Unit II

Atmosphere Zones:
1. Troposphere (Tropos Meaning Turning)
• Troposphere is the region nearest to the earth’s surface
and extends up to an altitude of 11 km.
• It is the most important zone for organisms and is
composed of O2, N2, CO2, H2O and particulate matter.
• Temperature ranges from 14°C to -56°C in troposphere.
The top of troposphere is called tropopause.
• The change of temperature with height is known as lapse
rate.
• The decrease of temperature with increasing altitude in
the troposphere is called positive lapse rate.
• The transition from positive lapse rate to negative lapse
rate at the tropopause marks the temperature inversion.
2. Stratosphere:
• The region above the tropopause is known as
stratosphere (11 km to 50 km with temperature
range from -56°C to -2°C).
• In this zone, the temperature-altitude curve
shows a warming trend with increasing altitude,
i.e., it exhibits a negative lapse rate.
• Ozone in stratosphere acts as a protective shield
for life on earth from injurious effects of sun’s
ultraviolet rays.
• The region above the stratosphere (>50 km) is
called stratopause. Because of the absorption
of ultraviolet radiation, stratosphere is heated
up and this causes temperature inversion
which limits vertical mixing of pollutants.
• This is the reason why smog is seen to hang in
industrialized areas.
• The smog spreads horizontally very fast but
very slowly vertically.
• 3. Mesosphere:
• Mesosphere is the region above stratopause
that extends from 50 km to 85 km.
• In this zone, temperature again decreases (from
-2°C to -92°C) with height, that is, it exhibits a
positive lapse rate.
• Important components are O2 and NO 2+. The
region above the mesosphere is called
mesopause.
4. Thermosphere and Ionosphere :
• Thermosphere is the region (85 km to 500 km,
temperature ranges from -92°C to 1200°C) above
mesopause, where temperature rises rapidly with
increasing altitude, exhibiting a negative lapse rate.
• This temperature increase is caused by the absorption of
energetic ultraviolet and X-Ray radiation from the sun.
• The gases present in this region (O2 and NO) absorb
solar radiation and undergo ionisation.
• The region above the stratosphere, in the altitude range
of 50 km to 100 km, is called ionosphere. In this region,
O2+, O+, NO+ and electrons exist at significant levels.
• Atmosphere above the ionosphere is called exosphere or
outer space. It extends up to 32190 km from the earth’s
surface. It lacks atmosphere and consists of only H and
He.
5. Anthrosphere:
• The region above about 500 km is called the
exosphere. It contains mainly oxygen and
hydrogen atoms, but there are so few of them
that they rarely collide
 AIR POLLUTION
• Atmospheric condition in which presence of
certain substances in such concentrations
produce undesirable effects on man and
environment
• They may be gases or particulate matter
• SOXs, NOXs, CO, hydrocarbons etc are some of
the gases
• Smoke, dust, fumes and aerosols are some of
the particulate matter
• Their presence in an amount greater than their
natural percentage is considered to be causing
air pollution
Composition of clean, dry air
 Meteorology
• Meteorology is the science of the atmosphere.
• The atmosphere is the media into which all air
pollutants are emitted.
• Atmospheric processes such as the movement
of air (wind) and the exchange of heat
(convection and radiation for example) dictate
the fate of pollutants as they go through the
stages of transport, dispersion, transformation
and removal.
• Air pollution meteorology is the study of how
these atmospheric processes affect the fate of
air pollutants.
• Knowledge of air pollution meteorology is used
to manage and control the release of pollutants
into the ambient air.
• Managing the release of air pollutants helps
ensure that ambient pollutant concentrations
comply with national ambient air quality
standards.
• Knowledge of air pollution meteorology is
essential in order to understand the fate and
transport of air pollutants.
 Primary and Secondary
Pollutants
• Pollutants can be classified as primary or
secondary.
• Primary pollutants are substances that are directly
emitted into the atmosphere from sources.
• The main Primary pollutants known to cause harm
in high enough concentrations are the following:
1) Carbon compounds, such as CO, CO2, CH4,
and VOCs
2) Nitrogen compounds, such as NO and NH3
3) Sulphur compounds, such as H2S and SO2
4) Halogen compounds, such as chlorides,
fluorides, and bromides
 5) Particulate Matter (PM or “aerosols”), either in
solid or liquid form, categorized based on the
aerodynamic diameter
a) Particles less than 100 microns, which are also called
“inhalable” since they can easily enter the nose and
mouth.
b) Particles less than 10 microns (PM10, often labelled
“fine” in Europe). These particles are also called
“thoracic” since they can penetrate deep in the
respiratory system.
c) Particles less than 4 microns. These particles are often
called “respirable” because they are small enough to pass
completely through the respiratory system and enter the
bloodstream.
d) Particles less than 2.5 microns (PM2.5, labelled
“fine” in the US).
• Secondary pollutants are not directly emitted from
sources, but instead form in the atmosphere from
primary pollutants (also called “precursors”).
• The main secondary pollutants known to cause
harm in high enough concentrations are the
following:
1. NO2 and HNO3 formed from NO
2. Ozone (O3) formed from photochemical
reactions of nitrogen oxides and VOCs
3. Sulphuric acid droplets formed from SO2 and
nitric acid droplets formed from NO2
 4. Sulphates and nitrates aerosols (e.g., ammonium
(bi)sulphate and ammonium nitrate) formed from reactions
of sulphuric acid droplets and nitric acid droplets with NH3,
respectively
5. Organic aerosols formed from VOCs (Volatile
organic compound) in gas-to particle reactions

• Petroleum products are responsible for a new type of

“smog”, a photochemical summertime smog composed
of secondary pollutants
• Photochemical smog was first recognized in the city of
Los Angeles in 1940s.
• The smog was identified as the product of photochemical
reactions involving “precursors (nitrogen oxides and VOC)
and sunlight, with the production of ozone and other
secondary chemicals.
• While nitrogen oxides are emitted by a wide
variety of sources; automobiles mostly emit
VOCs, even though contributions can be found
from vegetation and common human activities,
such as bakeries
• Some secondary pollutants – sulphates, nitrates,
and organic particles – can be transported over
large distances, such as hundreds and even
thousands of miles
• Wet and dry deposition of these pollutants
contributes to the “acid deposition” problem
(often called “acid rain”), with possible damage
to soils, vegetation, and susceptible lakes.
Effect of CO
Effect of Lead
Effect of PM
Atmospheric temperature gradient
• The temperature gradient is a dimensional
quantity expressed in units of degrees (on a
particular temperature scale) per unit length.
• The SI unit is kelvin per meter (K/m).
Temperature gradients in the atmosphere are
important in the atmospheric sciences
(meteorology, climatology and related fields).
 Lapse Rate
• Important characteristic of atmosphere is
ability to resist vertical motion: stability
• Affects ability to disperse pollutants
• When small volume of air is displaced upward
– Encounters lower pressure
– Expands to lower temperature
– Assume no heat transfers to surrounding
atmosphere
– Called adiabatic expansion
adiabatic cooling of air parcel when it
rises
adiabatic cooling of air parcel when it
rises
adiabatic cooling of air parcel when it
rises
adiabatic cooling of air parcel when it
rises
• Since the temperature is a function of the
internal energy, when the internal energy
decreases, then the temperature decreases.
• Thus, the rising parcel expands and cools.
• This process is called adiabatic cooling.
 Lapse Rate
• The actual temperature profile of the ambient
air shows the environmental lapse rate.
Sometimes called the prevailing or atmospheric
lapse rate, it is the result of complex
interactions of meteorological factors, and is
usually considered to be a decrease in
temperature with height
• Ability to resist vertical motion: stability
• Comparison of Γ to actual environment lapse
rate indicates stability of atmosphere
• Degree of stability is a measure of the ability of
the atmosphere to disperse pollutants
Mixing Heights- Different types of
Plume behaviour
Mixing Heights- Different types of
Plume behaviour
Mixing Heights- Different types of
Plume behaviour
Sub adiabatic Condition-limited
vertical mixing
Mixing Heights- Different types of
Plume behaviour
Inversion condition- negative env. Lapse
rate- spread only in horizontal- extremly
stable condition
Mixing Heights- Different types of
Plume behaviour
Strong super adiabatic lapse rate above
the surface inversion
Ideal case of dispersion
Mixing Heights- Different types of
Plume behaviour
When inversion layer occurs at a short distance
above the top of stack and super adiabatic condition
prevail below the stack
Bad case
Mixing Heights- Different types of
Plume behaviour
Inversion layer exist above the emission source as well as
below the source
 Impact of Atmospheric pressure on
Dispersion od Air Pollutants
• Subsidence inversion- formation of high
pressure system over an system, if continues
for several days, could build up serious air
pollution problems due to formation of
inversion conditions.
• Hence, high pressure systems (anticyclones),
which are accompanied by clear skies, light
winds, and atmospheric stability , may prove
to be bad for dispersion of pollutants
 Impact of Atmospheric pressure on
Dispersion od Air Pollutants
• On the other hand, low pressure systems
(cyclones-low pressure at centre, surrounded by
high pressure at outside) which are associated
with highly unstable atmospheric conditions,
generally lead to good mixing and rapid
dispersion of pollutants.
• Hence, such cyclonic atmospheric conditions,
which are usually accompanied by rains and
storms, prove to be better for dispersion of
pollutants.
 Impact of moisture and precipitation
on dispersion of air pollutants
• Water vapours- block and obstruct the solar
radiation to reach out the surface and also
radiation reflected by surface
• Leads to the formation of fogs and increases the
corrosive action of air pollutants
• Excessive moisture- rain- wash down the air
pollutants to the earth-to be ultimately drained out
with rain-run off
• Removal of SO2 through rain- H2SO4 acid rain- pH
of rivers or streams increases- influences the algae
development and plants life of water bodies
 Air pollution control mechanism
• Natural self- Cleansing properties of the
Environment:
– Dispersion
– Gravitational setting with or without flocculation of
particles
– Absorption including washout and scavenging
– Rainout and
– adsorption