Use nn Umer ke OR Tambo MST ACADEMY GRADE 12 TOPICS: Electrodynamics, Photoelectric Effect, Electrochemical Cells June 2018Contents 1. RECTRODYNAINCS nent ELECTRICAL MACHINES (GENERATORS, MOTORS)... [ATERNATING CURRENT. PRACTICE PROBLEMS. satnty2 2. PHOTORECTRICEFECT... Whats Photoelectric fect? Photons electing electrons LAWS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION, Weave theory X Particle nn fsrew's EQUATION. USES OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFEC. GALVANIC CELLPHYSICS 2, ELECTRODYNAMICS ELECTRICAL MACHINES (GENERATORS, MOTORS) Electrodyramics Is the study of the relationships between electricity, magnetism end tmechanical phenomena. This lesson focuses on two electromechanical systems ~ generators and motors “The base principles of operation fora mator and a generator are the some, except that ‘© motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy and a generator converts ‘mechanical energy into electrical energy, Bath motors and generators can be explained in terms of a coll that rotetes ina magnetic field. A generator produces electricity by rotating the coil in a magnetic field. Motors use the magnetic turing effect a @ col to. create motion Inside anelectric motor, attracting ond reeling Forces between magnets create rotational motion, oth motors and generators operate onthe principle of Fleming's Motor Rule ' Both types operate through the interaction between a magnetic field nd a set of windings (coils) + Acurrent-carrying conductor has a magnetic field induced around i. ‘+ A mognetic field con cause an electric current ie @ changing magnetic field can induce an emf, resulting inthe flow of current. uch a current i called an induced current. ‘+The strength ofthe induced current increases when: > The speed of movement of mognet relative tothe eilincreases > Magnetic fl linkage is increased (ea stronger magnet) > Thenumber of tums increases, ‘Transformers play en important role inthe transmission of electricity. Power plants are often situated some distance from urban areas. This meant that electricity must be ‘transmitted overlong distances, Whenever a current pass through a wire, the resistance of the wire causes energy loss ‘due to heat. This energy cost can be minimised by having low resistonce wires. This leads 10.0 conflict between instalation costs and running costs. The conflict is soled by the use of transformersGenerators, which convert mechanical energy into electrical energy, workon the principle of magnetic induction which is Fareda/s Law of Electromagnetic induction Faraday’ Law of Electromagnete induction an emf is induced ino conductor when there 's « chonge in the surrounding magnetic field, The magnitude of the induced emf is lirectly proportional tothe rate of change of magnetic flux. [AC generators “The principle of rotating a conductor ine magnetic field is used in electrical generators. ‘A generator converts mecharid energy int electrical energy. rth pole magnet ‘SeSouth Pole magnet ip rng commutators carbon brushes“The cll is connected to slip ring commutators. The commutators make contact with the carbon brushes, which ensures that the current can flow. As the eal rotates in the magnetic Feld, it experiences an induced emf. According to Fleming Right Hand Rule, an induced current wll now flow, The direction of the current changes with every half turn (of the col, This gives rige to alternating current. 1c generarors A simple D& generator is constructed in the same way as an AC generator except that ‘the slip ring commutator is now replaced by a split ring commutator. The split ring commutator current to flow in one di Motors ‘Motors work onthe principle of Fleming's Left Hand Matar Rule and DC Motors convert clectrical exergy into mechanical energy. ‘The split rng commutator serves as a change sutch that reverses the current after every half reveltion ‘The brushes maintain electrical contact between the battery and the turning commutator ‘The curent inthe coil flows through the magnetic field inthe opposite direction ‘The il will therefore turn clackwise utilit i vertical In the vertical position, the gaps between the commutator segments are bridged by the brushes ond the current is therefore shoct-ciruiting for a moment ‘through the commutator, ard no current flows inthe coll ‘The nomentum of the coll carties it past this position, ‘As son as the coll passes the vertical position, each one of the brushes makes contect with the other commutator segment, ‘The rection of the current inthe coll is therefore reversed and call continues ‘turning, ‘After every half revolution the current through the cal is reversed and in this wey the cll continues turing clockwise, age |SAC Motors ‘An AC Motor is very similar to ¢ DC Mator, except that the split rng commutator is replaced by ali ring commutator and the current is row an alternating current and rot adirect current Uses of AC generators Ta generate electricity o power stations Provision of electricity to equipment at construction sites Provision of electricity to businesses ond industries Bicycle dynamo Uses DC generators + Factories that do electroplating require huge amount of direct current. + Tnolder vehicles DC generetors are used to charge batteries to supply the vehicle ith electricity Uses of motors Hairdryers, washing machines, household electrical equipment ete. ALTERNATING CURRENT ‘An alternating current is a current thot Keeps changing direction backwards ond forwards ina repetitive manner, The electricity supplied by Eskom is alternating current, it changes direction Sotimes per secand ie it hes a frequency of SOH2Tt is important that the Frequency is meintained to avoid damage to electrical equipment, “Atternating current, rather than direct current is used beeause electricity needs to be distributed through the country at a higher voltage to reduce unecessary losses in power cables. This i in order tobe able to increase the voltage from the power stations ‘ond to reduce it again before it reaches hame. ‘Transformers must be used to step the voltage down in order to reduce the heating effect, Transformers make use ofthe concept ef mutual induction ond this ean only work on alternating current. It ie also easier to generate alternating current thohdirect current, An AC generator generates alternating current, or AC. One of the main edvantages of AC\s thatthe voltage can be changed up or down using transformers. This ‘means that the voltage canbe stepped up at power stations toa very high voltage 20 that electrical energy can be transmitted over great distances along power lines at low Page 16‘current, This prevents undue heating inthe power ines and results in alow energy loss. ‘The vltage con then be stepped down for use in buildings, streetlights, etc. using a step- down sransformer. No ‘Split ing commutatorsDCedlrect currentzeurrent in one direction Slip rng cammutsoreACclternating curventscurrent changing direction every 160 degres, The actual effect of the eltematng current ees than the maxim value, 39 we werkwith values that represent the equivalent direct current values also veltoge and power, Root mean squrelabrevited RMS or rs) algo krown asthe quadratic mean, is 4 statstical measure of the magnitude of varying quotity. The name cames from the foct tat is the square ret of the mean of the squares ofthe vlues, The following formuibe are used Tone!" ond Vrms *RS! ‘The average power inn AC circuit ie ven by Paverage = Virmelrms = 1/2imax¥max for purely resistive circuit PRACTICE PROBLEMS 1. The simplified sketch below shows the principle of opertionof the altemating current (4) generator. (©) Name the parts labelled A and 8 respectively age 17In which direction does segment PQ ofthe col hve tobe roteted inorder to couse the current direction as shown in the diagram? Write. down only clockwise or anticlockwise \Write down TWO changes that con be brought about to improve the output of the generator. What chenges must be made Yo the AC ger direct-current (OC) motor? ‘The induced emf versus tine graph for an AC generator is shown below. ‘Sketch a graph to show how the above waveform changes, if at all after changing ‘this generator into a DC generator, ‘State TWO advantages of using AC over DC for the long-distance transmission of ‘electrical power.Activity 2 Asinplified diagram of «DC generator ond a graph of is output potential difference fer one cycle is shown below. _s| q 1 Write down ONE way in which the output of this generator con be increased. A specific change is made to the structure of the DC generator h QUESTION 1. The ‘cutput potential difference obtoned as aresut of this change is shown below, H 5 3 i i 2 Write down the change that was made tothe DC generator 3 Copy groph Pinto your ANSWER BOOK. (On the same set of axes, sketch the graph of the output potential difference that willbe obtained when the new generator is rotated at ‘TWICE its orginal speed. Label this groph as Q.4 A certain generator operates at maximum vetage of 340 V. A 120 W epplioncs cometted tothe generator. Caleulate the resistance ofthe appliance.Activity 3 A certain generator operates ata maximum voltage of 340 V.A 120 W appliance is ‘comected tothe generator, Coleulate the resistance ofthe appliance, ‘4100 W light bub is comected to this generator and it glows at its maximum brightness, Use the information fram the graph to ealulate the: 31 Resistance of the bul, 32 rms-current through the bulb 3.3 Give ONE reason why AC voltage is preferred to DC voltage for everyday use.3, PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT What is Photoelectric effect? + Unpack the key words Photo means light, electric for electrons and effect - means'process! Photoelectric effect is the phenomencn that when light shines on a metal surface, ‘electrons are emitted from the surface. “There must be minimum frequency (threshold frequency - fe) for the light to eject or emit an electron from a certoin material and this depends on the material Effect canbe stopped if an opposing potential is aplied Photons ejecting electrons eo eo ectonsemitedLAWS OF FHOTOELECTREC EMISSION ‘+ For a given metal and the frequency of incident radiation, the rate at which ‘hotoclestrons are ejected is directly proportional tothe intensity of the light. For a given metal, there exists a certain minimum frequency of incident eedation below which no photoelectrons can be emitted. This frequency i called threshold frequeey (60, ‘Above the threshld frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons is independent of the intensity ofthe incident light but depends on ‘the frequency ofthe incident ight. ‘The time ag between incidence of radiation andthe emission ofa photonis very small (10° 5).In other words photoelectric emission i instantaneous. Weave theory X Particle wae Time log between incidence & ‘emission.EINSTEIN'S EQUATION Photoelectric effect tnhen light shines onto the metal. Frequency “The nunber of vibrations / waves per second bol Unit: hertz (Hz) or per second(s") Wavelength “The distance BeTween two consecutive points in phase. bol A Unit: metre (m) for ight waves ‘The speed of light quale ite frequency multiplied by We wavelength, Period Threshold frequency ‘The time Yaken for one vibration wave nt Symbol: T Unit: seconds (=) | Te minima FREQUENCY of light needed To ent electrons from ‘specific metal surfoce, Symbol fe Unit: hertz (Hs) | Work Fonction “The minim ENERGY needed to enave on electron from the surface of a specific metal Symbol We Unt joule (3) ‘The work function of ametal is directly proportional ta the ‘threshold frequency of light: W. = hfe Photons ‘The ‘packets’ of energy or quanta (singular: quantun) of which light consists. Photoelectron Electron emitted by light from the surface of a metal Energy of @ photon ‘The energy of a photonis directly proportional te the frequency of the incident light: Ea F E=hf energy in joule (3) by Planck's constant (6,63 x 10% Ts) £: Frequency in hertz (Hz) Tinetie nergy f photoelectrons Kinetic energy = energy of incident photon work Function E.thi-W. OR E=WitE, OR hfshfor dm! Contino The type of spectrom Formed when while ght passes threugh a ‘riangulor prism. rage | 14Line emission | The typeof spectrum formed when electrons in an aton in the spectrum, ‘excited state falls back to the ground state (or to a lower energy level) emitting light of certain frequencies OR ‘The typeof spectrum formed when lisht emitted by aHHOT GAS (when electric current passes through agus or when a gas is heated) posses through a triangular prism oris viewed through a diffraction grating, Line absorption | The type of spectrum formed when waite ight posses thraugh a spectrum COLD GAS and atoms in the gas absorb characteristic frequencies (A continucus spectrum in which sone of the frequencies ore missing ond thus appear es bloc lines in the spectrum.) ‘According fo Enstein, an electron is ejected from the meal bya calision witha single photon. ll the energy ofthe photon is transferred to the electron andthe photon ceases ta exist, The cllsonis elastic, Energy of the photon = energy required to remove electron + maxinum KE of ‘electron Ws i + KE Af = work fnction + Ym EF Vois the stoppege voltage, KEna = eV}, hz Planck's constant, h= 6.626 x 10% Zs BOLATNING THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT: When a photon with energy E=hf strikes a metal sufece all the energy of the. photon is transferred to an electron. ‘A certain minimum amount of energy (work function) is necessary to overcome the attraction force exercised by the metal onthe electron 2o that the electron con be released from the surface of the metal. I hf « We, the photon does not have enough energy to release an electron. IF hf = Wo, the photon has exactly enough energy to release on electron from the metal surface. The frequency of the photon is thus equal fo the threshold frequency (f) Ifhf> Ws, more than the minimum energy necessary is wrensferred tothe electron, ‘The extra energy (hf - W,)is the kinetic energy (6. with which the electron IMPORTANT FACTS + Effect of FREQUENCY on the photoelectric effect: Frequency of light determines whether the photoelectric effect will take place. + The frequency of light incident on « metal surface must be equal to or higher ‘than the threshold frequency for the photoelectric effect to take place. Page [15~The kinetic energy (6) ofthe photoelectrons depends onthe frequency of the Incident light. Any inerease ofthe frequency above the threshold Frequency of the metal wll lead ta an increase in E of the photoelectrons, + Effect of INTENSITY on the photoelectric effect: = Once the frequency is high enaugh forthe photoelectric effect to take place, @ HIGHER INTENSITY CAN INCREASE THE NUMBER OF PHOTOELECTRONS, Light with a higher intensity degree of brightness), or shining light fora longer period onto the metal surface, wil NOT result in the photoelectric effect IF ‘THE FREQUENCY OF THE INCIDENT LIGHT TS LOWER THAN THE THRESHOLD FREQUENCY. USES OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT Photodiodes Light meters ‘Sensors that can trigger electrical devices ‘Solar celle Counting devices ‘Activity 1 Graph P below shows how the maximum kinetic energy of electrons emitted from the cathode of a photoelectric cell varies with the frequency of the incident relation, Graph of maximum kinetic energy versus frequency, if Maximum kinetic energy (x1 70 20 Frequency (x 10% Hz) rage | 16Activity 2 non experiment to demonstrate the photoelectric effect, light of different wavelengths wes shone onto a metal surface of a photoelectric cell. The maximum inet energy of the enitted electrons was determined for the varius wavelengths ‘nd recorded in the tobe below. SWVERSE OH MAXIMUM KINETIC WAVELENGTH evenay) ; (x108 mt) | Exgmay (107) 5,00 660 330 3,30 2.50 7,70 2,00 0,70 1 What is meant by the term photoelectric effect? 2 Drow agroph of Ex (rons) versus? (ax).1 Define the term work function, 2 Calculate the: 3.41 Work function of the metal used as cathode in the photocell Velocity of photoelectrons emitted when the frequency of the incident light is 0 x10 Hs, 3 The photocell is now replaced with another ene in which the work function of the cathode is TWICE that of the metal inthe first cll, The maximum kinetic energy versus frequency graph, , for this cathode is now drawn onthe same set of axes es graph. 3.1 How wil the gradient of graph Q compare to thet of graph P? Write down GREATER THAN, SMALLER THAN or EQUAL TO. Explain the answer. 3.2 What wil the value of the x-intercept of graph Q be? Explain how you arrived at the answer3 USE THE GRAPH to determine: 43.1 The threshold frequency of the metal in the photoelectric cel, 3.2 Plancks constant,cHEmrsTRY Electrochemistry refers to chemical reactions during which chemical energy is converted to electric energy, or electric energy is converted to chemical energy During these chemical reactions oxidation and reduction take place. These are. called redex reactions, Redox (reduction - oxidation) reactions: ‘Electron transfers toke place. + can be represented by two haf-reactions > an exsation half-reaction and > reduction half-reacton, A galvanic cellis «cell in which chemical energy is converted into electrical energy. An clectrolytc cell is acellin which electrical energy is converted into chemical energy. (Oxidation isthe loss of electrons by a | Reductions the gainof electrons bya substance (Le. by anatom, amolecule or | substance (ie. by an atm, « molecule or anion). ‘nion). (Learn: LEO for Lass of Electrons is | Learn: GER for Gain of Electrons i= Oxidetion Reduction (because gohing electrons is gaining minus, 0 redecng) ‘A substance that i oxidised (leloses | A substance that ls reeuced(ie, gains clectrons)is called a reducing agent. | electrons) scaled on oxidising agent, ‘The oxidation numberof « compound that | The oxidation number ofa compaund that ‘is oxidsed,ncreases (oecomes less _| is reduced, decreas (secomes more negative, or becomes more positive). | negative, or becomes less positive) ‘The cathode (+) is the electrode where reduction (-) takes place,ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS Electrochemical cell allow conversion between electrical end chemical energy. There are two types of electrochemical cells: + Galvanic (oltaie cells + Glectroltic call Elactrlphe call Galvani call —m —| om xe age crete Electric energy ~ chemical energy ‘hemical energy — electric energy Ne salt bridge ‘alr bridge Norrapontneaus redox reacHona ‘Gpontanenua redox reactions Erdathermie reaction Exothermic reaction Positive electrode ~ anode ~ oxidation | Negative electrode — anede — oxidarion Negative electrode — cathode reduction | Positive electrode ~ cathode — reduction ‘nf is elvays negative ‘ent is always positive Page 12Electrolytic cell Electrolysis of wolten ionic compounds ‘+ The negative ions migrate (move) tothe arade where they ae oxidized. ‘+The positve ions migrate to the cathode where they are reduced, Electrolysis of lnc solutions ‘The anions (negotive iors) from the ionic cempound and the hydroxyl ions (OH) from the water migrate 1o the anode (positive electrode). The anions from the ionic compound conpete with the hydroxide ions (OH) fram the solution, tobe oxidized, Rules: 1 the ionic compound contains ‘+ halide iors (Ct Bor T), the halide ion will be oxidized and NOT the hydroxide ton. The product will therefore be the corresponding halogen. *+ sulphate (SO¢) or nitrate (NO}’ ions, the hydroxide fn (OH) wll be oxidised 10 produce oxygen, Ox) ‘+The cetions (positive ions) From the iarie compound and the Hons from the water migrate tothe cathade (negative electrode). The cations from the ionic compound compete with the Hons tobe reduced. Pales: 1 the ionic compound contains: + cations of metals with a positive electrede potential, these cations will be reduced 1 form the corresponding metel eg. Cu, See the table on electrode potentialsprovided in introduction to this book + cations of metals with a negative electrode potential (eg, Zn*), the He ions wil be reduced to form hydrogen, Hila). See the table on electrode potentials Provided inthis book, Page [22Electrolysis of water Water is aweak electrolyte (weck electric conductor). A small amount of dilute sulphurie aid (HSOs)is added to water to inrease its conductivity. When on electric current is pasted threugh the acidified water, oxidation and reduction rections take place. At the onade: ‘oxidation halfreaction: 2H:0 -+ Oxg)+ Hee 4e- = 41,23 At the cathode: reduction halfsreaction: 2H'+ 26° + Hala) The net reactan: 2H:O(®)—+ 2H) + Ox(9) Gahonie call ‘A Galvanic or voltae cell is acellin which chemical energy is converted to clectrical energy spontaneously, We therefore use a chemical reaction to produce ekericity. Eg standerd AA / penlight batteries, Consider a copper-zine cel {A strip of zinc metal is placed in zinc ion solution A strip of copper is pliced in a separate beater in an aqueous copper (IT) ion solution These solutions are the clectroytes, As they contain ions which dissociated when the salts were cissolved in water, they ore good electric conductors. ‘+The haf reactions that occur in each half cel > Zale) Zak +2" > aa +26 Culs)Oxidation holf-reaction at the mode | Reduetionhalf-reaction atthe cathode hich is always the negative electrode | which Is always the pesitive electrode. (e-are given off) ‘The stronger reducing agent is oxidised | The stronger oxidising agent is reduced (Gives off electrons) (receives electrons) |'Zn(e) = Zak + 2e(read From right to | Gu? + Ze — Cua) (read From left fo left) right) Zale the stronger reducing ogent Gi isthe stronger oxiising agent ‘The anode always decreases in mass if | The cathode always increases in mass if | the reducing agent i slid (The Zn rod | the reduced product isa sold (copper deposits on rod). age | 26GALVANIC CELL ‘The Zine/Copper cell “The reactions in Galvanic cell are spontaneous Le the energy for the reaction gotten from the cell itself. The chemical energy is converted to electrical energy. The simple galvanic eellis made up of two half cll. Each half ellis made up of a metal electrode ‘hat is submerged into the electrolyte, The metal electrodes of the two half cells are comected with a conducting wire that represents the external circuit. The two are separated == by, a_—Sselt. ridge, 1. Set up a copper haf-cell by filling a 250en? glass beckers with a tmaldn solution ‘of copper sulphate and placing a clean capper red inthe solution. Also set up a zinc half-cellin the same mamer by using Imoldn-3 solution of zine sulphate and a clean ine ro. . Weigh the masses of the zine and copper rod before and after the experiment Record your results in the tobe below. Place the two half-cels next to each other. Comect the zine plate to the negative terminal and the copper to the positive terminal of the sensitive voltmeter. Roll a piece of cotton weal into strip of em ong and Sm thick and place it into a solution of sodium sulphate/potassiom nitrate, Remave it from the solution ad place the ends of it into the electrolytesZine ‘State the energy conversion that takes place n this cel Stote two standard conditions under which this cll operates. Which one of ane or copper isthe anade inthis cll? Write down the changes that occurred and zinc electrode '8 Write down the equation to support your answer above. 9 Write down the changes that occurred in the copper electrode 10 Write down the equation to support your answer 11 What i the direction of electron flow in the external crest? 12 What isthe volmeter reading?13, How wll the initial voltmeter reading be affected ifthe concentration of the electrolyte in the Zn(sI2n*(aq) half-elis increased? Write down only INCREASES, DECREASES or REMAINS THE SAME. 14 Provide a possible reason forthe anewer 15. Write down the chemical equation forthe ovralt reaction 16 Write down the cell notation ofthis call 17 What i the function ofthe salt bridge? 18. Collate the emf of acell by using the table of standard electrode potentials 19 Ts the thearetical value seme as the actual value? If no, provide possible age 27NB-Porticiponts are required to perform the practical before answering the questions Activity 1 ‘The diagram below represents a galvanic cell operating inder standard conditions. Aaiagieomed tale) corageze-e coe) Write down @) The energy conversion which takes place b) A bolanced equation for the overall cell reaction ©) Thecell notation for this cllColeulate the initial emt of this eel {In which direction wil electron flow? Weite down only from Ag to Cu’ or “from Cu tog" ‘The call allowed to discharge fore period of time during which the mass of the copper elctrode changes by 32 g Calelate the expected mass change of the silver electrode, (Assume that the change in mass is only a result of the oxidation- reduction reaction occurring asthe cell discharges.) “The silver half-cellis now replaced with the standord hydrogen halfcell Ts the copper electrode the POSITIVE or the NEGATIVE electrode? Refe tothe strength of reducing agents to explain the answer. Write down the emf of this cell,Activity 2 ‘A nickel (Ni) redis placed ina beaker containing a ser nitrate slution, AgNOx(0q) ‘nd reaction takes place, Nickel (Ni) rod 2.1. NAME or FORMULA of the electrolyte 2.2 Oxidation half-reaction thot takes place 2.3 Balanced equation for the net (overall) redox reaction that takes place.Ag*(aq) 13.1 Which electrode (Ni or Ag) must be connected to the negative terminal of the. voltmeter? Give areason for the answer. 3.2 Write doun the eell notation forthe gohanic cell above. Page 1333 Caleulate the inital reading onthe voltmeter ifthe cell functions under standard conditions, 3.4 How wil the voltmeter reading in QUESTION 2.3 be affected if the concentration of the silver ions is increased? Cheese from INCREASES, DECREASES or REMAINS THE SAME,‘Activity 4 In the electrochemical cell below, carbon electrodes are used during the electrolysis of ‘a concentrated sodium chloride solution, Gas X- (> Electrode P- Electrode Q }—Concenirated NaCt(aq) The bolanced equation for the net (overall) cell reaction is: 2H:0(€) + 2ct (aq) —+ Cte) + Hela) + 204 (09) 4.113 the reaction EXOTHERMIC or ENDOTHERMIC? give a reason for your answer 4.2 Is electrode P the ANODE or the CATHODE? Give a reason forthe enswer 4.3Weite down the: 4.3. NAME ot FORMULA of gos X 4.3.2 NAME 0° FORMULA of gas ¥4.3.3 Reduction half-renction 51s the solution in the cell ACIDIC or ALKALINE (BASIC) ofter completion of the reaction? Give a reason forthe answer