THEORIES OF FORGETTING

❖ An Introduction to Forgetting

Forgetting refers to the inability to retrieve information that has already been stored in our
memory system. Forgetting is a natural phenomenon and can occur due to a variety of reasons.
A number of theories have been proposed by different researchers and psychologists to explain
why forgetting occurs. Some suggest that forgetting occurs due to weakening of connections
between neurons, while others suggest that forgetting occurs due to competition between
various information stored in the memory system, some say that it happens due to the absence
of appropriate retrieval cues at the time of recall, while some others state that it happens due to
the displacement of information because of the limitations of short term memory, or maybe due
to disruptions during the process of consolidation.
Since time immemorial, a lot of research and experiments have been carried out to understand
the nature of forgetting and the intricate processes involved in it. The first systematic study to
understand the nature of forgetting was done by Hermann Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist,
around the year 1885, which led to the development of ‘the forgetting curve’. Hermann
Ebbinghaus conducted experiments on himself, memorizing nonsense syllables and then
measuring his ability to recall them over time. He found that forgetting follows a logarithmic
curve, in which there is a sharp decline in memory at the initial stage, and thereafter, the decline
is very gradual.
Moreover, the famous case study of patient Henry Molaison (popularly known as H.M.)
conducted by Brenda Milner around the year 1955 shed light on the role of the hippocampus
in memory and forgetting. H.M. experienced anterograde amnesia after surgical removal of
parts of his hippocampus (due to epilepsy), demonstrating the crucial role of this brain region
in forming new memories and in the process of memory consolidation. It also highlighted how
disruptions in the process of memory consolidation lead to forgetting as the patient H.M. had
his short term memory intact but couldn’t form new long term memories due to the removal of
certain parts of his hippocampus.
Another classic study was conducted by Loftus and Palmer in 1974 to explore the impact of
leading questions on eyewitness testimony. Participants who were asked how fast cars
“smashed” into each other reported higher speed estimates as compared to those who were
asked about cars “hitting” each other. This phenomenon, known as misinformation effect,
exemplifies how external factors can contribute to distortions in memory and can lead to
forgetting.
Additionally, the concept of motivated forgetting, introduced by Freud, includes repression as
a coping mechanism where distressing memories are pushed into the unconscious. Although
controversial, this idea has influenced a lot of discussions on the selective nature of forgetting.
In this way, different researchers and psychologists have made various attempts to provide
explanations for the processes underlying forgetting. However, due to the difference in the
nature of their experiments conducted and variance in their results, they couldn’t arrive at a
common ground and hence, there is not one exact reason or theory that explains forgetting and
so, its nature and causes still remain debatable. This implies that forgetting is a very complex
phenomenon and there are multiple factors and causes that contribute to it which are now tried
to be summarised under five main theories, popularly termed as the ‘Theories of Forgetting’.

❖ Theories of Forgetting
There are five major theories that explain why forgetting occurs. These theories are:

1) Trace Decay Theory

2) Theory of Interference
3) Theory of Retrieval Failure
4) Displacement Theory
5) Consolidation Theory
These theories are explained below in brief:

1) Trace Decay Theory:

• Trace Decay, also known as the Disuse Theory, is one of the earliest theories of forgetting
which was proposed by Edward Thorndike in 1914.
• According to this theory, memories lead to formation of traces in the brain, which are also
known as ‘memory traces’.
• If the information learnt is not rehearsed, these traces fade away, which leads to forgetting.
• This theory was criticised on the grounds that if memory traces fade away or decay due to
disuse, then people who go to sleep after memorizing should forget more as compared to
people who stay awake after memorizing, because there is no way in which memory traces
can be put to use during sleep. But research shows exactly the opposite. People who stay
awake after memorizing tend to forget more than those who sleep after memorizing.
• Another viewpoint about this theory is that memory remains intact because of the
illumination of neurons during rehearsal of information. If the information is not rehearsed,
the connection between neurons will weaken as a result of which illumination will not take
place. This ultimately leads to forgetting.
• This theory emphasizes on the importance of time since learning – the longer the time since
learning, the greater will be the amount of forgetting.

2) Theory of Interference:

• The Interference Theory of Forgetting was first studied by John A. Bergstrom in 1892.
• The Theory of Interference states that forgetting occurs because of competition between
various information stored in the memory system.
• This interference can be of two types – proactive interference and retroactive interference.
• ‘Proactive interference’ occurs when previously learnt information interferes with the recall
of newly learnt information. It is also known as ‘forward-moving interference’.
 Difficulty in remembering a friend’s new phone number after having learnt and dialled the
previous phone number for years, would be an example of proactive interference.
• ‘Retroactive interference’ occurs when newly learnt information interferes with the recall
of information learnt earlier. It is also known as ‘backward-moving interference’.
Difficulty in remembering the English equivalents of French words while one is newly
learning French, would be an example of retroactive interference.
• Retroactive interference is generally the most common type of interference.
• Interference can occur in both long term and short term memory systems.

3) Theory of Retrieval Failure:

• The Theory of Retrieval Failure was proposed by Tulving and his associates in 1974.
• This theory states that forgetting occurs because of the absence of cues that were used at
the time of encoding the information.
• This implies that the memory may still exist, but only becomes inaccessible due to the lack
of appropriate cues or absence of cues during recall.
• ‘Tip of the tongue phenomenon’ is an example of retrieval failure, where the information
is still in memory, but we are unable to access it at the moment.
• This theory is also known as ‘cue-dependent forgetting’, as forgetting depends on the
absence or inappropriateness of cues.
• As for example, the word VIBGYOR – acts as a retrieval cue for remembering all the seven
colours of the rainbow. If we forget the word VIBGYOR, we may find it difficult to recall
the names of some of the seven colours, even though the memory of them is still intact in
the memory system.

4) Displacement Theory:

• The Displacement Theory of Forgetting was proposed by George Miller around 1956 when
he published his paper on workings of Short term memory and its capacity of magic number
7±2.
• The Displacement Theory explains how forgetting works in Short term memory (STM) and
supported the idea of Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Stage Model of Memory (McLeod, 2023).
• According to this theory, forgetting occurs when new information pushes out and replaces
the old information in Short term memory.
• It occurs due to the limited capacity of Short term memory, i.e., when STM’s capacity is
full, it displaces older information to let new information enter the system.
• Competition between resources in Short term memory may cause some information to be
lost which ultimately leads to their forgetting.
• Serial Position Effect (the tendency to remember the names of items that occur at the
extremes of a list than in the middle) is one of the best examples of Displacement. Other
examples included in this criteria are – recency effect (tendency to remember those items
that occur at the end of a list) and primacy effect (tendency to remember those items that
occur at the beginning of a list).
5) Consolidation Theory:

• The Consolidation Theory of Forgetting was forwarded by Muller and Pilzecker in 1900.
• This theory is based on the physiological aspects of forgetting.
• According to this theory, forgetting occurs during the process of memory consolidation,
where new memories are stabilized and sent into long term storage.
• This theory emphasizes the importance of sleep and time in strengthening memories.
• Disruptions during consolidation (due to factors like lack of sleep, stress, brain injury, etc.)
leads to forgetting.
• This theory of forgetting also emphasizes the role of hippocampus and other brain regions
in the organization and formation of long term memories.

❖ Motivated Forgetting
Apart from the major theories of forgetting, there is another concept called ‘Motivated
Forgetting’ – which is a theorized psychological behaviour in which people may forget
unwanted memories, either consciously or unconsciously (Vashisht, 2020). It is an example of
defence mechanism, as it helps in reducing the anxiety and stress related to memories that are
now dismissed into the unconscious. Motivated forgetting is of two types – repression and
suppression.

1) Repression:

• Repression is the process of unconsciously dismissing distressing memories out of

conscious awareness.
• These memories are buried in the unconscious in such a way that even the person
himself/herself cannot recall these memories.
• This phenomenon is based on Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory.
• Repressed memories do affect behavior, dreams, decision-making, etc.

2) Suppression:

• Suppression is the process of actively pushing the distressing memories out of conscious
awareness.
• Suppression is a time-consuming and difficult task.
• Memories forgotten through suppression can easily resurface with minimal prompting.
• The individual actively chooses not to think about the memories by thinking about
something else, which leads to suppression of the memories.

In conclusion, we can say that the diverse theories of forgetting shed light on the intricate
workings of memory and the processes and factors that contribute to forgetting. From decay
and interference to retrieval failure and motivated forgetting, each theory offers a unique
perspective on the dynamic processes that shape our ability to remember and forget. While the
precise mechanisms may vary, what remains clear is that forgetting is not a simple lapse in
memory but a nuanced interplay of cognitive, emotional, and situational factors. Thus, to
understand the nature of forgetting, the understanding of all these theories is equally important.
 REFERENCES

▪ McLeod, S. (2023). Theories of Forgetting in Psychology. Retrieved December 10, 2023

from –
https://www.simplypsychology.org/forgetting.html

▪ Unacademy (2023). Theories of Forgetting. Retrieved December 10, 2023 from –

https://unacademy.com/content/upsc/study-material/psychology/theories-of-forgetting/

▪ Vashisht, I. (2020). Forgetting. Retrieved December 10, 2023 from –

https://www.slideshare.net/IshitaVashisht3/forgetting-229025717

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