Effect on Length: The Case of Young’s Modulus and Hooke’s Law

• when a load is exerted on a wire, tensile stresses are applied to the ends of a wire, it undergoes
an extension, and this produces a tensile strain.
• The force is directly proportional to the extension produced if the proportionality limit is not
exceeded.
• This is called Hooke’s law.

𝐹∝𝑥
𝑭 = 𝒌𝒙

Where 𝐹 is the load, 𝑥 is the extension produced and 𝑘 is Hooke’s constant which is also called the
spring constant.

This relationship can be expressed on a force – extension graph:

• This relationship is true up to the limit of proportionality.

• This is the point at which the extension of the wire or spring is no longer proportional to the
load.
• Beyond this point, a small force will produce a very large extension.
• This occurs up to the elastic limit. This is the point beyond which a material will undergo
permanent deformation.
• If a material is extended to the elastic limit it will retain its shape when unloaded.
• If this limit is exceeded it is deformed permanently (plastic deformation).

Effect on Shape: The Shear Stress

When the shape of a body is changed by the action of a force, the force is said to be a shear (twist) force
Effect on Size: The Bulk Stress
The volume (size) of a body can be changed by the action of a force.

When a force changes the volume of a body, it is called a bulk stress:

• So far, the action of a force has been limited to linear (translational) motion or change in a
physical property (length, size and shape).
• A resultant force (or pair of forces) can also cause rotational motion.
• This leads us to two very important and practical effects: the moment of a force and torque of a
couple.
Moment of a Force
• This is the turning effect of a force.
• The moment of a force is defined by the equation

𝐌𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 = 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 × 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐩𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐩𝐢𝐯𝐨𝐭

• If there is a resultant moment, the system undergoes rotational motion, that is, it turns about
the pivot (Fig. 3.8).

• We encounter this effect on many occasions in our everyday lives; opening a door, rocking a
chair and pushing a wheel barrow.
• Our bodies are machines that use this effect as well; the hinge joints at the elbow and knee and
the socket joints of the shoulder, pelvis and ankle all act as pivots.
• When there is no resultant moment that acts on a system, we say it is in equilibrium.

Principle of Moments
For an object in equilibrium:

the sum of the clockwise moments about any point equals the sum of the anti-clockwise moments
about that point.

𝐬𝐮𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐤𝐰𝐢𝐬𝐞 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 = 𝐬𝐮𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐤𝐰𝐢𝐬𝐞 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬

Torque of a Couple

A couple is a pair of equal forces acting in opposite directions that are separated by a fixed distance.

• They cause rotational motion about the centre of the distance between them.
• This is called the torque of the couple.
• Torque – the turning effect of a couple.
• It is defined by the equation:

𝐓𝐨𝐫𝐪𝐮𝐞 = 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 × 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐩𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐛𝐞𝐭𝐰𝐞𝐞𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐬

• This effect is of great importance in the motor and mechanics fields because it effective shows
the power of an engine.

Equilibrium

For a body or system to be in equilibrium (or balance) there are three conditions that must be achieved:

1. Resultant force in any plane must be equal to zero

2. Resultant moment or torque in any plane must be equal to zero