improves throughput, reduces cell-edge High capital expenditure
amplification [21] user interferences and SNR. BER is (CAPEX) due to the complex
reduced 2.5 dB times setup for fiber transmission
12 R. Singh et al.
The architecture of the 5G fronthaul network has been discussed by Yan Jiang
et al. In their work, they also compared the working of different 5G technologies and
analyzed the cost calculation model. The result states that a cost-effective 5G
network can be deployed considering the appropriate DU location and DU
concentration [2].
According to Zhang et al., the N25G high-speed WDM-PON technology fulfills
the demands of the 5G fronthaul network that includes low latency, high data rate,
and broad bandwidth. Also, for simple operation and low cost, it is suggested to use
C-RAN with WDM-PON technology [22].
To increase the optical reach up to 50 km and expanding the customer coverage,
Super-PON is the upcoming technology as discussed by Claudio DeSanti et al. This
is achieved by using many possible methods like wavelength routing, optical
amplification, TDM-PON, etc. [23].
Sarvesh Bidkar et al. proposed that in 5G radio access networks, radio signals can
be transmitted by using optical technology TDM-PON. TDM-PON provides cost-
effective and efficient mechanism for the transmission of signals. TDM-PON latency
requirements have been analyzed. TDM using cooperative DBA (Co-DBA) and
Cooperative Transport Interface, TDM-PON latency, and bandwidth requirements
can be achieved [24].
The high demands of fifth-generation networks make it necessary to think about
new ideas and technologies to enhance wireless communication networks. The
requirements of 5G networks have been discussed by Akyildiz et al. Various
technologies, their potentials, and limitations have been examined by Akyildiz
et al. [25], Federico Boccardi et al. [26], Ekram Hossain, and Monowar Hasan
[27]. Also, the current research activities are discussed by the authors.
The handover reduction mechanism has been proposed by Xinbo Wang et al.
They presented a new virtualized CRAN architecture over TWDM-PON with virtual
network resources in PON, RUs, and DUs. The handover reduction optimization
problem is modeled considering two factors: first when future information is known
and second when future information is unknown. The throughput of cell edge
increases with the use of V-CRAN. The number of handovers also reduces with its
usage [28].
Eduardo Saia Lima et al. demonstrated the design of the 5G new radio
photonically amplified fronthauls and backhauls. Their implementation and exper-
imental performance have been reported. It aims to utilize the fiber optic links for the
amplification of data signals in the optical domain as well as their transmission.
Photonics-assisted RF amplification (PAA) reduces the power requirements. Exper-
imentally, for a 10-Gbit/s signal, 19-DB baseband amplification and 26-dB photon-
ics-assisted RF gain for frequencies up to 50 GHz have been achieved. For
256-QAM signals, PAA also increases the throughput to 13.5 Gbit/s which is
12.3 times higher than that of CRoF [29].
A two-stage optimization framework and architecture have been proposed for
converged 5G infrastructure by Anna Tzanakaki et al. The integration of wireless
and optical network for a common transport network is termed the converged 5G
infrastructure. The first stage focused on minimizing the capital expenditure. In the
second stage, for the allocation of 5G services, the suitable processing modules are
identified. The performance analysis of the proposed framework has been done using
various network technologies such as passive optical networks, millimeter wave,
etc. [30].
The technical advancements in new radio 5G networks impose stringent require-
ments on the fronthaul transport network. Therefore, optical links are a good option
to build fronthaul links. But this will lead to a reduction in the fiber length to a few
kilometers and an increase in the cost. The performance of passive optical network
links with the optimal locations of EDFA has been evaluated by Muhammad Waqar
et al. Various performance indicators such as signal power, dispersion, and signal-to-
noise ratios were measured, and the proposed network was evaluated. They also
demonstrated the optimized locations to add the amplifiers for long-distance
communications [31].
Björn Skubic et al. in their work deployed a 5G radio network for fixed wireless
access (FWA) to meet the requirements of future fixed broadband access. 5G fixed
wireless access is a good alternative to fixed broadband services. Various optical
network technologies and requirements of different radio access networks have been
analyzed. They also stated that the coarse wavelength division multiplexing
(CWDM) and the 10G passive optical networks (XG-PONs) are the most cost-
effective solutions for higher-layer split. XGPONs support fiber to the home
(FTTH), whereas CWDM provides low latency rates. However, point-to-point
(PtP) or PtP-WDM is required for lower-layer split [32].
The power consumption of ring topologies with time and wavelength division
multiplexed passive optical network (TWDM-PON) has been analyzed by Bhargav
Ram Rayapati et al. [33] in their work. To transit ONU to sleep mode, two
scheduling algorithms, namely, fixed and load adaptive sequence arrangement
(LASA), were used to reduce the power consumption in the ring topologies. A
maximum of 18% reduction in power consumption with a fixed polling sequence
and 9.27% reduction in power consumption with LASA polling sequence is
observed. When the cycle time lies between 1 and 2 ms, the LASA polling sequence
shows better power conservation than the fixed polling sequence. For average power
consumption per ONU, the average power consumption of various ONUs at differ-
ent time slots has been computed. In their present work, they have analyzed and
considered the static TDMA.
Anliang Liu et al. in their work proposed a low-cost WDM-RoF system for the
next-generation 5G communication. This system consists of a central station, a
subcentral station, and a base station. According to the authors, the integration of
this system with the WDM-PON has reduced the construction cost of the RoF
system. The simulation has been performed utilizing OptiSystem software. The
simulated results have verified the feasibility of the WDM-RoF system with a
20-GHz subcarrier. The chromatic dispersion effects have also been reduced with
the use of the RoF system. Centralized management of the base station led to the
decrease in the power consumption as well as the complexity of the system [34].
14 R. Singh et al.
Authors in their work proposed architecture for broadband Internet services and
fifth-generation mobile communications. A hybrid analog radio over fiber (ARoF)
and next-generation (NG) wavelength division has been multiplexed with the pas-
sive optical network (WDM-PON). With the use of a dense WDM channel fre-
quency grid (50GHz), various possible A-RoF system implementations into the
PON segment have been researched. They researched the possible A-RoF system
implementations into PON’s segment with a dense WDM channel frequency grid
(50 GHz) [35].
1.8 Design and Performance Investigation of a PON-Based

System for 5G Fronthaul
PON-based system for 5G fronthaul is practiced, and the performance of the system
is analyzed. The 5G is integrated with the NGPON2 system. NGPON2 for power
split 128 is used in the simulation setup. For 5G, a WDM transmitter with eight
output ports each with a wavelength of 10 Gbps is used to send the downstream
signal to the 5G tower. The results for both 5G and NGPON2 are recorded using a
BER analyzer. The Q-factor value of 51.7644 is achieved at a power of 2dbm
in star based next-generation passive optical network (NGPON2) with 40 Gbps data
rate using different split ratios. Q-factor and bit error rates for different split ratios are
compared, and alternate solutions are provided to enhance the performance of the
system. The Q-factor and bit error rate for split 16,32,64 and 128 using PIN
photodiode and avalanche photodiode (APD) are recorded and compared for
power split 16,32,64 and 128 in the downstream direction. Also, the results for
power split 8 in the uplink direction are recorded. It is observed that APD gives much
better results than PIN photodiode for 128 power split.
Wireless mobile communication has seen tremendous growth over the past few
decades. With the increasing demands of users, many operators have started to build
5G networks. The demands that need to be fulfilled include high data rates, broad
bandwidth, and low latency rates. These can be achieved by improving the existing
cellular network architecture. This shows that there is a need to enhance the transport
network. Various methods are discussed in this chapter to improve the transport
network. Mobile wireless communication started with the announcement of first
generation in the 1980s. After 1G, the demands of users started increasing which led
to the development of various wireless communication standards.
The first-generation (1G) services offered analog voice communication. Then, the
second generation (2G) offered digital voice communication and allowed text
messaging. To provide data to mobile users, third generation offered mobile broad-
band that included multimedia with text messaging. The need for multimedia
services kept on increasing rapidly and thereby led to the development of 4G
[36]. Currently, the increasing demands have made the operator to start building
5G networks. In this chapter, the behavior of various optical spectrums for the uplink
and downstream signals is analyzed.
1.8.1 System Architecture for Integration of PON and 5G

Fronthaul
The integration of 5G with PON consists of a central office, optical network unit,
optical distribution network, and 5G tower. Block diagrams of the setups have been
explained in detail in the following sections.
Central Office Architecture
Figure 1.10 shows the simulation setup of the central office for the integration of 5G
with NGPON2. For NGPON2, four transmitters with a downstream wavelength of
1596 nm with frequency spacing of 0.8 nm are stacked and sent to the wavelength
division multiplexer (WDM). NGPON2 provides a data rate of 40 Gbps. The data is
sent to the ideal multiplexer from where it is fed into the optical fiber.
For 5G downlink, a WDM transmitter with eight output ports and frequency
193.1 THz is used. The frequency spacing is 0.1 THz. Also, a CW laser array with
eight output ports and a frequency of 193.1 THz is used. Both WDM transmitter and
CW laser array are multiplexed, and the data is transferred to the ideal multiplexer.
The laser array does not carry any data which means only light is being sent.
Therefore, the three inputs of the ideal multiplexer include data from NGPON2
transmitters, 5G transmitters, and CW laser array. These are passed through the
optical fiber of length 20 km. The circulator is used to receive the uplink data from
NGPON2 and 5G towers.
Fig. 1.10 Simulation setup of central office

16 R. Singh et al.
Optical Distribution Network (ODN)
Figure 1.11 shows the simulation setup of ODN. The fiber Bragg grating having
frequency 193.1 THz with bandwidth 3.73 THz is used. Therefore, the NGPON2
signal gets passed through it, whereas it reflects the data coming from the WDM
transmitter. The NGPON2 downstream data is fed to the WDM demultiplexer for
further processing. The reflected data is demultiplexed using WDM demux with a
split ratio of 1:16. After demultiplexing the data, the power combiner combines the
individual wavelength of the WDM transmitter with a light signal.
Optical Network Unit (ONU)
Figure 1.12 shows the simulation setup for NGPON2 ONU. The data from the
demultiplexer is fed to the power splitters with split 128. Then the avalanche
photodiode (APD) is used which converts the optical signals to electrical signals.
The optical signal is then passed through the Bessel filter. The signal is then received
and analyzed using a BER analyzer. Through the BER analyzer, Q-factor and bit
error rate values are recorded. This NGPON2 with a 40 Gbps bit rate is capable of
transmitting the data to 512 ONUs. Also, optical visualizers are used to analyze the
various spectrums at the receiving end.
Fig. 1.11 Optical distribution network

Fig. 1.12 Block diagram of ONU
Simulation Setup of 5G Tower
Figure 1.13 shows the simulation setup for the 5G tower. The data from the
exchange office is fed into the reflective fiber bidirectional. It reflects the 5G
downstream signal and the signal is received through photodetector APD. The one
that is passed through it is fed into the reflective semiconductor optical amplifier
(RSOA). The part which only contains light can be used to modulate another signal,
and the other part which carries data is used for uplink.
Block Diagram of Signal from 5G Tower to Exchange Office
The signal from the 5G tower gets multiplexed and passes through fiber of length
20 km. Then it gets demultiplexed, and the data is received using photodetector APD
which converts the optical signals to electrical signals. The results are calculated
using a BER analyzer (Fig. 1.14).
18 R. Singh et al.
Fig. 1.13 Block diagram of the 5G tower
Fig. 1.14 Block diagram of signal from 5G tower to exchange office

1.8.2 Results and Discussions
Figure 1.15 shows the BER vs transmitted power graph for 5G downlink. The power
varies from 20 dB to 0 dB. It is observed that the BER improves as the power
increases. It is quite low at power 6 dB.
Figure 1.16 shows the Q-factor vs transmitted power for 5G downlink. The value
of the Q-factor increases with the increase in power and is maximum at 2 dB.
Figure 1.17 shows BER vs transmitted power graph for 5G uplink. The BER
decreases with the increase in power values and is lowest at 0 dB.
Figure 1.18 shows Q-factor vs transmitted power graph for the 5G uplink. The
BER decreases with the increase in power values and is lowest at 0 dB.
Figure 1.19 shows BER vs transmitted power graph for the NGPON2 downlink.
The BER decreases with the increase in power values and is lowest at 5 dBm
power.
Figure 1.20 shows Q-factor vs. transmitted power graph for the NGPON2
downlink. The Q-factor increases with the increase in power values and it is highest
at 5 dBm power.
Figures 1.21 and 1.22 show the eye diagram for 5G downlink and uplink.
Figure 1.23 shows the eye diagram for NGPON2 downlink. Figures 1.24 and
1.25 show the optical spectrums of downstream signal to first 5G tower and
downstream signal received at first 5G tower diagram for NGPON2 downlink.
Figures 1.26 and 1.27 show the optical spectrums of signal available for
remodulation and signal after remodulating the first 5G tower.
Figure 1.28 shows the optical spectrum of the 5G upstream signal at OLT.
Fig. 1.15 BER vs transmitted power for 5G downlink

20 R. Singh et al.
Fig. 1.16 Q-factor vs transmitted power for 5G downlink
Fig. 1.17 BER vs transmitted power for 5G uplink

Fig. 1.18 Q-factor vs transmitted power for 5G uplink
Fig. 1.19 BER vs transmitted power for NGPON2 downlink

22 R. Singh et al.
Fig. 1.20 Q-factor vs. transmitted power for NGPON2
Fig. 1.21 Eye diagram for 5G downlink

Fig. 1.22 Eye diagram for 5G downlink
1.9 Conclusion
In this work, the feasibility of the integration of 5G with NGPON2 is shown in the
simulation setup. Four transmitters each with a data rate of 10 Gbps are multiplexed
and sent through the optical fiber. The downstream wavelength is 1596 nm, whereas
the uplink wavelength is 1524 nm. The results for the NGPON2 downlink for APD
photodiode are recorded and observed through a BER analyzer. Also, for 5G
downlink, a WDM transmitter with eight output ports each with a data rate of
10 Gbps is transmitted. The downstream wavelength is 193.1 THz with a frequency
spacing of 0.1 THz. The 5G signal is received at the 5G tower. Q-factor of 51.7644 is
achieved at the 5G first tower. The Q-factor for 5G uplink gives an acceptable value.
In this way, both 5G and NGPON2 data are received through the shared
infrastructure.
Fig. 1.23 Eye diagram for NGPON2 downlink
Fig. 1.24 Downstream signal to first 5G tower

Fig. 1.25 Downstream signal received at first 5G tower
Fig. 1.26 Signal available for remodulation

Fig. 1.27 Signal after remodulating first 5G tower
Fig. 1.28 Upstream signal of 5G at OLT

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Dr. Rajandeep Singh received his BTech (ECE) from Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College,
Ludhiana, India, in 2009. He received his MTech (Communication Systems) from Guru Nanak Dev
University, Amritsar, in 2011 and received the PhD degree from Guru Nanak Dev University,
Amritsar, India, in 2021. Dr. Rajandeep Singh is currently working as Assistant Professor of
Electronics Technology at Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, India. Dr. Rajandeep Singh is
associate editor of the Journal of Engineering (IET). He has authored 12 papers in SCI journals,
17 papers in international conferences, and 6 papers in national conferences. His area of research is
optical amplifiers, passive optical networks, and machine learning.
Er. Ritika Mahajan holds an MTech (ECE), with specialization in communication system, from
Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar. Her master’s thesis is on integration of 5G technology with
passive optical networks.
Dr. Ramandeep Kaur is currently working as an assistant professor in the Department of ECE,
Punjabi University, Patiala, India. She has received her BTech (ECE) degree from Guru Nanak Dev
Engineering College, Ludhiana, India, in 2009. Then, in 2011, she received her ME (ECE) degree
from Thapar University, Patiala, India. She received PhD from Punjabi University, Patiala, India, in
2021. She is the associate editor of the Journal of Engineering (IET). Ramandeep has authored
16 papers in Science Citation Indexed journals. She has presented 10 papers at international and
national conferences. She has guided 18 students in their MTech Theses. Her areas of research are
passive optical networks, optical communication, and machine learning.
Chapter 2
Design of Wideband MIMO Patch Antenna
Array for Millimeter-Wave-Based 5G
Wireless Communications
Mandeep Singh and Simranjit Singh
2.1 Introductions
The modern lifestyle is fully changed with the commencement of wireless commu-
nication. The advanced use of data starving devices like computers, mobiles, tablets,
and sensors leads to a shortage in bandwidth [1, 2]. Due to the lack of frequency
spectrum bandwidth, there is a requirement of high-frequency, wide bandwidth for
higher data rates. To solve such problems, millimeter-wave (mm-wave) frequency
bands are recommended by the International Mobile Telecommunications (IMT) for
a fifth-generation (5G) mobile application. The 5G technology will utilize
millimeter-wave bands to provide large data abilities for transferring multi-Gbps
[3, 4]. In various developed countries like the USA, China, Japan, etc., many
research groups are intensively forwarding toward 5G technologies. Recently, the
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) settled its first 5G band auction for
24 GHz and 28 GHz band spectrum, and in the future, FCC will auction the higher 3
7 GHz, 39 GHz, and 47 GHz frequency bands for future wireless communications
[5]. AT & T and Qualcomm the major giants in wireless technology are testing the
wireless equipment at 24 GHz [6, 7], so world is moving forward to develop new
devices which support these high-frequency bands. Antenna plays an important role
for wireless devices, so there is a need to develop a cost-effective antenna that can
support high-frequency bands for next-generation technology.
A major issue for high-frequency wireless communication, however, is the path
loss owing to low wavelength and environmental circumstances that can be over-
come with the use of fully developed and effective MIMO patch antenna [8]. MIMO
M. Singh (*) · S. Singh

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Punjabi University Patiala, Patiala,
Punjab, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-06866-9_2
32 M. Singh and S. Singh
antennas can deliver several benefits for future networks because it is single-chip
antenna that can be operated at wideband frequencies with high gain. Moreover, it
can also minimize the multiple path loss and interference between signals. MIMO
patch antenna has low-profile, lightweight, and simple assembly to ensure reliability,
flexibility, and high efficiency. Despite the reality that the MIMO antenna has
countless benefits, in the current situation, there are some enormous downsides.
Similarly, the structure must be reliable with future wireless frameworks, and there
must be little mutual coupling due to the closeness of radiating components to the
ordinary substratum. MIMO has a channel solution for non-line of sight track
circumstances and reduces the loss of distortion and various way losses [9–13], so
there is a need to develop such devices which also do not have a bad impact on
human body. Recently, researchers proposed mm-wave antennas for next-generation
wireless applications, although some researchers achieved the efficient bandwidth
and gain but on the cost of complexity and cost of design where several layers of
substrate are implemented [14–17]. S. Faleh [18] proposed a wideband MIMO
antenna but at the cost of low gain, and Hala M. Marzouk [19] presented a dual-
band MIMO antenna with high-performance parameters, but the proposed antenna
has large size. M.S. Sharawi [20], H. Aliakbari [21], and Md. Hassan [22] proposed
patch antennas suffer from low bandwidth and low gain which need to be increased
for next-generation wireless communications. M. I. Khattak [23] proposed a patch
antenna array, but the antenna had narrow bandwidth. So, there is need to develop a
low-profile patch antenna that can cover the desired bands, i.e., 24 GHz and 28 GHz.
To achieve this aim, in this work, a patch antenna having low profile and wide
bandwidth is designed, optimized, and tested for next-generation wireless
applications.
The early reported antennas suffer from low gain, low efficiency, narrow band-
width, and large size issues, as discussed in the literature. Some researchers success-
fully attain much better performance but at high cost and more system complexity.
Some designs are not practically possible to integrate within devices. So, in this
research, a novel approach to design a wideband millimeter MIMO antenna is
proposed. First, a new patch antenna is designed and optimized by using the PSO
technique which covers 28 GHz frequency, in a 5G band. The DGS is deployed
across the ground of antenna to achieve wider bandwidth and higher gain. Further-
more, the low-profile 22 MIMO antenna is designed, and the performance of such
antenna is investigated to validate the diversity of MIMO antenna system. This
research paper is divided into sections as discussed below. In Sects. 2.2 and 2.3, the
mathematical modeling and optimization of the proposed antenna are done. In
Sect.2.4, a 22 MIMO patch antenna is designed by using an optimized patch
antenna element, and also, the various performance parameters of the MIMO
antenna are discussed and compared with the recently reported MIMO patch antenna
for next-generation wireless communications (Table 2.1).
2 Design of Wideband MIMO Patch Antenna Array for Millimeter-Wave-Based. . . 33
Table 2.1 Optimized parameters of proposed antenna using PSO

Rectangular Parameters Initial value Decision space Optimized
patch antenna (minimum to value
maximum)
Pw (width of patch) 4.40 7 15 8.50
PL (length of patch) 3.00 2 7 3.54
GL (length of ground plane) 20 0 20 17.81
Fw (width of feedline) 1.23 1 5 2.68
SR (diameter of ground slot) 3 2 6 5.45
2.2 Mathematical Modeling of Patch Antenna
A rectangular patch antenna is designed by using the transmission line model. The
performance of an antenna depends upon its dimensions of antenna. So, the dimen-
sion of an antenna is computed by using below equations [24]. The width of the
rectangular patch (PW) is computed by using:
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 2 v0 2
Pw ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ ð2:1Þ
2 f r μ 0 ε0 Er þ 1 2 f r Er þ 1
where εr is the substrate material’s dielectric constant, fr is the resonating frequency,

and vo is the velocity of light. To calculate an effective dielectric constant (εreff ) of
the substrate material having height h, the following equation is used:

εrþ1 εr1 h
εreff ¼ þ 1 þ 12 ð2:2Þ
2 2 Pw
Due to fringing effects, the length of the rectangular patch appears wider than the
actual length of PL. The length increase due to fringing impact is calculated using
Eq. (2.3). Therefore, the length rise ΔL is calculated by:

ΔL ðεreff þ 0:3Þ PhW þ 0:264
¼ 0:412 ð2:3Þ
h ðεreff 0:258Þ PW þ 0:8 h
The actual length (PL) of the patch antenna is calculated by:
PL ¼ L þ 2ΔL ð2:4Þ
λ
PL ¼ 2ΔL ð2:5Þ
2
The transmission line within Zo impedance is performed using the following

equations, where the conducting line has FW width and the substrate material
thickness is h. The εre is the zero-frequency value provided by equation of the

efficient dielectric constant of conducting line [25]:

εr þ 1 ε r 1 10 ab
εre ¼ þ 1þ ð2:6Þ
2 2 u
Here, a and b are given by Eqs. (2.7) and (2.8):

( u 2 )
u4 þ 52
1 1 u 3
a¼1þ ln þ ln 1 þ ð2:7Þ
49 u4 þ :432 18:7 18:1
:053
εr 0:9
b ¼ 0:564 ð2:8Þ
εr þ 0:3
The realization of the characteristic impedance Zo is given below:

pffiffiffiffiffi
When Z 0 εre 89:91, that is, A > 1:52:
FW 8 exp ðAÞ
¼ ð2:9Þ
h exp ð2AÞ 2
pffiffiffiffiffi
When Z 0 εre 89:91, that is, A < 1:52:

FW Q 2 ε 1 :61
¼ B 1 ln ð2B 1Þ þ r ln ðB 1Þ þ :39 ð2:10Þ
h 2εr εr
is given by Eqs. (2.9) and (2.10) and the value of B and A is given by Eqs. (2.11) and
(2.12):
60
B¼ pffiffiffiffi ð2:11Þ
Z 0 εr
n o1
z 0 εr þ 1 2 εr 1 :11
A¼ þ 0:23 þ ð2:12Þ
60 2 εr þ 1 εr
The overview of patch antenna is shown in Fig. 2.1. The various dimensions of
millimeter-wave-based patch antenna are calculated for 28 GHz frequency by using
Eqs. (2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 2.10, 2.11, and 2.12) which are listed in
Table 2.2. The dimensions calculated by using given equations will not have high
accuracy for resonating frequency, so further the patch and ground dimensions are
optimized by using parametric analysis of CST software.
Fig. 2.1 Overview of proposed rectangular DGS millimeter patch antenna: (a) top view and (b)
bottom view
Table 2.2 Dimensions of proposed antenna and optimized antenna (mm)

Parameter of antenna Proposed antenna Optimized antenna
Length of patch (PL) 3 3.5440
Width of patch (PW) 4.40 7.4247
Length of feedline (FL) 11.50 11.2301
Width of feedline (FW) 1.23 4.6808
Width of the ground (GW) 20 20
Length of ground (GL) 20 17.8100
Diameter of circular slot inside ground surface (SL) 4 3.4484
Length of substrate (sL) 20 20
Width of substrate (sw) 20 20
2.3 Optimization of Millimeter-Wave Antenna
The performance of proposed antenna is optimized by using PSO technique of the

CST optimizer. The various dimensions of patch, slot, and ground plane are opti-
mized to improve the performance of the antenna in terms of reflection coefficient
(dB), bandwidth, and gain. To command the PSO algorithm in the simulator,
25 particles and 20 iterations with a total of 401 evaluations are used in the CST
optimizer as listed in Table 2.1 [26] [27].
PSO optimization algorithm is applied over the range of frequency to optimize the
performance of the proposed antenna in the millimeter regime. The objective
Fig. 2.2 Overview of fabricated optimized rectangular DGS millimeter wave patch antenna (a)
Top view (b) Bottom view
function of the algorithm is to get good results in terms of bandwidth, gain, and
return loss as given by Equation (2.13). The results from simulations, optimization,
and experimentations of proposed antenna are presented in this section which is
measured on VNA in antenna lab of IIT Delhi:
Objective function ¼ max ðRL þ B:W þ G Þʋ ð2:13Þ
where RL is return loss, B.W is bandwidth, and G is gain of antenna. After

optimization of proposed antenna, it is fabricated by using the photolithography
process as shown in Fig. 2.2. As per the requirement of acceptable performance, the
return loss should be less than 10 dB for desired resonating frequency. In Fig. 2.3,
it is observed that the proposed antenna is resonating at 27.76 GHz with a return loss
of 23.45 dB and having 21.78–28.45 GHz wide bandwidth. To improve the
performance and to make the antenna resonance toward the desired frequency within
wide bandwidth and high gain, the PSO technique is used. PSO algorithm optimizes
the structure of the patch antenna to attain desired 28 GHz frequency. After optimi-
zation of antenna, it is noted from Fig. 2.3 that the bandwidth of antenna is increased
and antenna starts resonating at 27.67 GHz frequency with a reflection coefficient of
35.04 dB and covers effectively the future 5G bands like 26 GHz and 28 GHz.
Furthermore, for the experimental validation of results, the optimized patch antenna
is fabricated by using Rogers RT/Duroid 5880 substrate material. Also, the fabri-
cated antenna is experimentally tested by using VNA. It is noted that the proposed
antenna is resonating at 27.71 GHz with a return loss of 16.86 dBi.
There is some difference between the simulated return loss and experimentally
measured return loss of proposed antenna due to cable and connector losses. Apart
from the bandwidth of 23.84 GHz to 28.75 GHz concerning resonating bands, the
VSWR for resonating band is less than 2, which indicates the proper utilization of
input power. So, the optimized antenna is efficiently covering 26 GHz and 28 GHz
bands for future wireless applications.
In Fig. 2.4, the realized gain and directivity are plotted over frequency for
proposed and optimized patch antenna. The gain and directivity of the proposed
patch antenna are 6.41 dB and 6.78 dB, which is enhanced to 6.91 dB and 7.21 dB,
-5
-10
Return loss (dB)
-15
-20
-25
-30
RMPA Millimeter wave antenna
Proposed antenna (Experimentally Measured)
-35 Optimized Proposed antenna
20 22 24 26 28 30
Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 2.3 Experimentally measured return loss versus frequency for optimized patch antenna
5
dB
3
Directivity (dB) of Proposed optimized Antenna
2 Directivity (dB) of Proposed patch Antenna
Gain (dB) of Proposed Antenna
Gain (dB) of Proposed optimized patch Antenna
1
20 22 24 26 28 30
Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 2.4 Gain and directivity versus frequency for proposed and optimized antenna
respectively, at 28 GHz frequency by achieving proper impedance matching

between the input and output source. Also, it is noted from the plot of antenna that
it is covering 26 GHz, 5G bands. It can be seen that the gain and directivity at these
bands are enhanced from 6.35 dB and 6.55 dB to 7.02 dB and 7.32 dB, respectively.
0.95
0.90
Efficiency=(Value X100)%
0.85
0.80
0.75
Radiation efficiency of optimized antenna
Radiation efficiency of Proposed antenna
0.70 Total efficiency of optimized antenna
Total efficiency of proposed antenna
0.65
20 22 24 26 28 30
Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 2.5 Radiation and antenna efficiency versus frequency of proposed and optimized antenna
0 H-Plane
0 E-Plane
330 30
330 30 10
10
0
0 300 60
300 60 -10
-10
-20
Gain (dB)
-20
Gain (dB)
-30
-30 270 90
270 90 -30
-30
-20
-20
-10
-10 240 120
240 120 0
0
10
10 210 150
210 150
180
180
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.6 Radiation pattern of proposed optimized antenna at 28 GHz: (a) optimized antenna for
E-plane and (b) optimized antenna for H-plane
The impedance throughout the resonating frequency band is close to 50 Ohm, which
indicates the efficient transmission of radiations from patch antenna. The efficiency
is another concern for the patch antenna performance at such high frequency.
The radiation and antenna efficiency of the optimized patch antenna is plotted in
Fig. 2.5. The optimized patch antenna has 96.01% radiation efficiency and 96.94%
antenna efficiency at 28 GHz resonating frequency band, which is highly desirable
for millimeter-wave applications. In Fig. 2.6, the radiation patterns of the E-plane
and H-plane are measured at 28 GHz frequency, respectively. It is observed that the
optimized antenna is providing good results and efficiently transmitting the radia-
tions at the broadside.
2.4 Design of MIMO Patch Antenna
To increase the data rates and reliability of wireless communication systems, a 22,
i.e., row column, or 44, i.e., 4 transmitting 4 receiving, MIMO patch antenna
is designed by using the proposed optimized patch antenna element. MIMO antenna
has several advantages over single antenna element like it minimizes the fading loss
and multipath loss of signals and increases the QoS. We have designed four antenna
elements that are designed on a single substrate by using common DGS. The top and
bottom view of the MIMO patch antenna is shown in Fig. 2.7.
Port 1 Port 2
Port 3 Port 4
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 2.7 Overview of proposed 22 DGS MIMO patch antenna array: (a) top view, (b) bottom
view, and (c) 3-D view
2.5 Results and Discussions
The S-parameters of each antenna element of MIMO antenna are calculated. Here for
easy demonstration, the reflection coefficient and transmission coefficient are
presented in Figs. 2.8 and 2.9, respectively. In Fig. 2.8, the reflection coefficient of
each antenna element is measured from the simulated results where each antenna
element is resonating at 27.03 GHz with 36.04 dB return loss.
Each antenna element has the same character because every element in MIMO
has a symmetrical structure. The proposed MIMO antenna has achieved a bandwidth
of 40.70%. In Fig. 2.9, the transmission coefficient has values less than 17 dB
between all antenna elements, which indicates that the mutual coupling between
antenna elements is low. It is also noted that mutual coupling between Port 1 and
Port 4 and Port 2 and Port 3 is high as compared to other ports (Figs. 2.10 and 2.11).
The directivity and gain of the proposed MIMO antenna are revealed in Fig. 2.12,
which shows that the suggested MIMO antenna has achieved maximum directivity
of 9.18 dB and gain of 8.76 dB, which makes it a good candidate for higher-
frequency applications. The diversity gain and envelope connection coefficient
(ECC) are investigated to check the diversity capacity of the 22 MIMO antenna
array.
The ECC is used to discover the relationship between symmetrical antenna
elements on the same substrate and can be calculated by using Eq. (2.14). The
values of ECC between the symmetrical component must be below to get higher
estimation of diversity between the MIMO antenna elements. It is based on
S-parameters and takes into record the shape of radiation example, polarization,
-10
Reflection coefficient (dB)
-15
-20
-25
S11
-30
S22
S33
-35
S44
-40
20 22 24 26 28 30 32
Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 2.8 Reflection coefficient versus frequency for MIMO antenna

-15
-20
Transmission Coefficient (dB)
-25
-30
-35
S12
S21
-40
S31
S32
-45
S41
20 22 24 26 28 30 32
Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 2.9 Transmission coefficient versus frequency for MIMO antenna
2.0
VSWR MIMO Port 1

1.8 VSWR MIMO Port 2
VSWR MIMO Port 3
VSWR MIMO Port 4
1.6
VSWR
1.4
1.2
1.0
20 22 24 26 28 30 32
Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 2.10 VSWR versus frequency for MIMO antenna

0.90
Efficiency =(Value x100)% 0.88
0.86
0.84
Radiation efficiency for antenna 1
Radiation efficiency for antenna 2
0.82 Antenna efficiency for antenna 1
Antenna efficiency for antenna 2
0.80
22 24 26 28 30 32
Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 2.11 Antenna and radiation efficiency versus frequency for MIMO patch antenna
10.0
9.5
9.0
dB
8.5
8.0
7.5 Gain (dB)

Directivity (dB)
Diversity Gain (dB)
7.0
20 22 24 26 28 30 32
Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 2.12 Directivity, gain and diversity gain versus frequency for MIMO antenna
0.0035
0.0030
ECC for port (1,2)
ECC for port (1,3)
0.0025 ECC for port (1,4)
0.0020
ECC
0.0015
0.0010
0.0005
0.0000
-0.0005
20 22 24 26 28 30 32
Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 2.13 ECC versus frequency for MIMO antenna
and relative phase between two antenna elements in a MIMO system. From
Fig. 2.13, the values of S12, S13, and S14 are less than 0.001, which is adequate
for the chipping away at two independent antennas on a single substrate [28].
The diversity gain is used to realize the diversity of MIMO antenna system. The
connection between the diversity gains and ECC is given by using beneath condi-
tions [29, 30]:
2
sii sij þ sji sjj
ECC ¼ p2ij ¼
2

2 2
ð2:14Þ
1 jsii j2 þ sji 1 sjj þ sij
sij is the coupling factor between the ijth and jith elements used.
p2ij is the envelop correlation coefficient.
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
DG ¼ 10 1 jECC j2 j ð2:15Þ
In Fig. 2.12, the diversity gain of the MIMO antenna is plotted and found that it
has a value around 10 dB within the resonating band. The diversity gain (DG) is
being used to evaluate the MIMO antenna system’s diversity performance. The
relationship between the diversity gain and ECC is provided by using Eq. (2.15).
The DG of the MIMO antenna is calculated approximately by Formula (2.15), and
Table 2.3 Comparison of proposed antenna with previously reported antennas for millimeter-wave
applications
This
Source [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] work
Total size 3.62.9 11.05.5 4.82.1 0.680.68 1.42.6 2 2
(cm)
Number of 8 4 2 1 2 4
ports
Bandwidth 19–29 27.2–29.7, 29.7–31.5 27.57–28.42, 26.65–29.2 21–30
(GHz) 37.5–39.4 37.62–38.37 36.95–39.05
Minimum iso- 20 30 25 21 22 20
lation (dB)
Maximum 6.03 7.25–9.34 8.60 4.5 2.5 8.65
gain (dBi)
for satisfactory operation of MIMO antenna, DG should be close to 10 dBi. The

value of DG of the designed MIMO antenna is 9.99 dB apart from the notched band.
To feature the advantages of the proposed MIMO planar antenna, the comparison
between the proposed MIMO antenna and the early announced MIMO planar
antenna is done in Table 2.3. The early proposed MIMO antenna [14] has wide
bandwidth, but gain of antenna is low as compared to the proposed antenna. In [15–
18], the reported antenna has wide bandwidth, but the size of antenna is too large
such that antenna cannot integrate inside the circuit. Also, [16–18] reported
millimeter-wave antenna has narrow bandwidth and low gain when compared to
the proposed antenna. The impedance is another important parameter that defines
how efficiently the device can utilize the input power. The maximum power can be
transmitted when the impedance of load and source is the same. The commercially
available feeding cables have 50 ohm impedance. The optimized antenna has an
impedance range between 46 and 54 ohm for the operating frequency. Besides
several advantages, the proposed optimized MIMO antenna has a limitation like it
has a slightly lower gain than other works, but if the performance of the overall
antenna is compared, then this antenna is a good candidate for future wireless
millimeter-wave applications.
2.6 Conclusion
Here, a new dual-band millimeter-based patch antenna is designed for next-

generation wireless applications. To enhance the performance of patch antenna,
multi-objective PSO optimization technique is used which improves the bandwidth,
gain, and efficiency of the conventional patch antenna. It is found from the results
that the proposed antenna is resonating at 27.67 GHz frequency with a reflection
coefficient of 35.04 dB and covers effectively the future 5G bands like 26 GHz and
28 GHz. To take the numerous advantages of MIMO antenna system like reliability
of signals and high quality of service, a 22 MIMO patch antenna is designed by
using the optimized antenna element and found that it has wide bandwidth which
covers 9 GHz band from 21 GHz to 30 GHz, with maximum gain of 8.65 dB. The
proposed MIMO patch antenna effectively radiates at desired frequency band and
can be used for future wireless applications.
Acknowledgment The authors would like to acknowledge the Visvesvaraya PhD Scheme, MeitY
(India), and Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB), Department of Science and Tech-
nology (DST), Government of India, and for financial support under grant number EEQ/2019/
000115.
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Mandeep Singh completed his BTech from the Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering, Punjabi University Patiala, Punjab (India), in 2012, and MTech from Yadavindra
College of Engineering, Punjabi University Regional Campus, Bathinda (India), in 2014 in
electronics and communication engineering. He is pursuing PhD in the Department of Electronics
and Communication Engineering under the guidance of Dr. Simranjit Singh at Punjabi University,
Patiala, Punjab, India. His work is supported by Visvesvaraya PhD scheme, MeitY, New Delhi. His
research area is millimeter and sub-millimeter wave antenna design.
Dr. Simranjit Singh is an assistant professor in the Department of Electronics and Communica-
tion Engineering at Punjabi University, Patiala. He is the author and co-author of about 106 research
journal articles, nearly 34 conference articles, few book chapters, and book on various topics related
to optical fiber communication, information security, optical sensors, and antenna design. Thus far,
his publications have been cited 714 times and his H-index is 15 (Source: Scopus). His Google
scholar citation is 908, i10: 26, and H-index is 17. His Research Gate citation is 698, score: 24.78,
and H-index is 14. The total impact factor of his SCI journal published is greater than 70. He is
recipient of more than six research grants from the Empowerment and Equity Opportunities for
Excellence in Science, SERB, Government of India; ASEAN-India STI Cooperation, Department
of Science and Technology (International Multilateral and Regional Cooperation Division), Gov-
ernment of India; Visvesvaraya PhD Scheme for Electronics and IT, funded by MeitY, Government
of India (two projects); Raman fellowship funded by the University Grants Commission ( India );
and Host Scientist of C V Raman International Fellowship for African Researchers 2016 of FICCI,
Government of India. Dr. Singh currently serves as associate editor of IET Electronics Letters (SCI
journal, Feb. 2021 to till date) and of IET Journal of Engineering (ESCI journal, Feb. 2021 to till
date). Dr. Singh received best paper award for his paper published in Optics and Laser Technology
Journal. He received Host Scientist of C V Raman International Fellowship for African Researchers
2016 of FICCI, Govt. of India and was selected for Marquis Who’s Who: 2017 Albert Nelson
Marquis Lifetime Achievement Award. He was nominated by the Institute of Optics at the
University of Rochester for Steadman Interdisciplinary Award for Postdocs during Postdoc Appre-
ciation Week from 19.09.2016 to 23.09.2016. He has supervised about 2 PhD theses and 19 MTech
theses as well as 8 BTech. He is a life member of the Institution of Engineers (India) and the
International Society for Technical Education.
Chapter 3
Fronthauling for 5G and Beyond
Harpreet Kaur, Simranjit Singh, and Ranjit Kaur
3.1 Introduction
Today’s social changes are observed that an explosion of data traffic, mobile sub-
scribers, smart devices, and rising appetite of large bandwidth are skyrocketing and
sow the seed for the necessity of new generation. Cellular networks have made
revolutionary developments in telecom industries and introduced superfast network
fifth generation (5G) and vision of beyond 5G. The new-generation 5G presents
legacy system that has 1000x times more strength than the previous generation [1].
The transmission demand, large bandwidth, little jitter, ultra-speed, and efficient
resource allocation are the major challenge for both networks 5G and 6G. China has
launched the proposal for 6G vision, in which more multimedia connectivity,
increased options for the gaming, high frequency band, reliable network technol-
ogy/topology, large wavelength, etc. will be the basic demands and 6G will be 1000x
times faster than 5G too [2]. As the rapidly explosion of network collision, the
infrastructure needs to expand the essentiality of the highly qualitative, with ultra-
performance, maintained and updated network. But it’s extremely to provide this
much of strong network because of some causes that are hard to operate, update, and
maintain the entire network structure for the operators. Here, we have some reasons
like high amount of data traffic, inefficiency of operators, complex transmitter
network, lack of knowledge, and expenses. Therefore, the 5G transport network is
divided into small segments that present the backhaul, midhaul, and FH
[3]. Backhaul serves the connection from core network to central office that consists
of multiple baseband units under the pool and called as OLT, while midhaul serves
H. Kaur (*)
Department of Computer Science, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India
S. Singh · R. Kaur
e-mail: sjsingh@pbi.ac.in; ranjit24_ucoe@pbi.ac.in

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-06866-9_3
50 H. Kaur et al.
the linking between FH and FH aggregations. The FH network provides the con-
nectivity among the OLT under the central office to ONUs under the remote radio
head [4]. These network chunks are easy to operate and update.
To match the 5G and beyond transport network demands and to facilitate the
applications at the desired speed, various PON technologies are available with
multiplexing techniques and hybrid techniques like NGPON. The wavelength-
division multiplexing (WDM) and time-division multiplexing (TDM) are the can-
didate techniques for the NGPON that help to save the power, multiple gigabits, or
terabits data rate by using multiple wavelengths, large bandwidth flexibility, and
ultra-frequency band using millimeter-wave spectrum band [5]. In view of the
future, as the network collision, digital smart devices, gadgets, and cell phone
subscribers are increasing, the bidirectional multicore fiber is another option that
can provide the bit rate in tera, peta, etc. with the widest bandwidth. The drawbacks
of this fiber like cross talk, nonlinearity effect, dispersion, and noise are other aspects
that are considerable too [6]. Some existing advance transmission techniques and
technologies like quadrature amplitude or differential phase-shifting or phase ampli-
tude modulation techniques using NGPON or others can be used to deal with the
abovementioned drawbacks [7].
Although 5G is already launched in some countries like South Korea, the United
States and China, the rest of the countries are ready to launch, whereas 6G is at its
early phase. In this proposed chapter, the symmetric simulation on millimeter wave
over dense-wave division multiplex-PON (MMWoDWDM-PON) transceiver for
FH network is presented with positive outcomes. The results have been analyzed
in terms of quality factor and bit error rate along with the eye diagram.
3.1.1 High-Capacity (Tbps) Optical Transmission
Optical transmission is the guided media where the input signal is transmitted on the
fiber link in the form of light that provides the robust and reliable transmission rather
than other existing mediums. Optical fiber is the most prominent solution for the
large bandwidth and long coverage area. In other words, we can say that it can be a
long-term investment in the telecommunication industry for the ubiquitous connec-
tivity of the world [8]. From source to destination, the coverage distance of thou-
sands of miles in the communication world is the work of minutes that shows the
fiber potentials. It can provide ultra-speedy network with bit rate at the hundreds of
terabits per second, frequency spectrum in hundreds of terahertz, and ultra-low jitter
[9]. For the 5G and beyond, it is best to connect the tangible realm to the intangible
world.
3 Fronthauling for 5G and Beyond 51
3.1.2 PON Standards
PON is a network approach that is basically utilizing optical fiber which is used to
serve the telecommunication networks for reliable transmission process. The tele-
communication network organizations have made signal modulation on optical link
possible. It provides the interface from OLT to ONUs or optical network terminals
(ONT) by using the unpowered splitters called ODU under the domain of optical.
The terms ONUs and ONTs are interchangeable that carries the same meaning but
under the different telecommunication standards, IEEE and ITU-T, respectively
[10]. It serves a large number of users by utilizing the point-to-multipoint topology
via both upstream and downstream transmission directions shown in Fig. 3.1. In
these days, network is suffering with the explosion of collision at the user end.
As it’s been seen, growth end users, smart devices, network traffic, and telecom-
munication network need to attain the large bandwidth, ultra-bit rate, and small jitter.
Some researches have been conducted to predict the future. The mobile statistical
report has predicted that the mobile users will be increased by 7.2 billion within the
2022 [11], whereas the report of Cisco Annual Internet 2018–2023 has given the
figure around 29 billion that the growth of smart devices will see a huge jump
[12]. The exponential high lump in end users and smart devices is caused by the
network traffic. Within the 2022, network collision will touch the number around
77 exabytes [13]. Figure 3.2 shows that China and India are on peak level of mobile
user’s growth.
PON is a highly efficient technology that can perform the multiplexing techniques
on finite fiber resources to serve the enormous mobile subscribers by providing the
huge bandwidth at the high bit rate with ultralow latency. For better performance,
PON is classified into two categories that are asynchronous and synchronous
developed under the standardized ITU-T and IEEE. Under these categories, some
classes are available like broadband-PON (BPON) and Ethernet-PON (EPON); both
come under asynchronous transfer mode PON (ATM-PON), whereas gigabit PON
Fig. 3.1 Basic passive optical network structure

52 H. Kaur et al.
Africa Central and Eastern Europe China
India Latin America Middle East
North America Western Euorope
1605
1600
1565
1415
1320
GROWTH (IN MILLIONS)
1165
1155
1120
1095
1075
1075
1065
1050
1020
980
690
690
675
665
660
585
580
580
570
565
520
520
515
515
510
425
410
410
410
405
385
385
385
380
375
1 2 3 4 5
MOBILE USERS
Fig. 3.2 World-level cell phone user’s growth. [14]
(GPON) comes under synchronous transfer mode PON (STM-PON)

[15]. Abovementioned modes were capable as per their specifications in specific
era. Except APON and BPON, EPON and GPON were selected because of their
features by ITU and IEEE and extended them for the FH network’s requirements.
The PON standards are categorized into various ways that are EPON, GPON,
NGPON1, NGPON2, etc. and present their own way for the 5G FH network.
EPON
In 2004, the IEEE was working under the 802.3 ah and developed the EPON that
was capable to carry the transmitted signal data in the encapsulated format during the
Ethernet communication. It was presented as the less expensive network architecture
that was compatible for the huge mobile users with the enhanced bandwidth and
network performance [16]. During the network communication, it supported two
separate multiplexing techniques that are TDM-PON and WDM-PON [17]. These
techniques can handle the network traffic at the user end and provide the sufficient
bandwidth during interface by utilizing the optical resources. OLT unit can utilize
more than one wavelength for downlink, whereas ONU unit works on time slots that
are assigned to the different ONUs during uplink. Due to the fine features of EPON,
it was the technology that could replace the APON and BPON [17]. Despite being a
replacement technology, it was incapable to the next generations for the collision.
GPON
The FSAN has taken the initiation and started the process of development of GPON
in 2001. After some progress, under the series G.984 standard ITU-T, it was selected
in 2003 as a PON family. Many researchers and vendors who could provide the
platform have contributed and played a huge role to make the collaboration with the
mobile network generations possible [15]. There’s no doubt that it presents the
complex and costly infrastructure than the EPON to serve the huge bandwidth for
the high transmission rate for the flexible cellular communication. It can serve in
both manners whether it is symmetric and asymmetric network system. It can
support the input signal at 1.25 Gbps/1.25 Gbps and 2.5 Gbps/1.25 Gbps of
transmission rate for symmetric and asymmetric, respectively. It used TDM-PON
technique and covered the distance of 40 km by using one wavelength [18]. As the
mobile network subscribers are growing day by day, the technology was needed still
for the hunger of high bit rate and high spectrum band for huge bandwidth.
XGPON (NGPON1)
After this struggle, the telecommunication standards have started the work on the
multiple gigabits to increase the transmission rate as per the growing demand. This is
an emerging technology and has been launched as a descendent of the GPON under
the standard ITU-T series G.987 [18]. As a next-generation PON technology, it is
capable to provide transmission at the 10 Gbps bit rate so, also known as a 10G-PON
or NGPON phase 1 (NGPON1). The symbol “X” is used as a Roman to represent the
numerical number 10, and XG-PON is another name given to this technology. For
the asymmetric and symmetric interface mode, the terminologies XG-PON and
XGS-PON have been used respectively where 10 Gbps/2.5 Gbps is presented as
an asymmetric downlink and uplink and 10 Gbps/10 Gbps is presented for symmet-
ric bidirectionality [19]. The XGS-PON is recognized as a ITU-T G.9807.1 standard
in 2016 while accepted in 2017 by taking the extension of NGPON1 [8]. It provides
multiple gigabits and huge bandwidth but could not satisfy the 5G FH cellular
network demands as per the specifications. The high-speed data rate, more wave-
lengths, large amount of bandwidth, high spectrum band, and low jitter are still the
matter of concern to serve the large number of ONUs at the remote head. So, the
flexible network technology is needed and NGPON2 has developed.
NGPON2
As an offspring of GPON and NGPON1, NGPON2 has launched and presented the
new way of thinking by the hybridization of multiplexing techniques to meet and
facilitate the FH network. The multiplexing techniques are WDM-PON and
TDM-PON and got together to become a TWDM-PON. In 2012, the FSAN has
54 H. Kaur et al.
taken the initial pace to start the research in order to increase the data rate by
multiplexing the multiple wavelengths at the 10 Gbps of bit rate per wavelength
[18]. In 2013, NGPON2 has gotten the recognition by ITU-T G.989 and become the
technology that can support 40 Gbps in aggregation or more that it is in both formats
called symmetric and asymmetric [20]. As per the requirements and specifications of
FH network infrastructure, the 40 km of distance can be covered by the fiber link.
TWDM-PON network infrastructure inherited the features of GPON and NGPON1
by the coexisted structure of C-RAN under the CPRI protocol.
TWDM-PON is selected as a sufficient solution for the NGPON2 to match the 5G
FH. In the asymmetric approach, the downlink and uplink utilize the 10 Gbps/2.5
Gbps of bit rate, respectively, while 10 Gbps/10 Gbps is used during both directions
in symmetric mode. It is the best technology that can use four and more wavelengths
for the fiber to the x that describes the home, building, curb, etc. with the tremendous
outcomes like quality of services and experiences [21]. It provides the mature
network two times large bandwidth, four or more wavelength plan, low energy
consumption, high bit rate, less expensive network structure, and flexibility with
high efficiency that makes it consistent. Although it offers these key features, it also
introduces future scope to be investigated – two major concerns that present the
enhancement in data rate at single wavelength along with the multiplexing of two
wavelengths. Therefore, the high-speed PON is needed to deal with these obstacles.
Concept of 50G-PON
50G-PON is also known as a HS-PON or NGPON2+ because it offers 25 Gbps or

50 Gbps of rate at a single wavelength that can enhance the FH network perfor-
mance. Under ITU-T G.9804 and IEEE 802.3ca, it has presented three types of
techniques that are TDM-PON at 50/25 Gbps, TWDM-PON at 50/25 Gbps, and
higher-speed point-to-point WD-PON at 50/25 Gbps [22]. This concept can increase
the bandwidth five time times faster. ITU-T supports the 50 Gbps at per channel,
while 25 Gbps belongs to the IEEE at per channel and makes an aggregation using
two wavelengths to meet the NGPON2+ for both symmetric and asymmetric modes
[23]. It introduces benefits that are to reduce the network setup cost, space, and
energy consumption too. It prefers the coexisting infrastructure and wavelength plan
with GPON, NGPON1, and NGPON2.
Eventually, PON technologies can accommodate the 6G FH network as well as
5G cellular network with the ultra-speed and ultra-efficiency. This revolutionary
path will open the way to meet the 6G FH mobile network requirements. The 5G
network architecture will be a foundation of the architecture of beyond network 6G.
3.1.3 Millimeter Wave over Fiber
Millimeter wave is a high-frequency radio spectrum wave signal that provides a

range between 3 GHz and 300 GHz. It contains innumerable frequency spectrums
that are already being used in some communication systems. Despite the availability
of E-band, W-band, V-band, etc., the millimeter-wave spectrum is unutilized [24]. In
2013, South Korea and the United States conducted field research and have shown
indoor and outdoor tests and presented their coverage range for this spectrum band
under LOS and NLOS scenarios. The coverage era of 1.7 km was for LOS and 200 m
was for NLOS [25]. Basically, the millimeter-wave spectrum band is classified into
two categories that are super high-frequency (SHF) spectrum band that provides
range between 3 GHz and 30 GHz and extremely high-frequency (EHF) spectrum
band that provides range between 30 GHz and 300 GHz. The length of the wave lies
between 1 mm and 10 mm; that’s why it is called millimeter wave [24]. It is an
exponentially strengthened spectrum band that is used in wireless communication
network. But there are some specific problems that have been encountered during
wireless transmission process like path loss due to wall or tree or building, data loss
due to rain or bad weather or weak signal, and non-line of sight for both. In the last
decades, an immense growth is seen in cellular subscribers, modern devices, and
data collision that gave birth to troubles and demands of high-speed network with
large bandwidth and low latency that showed another aspect [26].The millimeter
wave is a rich source of these demands with small wavelength. The spectrum band
millimeter wave is shown in Fig. 3.3.
The MMWoF is a way to deal with these scenarios after considering all issues and
last decade’s necessities. The MMWoF is the key technique that provides converged
schematic approach of millimeter wave and optical fiber. In this process, the
millimeter wave is generated by using existing modulation techniques and transmit-
ted on the optical fiber link bidirectionally from OLT to ONUs and vice versa
[27]. It’s a very significant process that provides the high-speed fronthaul network
with huge bandwidth, low power consumption, interaction with immunity of signal
from interference, fusion capacity, and less expense [28]. The way of MMWoF
approach is led by the RoF.
Fig. 3.3 Millimeter-wave spectrum band

56 H. Kaur et al.
3.1.4 Radio over Fiber
The radio over fiber (RoF) is the fundamental concept behind the MMWoF tech-
niques. RoF is the technology that offers hybrid technology that congregates the
radio-frequency signals and fiber connection. In this process, the radio signals are
generated which are modulated in the form of light, and fiber connection is used as
guided medium to make the signal travel [4]. As per the fronthaul requirements for
5G and beyond, the RoF grounded radio access network has introduced the central-
ized network to accommodate more users and to provide enhanced broadband
network with low latency and Internet of Things [29]. Centralized radio network
serves the connection between baseband unit and remote radio unit by the use of
digitized distributed unit. The baseband units are centralized providing collection of
baseband units called central office and are directly connected with the remote head
via fiber link under the domain centralized radio access network [30]. To meet the
bandwidth demand, radio network transmission process is shown in Fig. 3.4.
The figure shows the concept of RoF where centralized unit is fully responsible to
operate the distributed unit as well as remote unit except their basic operations. The
distributed unit is responsible for the digital processing during the transmission
process, whereas remote unit is answerable to amplify the transmitted signal and
its conversion. The implementation of fronthaul network is done by using the
Common Public Radio Interface (CPRI) or Open Base Station Architecture Initiative
(OBSAI)[29]. Although the RoF-based fronthaul network is capable to reduce the
overall network deployment expenses, somewhere, it is inapplicable for serving the
enormous data traffic, bandwidth starvation, and technically deployment expenses.
To sort out the abovementioned obstacles, the congested radio-frequency band is not
a sufficient solution for the high transmission rate, large bandwidth, accommodation
of enormous mobile users, and low jitter. So, the high spectrum band with extremely
high-range millimeter wave is needed to beat the fronthaul bandwidth and the rest of
the demands.
Fig. 3.4 Block diagram of RoF

3.1.5 Long-Reach PON
Long-reach PON presents a span of hundred kilometers and beyond. As per the 5G
broadband network requirements, protection and security are the major aspects that
PON is concerned with. In the 5G network infrastructure, the FH network can cover
20–40 km of area via fiber using the different advance technologies under the
specifications of separate standards such IEEE and ITU-T discussed in the section
PON standards. The PON need to extend hundreds of kilometers of the coverage
area, and it is called long-reach PON. There are various advance PON technologies
available that can help to attain this milestone. With the large coverage distance,
PON can reduce the network’s operational and capital expenditures and can accom-
modate the broadband users in large figure [31].
There are some challenges that are making the concept attractive. The source of
optical power consumption by the signal, resource allocation process during the
uplink transmission, network topology, and security are one of them [32]. Many
existing advance technologies are capable to serve the long reach under the new
series of IEEE and ITU. The multiplexing techniques like TDM, DWDM, OFDM,
OCDM, etc. are potential techniques to serve the large coverage span and mobile
population. It can be beneficial for the metro and large number of ONUs and can
reduce the setup cost.
3.1.6 Advanced Modulation and Multiplexing Techniques
Modulation techniques are available to generate the millimeter-wave signal and

transmit over fiber. PON provides various modulation techniques that use laser
diode as an optical source to convert the electrical signal into a high spectrum
light signal. After the conversion process, the signal is modulated on fiber link,
and photodetector detects the optical signal and converts it into electrical again to
deliver the users. Each modulation technique has its own procedure to generate the
millimeter-wave signal as per their own specifications and that are the following:
Direct Modulation
Direct modulation is a simple way to generate a millimeter wave, and it is reliable for
covering short distance at the low frequency spectrum. In this approach, the direct
modulated laser is multiplied with the radio-frequency signal to generate the milli-
meter wave that is modulated over the fiber and detected by the PIN photodetector to
convert and recover the signal in electrical form [33]. The direct feedback laser is
used to increase the data transmission rate. Except the direct feedback laser, some
other lasers like semiconductor laser is presented a separate path to increase the
bandwidth [34]. It has another name called intensity modulation technique that does
58 H. Kaur et al.
not support any external modulator device to generate a millimeter wave. So, it is a
less expensive approach. But due to the small coverage distance along with the low
frequency spectrum, the external modulation technique is presented in the next
subsection.
External Modulation
External modulation technique provides an enhanced schematic approach in terms of

large coverage distance at the high spectrum frequency and presents carrier suppres-
sion that supports high-velocity generation [33]. It offers enhanced broadband
network performance and large bandwidth to accommodate the large number of
end users. Under the intensity and phase modulation schemes, it provides different
modulators, i.e., amplitude modulator, quadrature amplitude modulator, and phase-
shifting key modulator, respectively. An intensity modulator uses the direct modu-
lated laser as a source and external modulator like Mach-Zehnder modulator (MZM)
known as an external intensity modulation, whereas phase modulation presents
phase-shifting feature for the transmitted signal using MZM. Under the phase
modulation technique, to pass the constant current, the continuous wave laser is
used that helps to reduce the chirp [35]. It is more convenient than the direct
modulation technique due to its features but suffered because of its expensive
structure.
Up and Down Conversion
Up- and down-conversion modulation technique is a flexible approach that facili-

tates the radio signal with conversion system which can be into high form or low
form. The approach is known as up conversion when the radio spectrum signal is
changed into high spectrum frequency band, whereas when the signal is changed
into low spectrum band it is called down-conversion modulation system [36]. The
concept of the up-conversion modulation is different from the down-conversion
system because intermediate frequency signals are used in the up-conversion scheme
[37]. The intermediate frequency signal is reliable and free from dispersion.
Heterodyne Modulation
Heterodyne modulation technique provides the high spectrum frequency band

generation scheme that uses more than one optical input signals by using tunable
lasers to enhance the purity of signal [38, 39]. It helps to deal with the chromatic
dispersion. The optical coupler is used to combine or mix the two tunable lasers to
modulate the new spectrum band at the separate frequencies. It also contains
problem of phase noise [39].
All modulation techniques have their pros and cons that make it separate from
each other. With the help of these, the extremely high spectrum band millimeter
wave can be generated that can provide the huge bandwidth to the 5G FH network
and beyond. To serve the 5G FH broadband network, PON multiplexing techniques
use the abovementioned approaches to modulate the millimeter wave signal and
transmit it on the fiber to sort out the problem of transmission loss.
Multiplexing Techniques
There are many existing multiplexing techniques that can be capable to serve the FH
networks like time-division multiplexing, frequency division multiplexing, and
wavelength division multiplexing. PON-based network infrastructure provides the
reutilization of limited fiber resources and uses the preemption during transmission
process to make the mobile users satisfy in terms of speed. To use finite resources
like bandwidth in an effective way, there is a need for multiple wavelengths to serve
the user demands, and the dense wavelength division multiplexing technique is the
key solution [40]. WDM technique is based on passive optical network (PON) used
to improve the bandwidth more greatly by multiplexing the number of optical signals
using carrier channels at the different spectrum range. The WDM-PON is used to
multiplex the limited channels that transmit on a single fiber. But to serve the large
subscribers, we need the multiplexing technique to multiplex the huge input chan-
nels that are called DWDM. DWDM is a rich technique with constricted channel
space to accommodate the more than eight-channel wavelengths [41, 42]. The
erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) is an amplifier that is used to amplify the
signal in prepone manner and to boost up the energy level of the signal which is
beneficial especially to increase the channel bandwidth [43].
The WDM also goes under the two major issues, chromatic dispersion due to the
use of the same fiber and the nonlinear effect of four-wave mixing. Despite these
issues, the DWDM is the way to utilize the bandwidth systematically, and the
convergence of DWDM-PON and MMWave over fiber is best for the fronthaul
network [42]. The fundamental focus of the proposed network technique is to extend
the single-channel capacity to serve that attracts the fronthaul property.
To comprehend the notion of millimeter-wave modulation over optical link, the
MMWave over DWDM system is designed for the 5G fronthaul network. It can
make the complete use of unused frequency bands through the same fiber. The
simulation setup and experimental results have been discussed below. Our system’s
reliability and operability are successfully investigated via practical outcomes of a
broadly open eye diagram with near to ground error rate.
60 H. Kaur et al.
System Setup
The proposed simulation aims to design the symmetric 5x16 Gbps DWDM-PON-
based 5G fronthaul system by using extremely high spectrum frequency band
MMWave that is transmitted on single-mode fiber to fast the network. In the
approach of MMWave over the DWDM system, the 16-DWDM scheme is the
most prominent technique to utilize the bandwidth to deal with the augmentation
of mobile subscribers and to save the power and cost of the structure. The typical
bidirectional 5x16 Gbps MMWave over DWDM-based infrastructure for the
fronthaul network is shown in block diagram in Fig. 3.5 for the 5G fronthaul mobile
network communication system.
The simulation setup is shown in Fig. 3.6 that consists of 16 transceivers in the
optical network terminal (OLT) unit and the optical network unit (ONU), which are
connected via the same fiber at the 20-km distance. In the infrastructure of
16-DWDM Fig. 3.2, the components go through the OLT that are PRBS generator
to generate the random bits, non-return to zero (NRZ) for pulse generation, sine
wave at 100 GHz, electrical multiplier to merge the NRZ and sine wave, continues
wave (CW) laser at 193.1 THz with the power of 10 dBm, external modulation
technique called single-drive mach-zhender modulator with erbium-doped fiber
amplifier (EDFA), is used to modulate the signal in light during transmission. In
this, 16 channels are multiplexed and transmitted on the same fiber with the help of
EDFA amplifier which enhances the signal and covers the 5-m distance.
The optical spectrum analyzer (OSA) helps to examine the wavelength spectrum.
Transmitter uses the 5 Gbps transmission rate per channel. Table 3.1 shows the
required parameters for the simulation system.
Tx-1 Rx-1
Tx-2 DE- Rx-2

MUX
MUX
Single Mode
Tx- Fiber Rx-
16 16
Rx-1 Tx-1
Rx-2 DE- Tx-2

MUX
MUX
Rx- Tx-
16 16
OLT Unit ONU Unit
Fig. 3.5 Schematic bidirectional approach MMWave over 16-DWDM

Fig. 3.6 Basic schematic transceiver
Table 3.1 Key parameters Parameters Description

for simulation setup
Transmitter
DWDM 16 number of input ports
MZM Dual MZM
Bit rate 5 Gbps
Frequency 193.1 THz
Power 10 dBm
EDFA 5m
OSA Analyzer
Single-mode optical fiber 20 km
Receiver
DWDM 16 number of input ports
PIN Photodetector
LPBF Cutoff frequency 0.75
3R regenerator
After transmission, fiber provides the output to the optical demultiplexer to split
as per the requirement. The demultiplexer serves the output to the 16 receivers which
comes under the ONU on the receiving side. It separates the channels via a specific
ONU. The receiver contains components which are photodetector that detects the
optical signal from demultiplexer and converts it into electronic form, a low-pass
Bessel filter (LPBF) to filter the received electronic signal, a 3R regenerator to
recover the data, and an analyzer to evaluate the error rate. The 3R regenerator is a
component to recover the data by performing the three functions such as reshaping,
retiming, and re-amplification. In simple words, one can say that it works as an NRZ
pulse generator. The specific error tester tool is used that is called BER spectrum
analyzer to get to know about the threshold value, error measurement, Q-factor, and
discount factor too with the eye diagram.
62 H. Kaur et al.
Results and Discussion
In this study, the MMWave over DWDM system is investigated for the different
high MMWave spectrum bands without any compensation of dispersion using the
optiwave-18 simulation software. The performance of the proposed system demon-
strated the successful outcomes via vital parameters such as power, Q-factor, BER,
and wavelength spectrum. The different optical spectrum analyzers from the separate
simulation setups are shown in Fig. 3.7 that is used to present the input channel
wavelength before transmission and after transmission. The first diagram presents
Fig. 3.7 At the different spectrum bands, 50 GHz, 80 GHz, and 100 GHz: (a) optical spectrum
before the transmission and (b) optical spectrum after the transmission
Table 3.2 Downstream and upstream Q-factor and BER for different channels for NRZ modula-
tion format
Wavelengths (nm) Q-factor BER
Downstream transmission: at 50 GHz MMWave spectrum band
Ch1 ¼ 1552.52 6.9 5.83 1011
Ch8 ¼ 1548.51 7.8 9.34 1013
Ch16¼ 1541.34 7.8 3.03 1013
At 80 GHz MMWave spectrum band
Ch1¼ 1552.52 6.8 9.46 1011
Ch8¼ 1548.51 6.6 5.91 1013
Ch16¼ 1541.34 6.4 9.05 1011
Ch1¼ 1552.52 6.9 9.46 1011
Ch8¼ 1548.51 6.7 9.80 1012
Ch16¼ 1541.34 7.3 8.80 1012
Upstream transmission: at 50 GHz MMWave spectrum band
Ch1¼ 1552.52 7.3 1.45 1011
Ch8¼ 1548.51 7.5 2.36 1014
Ch16¼ 1541.34 7.5 1.56 1013
Ch1¼ 1552.52 7 1.04 1011
Ch8¼ 1548.51 7.7 3.83 1014
Ch16¼ 1541.34 7.4 4.25 1013
Ch1¼ 1552.52 7.1 4.87 1013
Ch8¼ 1548.51 7.6 3.08 1014
Ch16¼ 1541.34 7.3 1.55 1013
the analysis of the optical signal before the transmission, while the other one depicts
the spectrum after transmission.
The transmission channels vary and are distinguished by the quality and error rate
at the given distance, and some of them are displayed in Table 3.2. It would be
appropriate to say that upstream, downstream, and increasing MMWave spectrum
always directly influence the Q-factor as well as error rate.
With the perspective of better understanding, the system is investigated with the
help of an eye diagram of the transmitted signal at different error rates. The widely
opened eye shows the efficiency of the signal with the Q-factor. According to the
observation of eye diagrams, the presented scheme verified our idea of enrichment in
MMWave over the DWDM system by using the MMWave spectrum band with the
same fiber. The 16-DWDM system is used to fight against hunger for large band-
width at a high-speed transmission rate to utilize the bandwidth in a well-organized
way. In the proposed system, Figs. 3.8 and 3.9 portray the best case of downstream
and upstream eye patterns of all three simulations by using single transmission
channel 8 for the NRZ modulation format.
64 H. Kaur et al.
Fig. 3.8 Eye diagrams for different downstream simulation setups: (a) at 50 GHz, (b) at 80 GHz,
(c) at 100 GHz
Fig. 3.9 Eye diagrams for different upstream simulation setups: (a) at 50 GHz, (b) at 80 GHz, (c) at
100 GHz
66 H. Kaur et al.
In Fig. 3.10, we also present the altogether simulation’s proportion of study at

Q-factor for both upstream and downstream differences at separate increasing
spectrum bands. The curved blue line expresses the upstream variations, whereas
the red curved line displays the downstream transmission in Fig. 3.10a–c. Each
channel has its distinct Q-factor.
To analyze all ups and downs during upstream and downstream signal transmis-
sion, Figs. 3.11 and 3.12 present all users at OLT and ONU units. It also can be
increased as per the requirement of 5G fronthaul network subscribers.
The blue line shows the MMWave spectrum band at 50 GHz, red line at 80 GHz,
and blue line at 100 GHz corresponding to the Q-factor variations for downstream
and upstream. The convergence of 16-DWDM and MMWave over fiber system for
the fronthaul network at the 100 GHz represents the smooth and better flow of
changes than other lines, suffering from the large ups and downs during transmis-
sion. From the figures, it’s cleared that the downstream Q-factor graph is differed
from upstream.
Figure 3.13 presents the system performance concerning the error rate ups and
downs for all simulations at the rising spectrum band associated with the DWDM
fronthaul network. The BER remains less than 1016 that shows acceptance.
3.1.7 Multicore Fiber
Multicore fiber provides the multiple cores in the same cladding of fiber that helps to
speed up the transmission as well as bit rate. It facilitates the parallel system for data
transmission at the rate of Pbit/s or Ebit/s concurrently [6]. It promotes the technique
space division multiplexing, and till now transmission has been done using 32-core
fiber. It is very helpful to increase the multiple special channels to enhance the 5G
FH transport performance. Despite all these features, it suffers from some aspects
like noise, dispersion, nonlinearities, cross talk, etc. that lower the network perfor-
mance at the long distance like thousands of km. But the advance transmission
techniques can help to reduce these obstacles and enhance the network performance.
5G FH mobile network serves the small distance as mentioned in above sections.
Therefore, it is already cleared that to extend the fiber distance and improve the bit
rate, bandwidth, lower response time, and finite optical resource utilization, special
multiplexing using multicore fiber is the best technique for 5G as well as beyond
network as per the requirements and vision of 6G. The multicore fiber can meet the
requirements of 6G FH network to provide the applications of the same as hologram,
digital cloning, etc. for the ubiquitous connectivity all over the world.
Fig. 3.10 Q-factor a

variations during upstream
and downstream At 50 GHz (US)
7.8 At 50 GHz (DS)
transmission for all
simulation setups: (a) at
50 GHz, (b) at 80 GHz, (c) 7.6
at 100 GHz
Q-Factor
7.4
7.2
7.0
6.8
CH 1 CH 2 CH 3 CH 4 CH 5 CH 6 CH 7 CH 8
Input Channels
b
7.8 At 80 GHz (US)
At 80 GHz (DS)
7.6
7.4
Q-Factor
7.2
7.0
6.8
6.6
c Input Channels
8.0
At 100 GHz (US)
At 100 GHz (DS)
7.8
7.6
Q-Factor
7.4
7.2
7.0
6.8
Input Channels
68 H. Kaur et al.
Fig. 3.11 The comparison of Q-factors versus different wavelengths for downstream transmission
at the different spectrum bands
Fig. 3.12 The comparison of Q-factors versus different wavelengths for upstream transmission at
the different spectrum bands
Fig. 3.13 Bit error rate corresponding input channels

70 H. Kaur et al.
3.1.8 Bidirectional Optical Communication for 5G

and Beyond
All PON-based technologies present the bidirectional network infrastructure for both
symmetric and asymmetric modes. However, it’s true that all technologies follow
their own specification whether it comes under the network’s requirement and
specifications of ITU or IEEE standard series. As abovementioned, symmetric
simulation setup presented the bidirectional system by utilizing the bidirectional
fiber and positive results at different frequency spectrums. Uplink and downlink
transmission is done simultaneously using single-mode fiber that provides the same
core for both directions. For the uplink and down ink, there are two left and right
sidebands that are used to transmit the input signal by the allocation method. Using
the bidirectional fiber link, there will be some problems during the transmission
communication that are interference, fiber dispersion, and noise, impacting the
transmission signal directly [7].
Abovementioned obstacles can be easily reduced by using the advance signal
modulation techniques. The Quadrature amplitude modulation or phase-shifting key
modulation is the solution to these problems, which can easily reduce the inter-core
cross talk, noise, fiber dispersion, etc. for the 5G FH and beyond, as well as
bidirectional optical link which can perform better results.
3.1.9 Conclusion
This chapter presents the concept of FH network for 5G and beyond and the
essentiality of the distinction of PON technologies and techniques. Utilization of
extremely high-spectrum band millimeter wave is one of the better options to extend
the bandwidth to satisfy the starvation of speedy network. This chapter presents the
simulation of MMWoDWDM-PON and better results by using the bidirectional fiber
via left and right band during the symmetric transmission. As per the vision of 6G
network, required data rate and bandwidth should be in tera, so multicore fiber can
help to achieve the visional milestones of transport network. To reduce the fiber
dispersion, nonlinearity effect, and noise, some advanced techniques can be
beneficial.
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Harpreet Kaur received her BCA degree in computer applications from Punjab University,
Chandigarh, India, in 2012 and MCA degree from Sri Guru Granth Sahib World University,
Fatehgarh Sahib, Punjab, India, in 2016. Currently, she is perusing PhD at Punjabi University,
Patiala, Punjab, India, under the computer science stream. Her research area includes fiber-optic
communication and machine learning for the 5G fronthaul networks.
of Science and Technology (International Multilateral and Regional Cooperation Division), Gov-
ernment of India; Visvesvaraya PhD Scheme for Electronics and IT, funded by MeitY, Government
of India (two projects); Raman fellowship funded by the University Grants Commission (India);
and Host Scientist of C V Raman International Fellowship for African Researchers 2016 of FICCI,
Government of India. Dr. Singh currently serves as associate editor of IET Electronics Letters (SCI
journal, Feb. 2021 to till date) and of IET Journal of Engineering (ESCI journal, Feb. 2021 to till
date). Dr. Singh received best paper award for his paper published in Optics and Laser Technology
Journal. He received Host Scientist of C V Raman International Fellowship for African Researchers
2016 of FICCI, Govt. of India and was selected for Marquis Who’s Who: 2017 Albert Nelson
Marquis Lifetime Achievement Award. He was nominated by the Institute of Optics at the
University of Rochester for Steadman Interdisciplinary Award for Postdocs during Postdoc Appre-
ciation Week from 19. 09. 2016 to 23. 09. 2016. He has supervised about 2 PhD theses and
19 MTech theses as well as 8 BTech. He is a life member of the Institution of Engineers (India) and
the International Society for Technical Education.
Ranjit Kaur is working as a professor in the ECE Department at Punjabi University Patiala. She is
serving as a head of the department and is the author and co-author of about the 69 research
publications, 47 international journals, and 22 national journals. She has guided 28 theses. She is a
lifetime member of the Indian Society for Technical Education (ISTE) and member of IEEE and
International Association of Engineers (IAENG). She is also a reviewer for reputed international
journals, viz. IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Express Letter, IEEE Signal
Processing Letters, International Journal of Electrical Power and Energy Systems (Elsevier),
Journal of King Saud University – Computer and Information Sciences (Elsevier), WSEAS Trans-
actions on Signal Processing, and Circuits, Systems, and Signal Processing (Springer). Her area of
expertise is wireless communication, digital signal processing, optimization techniques, and energy
harvesting.
Chapter 4
M-Ary Signaling for FSO Under Different
Atmospheric Conditions
Harsimran Jit Kaur and Rubina Dutta
4.1 Introduction
In the present era when demand for data is ever-growing and the radio frequency
spectrum is getting overcrowded, free-space optics (FSO) play a significant role.
FSO is an interdisciplinary field that works on principles of both radio and fiber and
has seen substantial advances in the recent era. FSO also named optical wireless
communication has gotten gigantic consideration because of the expansive
unlicensed range that it uses and is proposed to supplement the clogged radio
range. It could be said it is “fiber without the fiber” [1]. Alexander Graham Bell
has implemented FSO in 1880 when he adjusted sound onto a light emission
utilizing his photograph telephone over separation of 213 mts. Presently, FSO can
be utilized to communicate many Gbps (gigabits every second) more than a few
kilometers. In that capacity, FSO is a potential answer for the alleged “last mile” and
“last meter” availability issues, when fiber establishment is too costly [2]. Cutting-
edge trial frameworks can support petabits for more than a few meters and terabits
every second for more than a few kilometers. The innovation is likewise prominently
appropriate where it is difficult to introduce fiber, while simultaneously it is helpful
for fast establishment. Giving excellent web availability at a sensible cost will
empower creating economies to get to the alleged information economy and help
make a “computerized opportunity” [3]. The propagation of FSO is dependent upon
a few specialized difficulties. These incorporate divergence of the beam over
significant distances, pointing mistakes (the exact arrangement is required), solid
air lessening when the climate isn’t clear, and environmental choppiness [4]. There
are answers for divergence, arrangement, and attenuation, yet the issue of climatic
H. J. Kaur (*) · R. Dutta

Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Patiala,
Punjab, India
e-mail: harsimran.kaur@chitkara.edu.in; rubina.dutta@chitkara.edu.in

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-06866-9_4
76 H. J. Kaur and R. Dutta
choppiness is to a great extent unsolved. During pandemics and following lock-

downs or physical removal (e.g., during COVID-19), quick and dependable web
availability is particularly urgent to keep up online training for students, empower
far-off work openings, and give admittance to online medical care administrations.
Potential utilization of FSO correspondence is to expand the limit of the existing
microwave foundation [5].
4.2 Background
FSO is a line-of-sight optical light transmission technology for airborne data, voice,
and video communications, allowing optical networking without the need for a fiber-
optic cable. FSO requires a light source, focused on either light-emitting diodes or
laser diodes. Lasers are a simple process close to fiber-optic communication, and the
transmission media is the only exception [6]. Light is often more rapid in free than
the fiber-optic cable through the air. FSO, also known as open-air photonics or
wireless optics, is also known as free-space photonics (FSP) [7]. FSO uses laser
beams to transmit data usually ranging from 100 mts to a few kilometers at
transmission bandwidths up to 1.25 Gbps at frequencies above 300 GHz wave-
lengths, typically 785 to 1550 nm, using a line-of-vision optical bandwidth connec-
tion [2]. The use of free-space optics wireless networks eliminates the need for
secure licenses for RF signal solutions, as well as the high cost of laying fiber-optic
cables [3].
An interesting data rate (10 Gbps) has been achieved by research on different
optical bands, with visibility separation limited to only 500 mts, that assesses the
execution of three optical transmission windows under poor weather conditions, but
does not recommend any atmospheric disturbance mitigating methods [8]. In 2018
[9], various forms of advanced modulation are studied. In 2019 [10], a transmit
power adjusting transmitter and receiver configuration was used to deal with atmo-
spheric problems, but the plan applies expensive limitations to deal with the channel
problems and fix atmospheric problems. Researchers have demonstrated difficulties
to send power for FSO [3]. Due to restrictions associated with the use of high power,
visible and no visible laser in open-air power cannot be expanded beyond the limit.
Optimization of packet size has been proposed for data rate enhancement in FSO
[11]. Although packet size can be optimized, however, overall data rate cannot be
increased when the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is lower than the ordinary
packet size.
The mitigation method proposed for turbulence cannot be applied to all cases as it
does not increase the range of communication [12]. To decrease the between channel
cross talk and BER, self-recuperating Bessel beam along with adaptive radiation has
been proposed [13]. Phase distortions due to atmospheric disturbances can be
handled by incorporating adaptive modulations, but due to the additional processing
complexity of coupler and polarizer, this becomes unsuitable for low latency
applications [4].
4 M-Ary Signaling for FSO Under Different Atmospheric Conditions 77
Although fiber optics has large points of interest, it has been limited to backhaul
networks for quite a long time. Reliable and high-bandwidth optical fiber did not
benefit from the connection between the end user and the physical link. Work
focuses on mitigating the impact of threats in the atmosphere [4]. Recently,
OFDM-based free-space radio optics have suggested and indicated an important
relation between enhancing the link distance under different weather conditions
[14, 15]. Multiplexing to upgrade the data rate or the use of low modulation order
to improve reliability can result in high processing time and lower data rate,
however. Robust modulation (BPSK) and spatial variety methods [1] are used to
tackle FSO environmental turbulence. However, this robust modulation limits the
transmission throughput and adds complexity to the receiver. Hence, the area
demands more exploration for implementing appropriate signaling techniques that
can cope with all these challenges of FSO link with the best quality.
FSO communication is equipped for giving link-free correspondence at high
information rates up to Gbps. It is a developing zone in recent era days because of
its low force, transfer speed versatility, scalable bandwidth range, quick speed of
deployment, and cost viability [13]. Ongoing development of FSO is proven by
tremendous improvement in communication technology, bringing about examina-
tions of many exciting simulative and experimental implementations. However, the
framework is impacted by sudden environmental and climate conditions, resulting in
the degradation of the performance of the optical connection. Researchers are
exploring solutions and architectures for future efficient FSO communication
[14, 16–18].
The dependability of the FSO connection can be improved by building a climatic
chamber as a model to concentrate the free-space channel, and its prototype should
be made under controlled climatic conditions [19]. To impersonate the open-air
ecological conditions, an indoor chamber furnished with fans and warming curl is
made up, which gives manual control of the temperature and wind speed inside the
chamber. The free space should be described and upgraded to keep a specific
strength of disturbance [5]. The exhibition of the connection can be assessed by
computing the boundaries like BER and SNR.
4.3 Need of FSO
A major challenge faced by fiber-optic communication system developers is that

supplying a separate fiber-optic line to each end user is costly. The optical fiber
construction cost is so high and often takes a lot of time, such as getting government
grants, trenching, labor costs, etc. [20]. The disparity in operating wavelengths is the
main advantage of optical wireless communication systems over radio frequency
communication systems. Compared to lasers, the radio frequency (RF) wavelength
is much longer. The beam diameter that can be accomplished using lasers is also
smaller than that of the RF device. The size of the transmitting and receiving antenna
that is required would be large (approximately meters wide) and heavy if an RF
Table 4.1 Comparative analysis of technologies

S. no. Parameters Radio frequency Free-space optics
1. Throughput 10 Mbps for 10 mts 1.25 Gbps for 1 km
2. Deployment cost High Low
3. Reliability Low High
4. Security Less secure Highly secure
5. Spectrum licensing 30 khz–300 Ghz No spectrum licensing
6. Calibration No need for alignment Need proper alignment
system were to be used, compared to using an optical connection that needs an

optical antenna of few centimeters. Along with license-free transmission, the data
rate provided by FSO is quite higher, whereas RF uses a portion of the spectrum on
the other side, so FSO is cheap as compared to RF. RF communication offers less
security, but in FSO security is the key feature since information is transmitted in the
form of narrow light beams, and it is very difficult to detect narrow light beam
[5]. The aim is not to connect every user to the Internet or a wireless network. The
need to establish short-range, license-free wireless communication networks in
which we can transmit heterogeneous information at any location and at any time
has emerged as a necessity for connecting LCDs, home appliances, etc. with the
network [3]. Table 4.1 presents the comparative analysis of RF with FSO on
parameters such as throughput, cost, reliability, security, licensing, and calibration
[20, 21].
Throughput Throughput is the rate of effective messages sent in bps calculated
over the channel. RF offers low Mbps throughput at shorter distances, whereas FSO
provides Gbps throughput at longer distances on the other hand.
Ease of Deployment The cost of deployment in FSO is lower compared to RF
communication since the first step in optical fiber communication is to dig and then
provide connections via optical fiber from the transmitter to receiver. But in the FSO,
digging and trenching are not required. It is therefore simpler and cheaper to mount
FSO communications compared to wired systems.
Security The FSO’s biggest advantage compared to RF is its security. Spectrum
analyzer, digital storage oscilloscope, etc. do not detect FSO light beam; it is very
difficult to jam an optical receiver because of its narrow beam.
License-Free Operation Radio frequency systems are constrained by bandwidth,
but FSO systems are license-free.
Calibration FSO works the line of sight between the transmitter and the receiver.
So in FSO contact is possible only when the transmitter and receiver are properly
aligned (Fig. 4.1).
Due to these advantages, people prefer to adopt the FSO-based system as
compared to other communication systems.
Fig. 4.1 Benefits of FSO
4.4 System Description
Primarily as shown in Fig. 4.2, FSO consists of three major parts: transmitter, free-
space medium, and receiver. The transmitter consists of a light source (LED,
LASER, and IR); the receiver consists of a photodetector (PIN and avalanche
photodiode) [17]. Data at the transmitter end can be modulated using varying
M-ary modulation techniques. Although various M-ary signaling can be applied to
transmit data over FSO link, however, this chapter uses 256 quadrature amplitude
modulation orthogonal frequency-division multiplexed (QAM-OFDM) transmis-
sions for enhanced data rate and better BER efficiency. A clear line of site between
transmitter and receiver is required to achieve the FSO. To cope up with atmospheric
noise effects, the FSO transmitter needs high power to provide the signal’s strong
intensity. FSO works predominantly in two bands of frequency, such as 780–900 nm
and 1500–1600 nm. In contrast to 1500–1600 nm, the LASER that is mostly used at
780–900 nm is less costly [2]. But it is primarily used for moderate distances
according to its strength level. Besides, the 1500–1600 nm band is used for long-
distance communication but provides poor transmitting characteristics to the
receiver. FSO transmitters are mounted on the rooftop of the building [20].
The present model is using a laser as a source on the transmitter side and
photodetectors on the receiver side. In contrast to RF facilities, this optoelectronic
system is inexpensive. IR transmission, on the other hand, never penetrates the walls
Fig. 4.2 Block diagram of FSO communication system
Fig. 4.3 Optical OFDM block diagram for FSO
and provides high protection. It is not regulated by the Federal Communications

Commission (FCC) regulations. It transmits a very small beam of data that is hard to
detect.
OFDM transmits information from high-speed data by separating it into lower
data rate blocks. For various fiber types, the optical OFDM transmitter may be
altered, with different network ranges from short to long haul with different detection
types, viz., direct or coherent detection. The system can be configured to provide
versatility in the bit rate using different depths of modulation. A block diagram for
OFDM optical transmission is illustrated in Fig. 4.3. To encrypt the data, the model
uses Fourier transform methods, where data information is carried over several
lower-rate subcarriers. The transmitter segment requires the conversion of high-
rate data into N parallel low data rate paths where data can be modulated using
different digital modulation techniques such as QPSK, 16-QPSK, M-ary QAM, etc.
[18] on each path.
High spectral efficiency can be achieved by different modulation choices in the

M-QAM format [14]. In long-haul systems, M-QAM emerges as a potential candi-
date to achieve high data rate transmission. Transmission using QAM modulates half
symbols using one frequency known as in-phase component and the other half
symbols at the equivalent frequency with a phase gap π/2 known as a quadrature-
phase component [14]. Finally, the addition of both components generates the QAM
signal. Increasing the value of M increases the number of bits per symbol, allowing
the spectrum to have a narrowing effect. As the value of M rises from 16 [12], the
spectral efficiency increases from 64 to 256 because of an increase in the number of
bits per symbol. The increase in M-value, however, makes the symbol similar to
neighboring symbols, which leads to an increase in errors due to noise and interfer-
ence as more symbols are transmitted, and thus the error rate increases. Thus, BER
performance may reduce with an increase in the value of M, but spectral efficiency
can be enhanced with an increase in the order of M-QAM [15].
Using an IFFT for the generation of the dense comb of OFDM subcarrier
frequencies [22], the basic requirement of the OFDM system for multiple microwave
mixers generating different subcarrier frequencies has been met. At the transmitter,
serial to parallel conversions are carried out to transform randomly generated high-
rate data into low data rates. Digital data is used in the modern era of communication
to represent data for storage and transmission [22]. Every symbol representing
digital data is associated with a certain signal state in digital data modulation. Optical
signal information is encoded during optical transmission according to intensity,
phase, or frequency. To meet the continued explosive demand for bandwidth, it is
very important to have an expanded optical transport capability by using spectrally
more effective modulation formats [23]. Improving the number of bits transmitted
per symbol is a major concern for the implementation of advanced modulation
formats. This change to the number of bits per symbol enhances spectral efficiency,
but this increase can be made to the relation permit point SNR. Amplitude-shift
keying (ASK) is a modulation format category that makes use of multiple-level
amplitude to allow multiple bits per symbol to be transmitted. Multilevel phase shifts
can be used to represent multi-bits per symbol in another modulation format known
as phase-shift keying (PSK). Merging these two degrees of freedom, i.e., several
amplitude and phase levels called QAM, increases the symbol size and enables the
transmission of more bits per symbol [24].
The number of symbols, M, which can be transmitted with several bits per
symbol, m, is related to expression (4.1):
m ¼ log 2 M ð4:1Þ
The implementation of amplitude and phase modulation on the optical signal

imposes cost and complexity constraints [25]. Alternations for subcarriers in the RF
domain are accommodated as an alternative to encoding phase and amplitude
information in the optical domain, and then the optical carrier amplitude is modu-
lated using direct or external modulation. However, because As the modulation
format order increases, the OSNR requirements and the sensitivity to nonlinear
distortion increases which further limits the reach. It is possible to increase this
transmission distance by compensating for the impairments that arise during prop-
agation. The transmission distance mustn’t be sacrificed to satisfy the increased
bandwidth demand and have higher bit rates. This chapter discusses M-ary OOFDM
transmissions using direct detection in spectrally efficient modulation formats.
OFDM data is generated using a pseudo-random generator producing 9600 bits
with FFT size 64 and coding rate ¾. 256 QAM (encoding 8 bits per symbol) with
data rate of 36.86 Gb/s is experimented over OFDM transmission system for FSO.
4.5 Result and Discussion
This section represents the comparative analysis of the proposed 256 QAM-OFDM
system on the FSO link over the varied ranges, beamwidth, and power. Based on
analysis of these parameters, optimized value for the power and beamwidth is taken
up and analyzed over varying weather conditions such as clear, haze, and foggy
conditions.
4.5.1 Q-Factor and BER Analysis over Varied Ranges
Table 4.2 presents the comparative analysis of Q-factor and BER over the varying
ranges for channels 1, 5, and 8. Figure 4.4 summarizes the Q-factor over varied
distances for channels 1, 5, and 8. The BER results are analyzed using eye diagrams.
Also, the graphical representation of the results in terms of eye diagram is shown in
Fig. 4.5, which indicates that eye height is maximum at 400 mts as compared to
800 mts, 1000 mts, and 1500 mts producing BER 2.07*10127, 3.87*10023,
4.25*10009, and 1 and Q-factor 23.97, 9.83, 5.7, and 1, respectively, for channel 1.
BER and Q-factor have improved to 5.27*10131 and 24.32 for channel 5 due to
reduced intersymbol interference. However, as the number of channels increases
from 5 to 8, there is degradation in BER to 1.25*10107,2.84*10021, and
6.85*10009, respectively. Reduction in BER with the rise in a number of channels
Table 4.2 Comparative analysis based on quality factor and BER over varying ranges
Channel 1 Channel 5 Channel 8
Range (in mts) Q-factor BER Q-factor BER Q-factor BER
400 23.97 2.07*10127 24.32 5.27*10131 22.009 1.25*10107
800 9.83 3.87*10023 10.02 5.99*10024 9.39 2.84*10021
1000 5.7 4.25*10009 5.82 2.89*10009 5.69 6.85*10009
1500 0 1 0 1 0 1
Distance Vs Q-Factor
Quality-Factor
Distance (in kms)
Fig. 4.4 Graphical representation of Q-factor over varied ranges
Fig. 4.5 Eye pattern over (a) 400 mts, (b) 800 mts, (c) 1000 mts, (d) 1500 mts
can be attributed to the fact aliasing effect. Reduced eye opening can be attributed to
the fact that the signal is highly affected by noise and this is not acceptable while
transmitting information from one point to another. With the increase in range,
atmospheric effects and scintillations are degrading the signal strength.
4.5.2 Q-Factor and BER Analysis over Varying Beamwidth
Table 4.3 and Fig. 4.6 show the analysis between quality factor and BER over
varying beamwidth of the signal. For channel 1, beamwidth is 0.1, and it produces a
14.10 quality factor with the BER of value 1.84*10045. On the other hand, if the
beamwidth is 0.2, then it produces a 5.7 quality factor with the BER of value
4.25*10009. The overall performance of the system depicted that 0.2 mrad
beamwidth offers the system performance up to acceptable BER. The more the
beamwidth, the more the signal is scattered and the more is the dispersion which
reduces the quality factor and increases the BER. This can be attributed to the
fact that the narrower the beamwidth, the more focused is the signal and the
longer the distance it can travel. With the rise in number of channels from 1 to
5, there is improvement in BER, but as it increases to 8, the BER degrades. This
can be attributed to the fact that some of these channels lead to intersymbol
interference.
Table 4.3 Comparative analysis on the basis of quality factor and BER over varying beamwidth
Beamwidth Channel 1 Channel 5 Channel 8

(in mrad) Q-factor BER Q-factor BER Q-factor BER
.05 22.51 1.36*10112 22.86 4.6*10116 20.60 1.120*10094
.1 14.10 1.84*10045 14.33 2.88*10047 13.13 1.02*10039
.15 8.7 1.13*10083 8.89 2.84*10019 8.4 1.95*10017
.2 5.7 4.25*10009 5.82 2.89*10009 5.69 6.85*10009
Beamwidth Vs Q-Factor
Quality-Factor
Beamwidth (in mrad)
Fig. 4.6 Graphical representation of Q-factor over varied beamwidth

4.5.3 Q-Factor and BER Analysis over Varying Power
To make the system cost-effective, its power should be optimized. With the increase
in power, the laser intensity increases which increases the distance factor and also
provides better tolerance to atmospheric turbulences. But after a certain threshold
value, a high-power laser introduces some nonlinear effects which reduce the quality
factor of the system. There is always a compromise between the power and the
distance of the laser. Table 4.4 and Fig. 4.7 investigate the comparative analysis of
quality factor and BER over varying power for channel 1, channel 5, and channel
8, with the aim to select optimized value of power.
With the increase in power, there is a considerable improvement in its Q-factor
and decrement in BER. When power is 20 dBm, Q-factor is 0 and BER value lies
to 1. But when power is 4 dBm, the value of Q-factor increases to 7.58, 7.22, and
7.36 for channel 1, 5, and 8 with BER 1.63*10014, 2.44*10013, and 8.7*10014,
respectively. This can be attributed to the fact that as power increases, the laser
intensity increases producing improved BER; however, further increase in power
leads to enhancement in nonlinearities and reduction in Q-factor and BER. Thus, the
optimized power chosen for the present system is 4 mW.
Table 4.4 Comparative analysis on the basis of quality factor and BER over varying power
Channel 1 Channel 5 Channel 8
Power (in mw) Q-factor BER Q-factor BER Q-factor BER
0 3.75 0.0009375 2.87 0.00210973 3.15 000805139
1 3.90 4.78*10005 3.65 .0001262 3.91 4.45*10-005
2 4.88 5.09*10007 4.62 1.8*10006 4.85 5.89*10007
4 7.58 1.63*10014 7.22 2.44*10013 7.36 8.7*10014
Power Vs Q-Factor
Quality-Factor
Power (in mW)
Fig. 4.7 Graphical representation of Q-factor over varied power

4.5.4 16-Channel 256 QAM-OFDM System
Once the value of beamwidth and power has been optimized, then these values are
utilized to build 256 QAM-OFDM system for 16 channels. The atmospheric effects
play a significant role in FSO transmitter system, and it has been analyzed over
varying weather conditions. These weather conditions have been selected, viz., clear,
haze, and fog conditions. Eight-channel 256 QAM-OFDM gives the channel capac-
ity of 320 Gbps with the frequency spacing of 100 GHz. Beyond this, the system
produces the nonlinear effects. In order to remove the problem of eight-channel
256 QAM OFDM, a system is modified to produce the channel capacity of 640 Gbps
with the channel spacing of 50 GHz. Laser array is used in producing wavelength’s
difference between the adjacent laser of 50 GHz. Table 4.5 represents the system
performance under various environmental conditions at acceptable BER. System has
been analyzed under the effects of clear weather, haze, and fog over varying ranges
with attenuation factor of 0.1 dB/km, 4 dB/km, and 22 dB/km, respectively.
Under clear weather conditions, up to 4-km system produces very small of BER,
and after this, when the distance increases, then automatically BER increases. Till
30-km system produces results with acceptable BER. Under haze conditions, the
system produces acceptable BER at 1 km, and after this, when the distance increases,
then BER increases. Similarly in fog condition, up to 0.5-km system produces results
with acceptable BER, and beyond this system, quality factor drastically degrades and
produces poor BER.
Designed system offers higher channel capacity with the help of polarization
interleaving technique that efficiently utilizes the spectrum and increases the total
capacity of the system. Figure 4.8 reveals that FSO link prolongs to 20 km with
acceptable quality factor in case of clear weather and degrades to 4 km and 1.1 km in
case of haze and fog conditions, respectively.
In comparison with existing FSO technologies, proposed system is more immune
to atmospheric impact, such as fog, and brings incomparable improvement. Our
system provides great potential to solve bottlenecks that have in the past hindered its
Table 4.5 Analysis over varied weather conditions

Clear weather Haze Fog
Distance (in km) Q-factor BER Q-factor BER Q-factor BER
0.1 137.57 0 134.82 0 121.625 0
0.5 112.56 0 97.9 0 43.56 0
1 90.43 0 64.62 0 9.05 1.33*100311
2 63.87 0 29.16 1.5*10187 0 1
3 48.89 0 13.69 3.4*10043 0 1
4 39.36 0 2.97 6.44*10011 0 1
5 32.76 1.46*10233 0 0.0011 0 1
10 16 5*10064 0 1 0 1
20 7.32 7.8*10014 0 1 0 1
30 4.02 2.08*10005 0 1 0 1
Fig. 4.8 Graphical representation of Q-factor over varied beamwidth
application, such as distance, latency, and reliability limits. In the future, we might
also build a key piece of infrastructure crucial to bringing high-bandwidth commu-
nications to rural areas across the globe, along with the 5G network in urban areas
such as Eindhoven. For remote areas of the world where fiber-optic networks are not
technically or economically feasible to build, FSO may be a permanent solution.
System BER is analyzed in terms of eye patterns as eye diagrams depict the
interference level at the output. The system produces best results when the opening
of the eye is maximum, so according the eye height, optimum results have been
analyzed. As per Fig. 4.9a, b, at 20 km, the eye height is 6.38*10007, whereas for
40 km, the eye height is 6.13*10009. The maximum eye height is obtained at the
range of 20 km which infers small interference and noise effect.
Figure 4.9c, d represent the eye pattern for foggy weather condition. At 4 km, the
eye height is 4.69*10007; on the other hand, for 6 km, the eye height is 0. The
maximum eye height is analyzed at 4 km which infers that it is optimized distance
under foggy weather condition. Further, the eye pattern for worst weather condition
has been analyzed in Fig. 4.9e, f. FSO system has been analyzed up to the distance of
1.1 km under the worst weather condition and produces the eye height of
4.68*10007. But if we increase the range beyond 1.1 km, then it produces high
intersymbol interference.
From the analysis, it summarizes that under haze condition, the proposed system
outperforms with 2 km with BER 1.5*10187 and Q-factor 29.16. Results are good
till 3 km with BER 3.4*1043 and Q-factor 13.69. System results are acceptable till
4 km with BER 6.44*1011, but beyond that, the system performance degrades.
When atmospheric conditions are foggy, then the system performance is acceptable
till 1 km with BER 1.33*1031 and Q-factor 9.05; beyond that, atmospheric effect
has degraded the system performance. Under clear weather condition, the system
performance is acceptable till 20 km with BER 4.8*1014, whereas this range is
4 km for haze and 1.1 km for fog condition.
Fig. 4.9 Evaluation of eye diagram at (a) 20 km under clear weather conditions (b) 40 km under
clear weather conditions, (c) 4 km under haze condition, (d) 10 km under haze condition, (e) 1.1 km
under foggy weather conditions, (f) 8 km under foggy weather conditions
4.6 Conclusion
This chapter presents the latest developments in evolving free-space optics (FSO)
technology. It presents the FSO’s basics along with technical knowledge of the state
of the art in the domain. FSO connectivity is a realistic option for building a regional
wireless networking system in three dimensions, providing bandwidths far beyond
what is feasible in the radio frequency (RF) spectrum. This chapter models
256 QAM OOFDM system for FSO transmissions and analyze channel behavior
under practical atmospheric conditions. Under clear weather conditions, the system
performance is acceptable till 20 km with BER 7.8*10014, whereas this range is
4 km for haze and 1 km under foggy conditions.
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25. M. Ashraf, G. Baranwal, D. Prasad, S. Idris, M.T. Beg, Performance analysis of ASK and PSK
modulation based FSO system using coupler-based delay line filter under various weather
conditions. Opt. Photonics J. 8(8), 277–287 (2018)
Dr. Harsimranjit Kaur received her PhD from Chitkara University in 2016 and MTech in
electronics and communication engineering from DAVIET, Jalandhar, in 2009. She joined teaching
in 2005 at Engineering College Amritsar. She is presently working as an associate professor in the
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Chitkara University, Punjab. She has
been engaged in research on optical communication since 2009 and has successfully completed
various projects, which includes developing an intelligent software–defined optical transmission by
making system dynamically adaptable and reconfigurable for performance improvement. Her
major research interests are nano photonics, integrated photonics, and fiber-optic transmission
systems. She has authored and co-authored more than 45 refereed papers in international journals
and conference contributions. She has 9 patents to her credit.
Rubina Dutta is pursuing her PhD from Chitkara University, Rajpura, Punjab, in the area of
augmented reality for engineering education. She is an assistant professor at Chitkara Institute of
Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab. Her research interests include human‐
computer interaction, IoT and embedded systems, and innovative teaching‐learning strategies.
Chapter 5
Multiple Input-Multiple Output Antenna
for Next-Generation Wireless
Communication
Manish Sharma
5.1 Introduction
The 5G communication system is a reality now with partial deployment achieve first
phase. The expectation has executed around 20% of what was declared earlier to
5G mmWave applications [1]. As of now, 5G deployment for sub-6GHz has been
deployed where long-term evolution (LTE) and long-term evolution advanced
(LTE-A). The 5G deployment has been already associated with multiple input-
multiple output (MIMO) and forms an integral part. It is also known that the path
loss increases as the operating frequency increases, and hence it is much tougher to
mitigate from existing 3G/4G to 5G mmWave networks. There are different bands
proposed for mmWave applications which include 25.25 GHz–29.50 GHz and
36.00 GHz–40.50 GHz bands [2]. Dielectric resonator antennas (DRAs) play a
major role in designing antennas for mmWave applications where cylindrical,
rectangular, hemispherical, hexagonal, conical, triangular, and trapezoidal DRAs
are used [3]. A sub-6GHz 5G MIMO provides better isolation where a stub is
attached to the ground [4]. A dual-band 5G MIMO antenna which is obtained by
modifying rectangular patch results in good isolation [5]. A low-profile antenna for
5G application is reported for lower-band (3.40 GHz–3.80 GHz) application [6]. In
the future, smartphones will be embedded with the latest 5G technology for appli-
cations at mmWave which will increase the transmission data rate [7]. Also, by using
a metasurface, 28 GHz MIMO antenna with circular polarization resulted [8]. The
deployment of a 5G network faces different challenges like the deployment of cells
in the wireless network [9] and the requirement of a complex control system
[10]. Also, from rectangular monopole resonating at 28 GHz, the dual band centered
at 28GHz/38GHz is obtained by modification of path [11]. 5G system has the
M. Sharma (*)
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Rajpura,
Punjab, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-06866-9_5
92 M. Sharma
capability of transmitting the data with a speed of 20 Gbps with the capacity of the
area being 10 Mbps/m2 [12]. Graphene-based 5G antenna is fabricated and tested for
28 GHz/38 GHz applications [13]. A dual-mode 5G MIMO antenna provides a gain
of 10.50 dBi and also provides directional beamforming in the azimuth plane
[14]. This technology is useful for a smarter healthcare system where IoT is used
[15, 16]. A 20 GHz array antenna provides a peak gain of 12.15 dBi with radiating
efficiency of 85% providing a narrow beamwidth of 44.3 and 12.5 in principal
planes [17–21]. A 55 frequency selective surface antenna is useful for 60 GHz
mmWave, and 5G antenna utilizing graphene satisfies the needs such as greater
channel capacity, widespread spectrum with high gain, and ability to steer
[22, 23]. A 44 MIMO antenna with four identical radiating patches provides
operational bandwidth from 23 GHz to 40 GHz covering mmWave applications
[24], and a dual-band MIMO antenna is designed on Rogers RT/duroid 5880
substrate which also resonates at 28 GHz/38 GHz bands [25]. Applying slotted
multiple resonance microstrip patch is achieved providing broader bandwidth and
wide angular coverage [26–29]. A MIMO antenna is developed where spatial
diversity technique is used for 28 GHz mmWave applications [30].
In this proposed chapter, the design methodology of 5G MIMO antenna at
sub-6 GHz and 28 GHz/38 GHz is discussed.
5.2 Development and Analysis of 5G MIMO Antenna

for 28/38GHz
The shortage of bandwidth in the wireless communication system was the motiva-
tion factor for the establishment of the new network which can provide very high
data rate transmission with very latency. To execute the above features, 5G wireless
communication is being deployed which has advantages of data rate up to 10 Gbps
and latency with 1ms but also faces challenges due to a shorter range of communi-
cation increasing the need for more repeaters. The upcoming scenario in 2020–2021
will mark the commercial launch of the 5G applications. South Korea already has the
experience of 5G services as the country deployed this technology in the 2018
Olympic Games. The 5G band works both in low frequency (sub-6 GHz) and higher
bands including 28 GHz, 38 GHz, 60 GHz, and 70 GHz. Lots of research have
already been published under the lower sub-6 GHz band, and thus the upper 5G band
becomes more important which has to be explored. The MIMO (multiple input-
multiple output) technology becomes more important as it is one of the integral parts
of the 5G technology. The deployment of 5G faces challenges such as power that can
reach 300 m at 2 GHz and that can reach only 6 m at 100 GHz. The path loss is also
one of the major problems in 5G corresponding to approximately 114 dB at 100 GHz
frequency [1].
5 Multiple Input-Multiple Output Antenna for Next-Generation. . . 93
The solution for the above problems is encountered by the concept of

beamforming. The radiated power of the antenna is added up by the gain factor in
the intended direction compensating the path loss. Beamforming in the case of
radiating antennas is achieved by increasing the number of radiating antennas with
equal power, and the magnitude of the radiated signal will add up in one direction,
and the destructive signal will cancel with each other. To understand the working of
5G MIMO antenna at 28 GHz/38 GHz band, a 22 MIMO antenna is studied
[11]. Figure 5.1 illustrates the study of a single and 22 MIMO antenna which is
designed for dual-band operation working at 28 GHz and 38 GHz bands. The
antenna design is initiated by considering a rectangular patch that provides reso-
nance at 28.7 GHz and 40.5 GHz. To achieve the required dual-band operation, the
rectangular patch is modified which provides the resonance at 28 GHz and 38 GHz
which is required for 5G applications shown in Fig. 5.1a. The rectangular slot in the
rectangular ground plane observed in Fig. 5.1b helps in the improvement of the
matching of the impedance. Figure 5.1c, d shows the perspective view of the antenna
connected with the SMK connector which is capable of working up to 60 GHz in
real-time applications. Single-element antenna is printed on Rogers RT/duroid
substrate of thickness 0.38 mm (permittivity, 2.20; loss tangent, 0.0009). Figure 5.2a
Fig. 5.1 (a) Front view of dual-band antenna. (b) Ground view. (c) Perspective view of single-
element dual-band antenna. (d) Perspective view of 22 MIMO dual-band antenna
94 M. Sharma
Fig. 5.2 (a) S-Parameter of the single radiating antenna (S11). (b) S-Parameter of 22 MIMO
antenna (S11/S12/S21/S22)
shows the S-parameter which is obtained for a single radiating antenna covering
28 GHz and 38 GHz band for 5G applications. Figure 5.2b provides the S-parameter
for a two-port MIMO antenna where both the radiating antennas cover 5G bands.
Also, the isolation between the input ports is very good with values of isolation S12/
S21<20 db in both 5G bands. The spacing between the two radiating elements is
4.78 mm, due to which, better isolation is achieved. Further, the MIMO antenna
needs to be characterized based on diversity performance where ECC (envelope
correlation coefficient), DG (directive gain), TARC (total active reflection coeffi-
cient), and CCL (channel capacity loss) values have to be determined.
The MIMO antenna offers realized gain between 0.25 dBi and 1.65 dBi and
radiating efficiency of around 75%. The normalized radiation pattern in principal
planes follows dipole and omnidirectional pattern with acceptable cross-polarization
for better transmission. The comparison details provide that the antenna offers a
lower profile and can be easily integrated with handheld devices intended for 5G
28 GHz/38 GHz wireless applications. The discussed 22 MIMO antenna function-
ality index is calculated by studying the diversity performance of the antenna given
in Fig. 5.3 which is characterized by ECC, DG, CCL, and TARC. ECC is a
parameter applicable to any array system where critical evaluation is calculated in
both terms of radiation pattern and S-parameter (S11/S12/S21/S22).
Fig. 5.3 Diversity performance – (a) ECC and DG, (b) CCL and TARC
96 M. Sharma
ECC in the form of the radiation pattern is evaluated by

RR h ! 2
!
4π F 1 ðϴ, ϕÞ F 2 ðϴ, ϕÞ dΩ
ρe ¼ RR 2 2 ð5:1Þ
! !
4π F 1 ð ϴ, ϕ Þ F 2 ð ϴ, ϕ Þ dΩ
!
where F i ðϴ, ϕÞ is the related E-field pattern considering the excitation of ith port
and fixing all other remaining ports terminated by matched 50Ω. For the N MIMO
system, ECC is calculated as

Ci,j ðN Þ2
ρe ði:j:N Þ ¼ Q ð5:2Þ
k¼i:j ½1 C k:k ðN Þ
Here, Ci,j(N ) is given by

XN
C i,j ðN Þ ¼ S S
n¼1 i,n n:j
ð5:3Þ
Comparing Eqs. (5.2) and (5.3)

PN 2

n¼1 Si,n Sn:j
ρe ði, j, N Þ ¼ Q PN ð5:4Þ
k¼i:j 1 n¼1 Si,n Sn:j
Expansion of Eq. 5.4 leads to the calculation of ECC by S-parameter method

given in Eq. 5.5:

S S12 þ S S22 2
ECC ¼ 11
21
ð5:5Þ
1 jS11 j2 jS21 j2 1 jS22 j2 jS12 j2
When there is no correlation, the ECC is 0, but for any MIMO system, ECC must
lie below 0.4. As per the observations in Fig. 5.3a, the values are below 0.006 and
hence can be concluded that there is very low interference between the two radiating
elements.
The directive gain which is calculated based on ECC is calculated as
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
DGmn MIMO ¼ 10 1 ρ2 ð5:6Þ
Figure 5.3a shows that the values of DG in the 28 GHz/38 GHz band are more
than 9.95 dB which is a requirement of the MIMO system.
S-parameter showed in Fig. 5.2b is not sufficient to evaluate the performance of
the MIMO system. Hence, TARC which signifies the average value of incident and
reflected power is calculated by Eq. 5.7. TARC value as shown in Fig. 5.3b is
30 db for both 5G operating bands:
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ðS11 þ S12 Þ2 þ ðS21 þ S22 Þ2
TARC22 ¼ ð5:7Þ
2
The transmission of a signal from transmitter to receiver suffers loss in the

channel (b/s/Hz). This loss of channel is calculated from Eq. 5.8 to Eq. 5.13:
C CL ¼ log 2 φM ð5:8Þ
where
φ11 φ12
φD ¼ ð5:9Þ
φ21 φ22
where
h i
φ11 ¼ 1 jS11 j2 þ jS12 j2 ð5:10Þ
h i
φ22 ¼ 1 jS22 j2 þ jS21 j2 ð5:11Þ

φ12 ¼ S11 S12 þ S21 S12 ð5:12Þ

φ21 ¼ S22 S21 þ S12 S21 ð5:13Þ
For the faithful receiving of the information, the CCL needs to be less than 0.4 b/s/Hz.
The CCL in Fig. 5.3b depicts to be less than 0.25 b/s/Hz.
Table 5.1 shows the comparison of the 5G antenna with lower as well as higher
bands. As per the observations, a compact size antenna [17] with dimensions
9 10 mm2 provides resonance at 28 GHz with a gain of 12.15 dBi and a radiating
efficiency of 85%, whereas 44 MIMO antenna printed on Rogers RT/duroid 5880
substrate resonates for 28 GHz, 33 GHz, and 38 GHz 5G bands. However, all three
bands are covered within 23 GHz–40 GHz bandwidth obtained [24] with gain
corresponding to 10.58 dBi, 8.87 dBi, and 11.45 dBi. The demerit of the MIMO
antenna can be the lower radiating efficiency of 70%.
5.3 1G–5G Technology
The growth in mobile communication technology was initiated in the early 1980s as
shown in Fig. 5.4a. Mobile communication has developed from 1G to 5G technol-
ogy as shown in Fig. 5.4a. It is also known that the components of any mobile
98 M. Sharma
Table 5.1 Comparison of the present state of the art

Ref. Spectrum Size (mm2) Bandwidth (GHz) Efficiency (%) Gain (dBi)
[4] 3.60 GHz 2035 3.34–3.87 90 3.55
[5] 27 GHz 1126 25–29 99.5 5.00
39 GHz 30–41 98.6 5.70
[8] 28 GHz 12.412.4 25–29.5 >95 9.85
[11] 28 GHz 1426 26.65–29.20 78 1.27
38 GHz 36.95–39.05 86 1.83
[14] 28 GHz 2023 27–29 Not given 7.20–7.90
38 GHz 36–40
[17] 28 GHz 910 26–31.721 85 12.15
[24] 28 GHz 8080 23–40 70 10.58
33 GHz 8.87
38 GHz 11.45
[26] 5.90 GHz 75110 5.92–6.12 71 5.13
28 GHz 26–29.5 83 9.53
[27] 28 GHz 3035 25.5–29.6 80 8.02
[28] 28 GHz 1250 25.1–37.5 >80 10.6
[29] 28 GHz 12.826 27.5–28.35 80 6.85
Fig. 5.4 (a) Advancement of mobile communication from 1G to 5G. (b) Application of 5G
technology
communication network constitute base stations, user equipment (mobile phones),

and the core network. 1G technology or the first-generation mobile system which
utilized only voice communication system based on frequency-division multiplexing
(FDM) was used with the maximum data rate of 2.4 kbps. 2G technology witnessed
the utilization of code-division multiple access (CDMA) and time-division multiple
access (TDMA) with data rate speed being between 14.4 kbps and 64.0 kbps.
Similarly, 3G and 4G systems were able to include applications such as multimedia
messaging service (MMS), short message services (SMS), worldwide interoperabil-
ity for microwave access (WiMAX), long-term evolution (LTE), and advanced LTE
(LTE-A) achieving a data rate of 2 Mbps and 100 Mbps, respectively. The deploy-
ment of 5G on the other hand is in the implementation stage, and compared with the
previous counterpart, 4G technology is 100 times faster. The 5G technology has the
capability of working for numerous applications involving the Internet of Things
(IoT) shown in Fig. 5.4b. The key features of 5G technology include the data rate up
to 10Gbps, latency as lower as 1ms, good IoT connectivity, enhancement in AR
(augmented reality)-VR (virtual reality) applications, artificial intelligence, broad-
casting data supporting approximately 65,000 connections, and excellent battery
support system for low-power IoT devices. 5G deployment also faces a few chal-
lenges such as the utilization of frequency bands up to 300 GHz leading to costlier
wireless carriers, shorter wavelength traveling to short distance and hence increasing
the number of base stations, new device deployment supporting 5G, and providing
new dimensions to cyber laws.
5.4 Scope of Recent Research
The benefits of 5G technologies are immense, but their deployment focuses on

several challenges which lead to the research gap and has to be explored. This
opens up the gateway for various challenges which include pilot contamination,
estimation of the channel, pre-coding, user scheduling, and impairments of hardware
for better utilization. Efficiency of the spectral energy and detection of the signal are
the few to name them. In a massive MIMO system, a larger number of antennas are
required to reduce the effect of noise, fading of signal, and multiple path interfer-
ence. This increases the complexity of the antenna system, thereby increasing the
cost. The complexity of the computational analysis and hardware size however
needed to be reduced and hence becomes one of the areas of future research in
MIMO deployment. However, on the other hand, low-cost equipment may lead to
imperfections in hardware such as phase noise, noise due to magnetization, and
distortion in the amplifier. Compensation in algorithms may be developed to reduce
the hardware impairment which is the new scope for research. Also, contamination
of pilots is another problem to be mitigated because of the use of a limited number of
orthogonal pilots. Contamination of the pilot increases the interference which affects
achieving the throughput. Hence, an optimal method to reduce the problem of
contamination of pilots is the new field of research. The computational complexity
is however increased in the new deployment of the 5G MIMO system, and hence
extra computation is required. Thus, the new technique in pre-coding technique is
another scope of research for 5G deployment. Another scope of research in %g
technology is scheduling of the user which indicates that the number of users
becomes more than the number of antenna terminals available at the base station.
With the help of good channel conditions, the throughput of the MIMO system can
be increased by scheduling the user experiences. This is also the new area of the
research where proper scheduling of users will be satisfied by the number of antenna
terminals. Another problem that is faced in the deployment of 5G technology is the
reduced throughput of spectral efficiency. This is due to the presence of a larger
number of antennas which increases the complexity in computation creating inter-
ference due to the detection of the uplink signal system. This signifies that a newer
algorithm is required to decrease the complex uplink signal detection algorithm
100 M. Sharma
which opens up the new field of research to deploy 5G technology. Another exciting
research area is a prediction of the statistical channel characteristics which will be
implemented by using machine learning and deep learning algorithms. Machine
learning algorithm will help in the estimation of MIMO channel, scheduling of users,
smarter beamforming, and effective detection of the signal at the receiver side.
5.5 Conclusions
This chapter focused on the latest 5G technology deployment, their advantage, and
the challenges they are going to encounter. The analysis of the 5G MIMO antenna
was also studied in frequency and diversity performance. The values of ECC, DG,
TARC, and CCL were well below the permissible values indicating good transmis-
sion of the MIMO antenna. Also, the comparison of the 5G antenna was compared
with the present state of the art. All generation technology (1G–5G) was also
discussed with the advantage of 5G communication finding applications in the
field of IoT, AR-VR, and artificial intelligence. The 5G communication ensures
data rate up to 10Gbps with a very low latency of 1ms. The recent scope of research
was also listed, and the research gap in the 5G MIMO antenna system concluded that
the deployment of the 5G technology will not so easy and will need some more time
to come into existence as per the available information.
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102 M. Sharma
Dr. Manish Sharma received his BE in electronics and communication engineering from Man-
galore University, Karnataka, India, in 2000 and MTech degree from Visvesvaraya Technological
University, Karnataka, India, in 2007. He completed his PhD from the Department of Electronics
Engineering, Banasthali University, Rajasthan, India, in 2017. He is currently working as Professor
of Research at Chitkara University Research and Innovation Network (CURIN), Chitkara Univer-
sity, Punjab, India. His research interest includes computational electromagnetics, reconfigurable
antennas, novel electromagnetic materials, dielectric resonator antennas, wideband/superwideband
antennas, wideband/dual band/triple band microstrip antennas for wireless communication, smart
and MIMO antennas systems, radio-frequency identification (RFID) antennas, antennas for
healthcare, RF MEMS planar antenna on Si substrate, wireless networks, body area networks,
meta surface based biosensors, designing of microstrip antennas using machine learning, and
artificial network. Dr. Sharma has published more than 100 research articles in SCI/SCOPUS
indexed journals and also holds two patent grants. He has guided two PhD students, and he is
currently guiding eight PhD scholars.
Chapter 6
Next-Generation Optical Wireless System
for 5G and Beyond
Sahil Nazir Pottoo, Rakesh Goyal, Amit Gupta, and Monika Rani
6.1 Introduction
Progress in data center interconnection (DCI) technology and photonics stirred a

rejuvenated curiosity in FSO techniques. The matter of electromagnetic spectrum
scarcity and channel deprivation has been lately tackled by establishing FSO links
gaining impressive flexibility in frequency spectrum allocation. Typical features,
like ultrahigh speeds, license-free bandwidth, low-power utilization, last mile access,
backhaul/fronthaul network, 4K/8K video broadcast, easy and low-cost installation,
and extraordinary network security over typical wireless local area network
(WLAN) distances [1, 2], earn FSO a paramount position and provide strong
alternative to radio frequency (RF) technology to turn the conception of smart city,
Internet of Things (IoT), and fifth-generation (5G) technology into reality. Since
FSO signal propagates through the air/free-space channel, several atmospheric
elements influence the quality of transmitted signal [3].
For ultrahigh speed optical wireless communication systems, spectrally efficient
modulation/demodulation formats and coherent detection design combined with
polarization multiplexing techniques are presently receiving substantial consider-
ation. Multilevel quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) encodes data on the
amplitude as well as the phase of the laser beam and hence is an efficacious approach
to achieve higher data rate and transmission coverage without increasing the band-
width [3, 4]. Advanced digital signal processors (DSPs) run digital domain impair-
ment compensation algorithms to retrieve the original transmission signal precisely
[5, 6]. Bit error ratio (BER), constellation diagram, optical signal-to-noise ratio
S. N. Pottoo · R. Goyal (*) · A. Gupta

Department of ECE, IK Gujral Punjab Technical University, Kapurthala, Punjab, India
e-mail: dr.rakeshgoyal@ptu.ac.in
M. Rani
Department of Mathematics, Kanya Maha Vidyalaya, Jalandhar, Punjab, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-06866-9_6
104 S. N. Pottoo et al.
(OSNR) [7], and in recent times error vector magnitude (EVM) can be used as
ultimate performance indicators to measure the transmission quality in optical
wireless networks [8, 9]. Researcher groups have been working to overcome the
challenges in the FSO link and to enhance potential system capacity, spectral
efficiency, and transmission distance using advanced optical modulation techniques
[10]. M-ary QAM transceiver system provides higher data rates, but at the cost of
noise margin however recently, it has been shown that employing diversity tech-
niques in coherent FSO communication systems improve receiver SNR significantly
[11, 12]. Industries prefer single-channel communication scheme since it offers
essential bit rate and vigorous communication link at a minor cost [13, 14]. By
employing DSP techniques, the digital signal at the output of ADC is further
processed using DSP circuits for noise removal and data recovery [15]. The use of
DSP in conjunction with coherent detection allows the preservation of full informa-
tion of the incoming signal, which in return increases receiver sensitivity
[16, 17]. By employing DSP techniques including constant modulus algorithm
(CMA), it was possible to mitigate the multipath effect in a 400G fiber/wireless
hybrid system combined with polarization division multiplexing (PDM) and multi-
ple input-multiple output (MIMO) communication [3, 18, 19]. Carrier phase esti-
mation (CPE) algorithms track and remove the phase noise using different methods
such as normalized least means square estimator, differential phase estimation, and
Viterbi-Viterbi (VV) estimators [20–22]. Although it is still difficult to establish a
high-speed and long-haul FSO link owing to challenges put forth by climate and
physical installation, coherent detection along with advanced digital modulation
techniques and digital signal processing (DSP) algorithms has considerably assisted
to resolve the trouble, and hence in this chapter, we implemented the 16-QAM,
homodyne detection, and DSP techniques altogether in one transceiver for the best
performance.
This chapter presents the numerical simulation studies of a binary-driven optical
square 16-QAM free-space optical communication transceiver under high-speed
operation of 140 Gbps. In-phase/quadrature modulator (IQM)-based coherent opti-
cal transmission systems is designed since it provides high bandwidth efficiency and
greater transmission capacity for the terrestrial, optical wireless communication
systems. Further, the maximum reach of the system is analyzed based on successful
reception of polarization-multiplexed (pol-mux) 16-QAM data through 5.80-km
free-space distance. The overall system studies are done by powerful OptiSystem
photonic software through which bit error rate (BER), error vector magnitude
(EVM), optical signal-to-noise ratio (OSNR), laser linewidth, and receiver sensitiv-
ity values are noted and results have been generated using OptiSystem-MATLAB
co-simulation. We report the performance enhancement using DSP techniques with
various steps such as DC blocking, normalization, low-pass filter (LPF), resampling,
quadrature imbalance (QI) compensation, timing recovery, adaptive equalizer (AE),
frequency offset estimation (FOE), and carrier phase estimation (CPE). These post-
compensation techniques have been implemented to overcome the signal transmis-
sion impairments and recover the original transmitted symbols, which allow to
achieve extended FSO link range.
6 Next-Generation Optical Wireless System for 5G and Beyond 105
For conciseness, the remainder of the chapter is structured as follows: Sect. 6.2
presents (a) transceiver block diagram, (b) theoretical and numerical investigation,
and (c) transmitter, receiver, and DSP internal architectures. Section 6.3 describes
simulation design and parameters and reports electrical and optical visualizer out-
puts. Section 6.4 discusses the results obtained from the numerical simulation.
Finally, Sect. 6.5 closes the chapter with important conclusions.
6.2 Theoretical and Numerical Analysis
6.2.1 Block Diagram
The block diagram of single-carrier coherent DP-16-QAM FSO transceiver using

DSP displayed in Fig. 6.1 consists of optical DP-16-QAM transmitter, air/free-space
channel, DP-16-QAM homodyne receiver, DSP unit, decision component, QAM
sequence decoders, and parallel-to-serial (P/S) converter. The continuous wave
(CW) laser beam is bisected into two quadratic polarization components (X and
Y) through polarization beam splitter (PBS) which are then modulated and passed
into a polarization beam combiner (PBC) at the transmitter output terminal
[23, 24]. FSO channel experiences atmospheric attenuation and turbulence. Optical
DP-16-QAM receiver is built over the homodyne receiver structure which provides
3-dB receiver sensitivity improvement against heterodyne detection. The detector
has a local oscillator (LO) polarized at 45o with respect to PBS. Each LO component
separately demodulates the received signal with two 16-QAM demodulators
[25]. The DSP component carries out a number of impairment compensation
algorithms to aid in recovering the incoming transmission signal after coherent
detection. The decision unit normalizes the amplitudes of X- and Y-electrical signals
and compares each received symbol based on normalized threshold settings. QAM
sequence decoders decrypt the square 16-QAM constellation points, and the output
is generated from two parallel input I/Q subsequences. In QAM modulation, the
amplitude of the modulated signal can be varied according to the binary symbols.
QAM
Sequence
Decoder
Input Bit 1 Output Bit
Optical Optical
Stream Advanced Stream
DP-16- FSO Coherent P/S
Digital Decision
QAM Channel DP-16- Converter
Signal Unit
Transmitt QAM
er Receiver Processing QAM
Sequence
Decoder
2
Fig. 6.1 Block diagram of the proposed next-generation optical wireless transceiver
The value of amplitude for each output signal is taken from the set of amplitudes
given by [26, 27]:
a1 ¼ ð2k 1 M Þ ð6:1Þ
where k ¼ 1, 2, - - -, M and M is the number of possible binary sequences, which is

given by [28, 29]:
b
M ¼ 22 ð6:2Þ
where b represents bits for each symbol. The respective QAM set is given by the
square of the term, M. This means if b ¼ 4 and M ¼ 4, then it is 16-QAM format. In
order to reduce error floor, differential encoding has been implemented.
6.2.2 Optical DP-16-QAM Transmitter
Figure 6.2 demonstrates the internal structure of the optical DP-QPSK transmitter.
The laser instantaneous electric field is given by [27, 30]:
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi jðωL tþϕL Þ
E L ðt Þ ¼ PðLÞ e :be ð6:3Þ
where P(L ) is laser power, ωL ¼ 2πfL is angular frequency, ϕL is initial phase, and be
is signal polarization. Laser phase noise is given by the expression [31]:
Δϕ2

1
f ðΔϕÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi e 4πΔf Δt ð6:4Þ
2π Δf Δt
where Δϕ is phase difference and Δt is time discretization. M-ary symbol series are
produced from the input binary signal by QAM sequence generators and directly
headed to M-ary pulse generators. The output from M-ary pulse generators can be
written as [8, 10]:
8 9
< b, 0 t < t 1
> >
=
V o ðt Þ ¼ ahðt Þ þ b, t 1 t < t 1 þ w ð6:5Þ
>
: >
;
b, t 1 þ w t < T
where b is parameter bias, t1 is pulse position, a is gain, w is pulse duration, T is bit

duration, and h(t) is given by [7, 23]:
Optical Signal
Electrical Signal
Amp + Binary Signal
M-ary Pulse
Generator LiNb MZM
Amp +
M-ary QAM
Sequence Generator
Amp +
= 90º
M-ary Pulse
Generator LiNb MZM
Amp Modulated Optical

Input Binary
Signal DP-16-QAM Signal
Serial to Parallel Polarization Splitter Polarization

Converter Combiner
Amp
CW M-ary Pulse
Generator LiNb MZM
Laser
Amp +
M-ary QAM
Sequence Generator
Amp +
= 90º
M-ary Pulse
Generator LiNb MZM
Amp +
Fig. 6.2 Internal architecture of optical DP-16-QAM transmitter
2
πt δπt3
sin cos
hðt Þ ¼ 4 n T 2To 5 ð6:6Þ
πt
T 1 T
2δt
where δ is the roll-off factor [17]. These multilevel samples pass through dual-drive
lithium niobate Mach-Zehnder modulators (MZMs) where at peak point of operation
each MZM has 30-dB extinction ratio, 3-V switching bias voltage, and 0-V bias

voltages (V1 and V2) [32, 33]. The signal is phase shifted by 90 in each quadrature-
phase branch of the IQM sections to generate the modulated optical 16-QAM signal.
Subsequently, the X- and Y-polarization components are combined by a PBC to
produce a 140-Gbps DP-16-QAM information signal at the transmitter output. This
information carried over FSO channel is given by [34] [35]:
" #
Drx 2
Prx ¼ Ptx 2
10αZ=10 ð6:7Þ
ðDtx þ θZ Þ
where Prx and Ptx are receiver and transmitter optical powers, respectively; Drx and
Dtx are receiver and transmitter telescope antenna diameters, respectively; θ is angle
of beam divergence; Z is propagation distance; and α is specific atmospheric
attenuation constant.
6.2.3 Optical DP-16-QAM Receiver
Homodyne detection-based 16-QAM receiver consists of PBS that splits the

received optical signal into two output components [31, 36], two back-to-back
90-degree optical hybrids that coherently demodulate the optical carrier signal, and
balanced photodetectors (BDs) which translate optical intensities into I/Q electrical
signals [14, 26, 37–39]. Figure 6.3 shows the homodyne receiver structure for the
16-QAM demodulation and signal processing functions acting on the optical carrier,
such as optical filtering and dispersion compensation, can be performed at the
Optical Signal
Electrical Signal
PIN
Ixx(t)
Subtractor Amp
PIN
Optical DP-16-QAM
Signal PIN
Ixy(t)
Polarization
Splitter Subtractor Amp
= 90º PIN
PIN
CW Polarization Iyx(t)
Laser Splitter Subtractor Amp
PIN
PIN
Iyy(t)
Subtractor Amp
= 90º PIN
90 Degree Optical Hybrid Scheme Balanced Homodyne Detection Scheme
Fig. 6.3 Internal architecture of optical DP-16-QAM receiver

electrical stage after detection [40, 41]. The output I/Q currents for the corresponding
X- and Y-polarizations are expressed as [6, 42]:
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2γ 1 PL Plo eL elo e2αZ fI ðt τÞ cos ðβðωL Þd Δϕðt ÞÞ
I I ðX=Y Þ ðt Þ ¼ ð6:8Þ
þ Qðt τÞ sin ðβðωl ÞZ Δϕðt ÞÞg þ ishI
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2γ 1 PL Plo eL elo e2αZ fQðt τÞ sin ðβðωL Þd Δϕðt ÞÞ
I QðX=Y Þ ðt Þ ¼ ð6:9Þ
I ðt τÞ cos ðβðωL ÞZ Δϕðt ÞÞg þ ishQ
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
where Pl Plo is the branch current magnitude; eL and elo are polarization
components of incoming optical beam and LO signal, respectively; Δϕ(t) is phase
variation; and ish is the photocurrent generated by detector shot noise.
6.2.4 Advanced Digital Signal Processing Algorithms
The DSP unit as shown in Fig. 6.4 carries off several digital domain impairment
compensation techniques to assist in recovering the original transmitted bit stream
after coherent detection of optical square 16-QAM modulated signal. It has been
used with optical coherent receiver that utilizes 16-QAM modulation with dual
polarization (X and Y channel) multiplexing. The high-level DSP module works
by employing nine algorithms starting with a two-step preprocessing stage, (1) DC
blocking and (2) normalization, followed by the seven-step signal recovery stage:
(3) low-pass Bessel filter, (4) resampling, (5) quadrature imbalance
(QI) compensation, (6) timing recovery, (7) adaptive equalizer (AE), (8) frequency
offset estimation (FOE), and (9) carrier phase estimation (CPE). Figure 6.9 in Sect.
6.4 shows the constellation diagrams obtained for each of the various signal
After Adaptive After Frequency After Carrier

After After After QI Offset Estimation Phase Estimation
Equalizer
Filtering Resampling Compensation
Ix
hxx
QI COMPENSATION
BESSEL FILTER
Qx
RESAMPLING
hxy FOE CPE
Iy
hyx FOE CPE
Qy
hyy
EQUALIZER
Fig. 6.4 Internal architecture of digital signal processor

impairment compensation stages of the DSP unit after 5.8-km FSO transmission.
The DSP unit recovers the original transmitted symbols from the received electrical
signals by the application of various high-level algorithms at each signal processing
stage.
6.3 Transceiver Design and Simulation Parameters
The single-channel optical wireless communication system shown in Fig. 6.5 is

designed using OptiSystem V.16 simulation platform. Table 6.1 summarizes various
simulation parameters with their values. The principle of operation of the transmitter,
receiver, and DSP unit has been covered in Sects. 6.2.2, 6.2.3, and 6.2.4, respec-
tively. Numerous electrical and optical visualizer components such as optical spec-
trum analyzer (OSA), optical time domain visualizer (OTDV), electrical
constellation visualizer, RF spectrum analyzer, eye diagram analyzer, and BER
test set have been included in the simulation model to note and evaluate the
performance of the proposed transceiver at various instants.
Figure 6.6 displays OSA and RF spectrum analyzer outputs. Figure 6.6a shows
the optical spectrum of the 140-Gbps DP-16-QAM signal at the transmitter output.
The center frequency is at 193.414 THz (i.e., 1550 nm), and the peak power
observed at this frequency is –16.7394 dBm. Figure 6.6b shows the RF spectrum
of the 140-Gbps DP-16-QAM electrical signal at the output of coherent receiver. The
center frequency is at 1.6 THz (i.e., 1874 nm), and the power observed at this
frequency is –100 dBm.
Figure 6.7 illustrates eye diagrams of the modulated DP-16-QAM signal at 5.8-
km FSO transmission distance. Figure 6.7a denotes eye diagram of 16-QAM
Fig. 6.5 Transceiver model designed using OptiSystem V.16 photonic software
Table 6.1 Design parameters Parameters Values

and corresponding values
Bit rate 140 Gbps
Frequency 193.414 THz
Transmitted power 20 dBm
Linewidth 0.1 MHz
Initial phase 0 degree
Baud rate 40 Gbaud
Beam divergence 0.25 mrad
Transmitter aperture diameter 5 cm
Receiver aperture diameter 20 cm
Receiver loss 1 dB
Responsivity 1 A/W
Dark current 10 nA
Transmission range 5.8 km
Photodetector type PIN
Atmospheric attenuation 0.25 dB/km
Geometrical loss Yes
Sequence length 65,536
Fig. 6.6 (a) Optical spectrum of the DP-16-QAM signal at the transmitter output, and (b) RF
spectrum of DP-16-QAM signal after the homodyne detection
in-phase signal, while Fig. 6.7b shows eye diagram of 16-QAM quadrature-phase
signal. It can be noticed that both eye diagrams validate successful transmission of
140-Gbps DP-16-QAM information signal up to a maximum reach of 5.8 km under
In-phase signal - I In-quadrature signal - Q

0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1
2 2 2 2
Amplitude (a.u.)
Amplitude (a.u.)
0 0 0 0
–2 –2 –2 –2
0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1
Time (bit period) Time (bit period)
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.7 (a) Eye diagram of 16-QAM in-phase signal, and (b) eye diagram of 16-QAM quadrature-
phase signal at 5.8-km FSO distance
Fig. 6.8 (a) Optical input timing phase, and (b) optical output timing phase, at the DP-16-QAM
transmitter output
fair weather within acceptable performance margin using the proposed system.
Figure 6.8a, b denote input timing phase and output timing phase, respectively, at
the DP-16-QAM transmitter output measured using OTDV.
6.4 Results and Discussion
This segment discusses the outcomes obtained from the simulative investigation of
the proposed FSO transceiver. Firstly, we report the constellation diagrams of
demodulated signal acquired after passing through each algorithm of the nine-
stage DSP unit. Secondly, we examine the proposed QAM-FSO link utilizing
BER, EVM (%), OSNR, laser linewidth, received optical power, and transmission
distance as performance parameters. Constellation diagrams at different stages of the
proposed DP-16-QAM-based FSO link using DSP are reported in Fig. 6.9.
Figure 6.10 displays BER performance of the proposed system in fair weather
conditions. For a range of 0–10 km, different values of BER are computed. As
follows from the graph, BER of the information signal increases with increasing link
distance. The result demonstrates successful transmission of 140-Gbps data bearing
DP-16-QAM optical signal up to a distance of 5.80 km under acceptable perfor-
mance criteria, that is, BER 2 103 (FEC limit). However, with the increase in
the distance, distortion in the scattering diagram increases, due to which information
retrieval becomes harsh on receiver terminal. This performance deterioration is
triggered by linear distortions, geometric loss, misalignment loss, free-space loss,
atmospheric turbulence-induced fading, ambient noise, laser phase noise, and OSNR
degradation, respectively.
Figure 6.11 shows the receiver sensitivity, i.e., BER and EVM (%), versus
received optical power graphs of the proposed FSO link. The system performance
has been evaluated at the maximum transmission distance of 5.80 km. The received
optical power is varied with the help of optical attenuator at the receiver input, and
the corresponding EVM (%) and BER are found out.
Figure 6.12 shows the BER and EVM (%) performance of 140-Gbps DP-16-
QAM system for different laser linewidths after 5.80-km FSO transmission. It is
observed that both the EVM and BER degrade with increasing laser linewidths
because at greater linewidths, the optical spectrum of the modulated signal gets
broader, and it contributes to frequency dispersion in the optical signal while
propagating. Narrow laser linewidth is key to high-performance homodyne detector.
Figures 6.13 and 6.14 demonstrate performance of BER with OSNR and EVM
with OSNR, respectively. It is observed that with increasing values of OSNR, log
(BER) and EVM (%) value decreases. Hence, with greater values of OSNR,
constellation points become more discrete. It is noted that for higher values of
OSNR, the system is less prone to error. In communication systems, random noise
cause erroneous bits, the occurrence of which is measured as BER. OSNR is a vital
parameter since it quantifies the degree of impairment when the modulated laser
signal is carried through free space. The OSNR requirement of the optical wireless
network is analytical since it reduces working expenditure and boosts the bit rate of
the network. EVM (%) is an appropriate metric for the evaluation of coherent
communication systems with higher-order modulation formats. The mathematical
expressions used for the calculation of BER, OSNR, and EVM (%) are as follows:
BER for dual polarization system is given by [43, 44]:
Fig. 6.9 Constellation diagrams for 140-Gbps-5.80-km FSO link (a) at the DP-16-QAM transmit-
ter, (b) before DSP, i.e., after the coherent detection, (c) after DC blocking, (d) after normalization,
(e) after low-pass filter, (f) after resampling, (g) after quadrature imbalance compensation, (h) after
timing recovery, (i) after adaption equalizer, (j) after frequency offset estimation, (k) after carrier
phase estimation over clear climate
Fig. 6.9 (continued)


X errors þ Y errors
BER ¼ ð6:10Þ
sequence length ð2 guard bitsÞ
where only those errors are add up which lie outside the portion of the sequence of
the guard bits.
BER for the X-polarization channel is given by [45, 46]:
X errors
BERx ¼ ð6:11Þ
ðsequence length 2 guard bitsÞ=2
BER for the Y-polarization channel is given by [47, 48]:

Fig. 6.10 log(BER) versus link length graph under fair climate (insets: corresponding constellation
plots)
Fig. 6.11 BER and EVM (%) versus received optical power of the proposed link at 5.80-km FSO
link with 0.25-dB/km atmospheric attenuation
Fig. 6.12 BER and EVM (%) versus laser linewidth plot of the proposed system at 5.80-km FSO
link reach
Fig. 6.13 BER and EVM (%) versus OSNR plot of the 140-Gbps QAM/FSO system at 5.80 km
FSO link under clear weather condition.
Fig. 6.14 EVM (%) versus OSNR plot of the proposed QAM/FSO link
Y errors
BERy ¼ ð6:12Þ
ðsequence length 2 guard bitsÞ=2
In order to add a definite noise level to transmitted optical signal, set OSNR unit is
used. The OSNR level is set based on the following equation [33, 49]:

Ps ðmWÞ
OSNRðdBÞ ¼ 10 log 10 ¼ ½dBðsignalÞ dBðnoiseÞ ð6:13Þ
Pn0:1 ðmWÞ
where Ps is the total signal power within the signal bandwidth (2 symbol rate) and
Pn0.1 is the noise power measured within a 0.1-nm bandwidth window. As the noise
is added to the signal using a power combiner, there is a 3-dB transmission loss
applied to both the signal and noise source, but the OSNR level is not affected. To
achieve BER value under forward error correction (FEC) limit [28], that is,
2 103, the least necessary OSNR value denotes the noise acceptance of a
modulation format over 0.1 nm of finite bandwidth. The relation between BER
and OSNR is given by [50, 51]:
hpffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffii
3
BER ¼ erfc OSNRNL =2 ð6:14Þ
8
The EVM (%) and BER relation is of noteworthy importance for coherent optical
transmission systems [52], since EVM (%) is well-matched than BER measurement
for indefinite symbol sequences and to distinguish optical I/Q transmitters. EVM is
described as the root-mean-square (RMS) value of the deviation among calculated
constellation points and ideal constellation points. EVM is measured with vector
signal analyzers directly from down-converted signals [53]; as a result, additional
computation is reduced that may be needed to figure out the BER.
The EVM of the received signals is calculated as follows [54–56]:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

S bSc 2
u
EVM ¼ 100% ð6:15Þ
bSc2u
2
where symbol sequence is denoted by S, mean value is written as S bScu , and
bScu represents the decision of S, respectively. RMS value of EVM is given by
[34, 57]:
2ffi
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
P
1=N Nj¼1 E r,j Et,j
EVMrms ¼ ð6:16Þ
Pa
We can relate BER with EVM by [58, 59]:

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 M 1=2 3=2
BER ¼ erfc ð6:17Þ
1=2 log 2 M ðM 1ÞEV M 2rms
6.5 Conclusions
We report a nine-stage DSP method with homodyne detection for high-capacity

long-haul coherent polarization-multiplexed (pol-mux) systems using 16-QAM. In
the first stage, a two-step preprocessing using DC blocking and normalization is
implemented, followed by the seven-step signal recovery algorithms in the second
stage. A blind adaptation technique-based butterfly equalizer is used to demultiplex
PDM signals with significant out-of-band cross talk and also compensate linear
distortions well. The joint implementation of coherent detection and DSP demon-
strate numerous advantages including better steady-state performance and a faster
convergence rate. Furthermore, all the estimation and equalization algorithms are
implemented in the frequency domain which potentially provides the least
complexity for the pol-mux optical coherent systems. The proposed algorithms are
simulatively demonstrated with a 5.80-km 40-Gbaud coherent optical pol-mux
system under the presence of additive white Gaussian noise, which established
high-quality symbol constellation and a BER performance similar to theoretical
expectations. For QAM signal, the proposed method achieves error-free transmis-
sion and shows superior coverage and speed and hence outperforms the traditional
intensity modulation/direct detection (IM/DD) system.
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Sahil Nazir Pottoo is pursuing his PhD in electrical engineering with the main focus on optics and
photonics from UiT The Arctic University of Norway. He received the MTech in wireless
communications in 2020 from the I. K. Gujral Punjab Technical University, India, with the first
rank in the batch (gold medalist). He received BTech in electronics and communication engineering
in 2018 from the Baba Ghulam Shah Badshah University, India. His master’s thesis involved
primary research on the design and numerical simulations of coherent free-space optical commu-
nication transceivers for 5G/6G applications. He has published his research findings in various SCI
journals and IEEE international conferences. He is acting as the technical reviewer for SPIE
journals – Optical Engineering, the Journal of Optical Communications, the Journal of Computer
Science, and the Journal of Optics, and he is an accredited reviewer of the Optica (OSA). His
research interests are free-space optics, deep learning, and photonics.
Dr. Rakesh Goyal is working as an assistant professor in the Electronics & Communication
Engineering Department, IK Gujral Punjab Technical University, Kapurthala, Punjab. He has
completed his PhD and MTech in electronics and communication engineering from Thapar
University, Patiala, Punjab, and BTech in electronics and communication engineering from
Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra. He has also qualified GATE 2007. Dr. Goyal has 12 years
of teaching experience. He has more than 100 publications including books, SCI/ Scopus journals,
and international and national conferences. He is also a reviewer for reputed international journal
publishers including IEEE, IET, Springer Nature, Elsevier, Taylor and Francis, Degruyter, and
Optical Society of America.
Amit Gupta obtained his BTech from Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra (Haryana), India. He
received his master’s and doctorate degrees from Punjab Technical University, Jalandhar (Punjab),
India, in electronics and communication engineering. Has more than 18 years of teaching experi-
ence and has guided many research scholars at master’s and PhD level. He also has more than
80 publications to his credit in reputed SCI/SCOPUS journals and various conferences. His area of
research includes optical wireless communication systems.
Dr. Monika Rani is working as an assistant professor in PG Department of Mathematics, Kanya

Maha Vidyalaya, Jalandhar, Punjab, since 2016. She has total 11 years of teaching experience. She
has completed her PhD from I K Gujral Punjab Technical University, Kapurthala, Punjab, India.
She has done her MSc in mathematics from Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra, Haryana. She has
also qualified CSIR-UGC-NET 2013 and 2015, GATE 2013, and HTET 2013. Her area of interest
is number theory and differential equations. She has more than 80 publications in international
journals and conference proceedings. She has also been awarded a gold medal and elite certificate
by the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Kanpur in NPTEL course in 2019. She has been awarded
a merit certificate by the Board of School Education Haryana in 1997 and in 1999.
Chapter 7
Performance Evaluation of 80-Gbps
TWDM-Based NG-PON2 for Various
Network Topologies
Ramandeep Kaur, Simranjit Singh Tiwana, and Rajandeep Singh
7.1 Introduction
The demand for data rate growth is increasing day by day at the global level. To
fulfill the demands, advanced network architectures and different data transfer
technologies are required. The fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) technology is being widely
deployed all over the world [1]. For the last-mile network, a passive optical network
(PON) is a modern high-speed access solution that provides broadcast high data rate
to the end users. Moreover, PON can also be deployed with existing metallic cables
to create different FTTx (x means curb, building, home, etc.) solutions. The optical
distribution network (ODN) in the PON access network consists of all passive
components like optical power splitters, optical fiber, couplers, etc. The next-
generation passive optical network stage 2 (NG-PON2) is a long-term solution in
PON evolution. According to the standards, NG-PON2 technology should
outperform existing PON technologies in terms of ODN compatibility, bandwidth,
capacity, and cost-efficiency [2, 3]. As per the G.989.2 recommendation of ITU-T,
the best hybrid-multiplexed technique for NG-PON2 is time and wavelength divi-
sion passive optical network (TWDM-PON). TWDM utilizes the bandwidth of
optical fiber efficiently [4]. The NG-PON2 is a broadcast network, and a large
number of optical network units (ONUs) can be served using various network
topologies. The NG-PON2 network can be configured with topologies like bus,
tree, and star topology. These topologies are arrangement or mapping of the links,
nodes, etc. of a network [5, 6]. For a particular application, one topology can be more
suitable than others. Also, every topology has advantages and disadvantages.
R. Kaur (*) · S. S. Tiwana

R. Singh
Department of Electronics Technology, GNDU Amritsar, Amritsar, Punjab, India
e-mail: rajandeep.ece@gndu.ac.in
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-06866-9_7
128 R. Kaur et al.
In any passive optical link, modulation formats play an important role for better
system performance. S.M. Idrus et al. investigated the performance of the 25-Gbps
NG-PON system experimentally with a 25-km reach by employing a dual phase-
shift keying (DPSK) signal at downstream transmission and its conversion to optical
duobinary modulation format at the ONU receiver. The receiver sensitivity of
29 dBm was observed for bit error rate (BER) less than 10 5 with a 1:64 split
ratio [7]. A low-cost 40-Gbps TWDM PON was investigated by Bart Moeneclaey
et al. using electrical duobinary modulation (EDM) format at the downstream
transmission. They achieved a power budget of 23.6 dB with forward error correc-
tion (FEC) and BER level of 10 3 with 20-km system reach [8]. The system
performance was investigated by employing different optical network topologies
in the presence of a hybrid optical amplifier by Sanjeev Dewra et al. They reported
that bus topology supports 18 nodes for a minimum signal input power of 20 dBm
and ring topology supports 30 nodes for 30-dBm input power at 10-Gbps data rate
with 30-km reach between successive nodes in the presence of hybrid amplifier.
However, in hybrid topology, they found that the number of nodes supported for bus
topology is 6 and for the ring it is 10 at 20-dBm signal input power [9]. To increase
the resilience of the WDM-PON network, the ring topology was implemented at the
remote node (RN) using a standard optical splitter of 1:2 split ratio by P. Lafata et al.
To verify the experimental results, they measured and compared the results with the
simulation model [10]. Chung-Yi Li et al. proposed a novel tree-based optical
add/drop multiplexer (TOADM) for TWDM NG-PON2. They used two four-port
optical circulators (OCs), one three-port OC, and two fiber Bragg grating (FBGs)
passive components to place at any selected location along with transmission fiber to
multiplex and demultiplex optical wavelengths. They observed the results through
an experiment that the insertion losses of the proposed device are less than a 1 2
optical splitters in downstream and upstream directions [11].
From the above literature review, it is observed that network topologies are
playing an important role in the broadcast access network and the work is limited
to low data rate and a smaller number of users served by the system. To overcome
these limitations and for the future proof solution, the NG-PON2 network comes into
play. NG-PON2 network is capable to extend the network capacity to 40 Gbps or to
80 Gbps by employing multiple optical carriers [12].
In this chapter, the performance of different topologies like bus, star, and tree
topology has been analyzed in TWDM-based symmetric 80-Gbps NG-PON2 with
1024 users. The system is also investigated for the avalanche photodiode (APD) and
PIN photodiode.
This chapter is organized into four sections. Introduction is given in the first
section. In the second section, the simulation setup for bus topology and the RN
design using array waveguide grating (AWG) are presented, and simulated results
are discussed. Section 7.3 presents the simulation architecture of star topology and
its simulated results. The simulation setup and results for tree topology are presented
in Sect. 7.4. The conclusion is made in the last section.
7 Performance Evaluation of 80-Gbps TWDM-Based NG-PON2 for Various. . . 129
7.2 Simulation Architecture of 80-Gbps NG-PON2 with Bus

Topology
In system architecture for bus topology in NG-PON2, all eight wavelengths starting
from 1596 nm with 0.8-nm channel spacing are multiplexed at the central office
(CO)/optical line terminal (OLT) as shown in Fig. 7.1. Each wavelength carries a
10-Gbps data rate which makes the system capable of 80-Gbps data rate service. The
multiplexed data is transmitted over single-mode fiber (SMF). Near the user pre-
mises, the data is broadcasted using a bus topology. In this topology, all ONUs are
connected to a shared transmission fiber. The data is transmitted in the network to the
dedicated groups of ONUs as per the assigned wavelengths. In this way, the data is
transmitted between every ONU and OLT over the same main fiber.
7.2.1 RN Design Using AWG for 80-Gbps TWDM-Based

NG-PON2 Downstream with Bus Topology
Eight wavelengths for downstream transmission are used in this work. So, each RN
is allocated with a fixed downstream wavelength. The generalized node structure of
nth is presented to explain how downstream and upstream wavelengths pass through
the node, where n represents 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8. Overall, there are eight RNs in
the network. Figure 7.2 shows the block diagram of the nth RN for AWG-based bus
topology.
Fig. 7.1 Simulation architecture of 80-Gbps NG-PON2 with bus topology

130 R. Kaur et al.
Fig. 7.2 Design of nth remote node using AWG for bus topology
The wavelengths λn λ8 enter the nth RN from the left branch of node for
downstream transmission. Out of λn λ8, the wavelength λn is dropped by AWG1
and is sent to 128 ONUs through power splitter. After dropping λn, all the remaining
downstream wavelengths λn+1 to λ8 are multiplexed by AWG2 and are sent to the
remaining remote nodes. Simultaneously, the ONUs of nth RN transmit upstream
data using wavelength λn+8 toward the OLT using the TDM technique.
As shown in Fig. 7.2, all ONUs operating at nodes RNn+1 to RN8 generate
upstream traffic on the wavelengths λn+9 to λ16; these wavelengths enter RNn from
the right side of the nth node. In the nth RN, the upstream generated on λn+8 gets
combined with λn+9 to λ16. Therefore, the nth RN sends upstream on λn+8 to λ16
wavelengths toward OLT. The circulator provides a path to the upstream wave-
lengths which are incoming from the right side of the nth node.
The upstream wavelength of the ONUs operating on nth RN is λn+8 whose power
is combined with the upstream wavelengths entering the nth RN, i.e., λn+9 to λ16.
Therefore, the λn+8 to λ16 contains upstream data of all ONUs working on RNn to
RN8, and these wavelengths are propagated toward the RNn 1, which further adds
one more upstream wavelength. Ultimately, the upstream data of all 1024 ONUs
working in the entire systems reaches the OLT. This way, the proposed RN design
can drop a single wavelength designated to that particular RN without affecting
others. Also, the node can add the upstream traffic generated by ONUs connected to
that particular node. The presented RN design is entirely passive, making this up-
and-coming candidate since the active components are not desirable in PON.
7.2.2 Results and Discussion
The performance of bus topology-based 80-Gbps NG-PON2 is investigated by

observing the acceptable BER for minimum received power in case of ONUs
working at first, fifth, and eighth wavelengths. These graphs are shown in
Figs. 7.3, 7.4, and 7.5.
Fig. 7.3 BER vs received power at RN1 for downstream transmission

132 R. Kaur et al.
Figure 7.3 shows the graphical representation of the BER variation for varied
received power for the ONU operating at the RN1. The acceptable BER (<10 9) is
observed for received powers 32 dB with APD. As the received power decreases,
the BER increases, which is expected.
Similarly, the performance of ONU working at RN5 is shown in Fig. 7.4. The
acceptable BER (<10 9) is observed for received powers 32.7 dB with APD
photodiode. The BER reduces to very small values for received power higher than
31 dB.
For the ONU operating at node RN8, a similar trend to the case of RN1 and RN5
is observed as shown in Fig. 7.5. The BER for ONU operating at eighth wavelength
is found acceptable for 32.6-dB power with minimum acceptable BER level of
10 9. It can be observed from Figs. 7.3 to 7.5 that in all cases, the BER is found
acceptable for all the ONUs for received power more than 32.7 dB.
7.3 Simulation Architecture of 80-Gbps NG-PON2 Using

Star Topology
In star topology, each ONU is connected to an OLT. The data transmitted over the
network to ONUs is sent through a common fiber to a central node that routes the
data to all of the network. The simulation architecture of star topology-based
80-Gbps NG-PON2 is shown in Fig. 7.6.
In this case, all eight wavelengths are multiplexed and transmitted over a common
transmission fiber. After the fiber, AWG is used to demultiplex all the wavelengths.
Each wavelength is split into 128 parts, and each ONU receives the data at user
premises. In this case, each wavelength serves 128 ONUs. So, this network serves a
total of 1024 ONUs with 8 wavelengths. The Raman amplification provides gain to
the downstream signals with 1535-nm pump wavelength (λp).
134 R. Kaur et al.
Fig. 7.6 Simulation architecture of 80-Gbps NG-PON2 using star topology
The performance of this network is investigated by observing the BER with respect
to varied received power. The results for ONUs operating at first, fifth, and eighth
wavelength using star topology for downstream transmission are shown in Figs. 7.7,
7.8, and 7.9.
Figure 7.7 shows the plot between BER and received power at first wavelength
for star topology. In this case, the minimum received power of 43 dB provides the
acceptable BER levels of 10 9 with APD photodiode.
Figures 7.8 and 7.9 show the plot between BER and received power at fifth and
eighth wavelength for star topology. In both cases, the minimum received power of
43 dB provides acceptable BER levels of 10 9 with APD photodiode.
The system performance is also investigated for upstream transmission to assess
the performance of the entire system. Each cluster of 128 ONUs shares a particular
upstream wavelength. The results have been plotted for first, fifth, and eighth
wavelength to assess the performance of the entire system. The results are shown
in Figs. 7.10, 7.11, and 7.12.
Fig. 7.7 BER at first wavelength for downstream in star topology
Figure 7.10 shows the plot between BER and received power at first wavelength
for star topology. In this case, the minimum received power of 34 dB provides
acceptable BER levels of 10 9 with APD photodiode.
Similarly, Figs. 7.11 and 7.12 are showing the plot between BER and received
power for fifth and eighth wavelength for star topology. Similar to the results
observed for the first wavelength, the minimum received power of 34 dB provides
the acceptable BER levels of 10 9 with APD photodiode in these cases. As in star
topology, all ONUs are at equal distance from the RN. Therefore, the received power
and BER are almost the same for all cases.
7.4 Simulation Architecture of 80-Gbps NG-PON2 Using

Tree Topology
Figure 7.13 represents the simulation architecture of 80-Gbps NG-PON2 networks

by using tree topology.
136 R. Kaur et al.
Fig. 7.8 BER at fifth wavelength for downstream in star topology
From the figure, it can be seen that multiple ONUs are connected using tree
topology. Optical splitters are used for connecting the ONUs with the primary fiber
in a tree topology. The function of the AWG is to multiplex or demultiplex the
wavelengths. In the system, each wavelength is dedicated to a particular group of
ONUs. In tree topology, each wavelength’s power is split into four parts by using a
1x4 optical power splitter at the first stage. After that, all four split parts are sent over
the four transmission fibers. After the last segment of fiber, the signal is split into
32 parts which are given to ONUs. In this way, the network supports a total of
1024 ONUs.
The performance of the network is investigated by taking the results by varying

received power to observe the variation in BER. In tree topology, the BER has been
evaluated for ONUs operating on first, fifth, and eighth downstream wavelength as
shown in Figs. 7.14, 7.15, and 7.16.
Fig. 7.9 BER at eighth wavelength for downstream in star topology
In Fig. 7.14, the results shown are for first wavelength for downstream transmis-
sion. The minimum received power for acceptable BER 10 9 is 41.4 dB. In
Fig. 7.14, the results are shown for fifth wavelength for downstream direction. In
this case, the minimum received power for acceptable BER 10 9 is 42.3 dB.
The results at eighth wavelengths are shown in Fig. 7.16 for downstream trans-
mission; in this case, the minimum received power for acceptable BER 10 9 is
41.3 dB. Like the downstream, the performance for upstream transmission for the
tree topology is shown in Figs. 7.17, 7.18, and 7.19.
The BER is found acceptable for received power equal to 33 dB for first, fifth,
and eighth wavelength. Every fiber access network topology plays a vital role in
NG-PON2 communication network. These complex networks are designed by
connecting optical fibers in a specific way. The optical fiber makes a link from CO
to the end user, which makes this concept unique. Each topology has its advantages
and disadvantages, and each can be applied to a particular application as per the
requirement.
Star topology is used in application of telecommunication. Bus topology is
usually used in the small workgroup area network. The tree topology is used in the
network where a high data rate is required or there is a need to connect a large
number of users.
138 R. Kaur et al.
Fig. 7.10 BER at first wavelength for upstream in star topology
7.5 Conclusion
In this chapter, the performance of bus topology, star topology, and tree topology is
investigated by observing the BER for minimum received power. The BER levels of
10 9 are considered as reference levels. The proposed RN architecture is based on
the AWG. The results in the case of using AWG and APD are showing acceptable
BER levels of 10 9 with minimum received power of 32 dB for the ONU
operating at first wavelength of downstream transmission.
For the ONU operating at the fifth downstream wavelength with APD photodi-
ode, the minimum received power for acceptable BER level of 10 9 is 32.7 dB.
Furthermore, for the ONU operating at the eighth downstream wavelength, the
minimum received power found for acceptable BER level of 10 9 is 32.7 dB.
For star topology, the minimum received powers of 43 dB provide acceptable BER
levels of 10 9 at first, fifth, and eighth wavelengths for downstream transmission.
For received power higher than 34 dB, the BER is found acceptable at first, fifth,
and eighth wavelength for upstream transmission. In case of tree topology, the BER
is found acceptable for received powers higher than 42.3 dB at first, fifth, and
Fig. 7.11 BER at fifth wavelength for upstream in star topology
eighth wavelength for downstream transmission. The BER is found acceptable for
received power equal to 33 dB or higher at first, fifth, and eighth wavelength for
upstream transmission. The results from this work establish that the PON with
80-Gbps data rate can support a large number of users exceeding 1000 ONUs. The
capabilities of the same network can be utilized in implementing 5G. The PON being
a point-to-multipoint access network is capable of supporting 5G fronthaul and
backhaul services.
140 R. Kaur et al.
Fig. 7.12 BER at eighth wavelength for upstream in star topology
Fig. 7.13 Simulation architecture of 80-Gbps NG-PON2 using tree topology

Fig. 7.14 BER at first wavelength for downstream in tree topology
Fig. 7.15 BER at fifth wavelength for downstream in tree topology

Fig. 7.16 BER at eighth wavelength for downstream in tree topology
Fig. 7.17 BER at first wavelength for upstream in tree topology

Fig. 7.18 BER at fifth wavelength for upstream in tree topology
Fig. 7.19 BER at eighth wavelength for upstream in tree topology

144 R. Kaur et al.
References
1. Full-Service Access Network (FSAN) (2016) [Online]. Available: http://www.fsan.org/

2. ITU-T G.989.1, 40-Gigabit-capable passive optical networks (NGPON2): General require-
ments (2013)
3. E. Harstead, D. van Veen, V. Houtsma, P. Dom, Technology roadmap for time-division
multiplexed passive optical networks (TDM PONs). J. Lightwave Technol. 37(2), 657–664
(2019)
4. ITU-T G.989.2, 40-Gigabit-capable passive optical networks 2 (NG-ON2): Physical media
dependent (PMD) layer specification (2014)
5. N. Raghavee, S.G.H. Kankaria, S. Sugumaran, S. Revathi, Comparative analysis of network
topologies using optical amplifiers. Int. J. Comput. Technol. Appl. 5(2), 573–577 (2014)
6. K.M. Feng, C.Y. Wu, J.H. Yan, C.T. Lin, P.C. Peng, A single-fiber bi-directional WDM self-
healing ring network with bi-directional OADM for metro-access applications. IEEE J. Sel.
Areas Commun. 25, 18–24 (2007)
7. S.M. Idrus, S.U. Rehman, N. Zulkifli, F. Iqbal, A. Kanno, Demonstration of receiver generated
optical duobinary and VSB-NRZ for next-generation PON, in 2018 IEEE 7th International
Conference on Photonics (ICP), Langkawi, Malaysia, 978-1-5386-1187-6/18/$31.00
©2018 IEEE
8. B. Moeneclaey, F. Blache, J. Van Kerrebrouck, R. Brenot, G. Coudyzer, M. Achouche, X.-Z.
Qiu, J. Bauwelinck, X. Yin, 40-Gb/s TDM-PON downstream link with low-cost EML trans-
mitter and APD-based electrical duobinary receiver. J. Lightwave Technol. 35(4), 1083–1089
(2017)
9. S. Dewra, R.S. Kaler, Performance analysis of optical network topologies in the presence of
hybrid optical amplifier. Optoelectron. Adv. Mater. Rapid Commun. 11(1-2), 54–58 (2017)
10. P. Lafata, J. Vodrazka, Simulation of ring-based passive optical network and its experimental
verification. Elektronika IR Elektrotechnika 19(5), 93–98 (2013) Issn:1392-1215
11. C.-Y. Li, C.-H. Chang, Z.-G. Lin, Z.-Y. Cheng, Optical add/drop multiplexer for tree-based
passive optical networks. Opt. Fiber Technol. 54(1–4), 102121 (2020)
12. ITU-T G.989.3, 40-Gigabit-capable passive optical networks (NG-PON2): transmission con-
vergence layer specification. [online] (2015), https://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-G.989.3-201
510-P
Dr. Ramandeep Kaur is currently working as an assistant professor in the Department of ECE,
Punjabi University, Patiala, India. She has received her BTech (ECE) degree from Guru Nanak Dev
Engineering College, Ludhiana, India, in 2009. Then, in 2011, she received her ME (ECE) degree
from Thapar University, Patiala, India. She received PhD from Punjabi University, Patiala, India, in
2021. She is the associate editor of the Journal of Engineering (IET). Ramandeep has authored
16 papers in Science Citation Indexed journals. She has presented 10 papers at international and
national conferences. She has guided 18 students in their MTech Theses. Her areas of research are
passive optical networks, optical communication, and machine learning.
Dr. Simranjit Singh Tiwana is working as an assistant professor in the ECE Department at
Punjabi University, Patiala. He holds a PhD from Thapar University, Patiala, and has published
many research papers in reputed SCI indexed journals. His area of expertise is wireless communi-
cation and optical communication.
Dr. Rajandeep Singh received his BTech (ECE) from Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College,
Ludhiana, India, in 2009. He received his MTech (Communication Systems) from Guru Nanak Dev
University, Amritsar, in 2011 and received the PhD degree from Guru Nanak Dev University,
Amritsar, India, in 2021. Dr. Rajandeep Singh is currently working as Assistant Professor of
Electronics Technology at Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, India. Dr. Rajandeep Singh is
associate editor of the Journal of Engineering (IET). He has authored 12 papers in SCI journals,
17 papers in international conferences, and 6 papers in national conferences. His area of research is
optical amplifiers, passive optical networks, and machine learning.
Chapter 8
Performance Evaluation of Path
Computation Algorithms in Generalized
Multiprotocol Label-Switched Optical
Networks
Monika, Simranjit Singh, and Amit Wason
8.1 Introduction and Motivation
Speedy progress and the best intensification in the communication expertise have
prearranged extent for the advancement of computing knowledge [1]. The major aim
of the load equilibrium is to balance the load expeditiously between the nodes in
such a way that no nodes are full and below loaded, i.e., the load must not be
distributed to the nodes in a nonuniform manner, that one node is getting the load up
to its full capacity and the other node is receiving zero load [2]. In the traditional
methods, the internet protocol packets to be transported from one node to the other
contained a lot of information in their header part like its complete address to which
the packet is to be routed [1]. The networks process this complete information at
each router occurring in the packet’s path which takes a lot of time, i.e., the speed
becomes slow. The method of routing information transfer, to equalize the inter-
change load, on different paths and routers in the system is known as traffic
engineering [3]. Multiprotocol label switching is generally utilized in optical systems
to offer QoS assurance to data transfer [4]. MPLS uses ipv4 or ipv6 addresses to
identify intermediate switches, routers, and end points. The packet transfers are
directed through already defined label-switched paths (LSP) in MPLS. The traffic
is distinct, i.e., an identifier or a label is added to the packets to differentiate the
LSPs. This mark is used by label-switched router (LSR) to find out the LSP, and after
that, it recognizes the requisite LSP in its individual advancing table to identify the
Monika (*) · S. Singh

Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India
e-mail: sjsingh@pbi.ac.in
A. Wason
Ambala College of Engineering and Applied Research, Devsthali, Ambala, Haryana, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-06866-9_8
148 Monika et al.
Fig. 8.1 GMPLS packet Label

format
Implicit values Data

defined by the
medium
finest route to move the packet further and gives a mark to subsequent bound
[5, 6]. GMPLS offers improvements to MPLS to maintain system switching for
wavelength, time and fiber switching in conjunction with packet switching. The
strategy accomplishing GMPLS diminishes costs involving bandwidth, switching,
and signaling [7, 8]. There is no need of any switch in GMPLS for reading tag in the
frame of every packet. The switch material intrinsically involves label and switching
procedures depending on wavelength and timeslot represented in GMPLS packet
format in Fig. 8.1.
GMPLS boosts the potential of the entire process by distributing enormous
quantity of parallel associations linking users in a method which is the primary
requirement in optical communication that may involve hundreds of alike routes
between a pair of users.
With the progressive growth, the world is approaching toward 5G revolution that
is not only exemplified by the emergent capacity and development of the system
performance but is also based on large connectivity and associated with diverse
system cooperation capacity and optical networks with a suitable convergence with
next-generation networks. For these situations, the entire network management will
entail various automatic procedures to distribute appropriate resources according to
the requirement of user maintaining high levels of quality of service (QoS), resil-
ience, and quick response times [3]. GMPLS has initiated a rebellion in optical
systems for uninterrupted communication. The continuously increasing demand of
optical communication has significantly increased the problem of interference and
bandwidth scarcity. Many adaptive techniques like design-based routing (DBR) and
resource allocation in flexgrid networks have been implemented to increase the
overall throughput. But these techniques have not reached their full potential, so
these can be extended further to enhance their performance in terms of speed,
capacity, path computation flexibility, security, etc. which in turn enhances the
QoS. The GMPLS protocol, sprouting from MPLS, concentrates on signaling and
routing procedures proposed to computerize the methods involved for the system to
handle itself. GMPLS includes time-division multiplexing (TDM) and wavelength
and spatial switching in addition to packet switching. GMPLS tries to deal with
complications, shorten traffic engineering, and condense network blockages.
GMPLS grants two fundamental purposes: (1) It mechanizes the establishment of
continuous LSP for an array of switching fields (packet, TDM, lambda, fiber).
(2) LSPs are ascertained at operative-described service stages. Thus, traffic
8 Performance Evaluation of Path Computation Algorithms in. . . 149
engineering and path computing capabilities of GMPLS can prove to be a turning

technology in 5G networks with its recognizable capabilities [2].
So far, numerous popular path computation techniques have been put into
practice on cloud computing networks, but they have not been applied on GMPLS
optical networks yet. The path computation algorithms like throttled load balancing
algorithm, WRR algorithm, RR algorithm, randomized algorithm, and max-min
algorithm have been executed on cloud computing as per the literature [9–13]. The
work has been extended by putting WRR, RR, and max-min algorithms in practice
on GMPLS optical networks and acquired excellent consequences with respect to
blocking probability, cost, makespan, and throughput. In our earlier papers, the work
has been done on developing the models for blocking probability [14]. Furthermore,
weighted round-robin algorithm has been implemented on our proposed GMPLS
optical network in our conference paper [15]. This chapter extends the work done in
our conference paper and also incorporates the execution of other algorithms like RR
and max-min algorithm on GMPLS optical system, and then all the implemented
algorithms are compared with one another.
8.2 GMPLS Optical Network
Inside the subsequent fragment, a graph enfolding the complete GMPLS optical
network encompassing assorted consumers sited at their locations is offered. Fur-
thermore, the arrangement of servers is shown in the network.
The GMPLS network together with the customers and the link providers is
plotted in Fig. 8.2. In addition, needs coming up from one consumer to the adjacent
consumers in the network is depicted. The red stars in the arrangement correspond to
the site of request consumers make. The blue squares on the right part correspond to
the site of servers that distribute wavelength and provide association rates to
demanding consumers preserving the routing table and association reliability.
Figure 8.3 exemplifies the server allotment, depending on job carrying-out time
taken by that server to the requesting consumers in optical arrangement. When the
request from consumer occurs for data transmission, the system is investigated in
terms of minimum execution time. Then the server performing the task in minimum
is selected and allotted. The elected server dispenses the bandwidth and association
rates to the consumers, and information starts transferring. The red lines express the
alliance between the consumers and the selected server. This unambiguous outcome
shows that second server takes minimum time and, therefore, is chosen for the link
establishment.
150 Monika et al.
1500
T1
N1
N17
N25
N8
T2
N6
1000
Network Width (m)
N16 N20
N9 T3
N13 N12 N3
N23 T4
N22
N24 N4
N14
N10
500 N18 T5
N19
N15
T6
N11
N5 N7 T7
0
0 500 1000 1500
Network Length (m)
Fig. 8.2 GMPLS optical network indicating generated requests
8.3 Performance Metrics
This investigation of presentation metrics for bandwidth allocation is rooted in

blocking probability, cost, latency, makespan, and energy consumption. The perfor-
mance metrics is conferred as the following:
8.3.1 Blocking Probability
Probability is identified as degree to which an occurrence is expected to happen,

calculated by the proportion of constructive cases to the entire amount of cases
achievable [16]. Blocking probability for cleared calls is given in Eq. 3.1 [17]:
!1
ðλ=μÞM XM
ðλ=μÞm
Bp ¼ ð3:1Þ
M! m¼0
m!
where μ is mean call rate, M indicates the number of channels, m indicates the
number of calls generated in time T, and λ is the wavelength.
1500
T1
N14
N11
N5 T2
1000 N25
Network Width (m)
N10
T3
N12
N2
N15
N18 T4
N20
500 N24 T5
N13 N23 N7
N3 N22 N4
N17 N21
N1 N16
N19 N8
N6 N9
0
0 500 1000 1500
Network Length (m)
Fig. 8.3 GMPLS optical network indicating link establishment
8.3.2 Cost
The network cost is defined as proper utilization of the available resources. The main
parameters affecting the cost in the network are the network capacity and the
transmission speed [18]. If the network capacity increases or the transmission
speed increases in the network, then the network cost will decrease. The cost is
represented in Eq. 3.2:
Cost ¼ TE x min ½E x ðt Þ N ð3:2Þ
where TEx is total energy consumption by the network, Ex(t) is execution time, and
N is total number of nodes.
8.3.3 Makespan
Makespan is employed to approximate the greatest task completion instance of the

network by assessing terminating time of the most recent task, i.e., once all the jobs
152 Monika et al.
get planned. The minimization of makespan for particular network is required to

finish the demand on time [19]. It is represented by Eq. 3.3:
PN P
Nx¼1 C x
x¼1 E x ðt Þ
Makespan ¼ ð3:3Þ
N Rx
where Rx is the number of requests per user.
8.3.4 Energy Consumption
The energy consumption in a system relies on the average rate of power consump-
tion of users during the instance of action [20]. The power used refers to the power
depleted in attaining and processing signals besides transmit and receive power. The
power consumption is represented in Eq. 3.4:
E T ðxÞ Queue size

Energy consumption ¼ ð3:4Þ
N
where is ET(x) is the energy consumed by requesting user.
8.4 Various Path Computation Algorithms Implemented

on Proposed GMPLS Optical Network
The basic difficulty in GMPLS optical systems is the process of routing and
wavelength distribution. It is being confronted to attain a resourceful exploitation
of optical cross connects in optical subsequent invention Internet deploying a
GMPLS-based control plane [21]. In GMPLS optical networks, flexibility for
computing the network route can be further improved to handle dynamic traffic
demands. Different path computation algorithms like restriction-dependent routing
techniques have been discussed for GMPLS optical arrangements which included
route assignment and bandwidth distribution for data flow management as well as
malfunction revival methods [22]. This chapter involves the implementation of
various path computation algorithms on GMPLS optical networks like weighted
round-robin algorithm, round-robin algorithm, and max-min algorithm. The other
path computation algorithms include throttled load balancing algorithm and ran-
domized algorithm. In the throttled load balancing algorithm, the user gives the
requirement of the consignment equalizer to verify the exact virtual engine that
admits particular packets effortlessly and executes the procedures demanded by the
user. The consignment equalizer retains an index table of virtual machines and their
accessibility status. Then the suitable virtual machine is assigned to the user for
performing the required operations [9]. In randomized algorithm, the path is allo-
cated randomly as soon as the user request occurs. This approach allocates the path
quickly but has a limitation of getting slow end-to-end transmission due to the fact
that randomly selected path may not be the shortest one. The literature review shows
that RR, WRR, and max-min perform better than throttled load balancing algorithm
and randomized algorithms [10]. Thus, the performance of RR and max-min is
compared with WRR on the proposed GMPLS optical networks.
8.4.1 Round-Robin Algorithm
The round-robin algorithm commenced from the principle in which every person
obtains the same part of something in rotations. It is the most traditional, easiest
scheduling technique generally employed for multitasking. In this algorithm, every
organized job performs one after another merely in a recurring row for a restricted
time segment. It is the least complicated process for allocating user demands across a
set of servers. The load balancer of round-robin algorithm advances the user demand
to every server in a cyclic manner while moving down the record of servers in the set.
At the conclusion of set, the load equalizer loops back and moves down the set again.
It throws the subsequent demand to initial planned server, the other demand after that
to the succeeding server, and so on. This technique also proposes hunger liberated
implementation of methods. The CPU is reallocated to subsequent procedure once
predetermined period of time is over. This period of time is known as time quantum/
time slice. The anticipated procedure is added to the conclusion of the row [11]. It is
a real instant technique that reacts to the occurrence within a particular time bound. It
contracts with each and every process exclusive of some precedence. The most
terrible case reaction time can be imagined if the entire amount of methods on run
row is well-known. The round-robin method does not rely on burst time so this is
simply executable on the system. Just that once a procedure is performed for a
definite set of time, the method is anticipated, and a new procedure performs for that
specified time episode. The processor output gets condensed with small slicing time
of operating system. The performance of this algorithm profoundly relies on time
quantum [10]. No priorities can be set for the methods. The most difficult task in
round-robin scheduling is finding a correct time quantum.
8.4.2 Max-Min Algorithm
The max-min technique is generally utilized in the atmosphere where jobs are
unscheduled in the beginning. It calculates anticipated implementation matrix and
anticipated finishing time of every job on the accessible resources [12]. Then, the
assignment having greatest anticipated duration on the whole is chosen and allocated
to the resource having least overall implementation time. Lastly, just listed
154 Monika et al.
assignment is detached from the complete set of metatasks, the entire calculated
times are revised, and the process is repeated awaiting set of tasks to be vacant. It
performs better for short-length tasks. This technique selects big assignments first to
perform ahead of completing smaller jobs. Now, assignment with greatest value is
assigned to the server that takes minimum time to execute that task. As the quantity
of time-consuming jobs to be performed becomes greater than less time-consuming
jobs, the algorithm takes highest time to carry out assignments entirely present in set
of metatasks. Therefore, the finishing time becomes utmost in this situation which
makes this algorithm inefficient.
8.4.3 Weighted Round-Robin Algorithm
Weighted round-robin erects on the round-robin load balancing system. In case of

WRR, every objective procedure or server is allocated a weight value rooted in
criterion selected by the proprietor. The generally employed condition is the traffic
handling capability of the server. The weight value for a target operation specifies a
priority for each target operation in a group of target operations. The larger weight
value indicates that the server entertains bigger fraction of user requests. For
illustration, server X is allocated three weights and server Y one weight, and then
the load equalizer sends three requests to server X for every one it drives to server Y
[13]. When the weight is assigned to a target operation, it indicates the capacity of
that target operation in comparison to other target operations within the server group.
The transfer of requests is made in a cyclic way only in such a manner that higher
weighted servers are allocated more number of sessions in every cycle.
8.5 Comparison of Different Algorithms
Inside this segment, all the three algorithms conversed in the above sections are
evaluated with respect to blocking probability, makespan, cost, energy consumption,
and throughput.
Figure 8.4 puts side by side the evaluation of GMPLS optical networks with
respect to traffic load after executing all three various techniques taken into account.
The deviation of blocking probability with escalating traffic load is shown. The
graph exposed that the weighted round-robin algorithm is capable of achieving
lowest blocking probability with escalating traffic load. This occurs because by
employing WRR procedure, additional traffic stack can be involved exclusive of
blocking as the path selected by this algorithm is based on the weights and analyzed
to be the shortest. Thus, the flexibility in selecting the path increases. This leads to
reduction in the data transfer obstacles which in turn lessens the blocking probabil-
ity. The max-min approach gives the maximum blocking probability as it is least
concerned with the computation of shortest path to complete the tasks.
0.04
0.035
BLOCKING PROBABILITY (%)
0.03
MIN-MAX
WRR
0.025 RR
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
LOAD (Erlang)
Fig. 8.4 Blocking probability versus load
The performance of GMPLS optical networks in terms of makespan and simula-

tion time after implementing three different algorithms is compared in Fig. 8.5. The
deviation of makespan with escalating simulation time is shown. The plot illustrates
that the data transmission time from the starting user to the receiving user is very
small even when the simulation time of the entire procedure is large by using WRR
as compared to other algorithms. Thus, WRR is able to achieve lower interruptions
in the path and fast speed. As a result, the stability of the network increases by using
WRR than RR and max-min.
The variation of cost and simulation time after implementing the three different
algorithms is compared for GMPLS optical networks in Fig. 8.6. The network cost is
defined as proper utilization of the available resources. The cost should be as
minimum as possible. The graph shows that the cost is minimum by using WRR
than in cases when RR and max-min are used. This is because by using WRR, the
network speed increases which in turn enhances the capacity of the GMPLS optical
network. The increased network capacity with limited resources leads to decrease in
the network cost. The graph also reveals that max-min gives maximum cost as it
assigns the path that is accessible when the demand from user occurs without
considering the time taken for completing the assignment by that particular server.
This decreases network speed and hence the cost increases in case of max-min.
The variation of energy consumption and simulation time after implementing the
three different algorithms is compared for GMPLS optical networks in Fig. 8.7. The
energy consumption in a network depends on standard pace of power utilization by
users during the instance of procedure. The utilized power refers to the power
156 Monika et al.
× 107
3.5
3
WRR
RR
2.5 MIN-MAX
Makespan (ms)
1.5
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Simulation Time (ms)
Fig. 8.5 Makespan as a function of simulation time
× 108
16
WRR
RR
14 MIN-MAX
12
10
Cost
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Fig. 8.6 Cost as a function of simulation time

35
RR
WRR
MIN-MAX
30
Energy Consumption (mJ)
25
20
15
10
5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Fig. 8.7 Energy consumption as a function of simulation time
depleted during attainment and dispensations of signals along with transmit and
receive power. It should be as small as possible. The graph shows that max-min
consumes maximum energy, while WRR consumes the minimum energy.
The performance of GMPLS optical networks in terms of throughput and simu-
lation time after implementing the three different algorithms is compared in Fig. 8.8.
The variation of throughput with increasing simulation time is plotted. Throughput is
the rate of successful message delivery over a communication channel. It refers to
how much data can be transferred successfully from one location to another in a
given amount of time. The plot reveals that WRR provides maximum throughput as
compared to RR and max-min. This occurs because WRR gives minimum blocking
probability in the system which in turn increases successful traffic handling capacity
of the network, whereas max-min gives maximum blocking probability in the system
resulting to decreased throughput.
8.6 Conclusion
Within this chapter, GMPLS optical network with users having vibrant arrangements
has been anticipated. Subsequently, different path computation algorithms are
applied on the anticipated GMPLS optical network. The assorted algorithms
158 Monika et al.
16000
14000
12000 MIN-MAX
RR
WRR
10000
Throughput
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Fig. 8.8 Throughput as a function of simulation time
employed are round-robin algorithm, weighted round-robin algorithm, and max-min

algorithm. These algorithms are taken because of their recognition and effectiveness
in cloud computing. Every technique is premeditated and evaluated on the antici-
pated GMPLS optical network with respect to diverse parameters like blocking
probability, cost, makespan, energy consumption, and throughput. The conse-
quences disclose that WRR achieves the best outcomes among all the executed
techniques and improves the quality of service in GMPLS optical networks, whereas
max-min gives the worst performance among the three algorithms. The significance
of our work is that the algorithms employed in our work have not been executed on
GMPLS optical networks previously as per the literature. The extension of our work
can be done by investigating other algorithms on GMPLS optical network and
enhancing the QoS of the entire procedure.
Acknowledgments This work was supported by Visvesvaraya PhD Scheme for Electronics and
IT, Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology, Government of India. The unique awardee
number is VISPHD-MEITY-1669.
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performance through policy-based management applied to generalized multi-protocol label
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pp. 739–745
17. S.S. Monika, A. Wason, Reduction of blocking probability in generalized multi-protocol label
switched optical networks. J. Opt. Commun. (2019)
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comparison of heuristic algorithms for task scheduling in IaaS cloud computing environment.
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Adv. Res. Technol. 6, 1–3 (2020)
20. P. Ho, H.T. Mouftah, Path selection with tunnel allocation in the optical Internet based on
generalized MPLS architecture, in IEEE International Conference on Communications, vol.
5, (2002), pp. 2697–2701
21. X. Yang, T. Lehman, C. Tracy, J. Sobieski, S. Gong, P. Torab, B. Jabbari, Policy-based
resource management and service provisioning in GMPLS networks, in 25TH IEEE Interna-
tional Conference on Computer Communications, Barcelona, (2006), pp. 1–12
22. T. Eido, A. Mribah, T. Atmaca, Novel constrained-path computation algorithm for failure
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160 Monika et al.
Monika completed her BTech from Shaheed Bhagat Singh College of Engineering and Technol-
ogy, Ferozepur, Punjab, India in 2008, and ME from Thapar University, Patiala, Punjab, India, in
2010 in electronics and communication engineering. She is pursuing PhD in the Department of
Electronics and Communication Engineering under the guidance of Dr. Simranjit Singh in Punjabi
University, Patiala, Punjab, India. Her work is supported by Visvesvaraya PhD scheme, MeitY,
New Delhi. Her research area is optical networks and communications. She is a lifetime member of
the Indian Microelectronics Society.
of Science and Technology (International Multilateral and Regional Cooperation Division),
Government of India; Visvesvaraya PhD Scheme for Electronics and IT, funded by MeitY,
Government of India (two projects); Raman fellowship funded by the University Grants Commis-
sion (India ); and Host Scientist of C V Raman International Fellowship for African Researchers
2016 of FICCI, Government of India. Dr. Singh currently serves as associate editor of IET
Electronics Letters (SCI journal, Feb. 2021 to till date) and of IET Journal of Engineering (ESCI
journal, Feb. 2021 to till date). Dr. Singh received best paper award for his paper published in Optics
and Laser Technology Journal. He received Host Scientist of C V Raman International Fellowship
for African Researchers 2016 of FICCI, Govt. of India and was selected for Marquis Who’s Who:
2017 Albert Nelson Marquis Lifetime Achievement Award. He was nominated by the Institute of
Optics at the University of Rochester for Steadman Interdisciplinary Award for Postdocs during
Postdoc Appreciation Week from 19. 09. 2016 to 23. 09. 2016. He has supervised about 2 PhD
theses and 19 MTech theses as well as 8 BTech. He is a life member of the Institution of Engineers
(India) and the International Society for Technical Education.
Dr. Amit Wason completed his graduation (BTech) in 2001, post graduated (MTech) in 2005,
doctorate in 2011 from Thapar University, Patiala, in the field of electronics and communication
engineering. Presently, he is working as a professor and principal in Ambala College of Engineering
and Applied Research, Devsthali, Ambala, Haryana, India. He has authored about 100 research
papers in international and national journals and conferences and added one international research
book to his credit which was published in Germany. He is a member of many professional bodies
such as SPIE, UACEE, and ACEEE and a senior member of IACSIT. He is a member of editorial
boards and reviewer committees in many reputed journals. He has guided a number of MTech
theses and is presently guiding PhD theses under different universities. His research area includes
optical networks and wireless networks.
Chapter 9
Radio over Fiber (RoF) for Future
Generation Networks
Baljeet Kaur and Neha Sharma
9.1 Introduction
For the realization of subsequent best and high-performance integrated networks and
broadband distribution networks and in order to fulfill the requirement of all media
services with an assurity of quality of service (QoS), the RoF network emerges as the
main encouraging technology that gets together the volume of networks which is
optical in nature by using mobility and flexibility of wireless networks [1]. Fiber
optic cable working as channel has very less power losses, extremely high band-
width, longer distance, smaller size and weight, low cost, and high degree of signal
security, making it an excellent and more approachable way out for accurately
transmitting the RF waves to distantly located antenna cell areas. RoF explains to
a fiber-optic cable where the amplitude modulation of optical signal is done at RF
which is further delivered to an optical cable toward the other side. At the reception
side, demodulation of radio frequency signal is concluded by demodulator and then
transmitted to the subsequent wireless user. RoF connection comprises of those
equipment that are needed to formulate an RF wave imposed on a carrier signal
which is optical in nature, the optical cable, and the equipment needed to retrieve the
RF wave from the optical carrier. It serves for delivery of the RF wave to the base
station from the central station and vice versa. The essential needs for the structure of
RoF link are both downlink and uplink operations, adequate length, and demands of
only few major performance optical components at CS and BSs and also include
B. Kaur (*)
ECE Department, GNDEC College, Ludhiana, Punjab, India
e-mail: baljeetkaur@gndec.ac.in
N. Sharma
ECE Department, Apeejay Institute of Management and Engineering Technical Campus,
Jalandhar, Punjab, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-06866-9_9
162 B. Kaur and N. Sharma
some mm-wave components only in BSs. The RoF link typically consists of CS,
where majority of the signal processing processes such as routing, switching, MAC,
and proper arrangement of frequencies are being carried out, and the fiber link,
which connects a huge figure of BSs for the distribution of wireless signals. No
processing function is carried out at the BS, the main purpose of BS is to be used for
the conversion of optical signal into wireless signal, and back conversion is also
possible. RoF system possibly brings together the processing functions of RF signal
at single shared place and after that uses the optical link, which gives low attenuation
for distribution of RF waves to the remote antenna units (RAUs) or base stations.
These functional wavelengths offer very low attenuation due to which the data
transmission rate is quite large. In order to modulate the incoming RF signal at
transmission part, direct and external modulation is used. Starting from CS to BS, the
incoming RF signal modulates the optical signal as source gives output a wavelength
whose amplitude varies with the DC biasing current of laser. It distributes the RF
waves to different RAUs. The inclusion of RF signal processing functions makes the
simplified system operation, equipment sharing, dynamic allocation of resources,
and their maintenance [2]. Such an arrangement offers a number of rewards such as
less RF power RAUs, using the same set of frequency, enhanced coverage, high
competence, excellent quality of signal, as well as less reduction in signal power.
RoF network is an excellent approach as it enhances clearness against all the
modulation strategies and is also used for supporting diverse digital formats includ-
ing wireless standards in a price effectual way, e.g., wideband CDMA, IEEE 802.11
WLAN, GSM communications, and personal handy phone system. As mentioned,
these advantages present RoF as an excellent technique intended for several different
radio signal applications mainly in mobile communication schemes [3]. Figure 9.1
illustrates the basic structural design of RoF system. This structural design decreases
the complications at the BSs, plus carriers that are allotted dynamically to the
dissimilar BS into substations.
Central Station Mobile Unit

Base Station
RF
RF Mach-Zehnder Photo Demodulator
Modulator Filter
Data Modulator Diode Data
Laser Diode
Mobile Unit
Base Station
RF
Photo Demodulator
Filter
Diode Data
Fig. 9.1 Building blocks of RoF network

9 Radio over Fiber (RoF) for Future Generation Networks 163
9.2 Parameters for the Performance Measurement
9.2.1 Attenuation
Degradation in strength of signal, i.e., attenuation of optical signal, is important for

the designing of optical communication link. Due to low attenuation in SMF, it
seems to be necessary for RoF; consequently, dispersion in fiber is not much
important for very small frequencies (10 GHz) equal to the range of km. It is a
factor whose value depends on wavelength. Latest fibers give losses as 0.2 dB for
every km at 1550 nm. Total losses in fiber communication involve fiber attenuation,
losses due to the presence of connector, and splicing loss for a point-to-point optical
link can be calculated as:

OL ¼ 2 NLc þ MLsp þ αLf dB ð9:1Þ
Here, NLc explains the loss arises because of connector with N number of
connectors; MLsp is the loss due to splicing with M splices, and α refers to the
fiber attenuation measured in decibel per kilometer. The OL is high every time power
split and expressed as:

OL ¼ 2 NLc þ MLsp þ SLsplit þ αLf dB ð9:2Þ
where S represents the number of splitters each with split loss Lsplit.
9.2.2 Scattering
Stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) is an important nonlinear impairment in

optical communication. If the power available at input is applied to the fiber cable
becomes very close to crucial rate, then it is recognized as the SBS threshold; in both
cases, the quantity of signal power that is scattered backward and produced unnec-
essary noise quickly raises with the power level at input. Thus, SBS put some
restrictions on the huge quantity of signal power that is imposed into the fiber
cable without the degradation of signal quality in any particular optical channel. In
recent times, there are numerous experiments being carried out on PON systems for
the distribution of RF signals that intended applications, like WiMAX, with SBS
which is the foremost restrictive parameter. The SBS in RoF can be eliminated if
right selection of a segmented SMF is being made.
9.2.3 Dispersion
RoF constructs both wireless and wired broadband services are becoming leading
area for analog optical links. With this, the employed group of frequency band is
moved toward the microwave and mm-wave group, and the outputs will distinctly be
degraded by the chromatic distance mainly for increased distance. Chromatic dis-
persion (CD) arises due to fixed spectral line width of the laser. There is approxi-
mately zero dispersion in the low attenuation area at 1330 nm. Dispersion leads to
limiting the bandwidth or information-carrying capacity of a fiber [4]. In optical
source, first-order dispersion results in change of the phase in each sideband. The
phase change relative to the carrier is given as:
φ ¼ 1000πL f Dt ðλÞλ2c f 2RF =c ð9:3Þ
where Lf indicates the fiber link length, λc represents the central wavelength, φ
represents the first-order dispersion, fRF represents the RF frequency, and Dt repre-
sents total dispersion coefficient. To overcome dispersion, smaller core diameter
fiber can be used, but it allows a lesser number of modes. Also, no modal dispersion
is allowed using single-mode fiber. CD compensation format using electro-optic
phase and intensity modulators is well suited for long-reach RoF connections.
Appropriately dealing with the delay in time and power between the two waves
that are modulated, the power fading is the origin of dispersion effectively compen-
sated over a huge functional BW of 0–18 GHz over a 34-km SMF. Fiber cable is
optimized for reduced CD in order to keep the pulse spreading at least amount and
afterward to be deployed in the proposed structure.
9.2.4 Bit Error Rate
The BER is the fraction of bits having errors with the sum of number of total bits
delivered during a studied time span. High strength of signal and robust techniques
in modulation can improve the BER of system. The relation between BER and
Q factor is stated as:
Q2
1 e 2
BER ¼ pffiffiffiffiffi ð9:4Þ
2π Q
BER and Q factor is inversely in relation to each other [5]. Impairments known as
obstruction, transmission noise in channel, degradation in signal power, distortion,
fading because of multipath in wireless, and bit synchronization troubles are the
main reasons for BER. Large strength of signal or a low and robust modulation
scheme helps to improve the BER. Different practices illustrate that the BER of a
MMF is of large value. As the fiber length increases, the broadening of pulse also
increases and thus results in reduction of bit rate. From the comparison of analog and
digital RoF structures, it can be concluded that analog links offers excellent perfor-
mance. BER of digital link is quite less. BER of BPSK is less as compared to QPSK
and 16 QAM in digital link and in analog link. BPSK is less spectrum-efficient even
than it stands out. Robustness to noise of BPSK is greater than 16 QAM, but spectral
efficiency of 16 QAM is preferred for digital link [6]. Digital RoF has better
performance over analog link. The more the modulation of data symbols, the highly
efficient the spectrum will become.
9.2.5 Carrier-to-Noise Ratio (CNR)
In RoF architecture, optical amplifier (OA) and Mach-Zehnder modulator (MZM)

are largely employed for numerous purposes, together with antenna remoting. With
these types of links, noise figure (NF) is improved using fiber amplifier in order to
expand the range and RF gain. Controlling modulator bias in narrowband architec-
ture is employed in order to enhance the dynamic range and CNR. Dynamic range
gets better, as a matter of fact that there is no increase in bias variations and further
not causes the hike in the odd-order nonlinearities, main root cause of affecting
narrowband signals Radio over fiber (RoF)performance measurement CNR Carrier-
to-noise ratio (CNR).
9.3 Wireless Signal Transport Strategies for Fiber Wireless

Links
Millimeter-wave systems seem to have the benefits to take advantage of the high
portion of unused BW in the frequency scale with the natural broad bandwidth of the
fiber. Such heterogeneous structural design provides high rates of data and through-
put with very less delay. The design comprises of a CO which is associated with a
huge number of BSs by the use of an optical network as shown in Fig. 9.3. Various
experiments are conducted out on the expansion and use of mm-wave that are
optically fed wireless technologies with previous efforts that concentrate on fiber
link setups for the distribution of wireless signal [7–10]. In common, there are three
main categories classified for the transportation of the RF signals over the cable,
shown in Fig. 9.2.
Fig. 9.2 Optical transport schemes for RoF signal
9.3.1 RF over Fiber
The effective way of transmitting the mm-waves all the way through an optical
system is to straightforwardly carry the RF waves over fiber by not considering any
need of prerequisite of frequency change at the remote BSs. In this design, the
modulation of wireless signal is done by some external means with optical carrier,
and these result in an optical double sideband (ODSB) wave, shown in Fig. 9.3.
There are two side bands that are positioned at the carrier frequency separately from
the optical carrier wave. It is being noticed at the antenna side, the mm-wave signal
can be recovered using direct detection scheme by using a high-speed Photodiode
(PD). This scheme comes with the benefit of perceiving ultra-uncomplicated antenna
structure with complementary profits, for instance, allowing multi-wireless band
operation, no air interface, as well as central control. However the negative charac-
teristics are the prerequisite for rapid modulation schemes having the skill to produce
mm-wave optical signals that are modulated plus speed photodetection techniques
that openly convert the modulated optical waves back to mm-waves in the RF field.
The outstanding outcome of CD on the spotted wireless signals is a different
foremost aspect. In RoF architecture, the information is passed over RF signal
having frequency larger than 10 GHz. Ahead of sending to optical structure, it is
put on a light wave. Moreover, wireless signals spread at large value of frequencies
to BS optically, and afterward prior to being amplified and distributed by BS, these
are changed from optical to electrical domain at the BS. At antenna side, there is no
need of frequency up conversion and down conversion resulting in uncomplicated
Radio over fiber (RoF)wireless signal transport strategies RF over fiber RF over fiber
rather than inexpensive implementations established at the BSs.
RF
1
E/O
O/ E
N E/O
RF
O
1
D
E O/E RF
λc-λRF λC
SPECTRUM
RF m
RF-OVER
FIBER
λc-λIF λC IF
SPECTRUM
IF-OVER-
FIBER
E/O
O/E
λ
BASEBAND
BASEBAND-OVER-
FIBER SPECTRUM
Fig. 9.3 Transmission of radio wave signals over fiber [13]
9.3.2 IF over Fiber
In alteration of transferring mm-waves over optical cable, signals are downconverted

to a lesser intermediate frequency at the CO prior to the optical transmission as
shown in Fig. 9.3. This basically diminishes the effects of CD on the optical
circulation of IF signals. Moreover, IFoF strategy offers to use electronic and optical
devices that offer low speed. Even if the IF signal transportation system for
mm-wave wireless systems hikes the complication level of the BS hardware, this
needs a steady mm-wave LO and speedy mixers in order to perform conversion of
frequency like processes in the BS. This is the root cause of weakness like when
taking into consideration the capability to get better wireless architecture for the
addition of wireless channels or amendments to the wireless frequency. After that,
the need for mm-wave LO at BS can be defeated by optically sending the LO signal
from the CO. In IFoF architecture, information is carried using RF wave having
frequency under 10 GHz. It is for the modulation of light before transferring to the
fiber link. So, prior to radiating the wave through the air, the signal from IF required
to be converted up to RF at the antenna. IFoF method has exhibited a 2-dB enhanced
sensitivity than RFoF method [2].
9.3.3 Baseband over Fiber
As given in Fig. 9.3, this transportation method helps in delivery of wireless signal
segment as an information signal by making use of cable and converting up the
information to the appropriate RF at the BS. This approach gives the perks via
complete digital and electronic circuits at the antenna for functions like to process
various signals. Fundamentally, it also allows BS to use less-speed optoelectronic
equipment within its circuit. IFoF method helps to diminish the special effects of
CD. Thereafter, the requirement of LO in the BS is conquered by distantly sending
mm-wave LO signal from the CO. This strategy is dependent on the air interface;
according to which, the antenna should be sensible enough to sense the whole
operation of the wireless signals prior to transferring the information signal in
reverse to the CO. Thus, it permits all the supplementary circuitry that is in the
antenna to execute the processes that ultimately increase complexity of the BS. With
the enhancements in CMOS area, high-frequency radio on chip has been established
[11, 12]. Moreover, the materialization of silicon photonic practice can make
possible the upcoming discounted combination of electronic and optoelectronic
equipment to attain a money-spinning Radio over fiber (RoF)wireless signal trans-
port strategies baseband over fiber Baseband over fiber, compressed transceiver
section in the BS.
9.4 Optical Distributing and Generating
Many optical techniques are mandatory for the generation and transportation of radio
signals over fiber. For modulation of the intensity or the amplitude, both direct and
external techniques may be taken into consideration. Very few of these strategies are
explained in less words in this segment.
Bias
Tee
Laser Photodiode
Bias current RFout
Diode
Optical Link
RFin
Fig. 9.4 Basic components of direct modulation by laser [15]
9.4.1 Direct Modulation Technique
Here in this scheme, the power of the laser diode is modulated straightforwardly with
the RF wave, and after that, the photodetector is implanted for direct detection with
the purpose to retrieve the RF signal. This is the easiest and reasonably priced way
for optical distribution of RF signals. This is commonly known as intensity modu-
lation direct detection (IMDD). Before the broadcast, it is important for the RF signal
to be suitably pre-modulated. After transporting using optical fiber cable and direct
detection on a photodetector (PD), photocurrent is the exact duplication of the
modulating RF wave given directly at the input of laser at the head end [14]. Next,
at the remote BS, the photodiode and amplifier transform the acknowledged optical
signal which is optical in nature to RF signal that is going to be distributed by the
BS. Generation of radio signal is dependent on direct intensity modulation method
by light source as shown in Fig. 9.4.
The major benefit of this scheme is that it is uncomplicated, strong, and inexpen-
sive. Majorly, this arrangement behaves like linear system if the dispersion less fiber
is employed commonly with an external modulator. The construction of source
transmitter is easy plus inexpensive, but few constraints in its operation are there
because of laser modulation impairments. For that reason, the negative aspect of the
practice is that the action at large microwave frequencies is forbidden by the
calculative BW of the LD and by the fiber dispersion, which is the root cause of
vanishing of the two sidebands. Such microwave signals can merely be tackled by
complicated large frequency transmitters and receivers of analog type and fiber
dispersion compensation methods [16, 17].
9.4.2 External Modulation Technique
External modulation is the clear-cut way out to conquer the negative aspects of the
direct modulation. An external modulation method is a far better alternative to
produce optical mm-waves with large spectral clarity, beyond all methods. External
modulation is taken into consideration at large RFs (higher than 10 GHz). The
easiest realization contains a CW laser followed by an external modulator that
Fig. 9.5 External Transmitter

modulator using a Mach-
Zehnder modulator [21]
MZM
RF signal
Bias
modulates the light with an IF or an mm-wave tone [17]. Procedure of the laser in
CW method removes the unnecessary chirp of the signals. Three types of the
external modulators are described here:
(i) MZM based on a Mach-Zehnder interferometer
(ii) An electro absorption modulator (EAM) based on the Franz-Keldysh effect
(iii) EAM based on the multiquantum well (MQW) arrangement [18–21]
The Mach-Zehnder (MZ) modulator, shown in Fig. 9.5, has broad application
because it can bear fabrication errors, it can be optimized for low or high frequency,
and when Mach-Zehnder is fabricated on lithium niobate it gives very replicable
performance that can be predicted precisely by an easy trigonometric transfer
function. In contrast with direct modulation, external modulation has advanced
working for wide BW, by using more linearity LiNbO3 external modulator for the
modulation of the signal. On the other hand, the disadvantages are responsible for
structure complication and more pricing.
9.5 Multiplexing Schemes in RoF for Wireless
Diverse multiplexing methods in the era of ROF for wireless communication are
described under this sector.
9.5.1 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
The conception at the back of WDM technology is to merge numerous optical

channels from different sources with many wavelengths to a single fiber by using
multiplexers at the transmission side as well as demultiplexer at reception part to
divide the channels. WDM is flexible and easy to design. It enhances the system’s
capacity when more number of channels are added over a single fiber [22]. WDM
system enhances the capacity that results in increases in data rate, superimposed over
a single fiber using different wavelengths, where a number of channels are passed at
Fig. 9.6 WDM configuration
separate wavelength. In WDM, the entire range of frequencies is spitted into

different wavelength called channels that are dedicatedly used for sending and
getting the information at once [23]. In WDM, each wavelength is conserved as a
discrete channel that carries dissimilar data. A WDM is a passive device in which
different wavelengths carry different data. The role of WDM for RoF data delivery
has owned significance nowadays. The efficient use of BW is done in WDM. The
selection of optical cable and stability of wavelength is the limitation of lasers, plus
the least spacing between channels for commercial WDM, which is just about
50 GHz. The spacing between channels can be made equal to 25 GHz or can be
dropped down to 50 GHz with an opportunity to utilize hundred numbers of
channels [24]. The optical structure of WDM is drawn in Fig. 9.6, which depicts
substitution of the wavelength of frequency, and a separate wavelength λ is delivered
by transmitter to respective receivers [25]. WDM is capable of sending different
frequencies with no interference in radio waves [26]. Two types of WDM schemes
are dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) and coarse wavelength divi-
sion multiplexing (CWDM).
9.5.2 Subcarrier Multiplexing (SCM)
A method in which subcarriers are multiplexed together and optical signal is

modulated using these microwave subcarriers is called SCM. SCM is used in
different areas like for reducing dispersion, for enhancing the well-organized use
of bandwidth of an optical configuration, and for broadband video circulation [27];
study is like taking place in its submission to video distribution in networks [28]. But
the utmost utility of SCM is determined to be in conventional CATV structures and
RoF structures [29]. Combination of data-carrying signals is joined in SCM trans-
mitter. Every data shipping signal is assorted along LO, and basic architecture is
shown in Fig. 9.7. LO frequencies are usually engaged in the array of GHz and are
RF signals RF carriers
BPF
SMF
PD BPF
CW
EO
BPF
Fig. 9.7 Subcarrier multiplexing [34]
identified the same as subcarriers. The SCM is responsive to noise effects that limit
the data rates and utmost subcarrier frequencies. Multiple RF signals in this tech-
nique of RoF system are combined in frequency domain and then delivered through
a single wavelength. However, using SCM and WDM techniques mutually gives
greater flexibility for high-speed optical transmission with dispersion tolerance and
abundant optical bandwidth efficiency [30–33]. Optical subcarrier multiplexing is a
practice wherein RF domain and different signals are multiplexed in the RF field and
then sent through the use of a single wavelength. Thus, microwave equipment are
more reliable in contrast to equipment that are optical, and the analog cable televi-
sion in optic structure is the common appliance of this scheme. Frequency selection
in the microwave filter and constancy is far better in the microwave oscillator in
contrast to all the actions performed in optical domain. Hence, in the RF filed, the
coherent detection becomes less complicated because of RF oscillators with less
phase noise in comparison to the advanced modulation formats that are pertinent
minimally.
9.5.3 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
Taking into account OFDM technique and optical OFDM (OOFDM) technique can
build high seep, large capacity, and least pricing of network, and its channel
capacities are extremely expandable, permitting ease of upgraded or transition
from existing networks. Combination of RoF method [35, 36] with OOFDM reduces
OFDM Transmitter
Add cyclic prefix
Serial to Parallel to
Parallel serial
converter Modulator IFFT converter
Channel
Remove cyclic prefix

Parallel to
Serial to
serial
Parallel
converter Demodulator converter
FFT
OFDM Receiver
Fig. 9.8 OFDM block diagram
multipath fading plus helps the signal to enhance its quality. Furthermore, the
structure can attain large coverage, hike in capacity of channel and delivery rate,
and easier processing of signal by adding BSs. Therefore, OOFDM can be consid-
ered as a particular employed strategy of OFDM-RoF system. In OFDM transmitter,
based upon the input data and required modulation scheme, the OFDM spectrum is
generated. Each produced carrier is assigned some data to be delivered. Different
modulation schemes are available like BPSK, QPSK, QAM, etc. based upon that the
required amplitude and phase of the carrier can be estimated. To convert spectrum
back into time domain, inverse fast Fourier transform is done. Then, a cyclic prefix is
added to remove inter-carrier interference (ICI). In OFDM receiver after parallel-to-
serial converter, data is sent to inverse of IFFT that is FFT transformation format and
then transported to demodulator; here, the RF wave is demodulated and delivered to
customer as shown in Fig. 9.8. Each frequency channel is modulated with a different
digital modulation technique.
Advantages of OFDM are as follows [37, 38]:
• OFDM is spectrally efficient and does not require complicated CD organization
during transmission.
• Orthogonally, carriers are placed to each other; as a result of this, inter-carrier
interference is reduced.
• Each subcarrier frequency is considered to be small and time period is also small.
This results OFDM to get immune to multipath interference.
• It is well-suited with WDM structures. With very less changes in the transmitter
and in the receiver side, the WDM can be upgraded to OOFDM.
OOFDM system has the subsequent weaknesses; some of them are listed below:
• OOFDM system consists of signals of a number of sub-channels that are imposed.
If the phases are made equal of these signals, the transmitted power of
superimposed wave is very high in contrast to their average power, most impor-
tantly with a high peak-to-average power ratio. The more the PAPR likely to be, it
will induce signal distortion and ISI and shrinks the system’s SNR, so the
prerequisite is imposed on linear range of the transmitter.
• OOFDM can successfully resolve CD crisis in broadcast; however, by means of
multiple subcarriers, contracted frequency range, and increased PAPR, the sys-
tem’s operation and working will be drastically exaggerated by nonlinearities of
fiber.
• OOFDM is prone to phase noises, and the noises comprise of optical device’s
phase noise, amplified spontaneous emission noise, and nonlinear phase noise.
Phase noises deteriorate orthogonality among subcarriers and make the system
less efficient.
9.6 Advantages of ROF System
There are many advantages of radio over fiber (RoF) system which are given below:
1. Enormous Bandwidth – Optical cable has limitless bandwidth. The raise in the
amount of data transmitted over the cable is only because of the large carrier
frequency. In general, the optical system runs at a known bit rate of about
10 Gbps. The large optical bandwidth allows signals to be processed at high
speed which is not possible with electronic circuits [39]. Thus, numerous micro-
wave operations such as filtering, upconversion/downconversion, and mixing can
be effortlessly achieved. It is observed that there is more scope of improvement in
the system bandwidth. Further, to enhance the capacity of the system, different
multiplexing techniques that can be added in the OFDM are WDM-OFDM,
OTDM-OFDM, and SCM-OFDM.
2. Less Attenuation – It is renowned with the aim that the signals delivered using
optical cable degrade by a small value than while propagating using another
media, in comparison with wireless channel. By the use of fiber, the signal can
pass through with reduced requirement of repeaters. High losses occur due to
absorption plus reflection in free space and further give rise to high losses
[39]. So, for electrical distribution of higher radio signal frequencies over larger
distances, expensive equipment that are used for regeneration are required. On
every base station, firstly, baseband signals are converted in the needed radio-
wave frequencies, and after that, it is then amplified using amplifier and gets
distributed. Since for upconversion of the signals at every antenna excellent
working and outcomes of local oscillators are mandatory, this increases the
complexity of BS antenna with rigid performance necessities. Though, RoF
technology is majorly used in getting minimal loss distribution of RF signal as

well as oversimplification of BS because optical fiber link offers very small
attenuation loss Radio over fiber (RoF) advantages less attenuation [39, 40].
3. Ease of Installation and Maintenance – By means of RoF techniques, the need of
LO and linked apparatus by the side of RAU can be avoided. In RoF mechanism,
to craft RAUs uncomplicated, the cost-effectiveness is set aside at the head end.
With the CS, electro-optical high-frequency modulators and circuitry must not be
considered because of their high rates and utilization of power. In the same way,
tedious designing of transmission at downlink techniques should not be consid-
ered because of their large production and high costing. Varieties of RAUs are
used to share restrained switching equipment and modulators at head end
[41]. This array comes to less size and lighter in weight RAUs, thus successfully
dropping down the system setting up and maintenance expenses. Ease of
installing and lesser protection cost of BSs are very common requirements of
these systems, as a larger number of BSs are necessary to be used. Maximum
simplicity of the BSs helps in reducing the cost, along with energy consumption,
site leasing, and Maximum simplicity of the BSs helps in the reducing the cost,
along with energy consumption, site leasing, site acquisition and users request
keeps on increasing to avail the services of cellular system and leads RoF systems
to hold up diverse traffic parameters. Therefore, a suitable costing plan must be
preferred that permits service providers to assure the constant QOS provisioning
and concurrently to be reasonably survivable [40, 41].
4. Immunity to Radio Frequency Interference – Shield against interference is a vital
advantage of optical communication systems. This property gives safety and
isolation. An outcome of integrity of data is conserved since eavesdropping is
not possible. This is for the reason that signals are delivered in the form of
photons by making use of fiber.
5. Dynamic Resource Allocation and Operational Flexibility – Dynamic allocation
not permits the permanent competence allocation where traffic increases vary
recurrently, which leads to wastage of resources. Basically, the central end allows
variety of processing functions of signals which is macro-diversity transmission
and various mobility functions [43]. Furthermore, major capacity can be allowed
to an area like malls and after that can be assigned again to further areas (e.g., to
crowded regions in the evening timings) because of off-peak in an RoF distribu-
tion structure for GSM traffic. It is achieved by providing WDM technique
wherever required [42, 43].
6. Low Power Consumption – More complex equipment are placed aside at the CS,
to make lesser use of power. Because of these factors, the BS that is less active in
a certain interval of time can be switched to use in passive mode. It is also because
of the nonlinear effects that occur and also of dispersion in optical fiber. It can be
minimized using many modulation techniques as a solution. Researchers are
trying a variety of modulation schemes which can be capable of lesser nonlinear
effects and many dispersion challenges. RoF is consistent to be an invariable
method for customers that allows better communication without compromising
the quality of communication.
9.7 Applications of ROF System
Because of the good quality of signal provided by RoF system, it has several
applications; some of them are discussed below:
1. Video Distribution Systems (VDSs) – Allowing larger BW in the RoF scheme is a
prominent solution to VDSs. One of the examples of this is the community
antenna television (CATV). This substitution of lower bandwidth coaxial cables
with the optical fiber gives best quality in the services with respect to a number of
end users. Considering an example of coaxial cable in which bandwidth cannot be
exceeded up to 1GHz and moreover this range is more in the case of optical fiber.
2. Satellite Control – At Earth station, RoF is used to deliver RF waves in the
L-band, between a centralized station and a satellite antenna. By sending the
signals in this way, it eliminates the need of high-frequency apparatus and of
pricey coaxial cables. RoF is considered where distance starts from 50 m.
3. Broadband Wireless Indoor and Outdoor Communications – Indoor communi-
cations such mobile communication deal with microwave frequencies and large
radio frequencies in range of gigahertz, and in the upcoming era of 5G, that can be
barely transmitted all the way through electrical cables. This technology becomes
significant for forthcoming systems where large data rates are required, while the
functional range (cell size) is very less, with the intention that many BS are
required.
4. Vehicle Communication – There are basic ideas for upcoming road-to-vehicle
communications that are conventional mobile phone systems possibly not appro-
priate. It might be possible to use a majority number of antenna units beside the
roads, which would most likely to be linked with microwave over fiber.
5. Non-telecom Applications – RF and microwave over fiber are applicable not only
to communication signals but also to various RF or microwave, e.g., shipping
data of GPS or data collected by sensors or signals used for assured techniques,
for instance, particle accelerators.
9.8 Major Issues
For the designing of an RoF system, the following issues can be faced:
1. Restricted Power Budget – Even though the fiber is having larger bandwidth, still
the optical cable with the modulator can tolerate fixed ratio of RF power due to
many logics. Because the length of the fiber keeps increasing, the RF signal gets
attenuated. Therefore, RF power received at the RAP is in limited amount.
Amplification at the RAP has helped only to a limited value; therefore, the size
of the cell will be restricted which depends upon the fiber length and on the
bandwidth of RF signal. These and several different structural parameters are
interrelated.
2. Cumulating Noise – The peak of the noise powers, primarily the quantum noise,
relative intensity noise, and thermal noise, is supplementary with the RF signal
using optical link. At the air interface, various interferences with channel noises
are introduced. Due to the analog creation of the system, optical and wireless
channels are mixed with the noise powers which will cumulate, and, in the end,
result comes out to be poor SNR. These noise powers also depict appealing
habituation on numerous factors, as the RF signal BW, cell size, and optical fiber
length.
3. Distortion in RoF Link – Optical modulators, including direct and external, come
under nonlinear devices. Nonlinear effect plays a main role in RoF structures, as
they belong to analog and signal strength varies rapidly. The RoF link is present
with time-varying factors of dispersive wireless channels resulting in the deteri-
oration of quality of signal. This is a major problem of design engineer dealing
with distortion compensation technique of a concatenated RoF channel, which is
obviously a tedious task.
9.9 Research Demonstration on Radio over Fiber
Naser et al. (2011): In this paper, latest RoF technologies are being shown, and these
new technologies permit to deliver different RoF signals by means of fiber cable.
There are many advantages of optical cable, such as lightweight, small size, work
as low loss medium, larger BW, money-making, flexible, and easy to maintain.
RoF is used with WDM in collaboration with multiple bit rates with the assistance
of soliton. The designed work is planned by using multichannels DWDM and
four link space division multiplexing [44].
Beena R. Ballal and Dr. Shikha Nema (2012): In this paper, different methods for the
modulation techniques are examined for analog RoF and digital RoF link. In
terms of BER, the excellent performance is shown by digital RoF. With and
without the use of fiber cable had also been examined [45].
Baljeet Kaur et al. (2013): In this paper, “RoF technique for WDM-EPON network
is structured using OptiSystem simulation tool to make ONU support both wired
and wireless services as shown in Fig. 9.9. 15-GHz RF signals are modulated
using MZM with two carrier frequencies at 193.1 and 193.2 THz as shown in
Fig. 9.10. A square root (SQRT) transfer function module (SRm) is proposed, and
it is placed after PIN photodiode, balancing the square law specifications of
photodiode for enhancing the overall working of linear equalizers shown in
Fig. 9.11 [46].
Radio frequencies are delivered in both downstream and upstream routes. Eye
diagrams are shown at ONUs and OLT side for 20 km of optical range. In this
designing square root module is placed at receiver side, which enhances the perfor-
mance of WDM-EPON with RoF link. Outcomes are analyzed for different optical
fiber lengths at ONU side, displayed in Fig. 9.12 for 193.1-THz frequency at Rx1
with and without SRm. Q factor is enhanced with SRm at receiver side.
OSA
OSA
ONU BER
OPM OPM 3R
ONU BER
Subsystem ONU
O 3R BER
ONU
WDM 3R BER
MUX
SPLITTER
ONU
OPM 3R BER
ONU
3R BER
OSA
ONU
3R
BER
ONU
3R BER
OTDV
FILTER DEMOD 3R BER

MATLA
B
3R BER
RF SPECTRUM OSCILLOSC
ANALYSER OPE
VISUALIZER
Fig. 9.9 SQRT MATLAB component used in EPON modeling
AM Modulator RF Spectrum
PRBS NRZ
Analyzer
MZM
cw
AM Modulator RF Spectrum
PRBS NRZ
Analyzer
MZM
cw
Fig. 9.10 RF modulation (configuration inside transmitter subsystem)
Results are analyzed for different I/P powers of both transmitters independently.
Q factor for different I/P powers of Tx1 is shown in Fig. 9.13 with and without SRm.
Power variation is done within the range of 40 dBm to 20 dBm with and without
the use of SRm. With the use of SRm, the system is showing enhanced performance
with high value of Q factor for the same input power level. In terms of Q factor, with
Fig. 9.11 Configuration inside ONUs with MATLAB component
11
8
Max. Q Factor
With SRm
Without SRm
2
16 17 18 19 20
Length (km)
Fig. 9.12 Diagram of Q factor vs. optical wavelength
the use of SRm, the improvement is seen twice as compared to without SRm
(Fig. 9.14).
The system enhancement performance is measured in terms of BER, Q factor, and
eye opening and reported four times greater over the distance of 20 km. Therefore,
the noticeable amount of rise in the signal power is observed [47].
Xavier Fernando (2014): In this paper, RoF-based wireless communication system
is briefly discussed. Further, the terminology is named as fiber wireless (Fi-Wi)
systems. Fi-Wi is the latest area that offers abundant BW along with flexibility
16
With SRm
14 Without SRm
12
10
Q Factor
0
–40 –30 –20 –10 0 10 20
Input Power(dBm)
Fig. 9.13 I/P power vs. Q factor at receiver 1 with and without SRm
20
18
With SRm
16 Without SRm
14
12
Q Factor
10
8
6
4
2
0
–25 –20 –15 –10 –5 0 5 10 15 20 25
Input Power(dBm)
Fig. 9.14 I/P power vs. Q factor at receiver 2 with and without SRm
and capability to connect numerous users. In such schemes, the delivery of RoF
signals via fiber is a vital job [48].
Antony (2015): This paper depicts a general awareness to many approaches or
technologies used for ROF. These ROF methods are candidate technology for
future 5G wireless networking systems. This shows a brief description about
various terms which are connected to ROF. The architecture of ROF is described
by the author along with various techniques of ROF which are quite
advantageous for enhancing the overall appearance of ROF network. The inten-
tion of this work is to lessen the installation cost of the wireless system [49].
Arya Mohan and Anisha A. P. (2016) accomplished the RoF communication in full
duplex mode by means of OADM and WDM. WDM helps to increase the
capacity and data rates by employing SMF. Downlink and uplink transmission
of data is possible because of OADM via SMF. The operation and working of
RoF scheme use NRZ, RZ and PSK, ASK, FSK, and QAM.
Lisawati Sainawi and Khadijah Ismail (2017) proposed WDM as a solution to
low-quality RoF signal. The necessities of wireless services are increasing grad-
ually because of the hike in the usage of mobile phones and Internet services. So
as to fulfill the rising needs of users, numerous BS and a lot of capital are
required. RoF is the way out to this problem. At receiver, low-quality RoF signal
is received, so to resolve this problem, WDM method is used [50].
Hilal Ahmad Sheikh and Anurag Sharma (2018) demonstrated an RoF method based
on PON in which two different phase shifts are used along with OSSB by MZM.
Two dissimilar angles of hybrid coupler are used in the scheming of PON. The
RF signals are made to pass through two different angles, that is, 90 and 120 ,
for the generation of two OSSB signals [51].
Hussein Ahmed Mahmood and Riyadh Khlf Ahmed (2019) demonstrated an RoF for
100 km of fiber at 1 GBPS rate analyzed. In this DPSK, modulation technique is
used. Different measuring parameters are taken to analyze the performance of
designed system. “Using DCF with FBG scheme enhanced the outputs in contrast
to other schemes. The dispersion value of FBG is kept at 600 ps/nm” [52].
Cunha et al. (2020) proposed and demonstrated the utilization of a multiwavelength
transmitter for 5G new radio (NR) RoF structure, concurrently working on the
standalone and non-standalone mode. “New incorporated photonic circuitry used
lasers that tunable and directly modulated that reduces transmitter complications,
compact, excellent working and economical 5G way outs for frequencies above
10 GHz” [53].
9.10 Need and Benefit of 5G with Radio over Fiber
As optical communication currently cross a capacity crisis, the continual increase of

smart gadgets that are wireless and connected content-rich applications, along with
the appearance of the IoT, is situated to stimulate the constant hike in mobile data
traffic, which confines 4G will be reached early. The number of coupled devices is
predicted to reach 50 billion according to the 5G Vision White Paper of Samsung
[54]. The growing needs for 5G in comparison to 4G and 3G are based on speed of
data, proper consumption of spectrum, mobility, latency, MIMO, small cells, and
mm-wave spectrum utilization (30 GHz to 30 GHz) [55]. Wide communication is
done indoor, where coverage of macro cells is not good. This is a misuse of power,
and it restricts the overall radio network capacity with redundant data retransmission
which overburdens the network. Small cells for indoor coverage, the way to connect
them will be a major issue in the coming days. RFoF and IFoF are the two diverse
transmission techniques that are well-suited with the latest services and play a vital
task in designing networks such as 5G which is a next-generation integrated optical
wireless n/ws and Satcom n/ws to advance their physical scope, using a microelec-
tronic layout over nanometric techniques [54, 56]. 5G networks can offer transfer of
wireless data more rapidly and efficiently, while fiber-optic networks at present used
to connect wireless devices to the internet cannot smoothly sustain the enlarged load.
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Dr. Baljeet Kaur received her Bachelor of Engineering (BE) and Master of Engineering (ME) in
electronics and communication engineering in 2001 and 2004, respectively, and PhD degree from
the National Institute of Technology (NIT) Hamirpur, India, in 2014. Dr. Kaur has been working as
an assistant professor at Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana, Punjab, since 2006 and
serves as an academic in charge, examination coordinator, NSS member, board of studies (BOS)
member with the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, and board of studies
(BOS) member of PTU Kapurthala, Jalandhar. She is a life member of the Indian Society for
Technical Education (ISTE) and holds a membership of the Institution of Engineers IE (I). She is
author of 17 papers in international journals, and 35 papers in international and national confer-
ences. Her area of interest includes optical and wireless communication.
Er. Neha Sharma received her Bachelor of Engineering (BE) and Master of Engineering (ME) in
electronics and communication engineering in 2018 and 2021, respectively. Currently she is
working as an assistant professor at Apeejay Institute of Management and Engineering Technical
Campus, Jalandhar and serves as an NSS member, active member of Result Analysis committee.
Her area of interest includes optical communication.
Index
A Bit error rate (BER), 76, 77, 79, 81, 82, 84–87,
Access network technologies 89, 103, 104, 110, 113, 121, 128,
AON, 4 164, 165, 177
cable modem, 3 beamwidth, 84
copper base, 3 dual polarization system, 113
optical fiber, 3 and EVM (%) vs. laser linewidth, 113, 119
transmission medium, 3 and EVM (%) vs. received optical power,
wireless access networks, 3 113, 118
Active antenna units (AAU), 2 power, 85
Active optical networks, 4 ranges for channels, 82, 83
Adaptive equalizer (AE), 104 vs. received power at RN1 for downstream
Advanced LTE (LTE-A), 98 transmission, 131, 132
Air/free-space channel, 103, 105 vs. received power at RN5 for downstream
Airborne data, 76 transmission, 132
Amplitude-shift keying (ASK), 81 vs. received power at RN8 for downstream
Analog radio over fiber (ARoF), 14 transmission, 132, 133
AR (augmented reality)-VR (virtual reality) in star topology
applications, 99 eighth wavelength for downstream, 137
Array waveguide grating (AWG), 6, 128–131, eighth wavelength for upstream,
133, 136, 138 135, 140
Artificial intelligence, 99 fifth wavelength for downstream, 136
Attenuation of optical signal, 163 fifth wavelength for upstream, 135, 139
Avalanche photodiode (APD), 14, 128, 132, first wavelength for downstream,
134, 135, 138 134, 135
first wavelength for upstream, 135, 138
in tree topology
B eighth wavelength for downstream,
Backhaul/fronthaul network, 103 137, 142
Balanced photodetectors eighth wavelength for upstream,
(BDs), 108 137, 143
Baseband over fiber, 168 fifth wavelength for downstream,
Base stations, 162 137, 141
Beamforming, concept of, 93 fifth wavelength for upstream, 143
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to 185
Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-06866-9
186 Index
Bit error rate (BER) (cont.) component, 105

first wavelength for downstream, CPE, 104
136, 137, 141 DC blocking, 104, 109
first wavelength for upstream, 142 digital domain, 103
X-polarization channel, 117 and digital modulation techniques, 104
Y-polarization channel, 117 DP-16-QAM-based FSO link, 113, 114
Blocking probability, 149, 150, 154, 155, FOE, 104
157, 158 internal architecture, 109
Broadband distribution networks, 161 LPF, 104
Broadband wireless indoor and outdoor normalization, 104, 109
communications, 176 original transmitted symbols, 110
Bus topology PDM, 104
80-Gbps NG-PON2, 129–132 QI compensation, 104
resampling, 104
timing recovery, 104
C Direct detection, 82
Carrier phase estimation (CPE), 104 Directive gain (DG), 43, 94–96, 100
Carrier-to-noise ratio (CNR), 165 Direct modulation technique, 169
Cellular networks, 49 Diversity performance, 94, 95, 100
Channel capacity loss (CCL), 94, 95, 97, 100 DP-16-QAM-based FSO link using DSP,
Channels, 171 113, 114
Chromatic dispersion (CD), 164 DP-16-QAM transmitter, 112, 114
Cisco Annual Internet, 51 Dual-band 5G MIMO antenna, 91
Cloud computing networks, 149 Dual-band antenna, 93
Coarse wavelength division multiplexing Dual-band millimeter-based patch
(CWDM), 13, 171 antenna, 44
Code-division multiple access (CDMA), 98 Dual-band MIMO antenna, 92
Coherent detection, 103–105, 109, 114, 121 Dual-mode 5G MIMO antenna, 92
Community antenna television (CATV), 176 Dual phase-shift keying
Constant modulus algorithm (CMA), 104 (DPSK) signal, 128
Constellation diagram, 103
Continuous wave (CW) laser, 105
CPRI protocol, 1 E
Cumulating noise, 177 80-Gbps TWDM-Based NG-PON2
Cutting-edge trial frameworks, 75 TOADM, 128
with bus topology, 129–132
with star topology, 133–135
D with tree topology, 135–137, 140
Data center interconnection (DCI) Electrical constellation visualizer, 110
and photonics, 103 Electrical duobinary modulation (EDM), 128
Data flow management, 152 Electrical visualizer component, 110
Data rate growth, 127 Electro absorption modulator (EAM), 170
Demultiplexer, 61 Energy consumption, 152, 157
Dense wavelength division multiplexing Envelope connection coefficient
(DWDM), 171 (ECC), 40, 94–96, 100
Design-based routing (DBR), 148 Environmental conditions, 86
Dielectric resonator antennas (DRAs), 91 EPON modeling, 178
Different modulation schemes, 173 Error vector magnitude (EVM), 104,
Differential phase estimation, 104 113, 118–121
Digital data, 81 vs. OSNR, 113, 119, 120
Digital modulation techniques, 80 root-mean-square (RMS) value, 121
Digital signal processing (DSP) Evolved packet core (EPC), 1
AE, 104 External modulation technique, 58, 169, 170
CMA, 104 Eye diagram analyzer, 110
coherent detection, 104 Eye patterns, 87, 88
Index 187
F light-emitting diodes, 76
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) M-ary modulation techniques, 79
regulations, 80 OFDM-based free-space radio optics, 77
FH network, 50 open-air ecological conditions, 77
Fiber Bragg grating (FBGs), 128 open-air photonics, 76
Fiber-optic cable, 76 operating wavelengths, 77
Fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) technology, 127 optical fiber construction cost, 77
Fifth generation (5G), 49, 103 optical wireless communication, 75
PON technologies, 50 packet size, 76
6G, 49, 50 phase distortions, 76
transport network, 49 power, 76
First-generation (1G) services, 14 principles, 75
5G MIMO QAM-OFDM (see QAM-OFDM)
benefits, 99 receiver, 79
challenges, 99 RF wavelength, 77
deployment, 91 security, 78
DRAs, 91 throughput, 78
dual-band, 91 transmitter and receiver, 79
dual-band MIMO antenna, 92 utilization, 76
dual-mode antenna, 92 wireless networks eliminates, 76
graphene-based 5G antenna, 92 wireless optics, 76
LTE-A, 91 Free-space photonics (FSP), 76
mmWave applications, 91 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), 98
5G networks, 1, 12, 13 Frequency offset estimation (FOE), 104
5G technology, 31 Fronthaul interface, 1
application of, 98
5G tower, 24, 25
block diagram, 18 G
signal, 17 Generalized multiprotocol label-switched
simulation setup, 17 (GMPLS) optical networks
Foggy weather condition, 87 arrangement of servers, 149, 150
Forward error correction (FEC), 128 blocking probability, 150, 154, 155
Fourier transform methods, 80 cost, 151, 154–156
Franz-Keldysh effect, 170 customers and link providers, 149
Free-space optics (FSO) DBR, 148
atmospheric impact, 86 energy consumption, 152, 154, 155, 157
backhaul networks, 77 link establishment, 149, 151
benefits, 79 LSPs, 148
calibration, 78 makespan, 151, 152, 154–156
communication, 77, 79, 80, 104 max-min algorithm, 153, 154
comparative analysis of RF, 78 network management, 148
cutting-edge trial frameworks, 75 in optical communication, 148
data rate (10 Gbps), 76 packet format, 148
dependability, 77 protocol, 148
development, 77 QoS, 148
ease of deployment, 78 quick response times, 148
environmental turbulence, 77 randomized algorithm, 153
free-space medium, 79 resilience, 148
Gbps, 75 restriction-dependent routing
laser, 79 techniques, 152
laser diodes, 76 routing and wavelength distribution, 152
license-free operation, 78 RR algorithm, 153
license-free transmission, 78 simulation time, 155
188 Index
Generalized multiprotocol label-switched M

(GMPLS) optical networks (cont.) Mach-Zehnder interferometer, 170
spatial switching, 148 Mach-Zehnder modulator
TDM, 148 (MZM), 107, 165, 170
throughput, 157, 158 Malfunction revival methods, 152
wavelength, time and fiber switching, 148 M-ary modulation techniques, 79
WRR, 149, 154, 155, 157 M-ary QAM, 80
Gigabit PON (GPON), 9, 51 MATLAB component, 179
Graphene-based 5G antenna, 92 Max-min algorithm, 149, 153–155, 158
M-ay signaling
FSO (see Free-space optics (FSO))
H Millimeter wave, 55, 57
Heterodyne modulation technique, 58 communication systems, 55
Homodyne detection-based 16-QAM LOS and NLOS, 55
receiver, 108 MMWoF approach, 55
Hybrid topology, 128 spectrum band, 55
Millimeter-wave antenna
performance, 35, 36
I Millimeter-wave modulation, 59
IF over fiber, 167, 168 Millimeter-wave systems, 165
In-phase component, 81 MIMO patch antenna
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), 3 advantages, 39, 44
Inter-carrier interference (ICI), 173 directivity and gain, 40
Intensity modulation direct detection diversity, 43
(IMDD), 122, 169 ECC, 40
International Mobile Telecommunications element, 40
(IMT), 31 Mitigation, 76
Internet, 78 MMWave spectrum, 63, 66
Internet of Things (IoT), 98, 103 Mobile network generations, 53
Internet protocol (IP) packets, 147 Modulation techniques, 57, 59
Inverse fast Fourier transform, 173 direct, 57
I/P power vs. Q factor, 178–180 external, 58
IR transmission, 79 heterodyne modulation technique, 58
up-and down-conversion modulation
technique, 58
L M-QAM, 81
Label-switched paths (LSP), 147 Multichannels DWDM, 177
Label-switched router (LSR), 147 Multicore fiber, 66
Laser, 79 Multilevel phase shifts, 81
Laser diode, 76, 169 Multimedia messaging service
Laser linewidth, 104 (MMS), 98
Last mile access, 103 Multiple input-multiple output (MIMO)
License-free bandwidth, 103 communication, 104
License-free transmission, 78 5G (see 5G MIMO)
Light-emitting diodes, 76 deployment, 99
Load equilibrium, 147 Multiplexing techniques, 59
Local oscillator (LO), 105 Multiprotocol label switching
Long-reach PON, 57 (MPLS), 147
Long-term evolution (LTE), 91, 98 in LSP, 147
Long-term evolution advanced (LTE-A), 91 ipv4/ipv6, 147
Low-cost WDM-RoF system, 13 QoS assurance, 147
Low-pass filter (LPF), 104 Multiquantum well (MQW)
Low-power utilization, 103 arrangement, 170
Index 189
N OptiSystem-MATLAB co-simulation, 104

Network management, 148 Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
Next-generation passive optical network stage (OFDM), 172–174
2 (NG-PON2), 19, 24 Fourier transform methods, 80
80-Gbps TWDM (see 80-Gbps high-speed data, 80
TWDM-Based NG-PON2) optical transmission, 80
broadcast network, 127 QAM-OFDM (see QAM-OFDM)
Nodes, 147 subcarrier frequencies, 81
Noise figure (NF), 165 transmission system for FSO, 82
Non-telecom applications, 176 OSA spectrum
Normalized least means square estimator, 104 DP-16-QAM signal, 110, 111
O P
Obstruction, 164 Packet size, 76
OFDM-based free-space radio optics, 77 Parallel-to-serial (P/S) converter, 105
OFDM-RoF system, 173 Passive optical network (PON), 4, 59
One-way broadcast systems, 3 advantages, 4
Open-air ecological conditions, 77 broadband, 7
Open-air photonics, 76 components, 4
Operating wavelengths, 77 data rates, 6
Optical amplifier (OA), 165 EPON, 52
Optical cable, 161 evolution, 7
Optical carrier signal, 108 FTTx, 127
Optical circulators (OCs), 128 GPON, 53
Optical distribution network (ODN), 16 integration of 5G, 15
in PON access network, 127 mobile statistical report, 51
Optical double sideband (ODSB), 166, 167 NGPON2, 14, 53, 54
Optical DP-16-QAM receiver, 108–109 ONUs and ONTs, 51
homodyne receiver structure, 105 passive device, 5
Optical DP-16-QAM transmitter, 105–108 performance, 51
Optical DP-QPSK transmitter, 106 standard, 6
Optical fiber construction cost, 77 technologies and techniques, 70
Optical line terminal (OLT), 4, 129 TWDM (see Time and wavelength division
Optical network terminals (ONT), 51 passive optical network
Optical network unit (ONU), 5, 16, 127 (TWDM-PON))
Optical OFDM (OOFDM), 172, 174 TWDM-PON, 54
Optical power consumption, 57 WDM, 15
Optical signal information, 81 XG-PON, 53
Optical signal-to-noise ratio (OSNR), 103, 104, Passive optical networks, 2, 4
113, 119, 120 Patch antenna
Optical spectrum analyzer (OSA), 60, 110 actual length, 33
Optical subcarrier multiplexing, 172 overview, 34
Optical time domain visualizer performance, 33
(OTDV), 110, 112 rectangular, 33
Optical transmission, 50 transmission line model, 33
Optical transport network (OTN), 2 Path computation
Optical transport technologies, 11 advancement, 147
Optical visualizer component, 110 on cloud computing networks, 149
Optical wireless communication, 75 GMPLS (see Generalized multiprotocol
Optimized patch antenna, 36 label-switched (GMPLS) optical
OptiSystem photonic software, 104 networks)
OptiSystem V.16 photonic software, 110 max-min algorithm, 149
190 Index
Path computation (cont.) RAUs, 162

randomized algorithm, 149 spectrum, 75–78, 81, 89
RR algorithm, 149 technology, 103
throttled load balancing algorithm, 149 transmitting, 161
WRR algorithm, 149 wavelength, 77
Phase distortions, 76 Radio over fiber (RoF), 56
Phase-shift keying (PSK), 81 advantages
Photocurrent, 169 dynamic resource allocation and
Photodetector (PD), 169 operational flexibility, 175
Photonics, 103 ease of installation
Photonics-assisted RF amplification and maintenance, 175
(PAA), 12 enormous bandwidth, 174
PIN photodiode, 128 immunity to radio frequency
Polarization beam combiner (PBC), 105 interference, 175
Polarization beam splitter (PBS), 105 less attenuation, 174
Polarization division multiplexing low power consumption, 175
(PDM), 104, 121 applications
PON-based technologies, 70 broadband wireless indoor and outdoor
Power consumption, 152 communications, 176
Pseudo-random generator, 82 non-telecom applications, 176
PSO optimization algorithm, 35 satellite control, 176
VDSs, 176
vehicle communication, 176
Q architecture, 165
QAM-FSO link, 113 block diagram, 56
QAM-OFDM BSs, 162
BER efficiency, 79 concept, 56
data rate, 79 CS, 162
FSO link, 82 cumulating noise, 177
16-channel 256 QAM-OFDM system, distortion in RoF Link, 177
86–87 fiber-optic cable, 161
Q factor, 164, 178 5G new radio (NR), 181
beamwidth, 84, 87 full duplex mode, 181
power, 85 OFDM, 172–174
ranges for channels, 82, 83 optical distributing and generating
Q factor vs. optical wavelength, 179 direct modulation technique, 169
Q-factor vs transmitted power, 19, 22 external modulation technique, 169, 170
Quadrature amplitude modulation performance measurement
(QAM), 70, 81 attenuation, 163
decoders decrypt, 105 BER, 164, 165
encodes data, 103 CNR, 165
M-ary QAM transceiver system, 104 dispersion, 164
Quadrature imbalance (QI) compensation, 104 scattering, 163
Quadrature-phase component, 81 PON, 181
Quality of service research, 177–181
(QoS), 147, 148, 158 restricted power budget, 176
Quick response times, 148 SCM, 171, 172
structural design, 162
structure, 161
R WDM, 170, 171
Radio frequency (RF) WDM-EPON, 177
demodulation, 161 wireless communication, 170, 179
distribution, 162, 163 wireless signal transport strategies
optical carrier, 161 baseband over fiber, 168
processing functions, 162 IF over fiber, 167, 168
Index 191
millimeter-wave systems, 165 Time-division multiple access (TDMA), 9, 98

optical transport schemes, 165, 166 Time-division multiplexing (TDM), 148
RF over fiber, 166 Time quantum/time slice, 153
Randomized algorithm, 149, 153 Timing recovery, 104
Receiver sensitivity, 113 Total active reflection coefficient
Remote antenna units (RAUs), 162 (TARC), 94–96, 100
Remote node (RN), 128–131 Traffic engineering, 147
Resampling, 104 Transceiver model
Resilience, 148 design parameters and corresponding
Restriction-dependent routing values, 110, 111
techniques, 152 OptiSystem V.16 photonic software, 110
RF modulation, 178 Transmission channels, 63
RF over fiber, 166 Transmission techniques, 66
RF spectrum Tree-based optical add/drop multiplexer
DP-16-QAM signal, 110, 111 (TOADM), 128
RF spectrum analyzer, 110 Tree topology
Round-robin (RR) algorithm, 80-Gbps NG-PON2, 135–137, 140
149, 153, 155, 158
Routing information transfer, 147
U
Ultrahigh speed optical wireless
S communication systems, 103
Satellite control, 176 Up-and down-conversion modulation
Scattering, 163 technique, 58
Short message services (SMS), 98 Upstream signal, 26
Signal processing processes, 162
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), 76, 77, 81
Simulation setup, 60 V
Single-drive mach-zhender modulator, 60 Vehicle communication, 176
Single-element antenna, 93 Video communications, 76
Single-element dual-band antenna, 93 Video distribution systems (VDSs), 176
Single-mode fiber Viterbi-Viterbi (VV) estimators, 104
(SMF), 129, 164 Voice, 76
Single radiating antenna, 94
Smart cities
conception, 103 W
Spatial switching, 148 Wavelength, 148
Spatial variety methods, 77 Wavelength division multiplexer
Speed becomes slow, 147 (WDM), 15, 170, 171, 181
SQRT MATLAB component, 178 WDM-PON architecture, 10
Star topology Weighted round-robin (WRR) algorithm, 149,
80-Gbps NG-PON2, 133–135 154, 155, 157, 158
Stimulated Brillouin scattering Wireless access networks, 3
(SBS), 163 Wireless local area network (WLAN), 103
Subcarrier multiplexing (SCM), 171, 172 Wireless mobile communication, 14
Wireless network, 78
Wireless optics, 76
T Worldwide interoperability for microwave
TDM-PON architecture, 10 access (WiMAX), 98
Telecommunication standards, 53
Throttled load balancing algorithm, 149
Time and wavelength division multiplexed Z
passive optical network Zero dispersion, 164
(TWDM-PON), 13

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Simranjit Singh

Mohammad Tariqul Islam R.S. Kaler

ISBN 978-3-031-06865-2 ISBN 978-3-031-06866-9 (eBook)

TDM-PON, WDM-PON, OFDM-PON and TWDM-PON available to boost up the

Patiala, India Simranjit Singh

1 Coexistence of Next-Generation Passive Optical Network

8 Performance Evaluation of Path Computation Algorithms

Rubina Dutta Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology,

Neha Sharma ECE Department, Apeejay Institute of Management and Engineer-

Simranjit Singh is an assistant professor in the Depart-

International Fellowship for African Researchers 2016

Associate Editor of IET Electronics Letters, Associate

Gurpreet Kaur obtained her bachelor’s degree in ECE

R.S. Kaler is a senior professor in the Department of

sensors, free space optics, and communication systems.

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineer-

Mohammad Tariqul Islam (Senior Member, IEEE) is

in ICT niche by UKM, in different years. Dr. Islam was

Rajandeep Singh, Ritika Mahajan, and Ramandeep Kaur

1.1 Evolution from 4G to 5G

R. Singh (*) · R. Mahajan

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 1

Fig. 1.1 Evolution from 4G

1.2 Access Network Technologies

1.2.1 Copper-Based Access Networks

1.2.2 Cable Modem-Based Access Networks

1.2.3 Wireless Networks

In wireless access networks, the transmission medium is wireless. Wireless access

1.2.4 Optical Fiber Access Networks

1.2.5 Active Optical Networks (AON)

1.2.6 Passive Optical Networks

A passive optical network (PON) is a point-to-multipoint optical communication

1.3 Advantages of PON

1. Fiber utilization: Efﬁcient use of ﬁber resources.

1.4 PON Components

1.4.1 Optical Line Terminal (OLT)

1.4.2 Optical Network Unit (ONU)

1.4.3 Optical Splitter

It is a passive device in the PON and acts as a power divider. It is a bidirectional

Fig. 1.2 Passive splitter

1.4.4 Arrayed Waveguide Grating (AWG)

1.5 PON Standards

Fig. 1.3 Schematic diagram of AWG

Fig. 1.4 Optical access networks services

Fig. 1.5 Evolution of PON [6]

Fig. 1.6 BPON schematic diagram

Fig. 1.7 GPON architecture

1.6 NGPON2 Technology Options

The transmission medium in PON needs to be synchronized to avoid collisions as it

Fig. 1.8 TDM-PON architecture

Fig. 1.9 WDM-PON architecture

TWDM-PON is time wavelength division multiplexing. TWDM-PON is a combi-

1.7 Literature Review

To build a cost-effective 5G fronthaul network, different authors discussed various

Table 1.1 Optical transport technologies proposed for FH networks [13]

1.8 Design and Performance Investigation of a PON-Based

1.8.1 System Architecture for Integration of PON and 5G

Central Ofﬁce Architecture

Fig. 1.10 Simulation setup of central ofﬁce