Study and Development of Artificial Muscles

1. Introduction
In this paper, an overview of the pioneers' contributions to the discovery and comprehension of
the actuation behavior of these polymers is given. Then, the main progress that has been
performed in the development of different artificial muscles by us and other research groups in
the last 20 years is recalled. The final part of the paper highlights some of the many possible
applications in which the artificial muscles are or could be used and depicts the possible future
development of these innovative materials.

One of the major interests in the area of electroactive polymers is focused on applications for
artificial muscles. The need for devices capable of generating the movements and forces that are
done naturally by human beings is always present. The limited characteristics of conventional
devices, such as motors, solenoids, and hydraulic cylinders, to produce biologically functional
performance promote the creation of devices based on stimuli-responsive polymers, which, by
changing their volume or shape in response to a stimulus, generate equivalent movements. The
desire is to be able, with the use of an active component, an electroactive polymer, to build a
complete artificial muscle device that is the electromechanical actuator itself. The appealing
possibility of mimicking the wide range of capabilities of biological muscles has evidenced their
promising applications in many daily technologies.

1.1. Definition and Importance of Artificial Muscles

The basis for further development of artificial muscles was settled by the science fiction classic
"The Bicentennial Man" by Isaac Asimov. In the novel, the scientist Robert Martin uses the first
definition of artificial muscles. The 19th century also witnessed numerous attempts to create
them. The initial idea consisted of using wires suspended in fluids; therefore, they would work
under hydraulic pressure. The basic problem of this concept is that the driving fluids, to act, must
be incompressible. These initial experiments did not provide satisfactory results, and no further
developments occurred. A lengthy dormant period followed. The mid-20th century showed a
significant increase in artificial muscle research. This came hand in hand with discoveries of
materials that presented distortion with variations of temperature, light, electricity, sound, and
magnetic field. There was great worldwide interest in unveiling the great American experiment:
the strategic plan for the conquest of the planet Mars. However, the energy crisis that hit the
international scientific community did not allow progression of the projects to develop the
necessary artificial muscles. Since then, artificial muscle research has evolved very rapidly,
becoming a scientific and/or technological fashion wave. During this period, instantaneous and/or
long-term funding for artificial muscle research became quite easy. Such massive interest served
to fuel the growth, mushrooming artificial muscle research groups and attracting numerous new
scientists to enter the field. As is always the case with issues viewed as fashions, substances
without artificial muscle properties also became erroneously classified as artificial muscles,
preventing their synthesis and application techniques from being properly distinguished.
The human and animal musculatures are the totally natural and extremely efficient actuators that
guarantee to living beings a wide range of adjustments to maintain physiological equilibrium.
These adjustments result from complex combinations of movements with possibilities of great
simultaneous movements. The definition of artificial muscles arises from the potential required
for developing chemical, mechanical and electrical devices with similar behavior to natural
muscles. For a long time, this has been a dream for both engineering and medical professionals.
This happens because the importance of devices with artificial muscle properties transcends these
fields, taking into account also their importance to technological, military, and many other types
of applications. There are even some regions in the universe where only devices with energy-to-
weight ratios similar to those of natural muscles are acceptable. In the case of implantable
devices, biocompatibility is the most important requirement. Many limitations would vanish,
opening up new horizons to active, reactive, and passive medical prostheses. Other advantages of
using artificial muscles include superior performance and low environmental impact.

2. Biological Inspiration
The function and performance of muscles are not well duplicated by existing actuators: an
artificial muscle would have the actuator and structural abilities of the muscle. Two basic actions
are required of muscles: actuation and force generation. The former can be thought of as motors
which respond to electrical input to produce force, while the latter can be thought of as springs.
The main advantage of muscles doesn't necessarily lie in the actuation method as some rotary
actuators can produce higher power levels than a biological muscle, but in the combination of
actuation and structure that muscle provides.

Biology is rich with examples of systems that affect motion purely through the use of soft tissue;
bone and muscle are both compliant and work together. Muscles receive electrical impulses from
nerves; they don't need a piece of bone to pull against. This type of actuation is far superior to the
rotary actuators which must be used to move hard robots. A generalized, working system that
could generate forces of the same magnitude as biological muscles would make very versatile
robots. Muscles can be distributed in soft tissue to work in parallel, achieving a combination of
force, velocity, and power unmatched by other actuators.

2.1. Muscle Structure and Function

Moreover, this response can be divided into a response that can be experienced at the organ and
muscle levels with force profiles of various activations previously described. The basic structure
is always preserved in the skeletal muscle cross-section profile, and finer muscle functional
properties have characteristics of cellular and molecular types, playing a structure and function of
6 types of muscle such as skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, voluntary muscle, involuntary muscle
and so on. A living tissue capable of converting chemical energy into mechanical work through
the organization, shortening due to myofibrils in the muscle cell, and then converting it into
mechanical work. The skeletal muscle can be easily mechanically converted into muscle. Among
them, the shortening appears to be only skeletal muscle expression, and as functions of division,
muscles are capable of autonomous, voluntary, and self-generated function, whose muscles are
respectively skeletal muscles, involuntary muscles. These three basic functional characteristics
are well preserved, regardless of the changes in the scale of the muscle fiber in which they are
contained, and the morphological associate may be different, irrespective of the function and
complexity of performance. Therefore, the structure and function of the muscle are well
correlated, and the patterns expressed by cross-striated skeletal muscle are well-preserved in
striated cardiac muscles, whether they express more autonomy or fewer contractions, different
scales, or enhanced specialization. It is not different.

Muscle, with its ability to contract and relax, is one of the most fascinating systems in the human
body. The structure and function of muscle have significance and functions that have been
studied for a long period of time. The muscle cell is composed of myofibrils and is a long tubular
cell, elongated by a differentiation called a fusion of myoblasts. It is packed with fine myofibrils
and is formed in parallel. The sarcolemma surrounds it. Its highly ordered structure and function
are closely co-operational. Muscle has an extraordinary ability to change its mechanical
properties when it contracts. This is not only because of its physical properties as a phenomenon
of myofilament interactions, but also because skeletal muscle is capable of converting the
chemical energy supplied by adenosine triphosphate (ATP) into mechanics. Muscle also has the
response of tension development and contraction velocity to the electrical impulse and the
function of controlling body temperature by metabolizing to produce heat, in addition to
voluntary motion. It is also known to express contractile force due to chemical, gaseous, and
thermal stimuli.

3. Types of Artificial Muscles

Shape memory alloy actuation is used in the development of artificial muscles because of its
large actuation strains of up to 10 percent and large output force per unit weight. These muscles
can be used in many applications, but there are several factors which have limited the use of these
muscles in actual engineering systems. These factors are: the muscle size, the high force to be
applied, the stroke, the slow thermal response, and the high actuation temperatures for the shape
memory alloy material.

Inflated plastics and elastomers are among the simplest types of artificial muscles. They find
industrial applications in robotics and simple prosthetic and orthotic devices. Pneumatic artificial
muscles developed at the University of California (Santa Barbara) are composed of a molded
cylinder of lightweight but strong elastomeric material fitted with a woven nylon mesh. This type
of muscle uses a pressurized gaseous working medium to change its internal volume in such a
way as to mimic the contraction of real muscles. When using rubber as an inflating medium, the
Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute has developed a type of artificial muscle which can
show about 100 percent of contraction. In addition, it has a theoretical life of 100 million cycles
against only 1 million cycles for the pneumatic muscles. This is an important advantage. It also
offers flexibility in size and force compared to the pneumatic muscles, which are directly related
to their dimensions.

3.1. Electroactive Polymers

In the development of artificial muscles, improvements in energy density and strain, as actuator
properties, and the extension reliability of materials are important. Among such aspects, the
polymerization of the actuator film is very important in order to improve energy characteristics.
Additionally, as the driving system, a single and multi-degree-of-freedom driving system has
long been studied, etc. force control and power control can be mentioned. Other
commercialization researches using materials, etc. are studied according to their natures. The
combination of this research and mechatronics systems has been studied and among them, body
support, simple operation, and application to medical and welfare fields in reality are added to
many things with high social significance.

The development of born-with-the-revolutionist-introduction-of-PP fibers reinforced polymers

attracts scholars' wide attention. Electroactive polymers (EAP) have been widely studied as a new
type of active actuator and sensor materials because huge displacement coupled with high power
can be obtained under low electric stimulus. EAP has been developed since the 1980s and has
come a long way, consisting of an atomic metal or semimetal phase with an insulating phase. The
principle is based on volta-electrodynamics or the piezoelectric effect. From this time, a lot of
electrodes including polyaniline, polypyrrole, polyethylenedioxythiophene, etc. have been
studied. In this study, we focused on polypyrrole, which is cheap, easy to draw and use.
Polypyrrole is strong in environmental exposure compared to others, so it stands out and a lot of
mechanisms are proposed. In addition, it has a high energy density and is widely used. When
electricity is applied to actuator materials of this type, ions are converted into the polymer by
reduction and oxidation reactions. This action leads to strain of the film as a spot and drives other
devices.

3.2. Ionic Polymer-Metal Composites

Furthermore, we have confirmed that the amplitude modulation device of the actuation motion of
the IPMCAM is attained by using the bent spine formed by the Ionic Polymer-Metal Comb-
Shaped Modulator (IPMCM, the driving force source) and the graphic ratchet plate (Ratchet
Plate) having the one-way holding force property. We have also conducted experiments and
measurements of moderately complicated motion.

In this report, we have developed the Ionic Polymer-Metal Comb-Shaped Artificial Muscle
(IPMCAM) and conducted actuation experiments and measurements on the organically
synthesized IPMCAM. We have also developed the theory of catenary elastic deformation on the
comb structure and the interpretation formula of catenary elastic deformation force.

Ionic Polymer-Metal Composite (IPMC) is a motion and deflection actuator. It consists of a thin
metal electrode on each side of an ionic exchange membrane. It is expected that IPMC will
exhibit great deflection and motion through its actuator characteristics.

4. Applications of Artificial Muscles

In summary, tRIO uses stimuli that would cause conventional EAP actuators to catastrophically
fail, but by layering these, we give the actuator superior mechanical compliance and thermal and
environmental robustness. With this approach, it is possible to extend actuator lives into the
thousands or millions of cycles.

In the case of similar actuators designed by casting silicone over black conducting carbon
preparation, a trilayered prototype has been individually tested with an appropriate fireproof
(EPDM Sterlitech) that withstands seeding at high voltage with sufficiently big electric loads.
The hygienic attention of such devices is understandable if we consider the more typical
application of the cast of EPDM silicone to realize ptotic interfaces with ionic polymeric layers
and metallic helicoid electrodes on end-exoskeletal tissues of soft robots. In artificial muscles
during isometric twitch tests, the silicone has not disintegrated. These tests are supported by
cyclic test methods.

In robotic artificial muscles developed on dielectric elastomers, they are simulated and realized in
a pair to actually work in an exoskeleton, with a control circuit incorporating the SEIT, the
Stretchable Electrode Interface Technology.

In the applications of Galinstan on P(VDF-TrFE-CTFE)/PPy composite actuator, the artificial

muscle can be directly used for robotic applications such as culinary robots, which require soft
actuators to have more than one degree of force and flexibility. It can be integrated with other
sensor components into advanced control systems that make the robot able to work as the real
signage. The components must contribute to reducing the hardness of manipulators, such as mini-
scale gastronomy robots. Such robots should meet the requirements of the culinary industry and
make dishes that look like the chefs prepared.

Let's take a look at the applications of the various types of artificial muscles. These investigations
and applications are the results of our tests on the author's series of structures and materials.

4.1. Soft Robotics

It was only until the last decades of the 20th century that the development of automatic robots, or
artificial bodies, has increased. Most robotic systems are produced rigidly due to the ease of
being manipulated and already having many parameters and equations of movement. However,
the human body structure is different, with a large number of bones and muscles, all of them with
deformable characteristics. Therefore, for designing a robot with biological aspects, those
characteristics needed to be improved. Rigid bodies, even when performing complex tasks, are
not designed for moving in confined spaces and performing subtle or delicate actions on objects.
Thus, a major research opportunity was opened for the development of robots with soft bodies,
capable of mimicking human activities more naturally. These robots can move easily in confined
or unstructured spaces, occupy small spaces, and interact with human beings in an intuitive, safe,
and delicate way.

Nowadays, there has been an increasing development of a new field of technology called Soft
Robotics. This area focuses on the study of new means of creating robots with bodies made of
very compliant materials, such as fiber-reinforced elastomers, which are capable of generating
non-trivial movements in topologically non-trivial ways. It arises from the need to perform
certain tasks for which classical rigid robots are not designed. These tasks may include the
handling of non-rigid objects in confined spaces, the interaction with humans, or the performance
of tasks in complex non-structured environments. The need for robots capable of performing such
tasks is increasing, and Soft Robotics seems to offer a response. The human body serves as
inspiration to several researchers in this area. The human body is composed of several different
kinds of muscles. These muscles may offer softness and a diversity of tasks (such as sensing,
actuation, and support) that classical rigid robots are not capable of.

5. Challenges and Future Directions

As it has been stressed, the mechanic electroactive polymers (MEAP) with more promising
behavior for future applications are grafted SCP on elastic polymers. They have shown great
advantages with respect to the already known similar systems such as: they can work in tough
and rough mechanical environments, sustaining mechanical damages and still working at high
levels of strain. They can reach very high maximum stresses, high maximum strains, and
maximum specific work. They can work under cyclic contraction and expansion. They work on
air and do not need humidity. With the exception of the SCP-EL grafted membranes, all other
types of MEAP have shown a big diminution in their maximum work after the first four working
cycles. The effect of cerium on this variation has been studied. This result might lead, for these
MEAP, to the possibility of working during short periods of time (first four working cycles or
less) at high strains and stress and low lateral voltage, and to recover quickly after interrupts. It
was observed that the maximum work done by the actuators is reached after more or less 1000
activation-relaxation working cycles.

The present review shows that several types of mechanical electroactive polymers (MEAP) can
generate mechanical motion by electrical stimulation. Some of them have been studied
throughout their basic problems leading to the range of several application considerations. Some
general conclusions and future directions are suggested.