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The Primitive communal system in the territory of Azerbaijan

The Primitive communal system (Western historiography uses the term
“Prehistory” for that period) is the longest period in the human history. It started
since life appeared on the Earth, or since human-like being appeared. This era
lasted circa to the late of the 2nd – early 1st millennium BC. Primitive communal
system is divided into the three consecutive periods – the Stone Age, the Bronze
Age and the Iron Age. This periodization depends on what materials were used for
making tools. Because of there are no written records from the Primitive
communal system it has been studying by artifacts found in the archeological
excavations.
Southern Caucasus including Azerbaijan territory is considered to be one of the
most ancient proto-human habitations in the world. Having possessed favorable
climatic conditions as well as abundance of drinking water sources this area
provided rich (the highly degree of) floral and faunal diversity. In addition, there
were many available caves in this area which were used by the primitive man as a
shelter. Thanks to these factors Azerbaijan territory was inhabited by ancient
humans about two million years ago.
The Stone Age is divided into Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic and Eneolithic
periods and lasted from appearing human beings on Earth until the 4 th millennium
BC.
“Paleolithic” means "Old Stone Age," and begins with the first use of the stone
tools. The Paleolithic is the earliest period of the Stone Age. It is also is divided
into the three periods:
The Lower Paleolithic lasted from human appearance until 100 millennium BC.
The oldest proto-human remains in Azerbaijan were found in the Azykh cave,
located in Fizuli district at the Quruchay valley. This cave belongs to the Lower
Paleolithic sites. The excavations in the Azykh cave were carried out by
Mammadali Huseynov in 1968. The Neanderthal-style young woman’s lower jaw
was found in the lowest layers of the cave. It was dated over 340.000 years old and
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labeled as Azykhantropus. The remains of a fireplace dating to 700,000 years ago

also was discovered here.
The ancient tools which relate to the period of the Lower Paleolithic found also
during excavations at Ovchular Tepe which is considered to be the oldest
habitation area in the Nakhchivan.
Throughout the Paleolithic, humans generally lived as nomadic hunter-
gatherers. Hunter-gatherer societies tended to be very small, unstable and
egalitarian. A hunter-gatherer society is one in which most or all food is obtained
from wild plants and animals, in contrast to agricultural societies which rely
mainly on domesticated species. Human of that period called Homo habilis - able
man/
The Middle Paleolithic period, lasting from 100 to 40 millennium BC is called
as Mousterian epoch, was the era of the Neanderthals. Rich artifact finds in
Taghlar, Qazma and Damjili caves. In this period human-being had a skill to yield
the fire. Beliefs in totems, in afterlife appeared in that period as well.
The Upper Paleolithic period lasted from 40th to 12th millennium BC. Homo
sapience emerged in this period. Homo sapience differed from Neanderthales by
highly developed brain, capability of reasoning (thinking), and language. Society
was changed too. Clan system established. Mother was head of family. It leads to
matriarchy.
The Mesolithic Age, or Middle Stone Age, began in the end of the last glacial
period and lasted approximately from 12th to 8th millennium BC. The Mesolithic
Age was the very important period in mankind history, because it was this period
that prepared background for transition from just taking natural goods (by means
of hunting, gathering and fishing) to producing practice. The basis of the
agriculture and animal husbandry (farming and/or keeping animals) was laid in this
period. Hoe made from bone used as tool of cultivating in this time.
The invention of bow and arrows became the most important Mesolithic Age’s
achievement. Thanks to this achievement the primitive society could be able to
switch over from collective hunting at valley to the hunting, which could be carried
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out individually in the forests. In additional, it makes possible to hunt from the
long distance. Using of bow and arrows gave a stimulus for improving stone tool
technology. Small stone tools called Microliths appeared in that period. These
early peoples developed simple tools such as spears and axes made from bone,
wood, and stone.
The Mesolithic Age in Azerbaijan is represented by the Damjili cave on Avey
mountain located in Gazakh district and by Gobustan monument located about 64
km. southwest of Baku on the west coast of the Caspian sea. Being covered with
dense growth of savanna type and possibly with wooded areas during the
Mesolithic Age Gobustan’s area was the very favorable for human habitation.
The first research of Gobustan was carried out by I.M.Jafarzade in 1939-1940.
The systematic research of the petroglyphs of Gobustan started in 1947. 3500
pieces of rock art on 750 rocks were discovered on the mountain of Kichikdash,
Boyukdash and Jingirdash. Carved drawings etched on the rocks demonstrate
scenes of hunting, fishing, labor and dancing. There are many images of animals –
bulls, gazelles, horses, deer, wild boars, lions, tigers, wolves, foxes, dogs, cats,
fish, birds, lizards, tortoises, scorpions and others. Images of bulls, goats, and deer
served as totems in different times. Some of them colored (painted) with ochre
(raddle). Numerous paintings of boats carving on the massifs of Kichikdash and
Boyukdash testify that Gobustan’s ancient settlers used boats in fishing very
widely.
There were cult of the ancestors (forefather), worshiping of their souls among
the inhabitants of Gobustan. Some female statuettes (figurine) were tattoed. The
females usually were painted with the big breast. It was connected with worshiping
of the woman and symbolized fertility and abundance. The people, who lived in
Azerbaijan in the Mesolithic Age were related to the modern Azerbaijani people on
physical features.
The Neolithic Age, or New Stone Age is considered the last part of the Stone
Age. This era in Azerbaijan lasted approximately from the late 8 th to 6th
millennium BC.
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The first Neolithic Age’s settlements in Azerbaijan were revealed near Lake
Urmia in Southern Azerbaijan. These are Hasanly, Haji Firuz and Yanigtepe. In
Northern Azerbaijan the settlements were revealed in the camp Anazaga, Kenize
and Ovchularzagasy in Gobustan.
The Neolithic Age is characterized by “Neolithic Revolution”. The Neolithic
Revolution became a fundamental change in the way people lived. They shift from
hunting and gathering to agriculture led to permanent settlements. Agriculture even
in primitive forms, an ability to store food against bad times allowed a growth in
population. Need for clothes, pottery and leather increased in this period. It led to
the formation of such branches of craft as pottery and weaving. The artifacts
referred to that period testified that by means of drilling and grinding the more
advanced tools were made. Non-food producers can specialize as craftsmen,
warriors and leaders. These developments, in turn, allow for a more complex
society and the possibility of urbanization.
The emergence of early copper metallurgy alongside traditional stone tools
marked the subsequent period, known as the Eneolithic or Chalcolithic Age. The
term of Eneolithic derived from latin “aeneus” (copper) and greek “lithos” (stone).
Eneolithic period in Azerbaijan lasting from 6 to 4 millennium is marked by
cultivating (manufacturing) of copper. Copper is a soft metal, that’s why it is
available for making adornments only. The increasing of the population, its
expansion by settling Mil-Garabag, Mugan, Ganja-Gazakh, Nakhchivan zones,
territory around Lake Urmiya took place in Azerbaijan in that period. The first
excavations dating this period were carried out in Nakhchivan (Kultepe I). There
was revealed the remains of ancient settlement. Another settlement referred to this
period was discovered in Alikomektepe. The remains of domesticated horses were
found here. It is testified that the domestication of horse occurred in Azerbaijan in
5 millennium BC.
There were mainly two types of dwelling in Azerbaijan in that period. The
circular (rounded) shape of dwelling, considering as traditional for Azerbaijan also
was spread in Northern Mesopotamia very widely. It testified that there were close
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relations between Azerbaijan and Mesopotamia, where the Khalaf culture

flourished in that period.
Another shape of dwellings discovered during excavations was rectangular (4-x
quadrangular). The dwellings around Lake Urmiya and in Mugan (Alikomektepe)
were built in rectangular shape. Generally dwelling were built alongside the rivers,
especially in Mil-Garabagh plain, Ganja-Gazakh plain, Mugan.
There was ritual to bury human cadaver (dead men) direct in the territory of
dwelling in that period. It was connected with idea of revival or new birth. The
ancient people believed it provided them fertility and family growth. Thy also
powdered dead one with raddle.
The Bronze Age began from middle of the 4th millennium BC. Bronze is not
pure metal but it is alloy of copper and tin. Bronze is much stronger than copper,
that’s why the tools made of bronze had displaced the stone tools once and for all.
The existence of the rich fields (deposits, mines) of copper in Gedabey, Garabagh
and Balaken districts stimulate the high development of metallurgy in Azerbaijan.
The Bronze Age is divided into the three periods:
The early period of the Bronze Age in Azerbaijan lasting from the middle of
the 4th to the late 3rd millennium BC is known as “Kura-Araz culture”. This
culture spread over the borders of the territory of Azerbaijan and was identified
also on the territory of Central Caucasus, Northeastern Caucasus, Southern
Azerbaijan and Eastern Anatolia as well. The matriarchy gradually displaced by
the (gave its place to) patriarchy. During this period Azerbaijan territory was
totally settled by the agricultural tribes. They used bronze plough in cultivating.
Using of yailaq (mountain pasture) led to the highly development of cattle-
breeding economy. The highly development of agriculture sectors led to to the first
public division of labor. The settlements of that period were discovered Baba
Dervish, Garakopektepe, Misharchay, Kultepe, Yaniqtepe, Goytepe. Some
settlements were surrounded by defensive walls. During the archaeological
excavation taken place in Baba Dervish in Gazakh district the smelting furnaces
were found. The burial practice in the Bronze Age underwent a change. Unlike the
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previous period the dead man was buried not just in dwelling place but in special
places. Discovered burial mound - kurgan in Khankendi, traces of cremation ritual
in Khanlar, catacomb type of grave in Baba Dervish reflected burial practice of
that time.
The middle period of the Bronze Age is characterized by the second public
division of labour by separating craft from the agricultural sector. This process in
Azerbaijan is testified by the findings in Kultepe settlement in Nakhchivan, where
the potters’ quarter was discovered. The first town type settlements in Azerbaijan
appeared in this period (Nakhchivan). Gardening, market gardening, viticulture,
(wine-growing) wine-making appeared as result of artificial irrigation in this
period.
The late period of the Bronze Age and the Iron Age in Azerbaijan is known
as Khojaly-Gadabey or Ganja-Garabag culture. This culture emerged in the late
Bronze and early Iron Ages in Azerbaijan. By separating of trade the third public
division of labour had taken place in that period.
The IRON AGE the Period (11-8th centuries BC) demonstrates further
development of a society in comparison to the Bronze Age. The Iron Age is
studied thanks to the burials barrows, stone boxes, soil (ground) burials). The
cyclopean fortresses constructed of the huge stone blocks is characteristic for that
period. (constructed by "Cyclops" – giants, same as “Nuraq” in Santa Sabina,
Sardinia).
The seminomadic yailaq cattle breeding was put forward. The important
progress in pottery craft was connected with using of a potter's wheel set in motion
by a foot.
The third public division of labor took place in that period by separating of
handicraftsmen-dealers from handicraftsmen. Later they became professional
dealers. So, there was a third public division of labor. The tribes lived in
Azerbaijan in that period maintained trade relations with the tribes of Western
Asia and Near East. The bead with a name of the Assyrian king Adadnerari has
been found in Khodjaly. During this period people worshipped to fire, water,
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mountains, woods, animal. There was a belief in heaven bodies (the Moon, the
Sun, stars). Widely using of iron had began since 7th century BC.
Decay (disintegration) of primitive-communal system was accelerated during
the last Bronze Age and Iron Age (from the of 2nd –early 1st millenium BC). The
process of disintegration of communal system by means of separating strong
families, tribal leaders was happened. The rich and poor families emerged. And the
primitive community gradually displaced by the neighbouring community. Each
family had own agricultural economy. Stratification on the rich and poor is well
traced by the funeral monuments, because burials of leaders differ from burials of
the poor people. (servants, horses). Emerging of the class society led to
establishing of the early slaveholding states. This process took place in Southern
Azerbaijan much earlier than in Northern Azerbaijan thanks to the close relations
with the cultural centers of the Near East region.

THE EARLIEST TRIBAL CONFEDERACIES IN AZERBAIJAN

The establishment of the first tribal confederacies in Azerbaijan through
consolidation of the weak tribes around the strong related tribes took place for the
first time around Lake Urmia in the territory of Southern Azerbaijan during the 3 rd-
2nd millennium BC. It was happened in the end of the Bronze Age. The Lullubi
settled south of Lake Urmia and the Guti settled west and southwest of Lake Urmia
were the earliest tribal confederacies in Azerbaijan.
The Lullubi was a group of tribes which included also the tribes of Turukki and
Su. These tribes worshipped of the Sun, the Moon, the goddess of love and fertility
and had close connections with Mesopotamia.
North of the Araz river as well as Nakhchyvan and Mil-Garabag lowland were
settled by the tribes of Nahchy and Gargar.
According to the Sumerian sources, which give the primary records on the
Gargar tribe, the king of Assyria Salmanasar III made invasion of the Gargar’s
country in 836 BC. Strabon also informs that the Gargars settled in the Caucasus
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region. The Gargars had the same ethnic roots with the Turks. With the laps of the
time the Gargars settled the both banks of the Araz river.
The ancient fortified cities such as Goytepe. Hasanly near Lake Urmia, Kultepe
II, Oglangala, Shakhtakhty, Sadarak in Nakhchyvan, Uzerliktepe, Garakopektepe
in Garabagh were based by these tribes.
The Lullubi
The earliest information about Lullubi was given by the Sumerian legend
"Lugalbanda and the Anzud Bird". There was note about "mountains of Lulubi"
where the gigantic Anzud bird lived.
Later with strengthening of the Akkad state the Lullubi was exposed to the
invasions of the Akkadian kings (Sargon the Great, Naram Sin). The necessity to
resist against aggressive policy of the Akkad state enforced the Lullubian tribes to
consolidate themselves by establishing strong state.
Despite the continuous invasions carrying out by the Akkadian kings the
Lullubian put up a resistance them. The famous rock stele dated to the 23rd century
BC was constructed in honor of the Lullubian king Anubanini. This memorial
informs us about the victories of the Lullubian king Anubanini. Anubanini was
depicted with the Assyrian-Babylonian goddess Ishtar. It’s notable, that a later
Babylonian legendary mentions Anubanini as one of Sargon the Great’s opponents.
Under ruling of Anubanini the Lullubi has flourished.
At the end of the 3rd millennium BC the Lullubian state was disintegrated.
Lullubi lived also in the Assyrian city of Nuzi together with the Hurri tribe. The
Hurri named them “Nullu” i.e “stranger’. The Lullubi were known as a brave and
warlike tribe.
In the following (2nd) millennium, the term "Lullubi" or "Lullu" began to be
used in meaning "highlander". The original region of Lullubi was also known as
Zamua.
The Gutians lived on the territory of Southern Azerbaijan around Lake Urmia.
There different theories about origin of the Gutians in the historiography. Some
theories refer them to Elamite language or Caucasusian language tribes. Although
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according to the recent research the Gutians are considered to be Turkic language
tribe. They were a prominent nomadic tribe. In 23rd century BC the Gutians having
passed through Zagros mountains they got into Mesopotamia and attacked Akkad.
Akkad was the mightiest kingdom in Mesopotamia at that time. The Sumerian
cities were subdued by the Akkadian kings. The Akkadian king Naramsin
attempted to subdue the Gutians, but was defeated by them. Akkad fell to the
Gutians eventually. They established own state in this territory which stretched
from Lake Urmia to the Persian Gulf. The Gutians saved the state system, which
was set up by the Sumerians and the Akkadians. Under their ruling conflicts
between cities were stopped, the order in the country was established, the trading
ways were in safety. They built and restored temples. The Gutians also seem to
have briefly overrun Elam. The statue erected in honor of the Gutian king
Erridupizir at Nippur has inscription which proclaims "King of Gutium, King of
the Four Quarters". The Gutians ruled in Mesopotamia within 100 years. There
was the revolt against last Gutian king Tirigan in Uruk city in the end of 22 nd
century BC. In the course of this revolt the Gutian were driven out (were removed)
of Mesopotamia.
The Turukki
The Turukki was considered to be one of the ancient Turkish tribes settled on
the territory of Southern Azerbaijan and south coast of the Caspian Sea in the 20-
19th centuries BC. After collapsing of Gutium kingdom Turukki began to carry out
independent policy. Turukki was mentioned among the 17 tribes which fight
against the Akkadian military troops invading the northern land. In the 2 nd
millennium BC the Turukki began to carry out independent policy. They passed
through the Zagros mountain range into Mesopotamia and settled along the bank of
the Lower Zab river. They conquered the military administrative center Shusharru
which was under the control of Assyria. In the beginning of the 2 nd millennium BC
the tribal confederacies of the Gutians, the Lullubians and the Turukkis put
constant military pressure upon Assyria and have weakened it. Later Turukki
threatened Babylon. The Babylonian king Hammurabi had to interfere in north of
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Mesopotamia to subdue Turukki and get rid of danger to his state. Nevertheless,
part of the Turukki settled in Babylon in 14 th century BC.

KINGDOM OF MANNA
The necessity to put resist against capturing policy, carrying out by the mighty
neighboring states of Mesopotamia (Sumer, Akkad, Assyria) and Urartu stipulated
the consolidation process of the early tribe associations. This reason along with the
highly development of the social system created the background for establishment
first states in Azerbaijan. This process took place in the territory of Southern
Azerbaijan much earlier than in Northern Azerbaijan.
The small state formations (Zamua, Gilzan, Zikirtu, Surikash, Gizilbunda,
Uishdish, Andia, Alatee, etc.), existing in the 9th century BC round lake Urmia
were exposed to the regular invasions of the kings of Assyria and Urartu. It wasn’t
effective to resist to such powerful states separately and in this situation Mannaean
governors were enforced to unite. Thus, the kingdom of Manna was established in
the territory south and southeast of lake Urmia in the 9 th century BC. The basic part
of Manna was the district Zamua located south of lake Urmia. Zamua was
considered as the country of the Lullubis. The first mention of Manna dating 843
year BC is given by cuneiform inscription of the Assyrian king Salmanasar III.
The Mannaean lands became contested ground between Urartu, who built
several forts on the territory of Manna, and Assyria. In Manna’s history its
relations with Assyria and Urartu - the strongest states of that period – had a
decisive role because each of these states tried to subdue Manna to itself. Assyria
was the traditional ally for Manna over whole period of its existing. At first they
struggled together against Urartu, and then against Midiya and Babylon union in
the end of VI century BCE.
In the second half of the 8th century the Assyrian king Tiglatpalassar III (740-
710 BC) captured the Mannaean district Mazamua and attached it to Assyria.
Urartu also captured the Mannaean districts, took captive thousands inhabitants,
destroyed and burned cities.
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In the face of constant invasions and threat of a total capturing of Manna by

Urartu the Mannaean ruler Iranzu (740-719 BC) preferred to conclude union with
the Assyrian king Tiglatpalassar III because Assyria was the strongest state at that
period. By his military support Iranzu gave back himself the capturing lands.
However, there were some governors in Manna who raised revolt against Iranzu by
inspiration of Rusa I king of Urartu in 719 BC. In this situation Iranzu had to
recognize the political leadership of Assyria openly. Sargon II set armies against
rebels and suppressed the revolt.
During the reign of Iranzu Manna getting stronger and reached the peak of its
power. Its territory stretched to the river Araz on the north and bordered with
Kassi, Parsua and Midiya on the south and southeast. Manna’s capital city was
Izirtu. Iranzu subdued district governors to himself and set up centralized state.
The deputy system was created in Manna. Council of Wiseman was formed. The
former tribe leaders become witans of king.
After Iranzu’s death his son Aza (718-716 гг BC) adopted power but short after
he was killed by the opposition forces. His brother Ullusunu (716-680 BC) having
concluded the alliance with Urartu conceded to it the 22 Mannaean fortresses.
Therefore, Sargon II made a new military campaign in 716 BC, captured and
burned Izirtu. He seized the murderer of Aza and skinned him. Ullusunu had to
submit to Assyria. In 715 year BC the governor of Dayaukku rose a revolt. Sargon
II came to help and suppressed the revolt. It caused so-called “Big campaign”
launched by Sargon II in 714 BC. He aimed to release the territory of Manna from
the Uratuians completely and enforced Manna to pay a regular tribute to Assyria.
Rusa I was heavily defeated during this campaign and committed suicide. The
main result of this military campaign was that Urartu weakened and didn’t make
any more invasion of the territory of Manna.
During the reign of Ahsheri (675-650 BC) Manna concluded union with the
warlike Scythian tribes which settled in the territory of Manna. He broke the union
with Assyria and began to carry out the independent policy. In this connection
Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (668-626 BC) attacked Manna in 650 BC and defeated
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Ahsheri. He destroyed Izirtu and other cities, took captive the population, cattle,
horses. After that the people raised against Ahsheri and killed him.
Ahsheri’s son Ualli (650-630 BC) having come to power restored the union
with Assyria. Manna maintained allied relations with Assyria up to its fallen once
and for all. Manna took Assyria’s sides in the war against Midiya and Babylon.
Manna was conquered by Midiya in 590 BC.
Culture.The Mannaeans were mainly a settled people, practicing irrigation and
breeding cattle and horses. The Mannaen area of Subi was especially famous for
horses. Such branches of craft as metal working, weaving were high developed in
Manna as well as trade. Excavations that began in 1956 discovered the fortified
city of Hasanlu. The gold bowl with the image of a mythical scene and three
deities of the Sun, the Moon and the Wind-Rain was found in Hasanlu. It allows to
suppose that there was polytheism.
Finding of writing artifact fragment testified the Mannaeans were familiar with
cuneiform writing. Besides, a local version of the hieroglyphic letter was used as
well. It is testified by the signs printed on surface of the tray, discovered in Ziviye.
THE SCYTHIAN KINGDOM
In the 1st quarter of the 7th century BC the Scythian tribes began to move from
north of the Black sea to South. Part of them was settled throughout Southern
Caucasus, another part passed forward to Asia. The Scythians and Cimmerians led
by Ishpaka occupied the lands located north and west of Lake Urmia. In the 7th
century BC on the area between Manna and Urartu the Scythian kingdom was
established.
There are some toponyms in Azerbaijan by Scythian origin. Kura-Araz
interfluve (the valley between Kura and Araz) in early medieval age sources is
mentioned as “Balasakan” i.e. “Sak’s plain”. The toponyms of Gymyr in Zagatala
district and Kamarli in Gazakh district are connected with the Cimmerians.
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ATROPATENA and ALBANIA in the 4th century BC - in the beginning

of the 3rd century AD
ATROPATENA
After the battle of Gaugamela under the pressure of Alexander the Great
Achaemenid Empire was destroyed in 330 BC. Atropat was the former
Achaemenid satrap (deputy) of Media. Having suppressed the revolt headed by
Bariaks Atropat earned Alexander the Great’s confidence. Alexander the Great
appointed him the governor of Media in 328 year BC. Having married his daughter
to Perdiccas who was one of the generals of Alexander the Great Atropat had
strengthened his position on the post of the satrap of Media. After Perdiccas’ death
Atropat became the ruler of the independent state. It happened in 321 BC. Gazaka
was the central city of the state.
Atropatena covered mainly the territory of Southern Azerbaijan and some
southern areas of the present Azerbaijan Republic and stretched to the Zagros
mountainous range in the southwest. The population consisted of the various
tribes. According to the antique sources the tribes of Mug, Caspi, Gel, Mard,
Kadussi inhabited this territory. In the time of war Atropatena could put forward
the infantry, numbering 20 thousand warriors and cavalry numbering 8 thousand
horsemen. The Mags occupied special position, the priests of Zoroastrian religion
were also named “Mag”. Arabian sources informed about Azeri tribe.
The Seleucid king Antiochus III in 223 BC began military campaign against
Atropatena’s ruler Artabazan and subdued him. Atropatena was under Seleucid
allegiance (vassalage) until the battle of Magnesia in 190 BC when the Seleucid
state was defeated by the mighty Roman Empire and collapsed. Thereafter
Atropatena gained independence.
In the 1st cent. the Roman Empire began the aggressive policy aimed at
conquering of eastern countries. Atropatena had to conclude an alliance with
Parthia. The allies crushed the Roman army headed by Crassus in the battle in
northern Mesopotamia in 53 BC. In 38 BC the Roman commander Antony invaded
Atropatena and unexpectedly approached Fraaspa, the winter capital of Atropatena.
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While Antony was preparing for siege, the Parthians and Atropatenians blocked
the Romans legions at Fraaspa and attacked them. Having lost over 35,000 soldiers
the Romans forced to retreat.
In the last decades of the 1st cent. BC Atropatena had close relations with the
Roman Empire. In 20 BC Ariobarzan II having come to the power by support of
the Romans ruled Armenia as well. He lived in Rome about 10 years. Ariobarzan’s
II son Ariovast had been the last king of Atropatena. After his death Atropatena
was subdued by Parthia in 20’s and remained under the power of Arshakid dynasty
of Parthia until its collapsing.
The population was engaged in gardening, wine growing, husbandry
(agriculture), cattle breeding, trade and craft. There were rich mineral deposits of
iron, copper, gold, silver. Mineral oil (petroleum) which was known as “media oil”
was extracted here as well. Oil was used in battles. In trade the drachma and
tetradrachm with the image of Alexander the Great were used.There was influence
of Hellenistic culture in Atropatena. The cities flourished in Atropatena. There
were such cities as Gazaka, Fraaspa, Agnazama. The chief temple of Zoroastrian
religion was in Gazaka. The celebrations on crowning of the Sasanid king were
spent in this temple. Zoroastrism was the state religion in Atropatena. The
Atropateneans considered fire to be holy and worshiped it. The holy book was
"Avesta". The primary version of "Avesta" was destroyed in the fire in 330 BC
during the invasion of Persepolis by the army of Alexender the Great. Later
“Avesta” was restored by the Sassanid kings. “Avesta” was translated into French
and published by Anketil Duperron in 1771.

ALBANIA
The earliest mention about the tribes settled the territory of Albania was made
by the Greek historian Herodotus. He informed about the Caspians who
participated in the Greek-Persian wars. Strabo informed about 26 different tribes in
Albania, including the Legs, the Kadussi, the Amards, the Udis, the Gargars which
had own king and language. Strabo describes Caucasian Albanians as tall, blonde-
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haired and gray-eyed. He characterized them as brave and warlike people. The first
mention about the Albanians was made by the Greek historian Arrian. He informed
that the Albanian tribes under the command of Atropat participated in the battle of
Gaugamela in 331 BC.
In the end of 4th - beginning of 3rd centuries BC the independent state of Albania
was established. Albania occupied the territory between Iberia and the Caspian
Sea. Albania covered the most part of territory of the modern Azerbaijan Republic,
southern areas of Dagestan and the Alazan valley in the territory of modern
Georgia (Ganikh).
Roman invasions. The Roman Empire aimed to conquer Southern Caucasus and
reach the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea. Therefore, the roman legions headed by
Pompeius invaded Albania in 66 BC. The Albanian troops numbering about
40,000 warriors were headed by king Orois. The Roman legions were stronger and
better trained than the Albanians and they defeated them at the Kura river. The
next battle took place at the Ganigh (Alazan) river in 65 BC. According to
Plutarch, this time the Albanian troops numbering 60 thousand infantry and 22
thousand cavalry were commanded by Orois’ brother Cosis. During the bloody
battle Cosis pressed the Roman warriors and got near Pompeius but he fell. Having
applied ruse of war Pompeius won the fight. The Roman historians inform that the
Albanian women whom they called “Amazons” fought in this battle together with
men. The peace agreement between Pompeius and Orois was concluded after that
battle.
In 36 BC the Roman commander Canidius who was sent by Antony subdued
Iberia and Albania. During the 1st century Albania was governed by the local
rulers. Albania maintained the diplomatic relations with the Roman Empire.
Economy. Albania was a fertile agrarian state with vast wheat fields, grape
vineyards and fruit gardens. Fishery in Albania highly developed. Aelian noted that
the Albanians made fish glue from its internal organs and ointment from cod-liver
oil. Existence of iron ore in Albania furthered to metallurgy development. Since
the first centuries of AD the glass-wares were made in Albania. The stamps made
 16

like ring were used in Albania. The domestic and foreign trade highly developed in
Albania. The treasures of coins found in Shamakha in 1958 and in Gabala in 1966
testified that the stamping coins were widely used in trade. Alexander the Great’s
coins also were used in trade. Cities in Albania were appeared in the middle of the
1st millennium BC. Strabo informed about the Albanian cities Ainiana and
Anariaka in the province of Uti. The chief town of Albania was Kabalaka
(Gabala). Ptolemy informed about 29 cities in Albania. Culture of ancient
Albania was studied on the materials of the archeological excavations and the
written sources. The remnants of large public buildings and fortress were found in
Gabala, around the ancient settlement Tazakend and in Torpaggala. The catacomb
burials dated 1st-3rd centuries were found in Gabala and Mingachevir. The
Albanians were familiar with the Greek, Latin and Near Eastern written languages
as early as in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. It was testified by the following
evidences: 1. the peace treaty signing between Orois and Pompeius in 65 year BC;
2. the inscription in the Greek language on a stone, found in 1902 in the village
Boyuk Dehne in Sheki district, dated the 2nd century. This inscription is devoted to
an Greek who died in the strange land; 3. the letters depicted on the clay fragments

AZERBAIJAN in the 3rd – in the beginning of the 7th centuries

Emergence of feudalism in Azerbaijan. Beginning from 3rd century AD
Azerbaijan was included into the sphere of influence of the Sasanian empire. The
feudal relations in Azerbaijan began to form in this period. On the whole territory
of Sasanian empire, including Atropatena and Albania feudal relations developed
in similar way. The lands were initially in the possession of the shah, religious
institutions and slaveholders. Part of the lands was in the ownership of rural
(village) communities. But communal lands gradually were appropriated (grabbed)
by the feudal lords. It led to the accelerating of the feudalism system. This process
especially strengthened in 6th century when the Sasanian shah Khosrou I
Anushirvan appropriated all the lands which didn’t have owners and then he
granted these lands to the feudal lords instead of military service.
 17

Feudal land ownership existed in 2 basic forms:

1. hereditary land ownership form called “dastakert”. Dastakert belonged

to the grand feudal lords – “patriks”;

2. conditional land ownership form called “khostak”. It belonged to the

“dehgans” in Atropatena and to the “azads” - average and small lords in

Albania.
It should be noted that feudal system in Azerbaijan differed from the one in
Europe by the next features:
1) feudal lords in Azerbaijan had almost no own farms because it was
unprofitable and very expensive in the conditions of the economy which based on
an artificial irrigation;
2) there wasn’t total serfdom system in Azerbaijan. The exception were the
manors of the Albanian Christian feudal lords in the upper Garabagh region;
3) feudalism in Azerbaijan arose earlier than in Europe (in Azerbaijan in 3 rd
century while in Europe in 5th century) but lasted longer up to the 19th century
while in Europe it was already decayed in 17th century.
Including of Azerbaijan into the sphere of influence of the Sassanian empire.
Ardeshir Babakan from dynasty of Sasan defeated the last Arsacid king of
Parthia Artabanus in the battle at Susiana in 224. Two years later in 226 Ardashir
founded the Sasanid Empire with the capital in Ctesiphon. In 227 year Atropatena
was subdued by the Sasanids and ruled by the marzban. Ardebil and Tabriz were
summer and winter residences of the governors of Atropatena. The major
Zoroastrian temples were in Atropatena. The Zoroastrian temple in Gazaka was the
main ideological and educational center of Zoroastrism as it was before. To resist
to spreading of Christianity and to strengthen his power shakhinshah Shapur I
(241-272) ordered to spread Zoroastrism forcibly.
The Sasanian rulers conducted the resettlement policy which aimed:
1) to create an ethnic base on the territory of subduing countries

2) to provide landless Iranian peasants with lands.

 18

These immigrants known as “tat” settled Absheron peninsula, district of

Shamakhy, Guba, Ismailly (Lahich).
Albania was subdued by the Sasanian shah Shapur I (241-272) in 262 though
Albanian governor Vache I (255-262) preferred the union with Rome. But in the
battle at Edessa in 260 the Roman Emperor Valerian was defeat and taken prisoner
by Shapour. The rock relief at Nagsh-e Rustam has the inscription which informed
about submission Albania to Sassanian empire. Although after death of Shapur I in
272 year Albania began to spend independent policy and approached with the
Roman emperor Avrelian. Accordin to Nisbis peace agreement (in 298) Albaniya
stood under Sassanian rule.
During the reign of Shapur II (309-379) the governor of Paitakaran province
Sanaturk (290-338) pursued a policy of preservation of independence of Albania.
He put strong resistance to aggressive aspirations of Armenia and Rome and
prevented spreading Christianity. In 337 year Sanaturk attacked Armenia and
captured its capital Valarshapata. But in 338 year Sanaturk was defeated in the
battle with the Armenian commander Vache Mamikonian. According to the
agreement with Sanaturk the northern tribes of Huns, Basils within 4 years
protected Albania from the Armenian invasion.
Sassanian-Rome wars and Albania. In the military campaign organized by
Shapur II against Rome the Albanian king Urnayr fought on the side of the
Sasanids. In the battle at Amid in 359 the Sasanids defeat on Rome and in result
the Albanian provinces of Artsah (Garabagh), the country of the Mars
(Nakhchyvan) were won back. But in the battle at Dzirav in 371 the Sasanids were
defeated. Urnayr was wounded; Albania lost the areas of Uti, Sakasena, Girdiman
valley and Colt. These areas were returned to Albania in 387 according to the
treaty between the Sasanian Empire and Rome.
Anti-sasanian revolts in Albania. The sasanian shahs spread Zoroastrian
religion by force. Yezdegird II forced the Albanian king Vache II to convert
Zoroastrizm. Christians of South Caucasus made rising against Sassanids. In 450
in Khalkhal battle the rebels defeated by sassanids army.
 19

But in 451 sassanid force with support of hun tribies was victorious over the
rebels. After Yezdegird’s II death Vache renounced Zoroastrizm and accepted
Christianity again. Together with the 11 Caucasian governors he opposed the new
Sasanian shah Firuz. Shah Firuz called the Haylandur (Onogur) Huns for invading
Albania in 462. In this situation Vache II had to give up the power and the king
authority in Albania was disposed for the 30 years. Musa Kalangatly noted that
after Vache II Albania remained without the governor within 30 years. In the
period of 463-493 Albania was governed by the Sasanian marzbans.
The revolt against the Sasanids occurred in Southern Caucasus including
Albania in 481-484. Nvarsak treaty was signed in 485 by shah Balash which
provided a number of privileges to the South Caucasian people. In 493 the albanian
dynasty of Arsacids was restored on the Albanian throne. Vachagan III the Blissful
(493-510) came to the power. He encouraged spreading Christianity in Albania and
organized Aguen church council in 498 with participation of 10 Christian religious
figures. Aguen council adopted the cannons which concerned Christianity and set
up taxes size. Nevertheless, Christianity couldn't become stronger in Albania. The
reign of the Albanian Arsacid dynasty was ceased by the Sassanids in 510. Albania
began to be ruled again by the Sassanian marzbans up to the establishment of
Mihranid dynasty (510-629).
Albania under Mihranid dynasty. In the beginning of the 7th cent. the Mihranids
dynasty came to power in Albania. The dynasty was founded by Mihran who was a
distant relative of the Sasanid shah Khosrau II. Mihran was accused of being
involvement in murder of shah’s father. He escaped from Iran and settled in the
Albanian province Uti. Later he moved to Girdiman. Shah Khosrau being afraid
that Mihran could conclude union with the Khazars forgave him. Although Mihran
was considered to be originated from the Turkish tribe of Sabirs settled the
Girdiman province since the 70-s of the 6th cent. Having killed 12 persons from the
local nobility Mihran became ruler of this province. His successors managed to
strengthen more their power. Varaz Grigor was the first of the Mihranids who
 20

assumed the title of king over all of Albania. Thus, ruling of the Mihranid dynasty
(629-705) in Albania began.
The most prominent ruler of Mihranid dynasty was Javanshir - Varaz Grigor’s
son. In 633 the Arabian armies started war against the Sasanian Empire and Varaz
Grigor sent the Albanian troops led by Javanshir to fight against the Arabs on the
side of the Sasanids. Albanian historian Musa Qalankatli noted that Javanshir and
his group of soldiers fought for seven years against the Arabs. During this time,
Javanshir proved to be a brave soldier and a talented warlord. The Sasanian Shah
Iezdigerd III especially recognized Javanshir’s merits and awarded him with gold
belt, decorated in pearls, and a sword with a gold handle for courage in the battle at
Qadisiyyah in 636. Javanshir at the head of his troops numbering 3000 warriors
also participated in the battle for the capital of the Sassanids Ctesiphon in 638.
After the Sassanian army suffered defeat Javanshir returned to Albania in 640.
First of all, Javanshir defeated and drove out of Albania the Iranian feudal lords
who had invaded and plundered the country. Javanshir became the governor of
Albania after death of his father in 642 at the age of 21 years. Varaz Grigor make a
will not to struggle with Arabs.
Khazars and Byzantium also threatened Albania. Javanshir concluded an
alliance with Byzantium. He met with the Byzantine Emperor Constantine II two
times and was recognized by him as the governor of Albania which covered the
territory from the borders of Iberia up to Araz river and «Hunnic gate» (Derbent).
The emperor sent a precious gift and named Javanshir the king of Albania.
In 662 Albania was faced with the invasion of Khazars. The Khazars reached
the river Kura, where Albanian troops defeated them and forced them to retreat
from Albania. A few years later (665), the Khazars invaded again and reached the
river Araz. Javanshir was compelled to enter into negotiations with Khazars. He
met with the Khazars’ khagan at the bank of Kura and concluded peace agreement
with him. Albania was obliged to pay annual tribute and Khazars returned all
captives and herds (cattles). Besides, Javanshir was married to Khazar Khakan’s
daughter.
 21

With the expansion of the Arab conquests the alliance with Byzantium was no
longer significant for Albania. Byzantium was much weaker than the Arab
Caliphate while Albania needed a strong ally for protection against the attacks of
Khazars. In this situation Javanshir had to recognize the Caliph’s suzerainty. He
visited Damascus the capital of Caliphate two times (667, 670) and was met by the
caliph Muawiyah with solemnity. Caliph officially recognized Javanshir as king of
Albania. Thanks to the diplomatic talents as well as his personal qualities Javanshir
set up friendly relations with the Caliph. According to the agreement with
Caliphate Albania could save its internal independence and cut down the sum of
annual tribute to one third (1/3). Besides, the Syunik province was handed over to
rule of Javanshir. Caliph presented Javanshir by an elephant and 52 light-footed
horses. Javanshir was assassinated by the rival nobles in 680. Musa Kalangatli
wrote that Javanshir built many palaces and temples in Barda at the capital of
Albania and in other cities.

THE INCLUSION OF AZERBAIJAN INTO THE ARAB CALIPHATE

After the Arabs defeated the Sassanids in the battles of Nihavend and Hamadan
in 642, they entered Azerbaijan. In the battle near Ardabil marzban of Azerbaijan
Isfendiyar was defeated and taken prisoner. Thereafter Isfendiyar’s brother Bahram
continued fight against the Arabs but he also was defeated by the Arab commander
Ukba Ibn Farkada. Isfendiyar was compelled to conclude treaty with the Arab
commander Bukeyr under the following conditions:
1. population of Azerbaijan (with the exception of women, children, poor) was
obliged to pay taxes also capitation tax jizya;
2. the Arabs pledged not to interfere with religion, traditions and customs of the
local population;
3. those persons who had not subdued to the Arabs, were allowed to leave the
country;
 22

4. persons who voluntarily served in the Arab Army, were exempted from
taxes.
Thereafter, Bukeyr having taken Mugan and the West coast of the Caspian Sea
reached Derbent. In Shirvan Bukeyr also signed a treaty with the ruler of Shirvan
Shahriyar. After the departure of the Arabs from Ardabil, a rebellion broke out
here but was put down by the new Arab Army. In 646 the Arabs renewed the treaty
under the tougher terms.
In 643 the Arabs led by Abdurrahman reached Balanjar north to Derbent where
the battle with the Khazars took place. The Khazars won a victory and killed
Abdurrahman. The new Arab army under the command of Salman Ibn Rabia was
sent. The Arabs invaded Nakhchivan and Gerus, captured Beylagan and Barda and
concluded the treaty with the local population having obliged them to pay kharaj.
Having subdued Shamkir, Sheki, Shirvan, Shabran and Derbent the Arabs in
Balanjar once again encountered the Khazars in 653. This time as well the Arab
army was defeated and Salman fell in the battle.
The Arab-Khazar war which began in the 8th centure lasted approximately a
hundred years. In 730 the Khazars invaded Azerbaijan as far as Ardabil. In a fierce
battle near Savalan mount the Khazaras won a brilliant victory. Then they moved
to the town of Hilat in Asia Minor. Near the Lake Van the Arabs managed to crush
the Khazars and drive them out of Azerbaijan. Thereafter, part of the Khazar
concluded peace with the Arabs and accepted Islam. During the reign of Harun Al-
Rashid (786-809) in the 790’s Azerbaijan was again invaded by the Khazars.
In the middle of 7th century Azerbaijan was conquered by the Arabian
Caliphate. Because Arabs didn’t have sufficient experience in state governance
system they inherited political traditions and methods of governance from the
Sasanian Empire. The territory of the Caliphate was divided into the emirates like
marzbans in Sasanian empire. Initially there were 5 emirates in Caliphate. Later the
number of emirates increased to 14. Azerbaijan firstly entered into the 4 th emirate,
later into the 3rd. The territory of Azerbaijan in this period stretched from Derbent
in the north to Hamadan in the south.
 23

Islamization of Azerbaijan. Every Moslem had to accept Shahada - belief to

one deity – Allah (j.j.), to accept messenger or prophet of Allah - Muhammad
Mustafa (p.b.u.h.&h.f.). God-given Quran is a Holy Book of Islam. Moslems ()
had to pray every day about five times (salat or namaz). They fast one month in a
year (Fast of Ramadan) and pay voluntary payments for the poor (khoums, zakat &
sadaga). They made hajj (pilgrimage to Kaaba) and tawaf (circumambulation)
around holy Kaaba.
The new religion was more humane and fair. The poor accepted Islam
voluntarily because it was profitable for them. The Arabs attracted the population
to Islam by the such methods as fair treatment, rendering privileges, concluding
peace treaties, etc. Besides, the amounts of taxes imposed by the early Caliphate
were lower in comparison to the Sassanids. Acceptance of a single religion of
Islam had progressive role in the destiny of Azerbaijani people. Islam contributed
to the political stability and national unity in Azerbaijan. Islam spread in Southern
and Northern Azerbaijan in the short time, except of the Mountainous Garabagh.
The population of the mountainous and highland areas populated by Christians,
resisted the new religion. Islam also gave an impetus to the cultural development
and promoted the formation of a single Azerbaijani nation.
Resettlement policy. Like the Sassanian empire the Arabian Caliphate
conducted resettlement policy which aimed to create a reliable ethnic basis and
assimilate the local population into Arabs. Thousands families from Basra, Kufa,
Syria and Arabian Peninsula moved in Azerbaijan. They were granted by the
privileges and lands.
Local administration. Emirates were ruled by the emirs appointed by the
Caliph. He possessed of whole civil and military authority in emirate. Amil dealt
with the civil cases and tax collection (taxation). Qazi was the head of judicial
department. Qazi also managed the vakuf lands. The postal system “baril” was
developed in Caliphate for maintenance of a regular line of communication
between the center and the remote districts of the empire.
 24

Military forces were deployed (took place) in the strategically important cities
or border regions for repelling aggression (reflection attacks) from Khazars or
Byzantium. They were also used for suppression of revolts. The military forces
were in the 3 forms:
- the army formed from Arabs;
- the troops formed from the local population converted into Islam
religion. These troops called “movla”;
- the Christian volunteers who served in the Arabian army. They were
called “zimmi”.
Tax policy. Arabs adopted the Sassanian tax system as well. Although unlike
the Sassanids Arabs levied taxes not from individuals but from the country.
Initially there were 2 main forms of tax in the Caliphate: “kharaj” – tax for land
and “jizye” – capitation. Jizye was paid by non-muslim population. The Christian
church was allowed not pay taxes because Caliphate expected to use church in
keeping the Christians under control.
Caliph Ali (656-661) who was known as “Pillar of Islam” carried out the fair
tax reform. This reform aimed to the rational cultivation of land rather than to the
collection of kharaj. According to this reform non-arable lands were not exposed to
the taxation.
During the reign of the Omeyyad dynasty in 725 the population census was
taken. The cattle and lands in Azerbaijan also were inventoried and additional
taxes were input. It led to impoverishment not only poor men, but also small and
average feudal lords. During the reign of the Abbasid dynasty tax policy became
tougher, because as cultivated lands as non-arable lands were exposed to the
taxation. Caliph al-Mansur for his cupidity was nicknamed as «the father of
money». Under Harun ar-Rahid everybody having reached at the age of 15 was
obliged to pay taxes. Besides of kharaj and jizya there were such taxes as “khums”,
“zakat”
There were 5 forms of land ownership in Azerbaijan in Caliphate period:
 25

1. the dominant form was state lands, they also called as “divan” or “caliph”
lands;
2. “igta” was the conditional form or land ownership which granted for military
service. There were 2 form of igta – presented igta and rented igta;
3. “mulk” was hereditary form or land ownership. Mulks were in possession of
the local feudal lords “maliks”;
4. “vakuf” lands which were in possession of religious institutions. Vakuf
lands couldn’t be sold or transformed into a private property;
5. “ijma” lands which were in possession of rural communities.

The freedom movement against Abbasid Caliphate. Babek.

Taxes policy and arbitrariness of bureaucrats in Caliphate increased
dissatisfaction among people. Removal of local feudal from administration and
depriving of privileges resulted in feudal joined to people and ruled the uprisings.
Uprisings against Omayyad dynasty were intensified both in the centre of country
and in dependent countries in the middle of 8th centuries. The main members of
uprisings in the centre were people who served religious sect called khariji. They
demanded election of khalif by population. It was difficult to cope with them
because rebellions occurred at the same time. Uprising against Caliphate in
Azerbaijan were enlarged in 748-752 years. Rebellion in 748 in Beylagan that
ruled by butcher Musafir was enlarged to Barda and Ardebil. Rebels took Arab
emir as prisoner. The new emir that sent by Caliph suppressed the uprising. There
were 15 uprisings during the reign of caliph Harun ar-Rashid in Azerbaijan.
The first uprisings of Hurramites took place in 778 and in 808. The
Hurramites were fighting against the Arabs and their policy of Islamisation long
before the appearance of Babek. The Hurramites' religion was based on the
Mazdakism doctrines. It preached the existence of a constant conflict between
good and evil, and between light and darkness. All his life Babek fought against
the Caliphate and tried to restore the ancient Zoroastrian and Mazdakism beliefs.
 26

His real name was Hasan but later he accept the name Babek. His farther who was
named Abdulla lived in Azerbaijan and made his living by selling oil. Abdulla was
murdered by robbers. In order to make a living for his mother and little brother
Hasan had to work as a shepherd already at the age of 10.
There was a Hurramit organization in his home town Bilalabad led by a
wealthy man Javidan ibn Sukhrak who lived in the Baaz fortress. Javidan was
engaged in a conflict with his neighbour feudal Abu Imran. When Javidan was
killed in fight against Abu Imran in 816, his wife declared that Javidan’s spirit
transferred from his body to Babek's. After Babek succeeded Javidan, he became
the leader of the Hurramits community in Baaz and accepted his non-Muslim name
Babek. After becoming the Hurramites leader, Babek started to take some serious
actions: his goals were to banish the Arabs, abolish Islam and restore ancient
beliefs. He gradually transformed his poorly equipped troops into a well-organized
and trained army. A rebellion against the Arabs took place throughout all of
Azerbaijan and then moved further into the North (Arran) and into the South
(Khorasan). Babek always destroyed all fortifications and killed Arab soldiers and
civilians. The Khorramdin rebellion of Babak lasted more than 20 years.
The first battle took place in 819. Babek won this battle against Abu Khamed
ruler of Azerbaijan and Armenyya. Caliph Mamun having realized that the
situation was getting worse he appointed Muhammad at-Tusi as chief of the army.
Tusi was talented warrior, but in battle at Hashtadsar in 829 Babak won a decisive
victory over him. Muhammad at-Tusi lost his life. Many of his soldiers were
killed. In 830 at the battle near Hamadan Hurramites von. Afterwards Hurramites
crossed out of bound of Azerbaijan.
Having been involved in a war with Byzantine Caliphate had to postpone the
war against Babek. In 833 Caliph al-Mamun died, his brother Al-Mutasim
succeeded him as the new Caliph. The first thing that Mutasim did after becoming
Caliph was to reorganize the Arab army. He hired a lot of Turks who were known
as brave and skillful soldiers.
 27

The battle against Babek took place near Khamadan in 833. Arabic troops led
by Iskhak ibn Ibrahim won this battle. Babek returned to Baaz. Afterwards,
Mutasim formed a new army and appointed his outstanding general Heydar ibn
Kaus al-Afshin, who was Turkic by birth as chief commander. Afshin was also
appointed as ruler of Azerbaijan, Armenia, Arran, Mugan and Jabal. Afshin rebuilt
fortresses. Afshin was acting slowly in his war against Babek. In the spring of 836
Afshin reached Baaz and surrounded the fortress. In one of the battle the prominent
Arabian general Buga al-Kabir was defeated and could hardly escape. At the end
of the winter Mutasim sent another 9,000 Turkish soldiers. Al-Mu'tasim sent a
safety guarantee for Babak to Afshin. This was taken to Babak who was very
displeased. He said: "Better to live for just a single day in a freedom than to live
for forty years as an abject slave". Babek hoped to receive aid from Byzantium
against the Caliphate. He escaped from Baaz in 837. Babek reached the Shakhi
where his close friend Sahl ibn Sumbat lived. Sumbat invited him to stay at his
castle but he betrayed him. Having received a letter from Afshin promising million
dirham award for the capture of Babek Sahl ibn Sumbat handed him over to
Afshin. Babek and his brother were taken to the capital in rich clothes riding an
elephant and a camel. Heydar ibn Kaus al-Afshin captured Bazz in august 837.
Babek was executed on 14th March 838 in Samarra.
The reasons which led to defeat of the Khorramdin rebellion were the
following: 1. betrayal of the big nobles; 2. attraction of the Turkic military leaders
and fighters to the war against the Khurramites; 3. the ability of the Arabian army
despite the huge losses being restored.
The Khorramdin movement was the freedom struggle of the Azerbaijani people
for independence. Although this struggle was suppressed but it undermined
Caliphate and eventually led to its disintegration.
Formation of Azerbaijan nation
Formation of Azerbaijan nation firstly occurred during the period of First
Azerbaijan Republic (1918-1920). In 1919 the information about Azerbaijan nation
was given to Paris peace conference. There was written: “In ancient times there
 28

were tribes speaking in Tatar (Turkish) that inhabited in the east land of Caucasus
along the shore of Caspian Sea. These tribes partly mixed with Persians and
numerous mighty Turks for several times. Thereupon people that lived in this side
of Caucasus were called Azerbaijan Turks or according to country’s name called
azerbaijanians.”
As a lot of countries in the world Azerbaijan is also multinational country.
Majority of people are in turk origin, but from ancient times till today here live
tribes speaking in Caucasus-iber languages as udins, lezgins, etc. and tribes
speaking in Persian languages as tats, talish and so on.
For hundred years these nations accepted customs and traditions of one another,
married to one another and became relatives. But every nation has its own ethno
genesis - formation in history. One of the most important problem in history is the
formation of Azerbaijan turks as nation. It is necessary matter to take into account
written historical sources, archeological, ethnographical, toponymycal and
historical- philological materials in order to learn it.
In the I millenium B.C. Azerbaijan was attacked by kimmer-scyth-sak
tribes.Their coming strengthened turk element in Middle East. First information
about turk tribes lived in Azerbaijan and Anatolia were given us by cuneiform
writings in North Mesopatamia. There were informations about bulgar, bunturk,
alban, gargar tribes and tribe unions in sources. The Georgian source “Makhsevoy
Kartlisay” was written in 10th century gives us information about bunturk – as the
branch of bulgar nation. Leonti Mraveli, author of XI century wrote that bunturks
lived in Kartly-in eastern Georgia- till the time when the Babylon tsar
Navakhodonsor destroyed Jerusalem in 586 B.C., and when Alexander the Great
come to Asia. Antique author Dion Cassi considered Albanians as massaget, i.d
scyth.
In III-V centuries there were great movement of turkish origin huns to
Azerbaijan.These tribes were: kangar, onogur, haylandur, barsil, suvar, sabir and
khazar. Ethnonim barsil transfrmed to the forms borshali-borchali. Nowdays the
part of Gorgia where azerbaijan people live calld so.
 29

The main conditions in formation of nation are language, territory, economic

relation, cultural relation and self-consciousness. In the early Middle Ages all these
conditions existed in Azerbaijan. Accepting Islam religion led progress in
formation of nations
Albanian tsar Cavanshir married to Khazar khagan’s daughter.It changed the
processes for the better. Obstacles made by christian church of Albania between
two different societes-christian-albans and hun-tengrinians (they believed to one
deo - Tengri ) was abolished. Social diversity between Atropatena and Albania was
eliminated in the period of Caliphate with the help of Islam religion. Country
entered the new stage of progress in ethneculture. Caliphate’s movement policy
changed the ethnyc map of Azerbaijan. Besides of Arabs muslim turks resettled
here. In VII century caliph asked to Ubeid ibn Sharuya that which nations lived in
Azerbaijan, he answered: “Azerbaijan is turk’s land. They gathered there,became
relatives and improved there.” Formation of Azerbaijan nation finished by coming
of seljuq turks in XI century.

REVIVAL OF THE AZERBAIJAN STATEHOOD

in the second half of The 9th – in the middle of the 11th centuries
In the 9th century Abbassid Caliphate had weakened in result of increasing of
the independent movements on its territory. The former Arabian deputies and
military commanders took advantage of this situation and began to act more and
more independently. It led eventually to the establishment of the independent states
on the suburbs of Caliphate. This process took place in Azerbaijan in the second
half of the 9th century. That period is characterized as the renewal of the Azerbaijan
statehood after the Sassanian and Arab rule in Azerbaijan. Numerous states came
into being in Azerbaijan by such dynasties as the Shirvanshahs, Sajids, Salarids,
Shaddadids, Rawadids.
The Shirvanshah state (861-1538) was the first among them. It was founded
by Heysam ibn Khalid who declared independence of Shirvan and accepted the
ancient title of Shirvanshah in 861. Heysam ibn Khalid was descended from
 30

Mazyadids dynasty founded by the the Arabian deputy Yazid ibn Mazyad
Sheybani, who was appointed by Harun ar-Rashid (786-809) to rule Southern
Caucasus, including Shirvan. His residence place was Barda. By origin, the
Yazidids were Arabs of the Shaybani tribe.
After subduing the Lakhijanshah domain Shirvanshakh Abu Tair built up the
ancient city of Shamakha and renamed it Yazidiyya. Whereas it had very important
strategic position the capital was transferred there in 918. In the end of 10 th
century the Shirvanshakh state extended its territory gradually by joining Gabala
(981), Barda (982), Shabran (983) and also Derbend (988). The fortifications of
Derbend were rebuilt up by the Shirvanshahs. It helped to prevent invasions of
Azerbaijan from the north. Khursan and Tabasaran also were incorporated into the
Shirvanshahs state. Sheki and Sanariya were controlled by the Shirvanshakhs for
some times. The Shirvanshakhs built many defensive castles across all of Shirvan
to resist many foreign invasions especially attacks of the northern tribes.
The Sajids state (879-941) was based in 879 by the Turkish dynasty Sajids
originated from the Central Asian province of Usrushana. The founder of this
dynasty Abu Saj Diwdad served in the caliph’s army and took part in the final
campaign against Babek Khurramdin. In view of great military services of Abu Saj
Diwdad, Caliph granted him Azerbaijan as mulk. Afshin
Toward the end of the 9th century, as the central authority of the Abbasid
Caliphate weakened, Muhammad the son of Abu-Saj Diwdad formed an
independent state. He issued coins in the own name. Since 912 Yusif ibn Abu Saj
Diwdad stopped tribute payment in the Caliphate treasury at all. He invaded the
territory of Armenia, Tiflis and Kakhetia. The Sajids put also the Shirvanshah state
under their control. Since the beginning of 10th century the Sajids state covered all
territory of Azerbaijan and stretched from Zenjan to Derbent, from the Caspian sea
to the cities of Ani and Dabil (Dvin). Maraga was the first capital of this state, later
Ardebil became the capital.
The Sajids state was the first Azerbaijani state which could unite all
Azerbaijani lands and establish a single state on the whole territory of Azerbaijan.
 31

The creation of a single state was the very progressive achievement in our history
and promoted the intensification of economic and cultural relations between all
regions of the country. It led eventually to consolidation of the Azerbaijani people
and helped to resist to the aggressive attempts of the Christian block. The dynasty
of the Sajids was displaced by the Salarids dynasty in 941.
The Salarids state (941-981) was founded by Marzban ibn Muhammed the
governor of Deylem (Gilan) province. Marzban ibn Muhammed inflicted defeat on
the last Sajid ruler Deysam in 941 and captured the capital Ardebil. The Salarids
state covered extensive territory from Derbend pass in the north to the rivers Tigris
and Euphrates in the south. From the Caspian Sea including Gilan province in the
east to Georgia and Armenia in the west. That period in history of Azerbaijan is
characterized by the development of the economic relations, prosperity of craft and
trade. During the rule of the Salarids the trade vessels began sail across the Caspian
Sea.
The existence of single state of both the Sajids and the Salarids promoted the
process of ethnic consolidation and formation of uniform nation.
However, the struggle for power started after the death of Marzban ibn
Muhammed between his sons and brother Vahsudan as well as the military raids
undertaken by the Rus weakened the Salarids. Especially capturing of Barda the
capital of Arran by the Rus in 944 exhausted the Salarids state at all and hastened
its downfall. The Salarids state fell to the Ravvadids.
The Sheddadids state (971-1067) With the decline of the Salarids state
Mohammed ibn Sheddad captured Dabil (Dvin) and founded Dabil emirate in 951.
He was descended from Shaddadid dynasty which ruled Ganja, Arran-Nakhchivan,
Dvin and Ani emirates from middle of the 10th till 12th centuries. Having captured
Ganja in 971 Ali Lashkary ibn Muhammad established the independent state.
During the reign of Fazl ibn Mohammed (985-1031) the Sheddadids state became
stronger. He subdued Baylagan. The small feudal domains round Ganja were
subdued. Fazl ibn Muhammad successfully fought against Georgian feudal lords
and the Khazars, got the Armenian governor to pay tribute. By dynastic marriage
 32

he established friendly relations with the Shirvanshahs. His daughter was married
to Shirvanshah Menuchehr. During Fazl ibn Mohammed’s rule the Khudaferin
bridge across the Araz was constructed in 1027. This bridge played an important
role in development of economic and cultural ties between southern and northern
parts of Azerbaijan. The Sheddadid ruler Leshker had friendly relations with the
Ravvadid ruler Vahsudan and emir of Tiflis Abulfazl Jafar ibn Ali. He successfully
defended Dabil (1037) and Tiflis (1038) from the Armenian and Georgian
encroachments.
In the 50-s of 11th century Southern Caucasus was invaded by the Seljuqids.
The Sheddadid ruler Abulasvar Shavur was submitted to the Seljuq sultan Togrul
bey. The Sheddadids and Seljuqs became an allies in struggle against Byzantium.
In 1062 the Sheddadids state was invaded by the Alans. Having concluded an
alliance with the Georgian king Bagrat IV the Alans passed through the Daryal
gorge and raided Azerbaijan. Abulasvar Shavur reinforced Ganja by ordering to
build of defensive walls round the city. Moreover, in 1063 he ordered to the smith
Ibrahim Osmanogly to make gates for Ganja fortress. Last representative of this
dynasty Fazl III attempt to restore authority of Shaddadis in Ganja but was captive
by Saljuq army in 1088. Sultan Malikshah appointed his own amir (govenor) to
Ganja.
The Ravvadids state (981-1054) Like the Mazyadids the Ravvadids were
Arabic tribe by origin. The ancestors (forefathers) of the Ravvadids resettled from
Yemen to Azerbaijan in 8th century. They settled near Tebriz. The Ravvadian clan
Azdi ruled Tebriz, Maraga, Ahar. Garadag. In 981 one of the descendant of this
clan by name Abulheja having overthrown of the last Salarids governor Ibrahim
ibn Marzban established the Ravvadids state. Capital was transferred from Ardebil
to Tabriz. Transferring of the capital to Tabriz which located at the crossing of
trade routes promoted its prosperity. Moreover, Tabriz had very favourable
position for economic and political consolidation of all Azerbaijan regions. The
territory of Ravvadids state included Southern Azerbaijan and Mugan estate. After
the Oghuz Turks were defeated by Mahmud Ghaznevi in 1028 the Ravvadian ruler
 33

Vahsudan (1020-1059) allowed approximately the 2000 families from the Oghuz
Turks to arrive in Azerbaijan from Central Asia and settle near Tabriz.

PREDATORY RAIDS RUS INTO AZERBAIJAN

The Rus travelling as merchants along the Don-Volga-Caspian route actively
traded with Azerbaijan and Arab began to conduct predatory raids on the Caspian
shores in the late 9th - early 10th century.
Rus expedition attacked the port of Abaskun in Tabaristan on the southern
coast of Caspian Sea in 909 and plundered coastal settlements. Although the Rus’
were defeated by the local residents, but in 910 they returned and grasped island
Sary, took captives among the local residents. They attacked Gilan on the southern
coast of Caspian Sea but having been defeated firstly by Gilanshah afterward by
Shirvan troops retreated.
In 914 the Rus began the large-scale raid. Having arrived on 500 ships each
manned by 100 persons pillaged the Rus reached the southern shores of the
Caspian Sea. This raid was described in detail by the Arabian historian Masudi. He
informed that the Khazars had allowed the Rus to pass through their country on
condition that they should give to Khazars half of captured booty. The ships of the
Rus spread throughout the sea. They raided Jurjan, Tabaristan, the naphtha country
[Baku] and the region of Azerbaijan the Rus shed blood, destroyed the women and
children, took a lot of booty. The Muslims who lived in Khazaria learned of the
situation of the Rus, and said to the king of the Khazars: “leave us to deal with
these people. They have raided the lands of the Muslims, our brothers, and have
shed blood and enslaved women and children”. There was fighting between the
Muslims and the Rus which continued for 3 days. The Rus were defeated. From 50
thousand of the Rus only 5 thousand could escape, but these too were killed, by the
Burtas and the Bulgars. After this crushing defeat the predatory raids of the Rus
into Azerbaijan were stopped for 30 years.
The second large-scale campaign was carried out in 944. During this expedition
the Rus intended to occupy Azerbaijan and to settle here permanently. They moved
 34

up the Kura river and captured Barda the capital of Arran. Because this time the
Mosul governor rose the revolt and grasped Khoy and Salmas, Salarid ruler
Marzban ibn Mohammed had to move against him. Only a small military
group was left at Barda. This group couldn’t protect the city. The Rus
demanded the inhabitants had to leave the city. This ultimatum was rejected, and
the Rus began killing people. They held part of inhabitants in a mosque demanding
a ransom for them in 20 dircham.
The Rus' stayed in Barda for several months, using it as a base for plundering
the adjacent areas. 20 thousand people were killed during the Rus’ occupation.
Nevertheless, the Rus couldn’t stop resistance of local population. Being
exhausted by resistance of the local people and an outbreak of dysentery the Rus
had to leave Barda. Ibn Miskawaih writes that the Rus' escaped at night having set
the fortress on fire. they have set fire to a fortress and together with extraction by
the ships have sailed in the country. They carried on their backs all they could of
their treasure. This tragic event had undermined status of Barda, the famous
Bardian market had lost its worth, issuing of coins had been suspended. Barda
couldn’t recover its prosperity.
In the later period raid of the Rus in Azerbaijan continued. In 987, emir of
Derbend Maymun ibn Ahmad asked the Rus' to help him against local chiefs. In
1030, the Rus' raided the region of Shirvan. The ruler of Ganja Musa ibn Sheddad
used them to suppress a revolt which was rose by his brother in Beylagan. The
year of 1032 saw another Rus' raid into Shirvan they were joined by the Alans.
Local Muslims defeated the Rus' in 1033.

AZERBAIJAN IN 11th-13th CENTURIES

INCORPORATION OF AZERBAIJAN INTO THE GREAT SELJUQ
EMPIRE
The Seljuq empire was formed in the middle of the 11th century in the
extensive territory stretched from Central Asia to the Mediterranean sea, from
Derbent pass to the Persian gulf. Eponim Seljuq derives from the name of the
 35

Turkic commander who was descended from the Oghuz tribe of Gynyg which had
accepted Islam in 10th century. In the 11th century the Seljuqs under the pressure
of the Ghaznavids began to move westward. The Seljuq’s principal opponent was
Byzantium. Having passed through Azerbaijan and Iran the Seljuq troops defeated
the Byzantian army in 1015 and the lands around lake Van and Nakhchyvan was
taken under their control.
Seljuq state with capital in Nishapur was based in 1038. The Ghaznavids’
sultan Masud I dreamed to get back Nishapur fought the Seljuqs in the
Dandanakan plain (near Merv) on May, 23rd, 1040. Seljuq army headed by the
skilled commander Chaghri beg won a brilliant victory. After the battle Great
Congress organized in Merv on the next day, declared Tughrul beg as “sultan”.
He began new military offensives against the Byzantine Empire and the Caliphate
in an effort to expand his empire's borders, in order to unite the Islamic world.
With this purpose capital was transferred from Nishapur to Rey in 1043.
The Seljuqs attacked Azerbaijan from three directions – Hamadan, Isfahan and
Gilan. The Seljuq troops led by Kutalmysh having passed Araz entered Aran.
Having united with the Azerbaijanian troops Seljuqs defeated Byzantian, Georgian
and Armenian united military forces in 1048. Byzantium was compelled to make
the peace with the Seljuqs.
In 1054 the Seljuqs approached Tabriz which was the capital of the Ravvadids
state. The Ravvadid ruler Vahsudan submitted to the Seljuqian sultan. The
Sheddadids ruler Abulasvar Shavur also obeyed to the Seljuq sultan and
concluded an alliance against the Byzantian emperor and its allies on the Caucasus.
Despite persistent resistance Shirvan was compelled to subdue to the Seljuqs in
1066. Shirvanshah Fariburz I became the vassal of the Seljuq sultan. Thus,
Azerbaijan was entirely incorporated into the Seljuqian empire. There were some
reasons which facilitated the Seljuqian conquest of Azerbaijan. One of the reason
was that there wasn’t uniform state in Azerbaijan. The Sheddadids, Shirvanshas
and Ravvadids states which existed in Azerbaijan in that period couldn't unite
themselves to put resistance to the Seljuqs. The other reason was that the Seljuqs
 36

were relied upon to be an ally to the Muslim population of Azerbaijan in the

struggle against the Christian military bloc. Besides, the Seljuqs were assisted by
the Oghuz Tirkic tribes settling in Azerbaijan.
The Seljuq period of Azerbaijan's history was the principal stage because it
promoted the ethno-linguistic consolidation and nationality formation in
Azerbaijan. As a result of the Seljuqian campaign the Azerbaijan people turned
into the principal ethnopolitic factor on Southern Caucasus. Incorporation of
Southern Caucasus into the Great Seljuq empire frustrated Byzantium’s plan to put
this region under its control. The aggressive attempts of the Georgian and
Armenian governors aiming to grasp the western lands of Azerbaijan were also
supressed.
Land ownership. In the Seljuq period “iqta” turned into the main land
ownership form among the others. The system of iqta was the most availiable for
providing Seljuq rulers with military forces. There was new form of the conditional
land property which was called “uj torpaqlary”. “Uj torpaglary” were given to the
military commanders who had to defence the borders of the empire.
The Seljuq Empire began to decline in the end of the 11th century. The empire
was actually desintegrated following the death of the last Seljuqian ruler sultan
Ahmad Sanjar in 1157.
After disintegration of the Seljuq empire the territory of Southern Azerbaijan
was incorporated into Iraq Seljuq Sultanat (1118-1194) which included also the
territory of Iraq, Iran and partly Southern Caucasus and Azerbaijan (to the south
from the Kura river). The vassals of the Seljuq sultans Atabegs came to the power
and established new states on the territory of the former Seljuq empire.
AZERBAIJANIAN ATABEG (ILDEGIZ) STATE (1136-1225) was
founded by Shams ad-Din Eldegiz (1136-1175). Being child Shams ad-Din Eldegiz
was bought on the Derbent slave market and sold to the Seljuq sultan’s vizier.
According to the personal qualities and services Eldegiz was granted by the title
“Shams ad-Din” meant “the sun of the religion”. Shamsaddin Eldeniz (1136-1175)
had huge influence at the sultan court. He was appointed to be an atabeg of sultan
 37

Tughrul’s II son Arslan-shah. Atabeg (literally means "father lord") was the title
granted to the Turkic slave officers who served as guardians of Seljuq rulers. In
the political circumstances of that time, Atabegs were not only tutors and vice-
regents of their princes, but also de-facto rulers. In 1136 Shams ad-Din Eldegiz
(1136-1175) was appointed to be governor of Azerbaijan province Aran. This date
became the beginning of the Azerbaijan Atabeg state. Shamsaddin expanded his
power over the other territories of Azerbaijan including Nakhchyvan. At the height
of Eldegiz power, their territory stretched from Isfahan in the south to the borders
of Georgia and Shirvan in the north.
By the support of Shamsaddin his stepson Arslanshah was enthroned in
Hamadan in 1160. Thereafter Shamsaddin accepted the title “Grand Atabeg”. The
actual power in the state was in his hands. He defeated the opposed governors and
forced them to subdue him. Under his rule the people “began to live in truth,
justice and safety”. Shamsaddin’s elder son Mohammed Jahan Pahlavan was
appointed sultan’s hajib, and his younger son Ghyzyl Arslan became a supreme
commander in chief of sultan army. Thus, Iraq Seljuq Sultanat began to be ruled
by the Azerbaijanin dynasty of Atabegs. The territory of the Atabegs state
stretched from Derbent to the Persian gulf, from Tiflis to Mekran. It also included
all the territory now known as Armenia, Dabil. The Shirvanshah state recognized
supremacy of the Atabegs’ dynasty. Shamsaddin reinforced the borders of the
state and prevented the invasions of the Georgians rulers.
The historical significance of the Atabeg of Azerbaijan was in that they put the
territory of Azerbaijan under firm control and defend it from the foreign invasions
during the later Seljuq period. Moreover, they became champions of Islam in
Southern Caucasus against the Bagratid Georgian kings.
Shamsaddin was succeeded by his son Jahan Pahlavan (1175-1186). Under his
rule the State of Atabegs became more stronger. Jahan Pehlivan transferred capital
from Nakhchyvan to Hamadan and made his younger brother Ghyzyl Arslan the
ruler of Azerbaijan. In 1174 Qyzyl Arslan took over Tabriz from the Aqsunqur
dynasty. Tabriz became the residence of the Azerbaijan governor.
 38

Jahan Pahlavan was succeeded by his brother Ghyzyl Arslan. In the battle in
Hamadan in 1190 Qyzyl Arslan defeated the last Seljuq ruler Togrul III and next
year he was proclaimed Sultan. Nevertheless from this period the central power
began to get weaker. After Qyzyl Arslan was killed. The power was divided among
Jahan Pehlivan’s three sons: Abu Bakr, Qutluq Inandj and Amir Amiran. Abu Bakr
governed Azerbaijan and Arran, and his brothers were the rulers of Khorasan and
several neighboring regions. Soon, these three successors began to fight for the
throne. And Abu Bakr was the one to win this war. The permanent invasions of the
Georgian army were also renewed. In 1203 Dabil was invaded and plundered by
the Georgian troops. During the predatory campaign in 1210-1211 the western
areas of Azerbaijan particularly Marand, Miyane, Zenjan, Qazvin, Abhar and
Ardebil were devastated and plundered by the Georgian troops. The eastern
province Khorasan was grasped by the Khorezmshah Tekesh.
All these invasions as well as the first march of the Mongols in 1220-1222
speed up its decay. The Atabeg State fell in 1225 by Jalaleddin Khorezmshah.

THE STATE OF SHIRVANSHAHS IN THE 11th -12th CENTURIES

While the Great Seljuq Empire was declining the Shirvanshahs began to restore
its authority. In the late of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries Manuchehr II
and Afridun I ruled the country independently.
Having taken advantage of declining of the Seljuq Empire the Georgian rulers
began to pursue the aggressive policy. They tried to enlist Shirvanshs’ support in
struggle against Seljuqs. And they intended to grasp the western regions of
Azerbaijan. The Georgian king David IV having concluded the alliance with the
Byzantian emperor and the chief of the Qypchaq Turks Atrak started his agressive
plans realization.
In 1117 David's son Demetre intruded on Shirvan on the occasion of that
Shirvanshah had refused to conclude union with the Georgians against the Seljuqs.
The Georgian troops plundered the country and with the huge loot returned back.
 39

In 1120 David IV interfered in Shirvan twice, he destroyed and plundered

Gabala. In the battle at Didigory in 1121 David IV with the military support of the
Qypchaqs, Alans and crusaders inflict a defeat on the Seljuqian army and next year
in 1122 captured the Tiflis Muslim Emirate.
The Shirvanshah Manuchahr III (1120-1160) affected by his wife Tamar broke
up the alliance with the Seljuqs and entered in union with the Georgians. It was a
great political mistake. Manuchahr refused to pay to the Seljuqs an annual tribute
of 40.000 dinars. Thereafter Sultan Mahmud make a campaign to Shirvan in 1123
whichhadn’t had any succes.
The breaking off an alliance with the Seljuq had negative consequences for
Shirvan. David IV waiting for an opportunity to grasp Western Azerbaijan and
Shirvan made numerous campaigns during 1123-1124. He seized the fortresses of
Gulistan and Bugurd, and Shemakha and allocated there military garrisons. But
following David's death IV in 1125 after staying 5 months this troops left Shirvan.
During 30-60 years of 12th century the Shirvanshah state strengthened its
power and turned into the most powerful political force on Southern Caucasus.
Manuchehr Ш was succed by Ahsitan I (1160-1196) in 1160. He renewed the
alliance with the Seljuqs and the Azerbaijan state of Atabegs. Ahsitan I kept
friendly relations with Georgia as well. The Shirvanshah army helped George III to
suppress mutiny against the central power in 1173. In turn the Georgian army led
by George III helped Shirvanshah to overwhelm the Slavic fleet which had
intruded into Azerbaijan in 1175. Thereafter the Georgian troops assisted
Shirvanshah to defeat the Qipchaqs invaded Azerbaijan from north.
Ahsitan I paid much attention to the strengthening of defensive power of the
state. He ordered to build and restore fortresses, towers, to reinforce Derbent pass.
In 1192 as a result of huge earthquake Shamaha was destroyed. Most of
population including Ahsitan I’s family died. The capital was transferred to Baku.
Culture of Azerbaijan in 9-12th centuries.
The 11th and 12th centuries were marked by a blossoming forth of Azerbaijan.
Towns grew; palaces and mosques were built; defensive and memorial installations
 40

rose; and crafts, science and poetry prospered. This epoch saw the emergence of
prominent figures such as Qatran Tabrizi, Bahmanyar al-Azerbaijani, Khatib
Tabrizi, Nizami Ganjavi, Khagani Shirvani, Omar Kafi ad-Din, Abu Bakr Ganjavi
and Mehseti Ganjavi. Starring among them was Ajami Nakhchivani, an
outstanding architect of medieval Azerbaijan, recognized not only in the Orient,
but in the Western world as well.
Unification of all the territories of Azerbaijan in the form of a single state
during the rule of Seljuqs and Eldenizs resulted in the great enhancement of the
economical, political and cultural life in the country. Production, trade, education
and culture also developed more. Internal and external trade relations grew largely.
New educational institutions were opened; mosques and unique architectural
monuments were constructed. The cultural Renaissance had been reached to new
heights because of the prominent literary figures such as Khaqani, Nizami, Ajami.
The magnificent statesmen such as Shemseddin Eldeniz, Mahammad Jahan
Pahlavan and Gizil Arslan wrote golden pages of the state management system of
Azerbaijan. During the rule of Eldenizs, the domain of the Azerbaijani Turkish
Language and culture of the Azerbaijani Turks expanded as well.
The great Azeri poet and philosopher Nizami Ganjavi (1141-1209) was born in
a craftsman's family in Ganja, received education in madrasah, and perfectly
studied the medieval sciences on his own. Nizami also became closely acquainted
with the oral and written literature of the Near East.
Nizami had never travelled out of Ganja, rejected being a palace poet and lived
on honest earning. Approximately in 1169/70 the ruler of Darband Seyfaddin
Muzaffar send Nizami a kipchak slave-girl Afal (Appag-White), who became his
wife and in 1174 bore a son, named Muhammad. Nizami Ganjavi started his
creation with lyric poems. From his works we learn that he had written a large
divan, and was famous as a gazal and gassida author. Nizami 's lyrics stand out
with high professionalism, worldly attitude to love and humanist thoughts about a
man's destiny. But Nizami Ganjavi entered the world literature with ''Khamsa''
(Quintiple) a pentalogue of five poems ''Treasury of Mysteries'', ''Khosrov and
 41

Shirin'', ''Leili and Medjnun'', ''Seven Beauties'' and ''Iskander-nameh'' written in

the masnavi form. Nizami Ganjevi's creation was the primary top of the Renaissans
of the East. The description of a man's inner world, his feelings, thoughts along
with the dynamic development of the main hero's characters organizes the basic
aim and content of the Nizami's literary school.
Nizami Ganjavi brought the highest humane ideals and new professional
achievements into the literature of the Near East nations and opened a new
direction in Eastern literature. Nizami was the first poet in the Eastern literature,
who described a woman as a being possessing high human qualities. Nizami
Ganjavi in his poems praised the work, considering it as a man's main differ from
other living features.
Nizami Ganjavi's works were translated into number of languages. The unique
handwritings of his works are kept and guarded in the famous libraries,museums
and handwriting funds of Moscow, St.Petersburg, Baku, Dashkend, Tebriz,
Tehran, Gahira, Istanbul, Deli, London, Paris and other towns of the world as
valuable pearls. Nizami's creation played a great role in the development of the
Eastern Arts. Since the end of 17th century, the interest to the Nizami Ganjevi's
heritage has rosen in Europe and Russia: his works have been translated into
English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, Japan and in other languages of the
world; his life and creation have been studied.
Khaqani Shirvani (1122-1190) was born into the family of a carpenter in
Melgem, a village near Shamakhy. Khaqani lost his father at an early age and was
brought up by his uncle, Kafi-eddin Umar Shervani, a doctor and astronomer at the
Shirvanshah’s court. His master in poetry was the famous Abul-Ala Ganjavi who
introduced him to the court of Khaqan Manuchehr Shirvanshah. Khaqani married
daughter of Abul-Ala.
Khaqani was invited to the court of the Shirvanshah Abu'l Muzaffar Khaqan-i-
Akbar Manuchiher the son of Faridun, he assumed the pen-name of Khaqani
("regal"). The life of a court poet palled on him, and he "fled from the iron cage
where he felt like a bird with a broken wing" and set off a journey about the
 42

Middle East. His travels gave him material for his famous poem Tohfat-ul Iraqein
meaning “A Gift from the Two Iraqs”. This book supplies us with a good deal of
material for his biography and in which he described his impressions of the Middle
East. He also wrote his famous qasida The Portals at Madain beautifully painting
his sorrow and impression of the remains of Sassanid's Palace near Ctesiphon.
On return home, Khaqani broke off with the court of the Shirvanshah’s, and
Shah Akhsitan gave order for his imprisonment. It was in prison that Khaqani
wrote one of his most powerful anti-feudal poems called Habsiyye (Prison Poem).
Upon release he moved with his family to Tabriz where fate dealt with him one
tragic blow after another: first his young son died, then his daughter and then his
wife. Khaqani composed moving elegies for all three most of which have survived
and are included in his diwan. Khagani was left all alone, and he soon too died in
Tabriz. He was buried at the Poet’s Cemetery in Surkhab Neighbourhood of
Tabriz.
Qatran Tabrizi, one of the first poets in Azerbaijan to become famous
throughout the Middle East was born in 1010 near Tabriz in the town of Shahbad.
He went toschool in Shahbad, and then continued his studies in Tabriz. At that
time in Azerbaijan, one of the most authoritative and advanced states was the state
of Shaddadids, with its capital city in Ganja, which became the cultural centre of
the north of the Muslim world. In Ganja there were universities, schools, private
and public libraries, observatories and medical centres. Scientists, poets, architects,
and handicraftsmen from many Eastern countries gathered there. Qatran moved
there after finishing his studies. In Ganja he was soon linked to the court of
Shaddadids. Qatran wrote about the visit of a governor of the state of Ravvadids,
Abu Mansur Vahsudan, to Abdul Hasan Lashkari's court in Ganja. Qatran Tabrizi
acquired large popularity in many countries after his death as a talented poet,
scientist and wise philosopher. He was well known and loved in Khorasan and
Iraq. Qatran wrote such famous writings as "Kovs-nama", "Gush-nama", "Vamik
and Azra" and "Divan", consisting in the main form of qasids.
 43

Most experts believe that Qatran Tabrizi's mother tongue was Azerbaijani
language. Azerbaijani scholars, on the basis of the analysis of medieval sources,
have shown that Qatran Tabrizi was the first in the history of Persian lexicography
to compile an explanatory dictionary of the Parsi language. Medieval authors
called the dictionary simply "Logate Qatran", (The Dictionary of Qatran). Qatran
Tabrizi has undoubtably made an appreciable mark on the development of poetry
and lexicography in Azerbaijan and Iran.
Information, brought by Qatran Tabrizi about several campaigns of the Oguzs
in Azerbaijan, as well as his verses about the earthquake in Tabriz are very
interesting and are still read today with excitement. Qatran Tabrizi died in Tabriz
in 1080 and was buried in the Suhrab quarter in the famous cemetery of poets.
Yahya bin Ali Khatib Tabrizi was born in 1030 in Tabriz. At school, Khatib
took a great interest in the theory of Eastern poetics, and he collected and read
many books on this theme. A talented young man at the age of 20, he had
questions that local scientists could not answer, and one of them advised Khatib to
seek help from a known linguist living in small Syrian town.
Abul-Ala al-Maariya, who Khatib came to learn from, was one of the greatest
representatives of Arabian literature and an experienced connoisseur of Arabian
linguistics and philology. After ending his studies with Abul-Ala, Khatib continued
to study in various countries and cities of the Middle East with the most famous
scientists of that time. In 1064 Khatib went to Damascus, where his friendship with
famous historian Khatib Baghdadi (1002-1071) began. Baghdadi happened to be
not only a good teacher and friend, but also a rich maecenas. He helped Khatib
Tabrizi financially and helped him with his purchase of writing materials and
paper. After this, Khatib went to Egypt, where he studied Arabian grammar with
the noble scientist Takhir ibn Babashaz.
In 1067 the well-known Nizaniyya University in Baghdad was established and
since the first day of its opening Khatib Tabrizi was invited to teach there. He had
been reaching there philology almost 40 years up to his final days. Scientists from
all over the East were assembled in Baghdad at that time, and in order to be
 44

approved among them, it was necessary to have significant scientific authority.

Khatib Tabrizi was also the organizer and chief of its famous library and had the
opportunity to use the huge library at the university, organized lectures and
disputes with the participation of the university teachers, as well as a large number
of scientists, who were attracted to Baghdad by the glory of this educational
establishment.
Literary criticism was the primary focus of Khatib Tabrizi's creative activities.
He wrote about 20 treatises on this theme. Khatib Tabrizi wrote comments on the
Koran in four books. Due to his contribution to Arabian linguistics and literature
Khatib Tabrizi was named the "mother" of the Arabian language. He was also
described as "a wise sheikh, the leader of Arabian sciences, gonfalon of literary
criticism, a source of wisdom, the leader of all writers".
On 3 January 1109, the great scientist died. Khatib Tabrizi was buried in
Baghdad in the cemetery called Bab Abraz.
Ajami ibn Abubakr Nakhchivani (20th years of XII century – the end of XII)
was the famous representative of the architecture of Azerbaijan, the founder of
Nakhchivan architecture school. Ajami granted the architecture of Azerbaijan with
a new direction and strongly influenced the architecture of Middle East. Ajami’s
creative activity is closely related with Nakhchivan, the capital of Atabeys state in
12th century. Ajami was distinguished due to his synthetic combination of
engineering and architecture which is obviously seen on the monuments he made.
Due to this merit Ajami gained the famous as “sheykhul-muhandis’ (head of the
engineers).
One of the ancient monuments created by Ajami is the tomb of Yusif ibn
Kuseyir, known as "Atababa" built in 1161-1162. The walls of the monument are
decorated with ayats from Koran and various ornaments.
Masterpiece of Ajami is the Momina-Khatun's mausoleum, also known as
Atabei Gumbazi. Mausoleum is constructed in 1186-1187 in honor of Momine
Khatun who was wife of Atabag Shamsaddin Eldegiz. Surface of each side is
completely covered by the ornaments. In spite of the fact that the upper parts of
 45

this structure have some destruction, its height today is more than 25 meters. Here
also exists an underground vault and a burial place or sardaba.
One of those creations of Ajami, which partially survived up to present day, is
an architectural ensemble near the Momina Khatun Mausoleum. The main building
had been destroyed some time ago, only two minarets and a portal connecting them
have remained. This portal was constructed in 1187 AD.

AZERBAIJAN IN THE 13th– IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE 14th

CENTURIES
THE MONGOL INVASIONS OF AZERBAIJAN
The Mongol state was founded in 1206 by Chenghizhan and had been a real threat
for the neighboring countries. The Mongol invasions were a devastating event for
all countries including Azerbaijan. On the eve of the Mongol occupation the most
part of Azerbaijan was ruled by the Atabeg dynasty. There were Shirvanshah state
to the north of the Kura river and small domain of the Aqsunqurid dynasty in
Maraga as well.
The first Mongol raid in Azerbaijan took place in 1220-1222. The Mongolian
troops led by Chenghizhan’s commanders Jebe and Subuday in pursuit of
Jalaleddin Khwarezmshah intruded into Azerbaijan from Iran in 1220. It was
reconnaissance raid. Having plundered the cities of Zenjan, Ardabil, Serab, the
Mongols approached Tabriz. Because Tabriz had the strong fortifications the
Mongols didn’t dare to attack it. They entered into the negotiations with the
Atabeg ruler Uzbeg. Uzbeg agreed to pay a large tribute to the Mongols. In this
way he rescued Tabriz from devastation. Thereafter the Mongols moved to Mugan
but having known that Uzbeg entered into union with the king George IV against
the Mongols they attacked Georgia. From Georgia Mongols moved again to
Tabriz. The governor of the city of Shamsaddin Tugrayi paid off again from
Mongols. Having suppressed the revolt in Hamadan the Mongols returned to
Azerbaijan and approached Tabriz. It was the third time that Tabriz paid off
tribute. Then the Mongols moved to Baylagan. Although the rulers of Baylagan
 46

preferred to enter into negotiations with the Mongols, the inhabitants insisted to
take up arms. In course of the bitter battle the Mongols captured Baylagan, made a
cruel slaughter. Baylagan was burnt out and never restored any more. Ganja
rescued from the Mongol invasion by paying off. When the Mongols intruded into
Shirvan Shirvanshah Gushtasp took cover in the fortresses. The Arabian historian
Ibn al Asir recorded that the inhabitants of Shamaha saying «it is time to take up a
sword, display firmness and die with honor» within 3 days offered the desperate
resistance. Nevertheless, the Mongols took the city. Soon they left Shemaha and
through mountainous passes of Caucasus moved on the north.
Azerbaijan under power Jalaladdin Khorezmshah (1225-1231). After
Mongols’ leaving, Mohammad’s son Jalaleddin captured Iragi-Adjam, Fars,
Kirman and then arrived to Azerbaijan. As he grasped Maraga, he began to restore
city in order to get sympathy of people. When he went to Tabriz, Atabeg Uzbek
deserted his family in Tabriz,ran to Ganja.Then he ran to Alinja fortress and died
there. So Azerbaijan Eldegiz state fell down. Tabriz was defended by
Nizameddin,he was nephew of city’s ruler Shamsaddin Tugrayi. As there was no
unity between Atabeg dynasty and state nobles, the city was occupied after 7 days
resistance in July, 25th 1225. Jalaladdin had to appoint Nizameddin as a ruler of the
city. Jamaladdin - Atabeg’s governor in Ganja capitulated city to Jalaladdin’s
commander-Urkhan. Beylagan and Shamkir were captured too. Shirvanshah state
took vassalage of Jalaladdin in condition of to give 100 thousand dinar in a year.
Jalaladdin appointed his vezir Sharaf al- Mulk to govern Azerbaijan, and went to
Georgia. Illegal taxes for providing army that was put by Sharaf al-Mulk resulted
with rebellion. Jalaladdin came back and suppressed the rebellion. Shamsaddin
Tugrayi was prisoned, Nizameddin was killed.When Jalaladdin went to Irag
several feudal discharged Ozbek’s successor in an effort to restore Atabeg’s state,
but it was prevented. The next rebellion in Tabriz led by Yarbek was flashed in the
pan. Revolt in Ganja in 1231 led by Bender became peak of national movement.
This rebellion also suppressed, 30 insurgents were executed, and Bender was cut
 47

into pieces. Rebellions also took part in Khoy, Marand, Nakhchivan. Historian an-
Nasavi gave information about Jalaladdin’s period.
The second Mongol campaign began in 1231 and completed in 1239 with
capturing of Derbent. This time Azerbaijan was occupied by the Mongols totally.
Having captured Tabriz the Mongols sent the best craftsmen to Karakorum while
nobility of Tabriz paid off from Mongols. The population of Ganja offered (put up)
desperate resistance. Ganja’s inhabitants fought so violently that the Mongols
didn’t dare enter Ganja even during a week after the city had fallen. Eventually
Ganja was captured in 1235. Shamkir and Tovuz like Ganja offered bitter
resistance although both were captured. Having taken Derbent in 1239 the
Mongols completed occupation of Azerbaijan. As a result of second military
campaign Southern Caucasus including Azerbaijan was incorporated into the
Great Mongol Kaganate and was ruled by the deputy appointed by Suprem
Mongol kaghan.
The third Mongol campaign. Establishment of the Hulaguid state. The Great
Mongol kaghan Mungke in 1253 charged his brother Hulagu (Chenghizkhan’s
grandson) with leading a massive Mongol army to conquer or destroy the
remaining Muslim states in southwestern Asia. In 1256 Hulagu subdued
Azerbaijan and Iran, in 1258 he took Baghdad, killed the last caliph Mutasim and
put an end to the Abbasid Caliphate. Thus, the state which is known as “Ilkhanate”
( because Hulagu khan accepted the title of “Ilkhan” in 1265) was established. This
state existed during about a century till 1357. The territory of Ilkhanate stretched
from the river Amu Darya to the Mediterranean sea, from Derbent to the Persian
gulf and included Azerbaijan, Iran, Georgia, Anatolia (to the river Kyzyl Irmak),
Afghanistan, the most part of Turkestan.
Owing to the rich natural resources as well as the profitable strategic position
Azerbaijan became the principal region of the Ilkhanate. The Azerbaijani cities of
Maraga, Tabriz, Sultaniya were the residences of the Ilkhanids. They spent
summers in Karabagh pasture lands, and winters in Mugan.
 48

Expansionist policy of the Mongols in Azerbaijan. The Mongols conducted

predatory tax policy. Along with the former taxes such as kharaj, jizya, baj, biyar,
tarkh, ushr and others the Mongols imposed the new ones such as kopchur, tamga,
kalan. Besides numerous taxes there was duty “tarkh” which forced the population
to buy the products at a higher price than they really cost.
There were over 40 kinds of taxes in the Mongol period. The collectors of taxes
were called “baskak”. In 1254 the Mongols conducted population census having
brought in the list «all people from 10 till 60 years» (except women). The heavy
tax policy imposed by the Mongols undermined national economy. Such cities as
Baylagan, Ganja, Shemakha, Ardebil and Khoy once flourishing centers of trade
and craft under the Mongols’ rule were destroyed at all. The best handicraftsmen
were violently sent to Karakorum.
The best lands which belonged to the local feudal lords were grasped and
transformed into the pastures by the nomadic Mongolian lords. The irrigation
network was totally destroyed. As a result of predatory policy carried out by the
Mongols national economy totally declined. Because the state treasury had been
totally depleted the Mongol ruler Keykhatu khan in 1294 ordered to issue paper
money called “chao” in Tabriz. However, Keykhatu khan’s attempt to introduce
paper money faced with complete failure, because the people rejected them.
GAZAN KHAN’S REFORMS. The economic policy carried out by the
Mongolian rulers towards the end of 13th century plunged the country into the
crisis and chaos in all spheres of life. To recover economy Gazan khan (1295-
1304) acting on advice of his vizier famous historian and scientist Fazlullah
Rashidaddin launched reform package. These reforms aimed to reinforce central
power and to revive economy.
1. Land reform aimed to provide cultivation of wilderness or abandoned lands and
to raise crop farming. According to the firman of 1303, each soldier who served in
the Mongol army was donated by a piece of land called “iqta”. Iqta was assigned
from the inju (royal dynasty lands) or divani land funds. All unused lands called
“bayrat” were transferred into inju and divani land funds. An iqtadar (the person
 49

who possessed iqta) had to provide cultivation of land otherwise iqta would be
taken back. If iqtadar had been retired iqta was delivered to that son who
succeeded his father on military service.
Besides, this firman forbade moving peasants from their villages to a new place. It
became the first official document in the East attempting to impose serfdom
system. However, this attempt met with failure. It’s noteworthy that this firman
forbade the iqtadars to treat peasants like slaves, i.e. to kill them, to capture their
property etc.
2.Taxation reform. Firman of 1304 aimed to put taxation system in order. For this
purpose, the tax lists were made for each province, city and village. The certain
time for collection of taxes as well as the size of taxes (kharaj, kopchur) were set
up. Taxes could be collected only by the Divan’s officers. The size of “tamga”
collected from craftsmen was considerably reduced. All the income into treasury
must be registered and sealed up. No item could be delivered from treasury without
written permission of Ghazan khan. Military commanders and officers were
forbidden to enter rayyats’ houses forcibly. Generally, tax reform had progressive
character, it restricted arbitrary behaviour of the Mongolian feudal lords and
reconstructed state taxation system.
3. Judicial reform was also conducted. This reform aimed to eliminate bribery and
law violations. The basic attention was given to appointment of worthy religious
attendants to a post of the qadi.
4. Gazan khan reformed monetary system by creating uniform coinage as well as
unified measures and weights.
5. The postal system also was reformed. For maintaining rapid communications
between the districts of the empire the postal stations called Yam were set up at
every 3 farsakh (about 20 km). Each post had horses ready for use and available
staff. It’s noteworthy that henceforth no property of the local residents could be
expropriated (confiscated) on the pretext of using it for correspondence delivery.
The karavansarays were built along the roads. This reform was completed within 2
years.
 50

6. Religious reform was realized in order to strengthen central power. This reform
was caused by the political aims as well. Gazan khan needed strong power to
subdue opposed feudal lords. By means of declaration Islam to be the principal
religion in the state he intended to provide himself by support of local feudal lords
in struggle with the Mongol lords.
Gazan khan’s reforms positively affected the Ilkhanid state. The central power gets
stronger, economy revived and decline of the Ilkhanid state was prolong.

AZERBAIJAN IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 14TH - IN THE

BEGINNING OF THE 15TH CENTURIES
Emir Timur’s and Tokhtamysh’s invasions of Azerbaijan. With the
death of the last effective il-Khan, Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan (1317-35), intense
rivalry broke out among the chieftains of the Mongol military elite, especially the
leaders of the Sulduz and Jalayir tribes. The Sulduz, also known as the Chupanids,
made Azerbaijan their stronghold, while the Jalayir took control in Baghdad. At
first both groups raised a succession of Il-Khanid figureheads to legitimize their
rule. The most prominent of the Jalayirids, Sheikh Uways (1356-74) finally
wrested control of Azerbaijan from the Sulduz Chupanids in 1358, creating a polity
based on Arabian Iraq and Azerbaijan. After falling of the Hulaguid state
Azerbaijan was included into the Jalairid state. However, in the end of the 14 th
century Azerbaijan turned into an arena of struggle between 2 rival conquerors –
the Golden Horde ruler Tokhtamysh and Tamerlane who was the founder of the
large empire in Central Asia. In 1385 Tamerlane at the head of huge army
approached the border of the Jalairid state. Sultan Ahmed Jalairid being defeated
by Tamerlane fled to Baghdad. In the beginning of 1385 the Golden Horde ruler
Tokhtamysh at the head of the army numbered 90 thousand having passed through
Derbent invaded Azerbaijan. The golden hordes plundered Derbent and Shirvan,
and approached Tabriz which had prepared for defense very well. Using a trick
Tokhtamysh seized Tabriz and committed loot and violence. Tokhtamysh also
captured and devastated Nakhchyvan, Maraga, Marand, Sultaniye, took 200
 51

thousand captives. Having learned about Tamerlane advance towards Azerbaijan

Tokhtamysh fled to north through Derbent. Hostile rivalry between Timur and
Tokhtamysh ended in 1395 when Tamerlane inflicted heavy defeat on Tokhtamysh
in the battle at the bank of the Terek river in 1395. Thereafter Azerbaijan was
saved from the invasions of Golden Horde’s khans.
In 1386 Tamerlane captured Tabriz and committed there looting and mass
slaughter. The best of Tabriz craftsmen were forcibly sent to Samarkand the capital
of Tamerlane’s empire. During Tamerlane occupation Azerbaijan with the
exception of Shirvan was subjected to plundering, slaughtering and destroying.
Azerbaijan to the south of Kura river had been ruled by Tamerlane’s son
Miranshah. He was known as very cruel and merciless ruler. The revolt raised
against Miranshah in Tabriz was suppressed with cruelty. Especially strong
resistance against Miranshah was put by the Sheki ruler Seydi Ali Orlat. Although
Sheki was ravaged and plundered by Miranshah’s troops the local people
continued resistance.
In Nakhchyvan Timur's army besieged the fortress of Alinja. This fortress
was besieged by the Timurids for 14 years (1387-1401) and during this time
offered strong resistance.
TIMUR-SHIRVANSHAH RELATIONS. In the end of the 14th century the new
dynasty called Derbendi came to power in the state of Shirvanshahs. The founder
of this dynasty was Sheikh Ibrahim. He was selected to be the ruler of Shirvan by
the local nobility after the death of Shirvanshah Hushang in 1382. At this time, he
was an impoverished noble living in Shaki. According to legend, he was busy
plowing a field when the messenger from Shamakhy arrived to inform him about
the decision.
Some years later Azerbaijan including Shirvan turned into the arena of
numerous invasions made by both Central Asian conqueror Timur and Golden
Horde ruler Tokhtamysh. Independence of Shirvan was constantly under threat.
During the first invasion of Azerbaijan in 1386 Shirvanshah Ibrahim went to
Timur’s encampment in Garabagh. Shirvanshah Ibrahim presented to Timur
 52

expensive gifts. According to the Tirkic custom Ibrahim I presented all gifts in
number of 9 pieces. But slaves were presented in number of eight only.
Shirvanshah Ibrahim I explained it having declared: "I am the ninth". Timur was so
pleased that he officially announced Shirvanshah Ibrahim the King of Shirvan and
Shemakha. Gradually the relations between Ibrahim I and Emir Timur grew into
friendship. When in 1395 Timur moved through Derbent against Tokhtamysh,
Shirvanshah Ibrahim with his army joined him. The allies gained victory over
Tokhtamysh. Every time when Timur moved through Shirvan to Georgia or
northward to Derbent, Shirvanshah Ibrahim accompanied him in campaigns
together with his army. Timur ordered Derbent walls to be restored. He was
interested in good relations with Ibrahim I, as he protected the northern borders
from Horde. In this connection, Ibrahim I, actually, did not pay tribute to Timur.
Thanks to the wise policy of Ibrahim I, even in these hard times Shirvan again
prospered. Shirvanshah Ibrahim I participated in Timur's campaign of 1399-1405
in Rum (Asia Minor) against Ottoman Sultan, Bayazid. Shirvanshah Ibrahim
accompanied Emir Timur till borders of Syria, then came back to Shirvan. Timur
frequently encamped in Garabagh. Here he restored Beylagan destroyed by
Mongols and built an irrigative canal on the river Araz. In 1405 Timur died.
Shirvanshah Ibrahim, taking advantage of internecine struggle for succession,
began to pursue independent policy. He tried to unite all Azerbaijan. Shirvanshah
Ibrahim with army crossed the Kura river and seized Ganja and a large part of
Garabagh. Many of local rulers joined his army. In 1406 Shirvanshah Ibrahim
entered Tabriz, however, he did not stay long in Tabriz. He came back to Shirvan
when Sultan Ahmed Jalairy and Gara Goyunlu troops approached Tabriz.
AZERBAIJAN IN XV CENTURY.
Azerbaijan under the rule of the Bakharly (Garagoyunlu) dynasty. The
Gara goyunlu (“Black Sheep”) Turcomans originated from the Oghuz Turk tribes
moved from Central Asia to Azerbaijan and western Iran in the 7th century.
Probably in the 13th century under the pressure of Mongol invasions the Gara
goyunlus began to move westwards and settled in Anatolia, Irak and Syria as well.
 53

The founder of dynasty was Bayram Hoja. He originated from Baharly oymag and
was an emir of Sultan Uveys Jalairy. After the death of Sultan Uveys Bayram Hoja
gained independence and began to unite Gara goyunlu tribes. Bayram Hoja was
succeeded by Gara Muhammed in 1380. The tribal confederation based round
Lake Van with the center in Van having grown in strength began military
campaigns to the neighboring areas. During the 70-80-s of the 14th century the
Gara goyunlus submitted Erzincan, Sivas, northern areas of Kurdistan, and later
expanded up to Tabriz, Syria, Mardin.
The Gara goyunlus offered the strong resistance to Timur’s army during his
invasion of eastern Anatolia in 1387. In course of the next military campaign in
1392 Timur’s army inflicted defeat on the Gara goyunlus, grasped and plundered
their central city Van. Gara Yusif who succeeded Gara Muhammed entered into
the alliance with Sultan Ahmed Jalairy against Timur. Having been defeated by
Timur Qara Yusuf together with Sultan Ahmed fled to Egypt seeking refuge with
the Mamliks. They both were captured and imprisoned. After the Timur’s death in
1405 they were released and returned to Azerbaijan. In 1406 they entered Tabriz.
At this time Tabriz was ruled by Shirvanshah Ibrahim Derbendi. Having learned
about Sultan Ahmed’s advance Ibrahim Derbendi left Tabriz and returned to
Shirvan. Soon after the army led by Timurid Abubekr (Miranshah’s son)
approached Tabriz. While Sultan Ahmed fled to Baghdad Gara Yusif defeated the
Timurids in the battle at near the Nakhchevan in 1406. Two years later at the battle
at Sardrud in 1408 Gara Yusif overwhelmed again Timurids’ troops led by
Abebekr (Miranshah’s son) and drew them out of Azerbaijan. Miranshah was
killed in this battle.
The relations between Gara Yusif and Sultan Ahmed getting worse. In the
battle at Shanb-i Gazan in 1410 Sultan Ahmed Jalairid was defeated and executed.
Thus, the Jalairid state was displaced by the Gara goyunlu state with the capital in
Tabriz. Its territory covered Azerbaijan to the south from the Kura river, a part of
Georgia, Western Iran, Iraq-i Arab, Eastern Anatolia. Gara Yusif demanded the
Shirvanshah state to subdue him. But Shirvanshah Ibrahim I rejected. In the battle
 54

taken place on the bank of Kura in 1412 Ibrahim I and his ally the king of Kakhetia
Kostantin I suffered defeat and were taken prisoner. Ibrahim I was released for
ransom of 1200 tumen collected by Tabrizian merchants – Shirvanshah’s
supporters. Ibrahim had to recognize Shirvan as the vassal of the Gara goyunlu
state. However, the Shirvanshahs state sought to restore its independence. Having
come to power in Shirvanshah state Halilullah I called Timurid Shahruh for help.
Shahruh made 3 invasions of Azerbaijan and during every invasion he had battles
with Gara Yusif’s son. Eventually Gara Yusif ‘s son Jahanshah by support of
Shahruh was enthroned in Gara goyunlu state in 1436. He ruled as vassal of the
Timurids till death of Shahruh in 1447. After Shahruh’s death Jahanshah began to
carry out independent policy, adopted the titles of “khaqan” and “sultan”. He
subdued some territories. But as a result of internecine, struggle for power the
Garagoyunlu state weakened. The decisive defeat was inflicted on Jahanshah
Garagoyunlu by the Aggoyunlu ruler Uzun Hasan in the battle at Mush in 1467.
Some month later in 1468 the Garagoyunlu state ceased to exist.
Azerbaijan under the rule of Bayandurlu (Aggoyunlu) dynasty. Oguz
tribes Aggoyunlu and Karakoyunlu settled in Southern Caucasus from the period
of Oguz khagan. In the end of VI century and in the beginning of VII century they
spread from Derbent pass to Araz river and the south of Nakhchievan and
Azerbaijan territory.After gaining victory over Byzantine, Armenian and Georgian
feudal, they settled in the places bordered to Trabzon and Syria. In the XIV century
leader of Aggoyunlu political union was Pahlavan bay. He belonged to Bayandurlu
tribes. Mosullu, Afshar, Bayat, Pornak tribes were included to this union. Kara
Yulug Osman defeated Karakoyunlu tribes in the battle for Sivas and founded
small state – baylik, that Diyarbakir was centre, and issued coins. After his death
the state was ruled by Alibay and his sons – Jahangir (1444-53) and Uzun Hasan
(1453-78). Uzun Hasan’s main forward in foreign policy was relations between
Ottoman Empire. Sultan Fateh Mehmet II tried to transpose Europe – Eastern trade
to Ottoman Empire. Uzun Hasan married with the daughter of emperor of Trabzon
Empire Iohan IV. Trabzon situated in the north east of Asia Minor, capital was
 55

Trapesund. The first struggle between Ottoman and Aggoyunlu was in 1461 in
Goyluhisar. Uzun Hasan sent his mother Sara Khatun to negotiate with Sultan
Mehmet II. Mehmet II took Sara Khatun with himself and attacked to Trabzon. In
1461, august 15th Trabzon was captured. Sara Khatun took heritage that belonged
to her daughter in law according to heritage law. With her Mehmet’s
representatives also came to Aggoyunlu palace in order to renew Yassichemen
treat that was signed in 1461. After Trabzon conquering, Aggoyunlu dynasty lost
their ally and access to Black Sea. In the 50s of XV century struggle with
Aggoyunlu dynasty, Jahanshah lost most part of Eastern Anatolia and Uzun Hasan
captured east part of Georgia. In 1467, 11th November, Jahanshah was killed in
Mush battle. In 1468 Uzun Hasan defeated Hasanali, he put the end to the
existence of Karakoyunlu, and founded Aggoyunlu state that capital was Tabriz.
As teymuri Abu Said heard of Jahanshah’s death he attacked to Azerbaijan. Uzun
Hasan allied himself with Shirvanshah Farrukh Yassar and leader of Ardabil
Supremacy Shaykh Haydar. Farrukh Yassar diddn’t provide Abu Said with food.
Uzun Hasan attacked in 1468 and defeated. Azerbaijan, Western Iran, Irag
Diyarbakir, East Anatolia and East Georgia included to Aggoyunlu state. During
Uzun Hasan period Aggoyunlu have had diplomatic relations among Venice, Great
Moscow principality, Polonia, Hungary, Austria, Czech, Germany, Vatican,
Burgundy duke, Napoli kingdom. As Venice began war with Ottoman in 1463,
they discussed union question in the Senate. Azerbaijan silk provided Venice
textile mill. According to Tebriz Union (agreement was signed in spring 1472)
Venice promised to provide aggoyunlu army with fire arms. Thereupon army
headed by Yusif bay attacked to shore of Mediterranean Sea. Aggoyunlu army
defeated, but promised fire arms and artillery professionals were not come. In
order to maintain trade superiority, Venice negotiated with Ottoman Empire. In
1472 Shahzade Mustafa defeated Aggoyunlu Yusif Mirza. In 1473 Mehmet sent a
letter to Uzun Hasan and warned him with war. In august 1 nd in Malatya battle
Aggoyunlu state defeated. In august 11th Otlugbeli battle Uzun Hasan was
 56

defeated. Fire arms were superiority of ottoman yenicherys. Being busy with
ottomans, Aggoyunlu rescued Europe from Ottoman invasion.
Uzun Hasan ordered to prepare “Ganunname ” (bill) to put order taxes. According
to Ganunname “maljehet”- harvest taxes were about 1/5. Ganunname would have
provided productive forces. Ganunname was famous by the name “Hasan
padshah’s laws”. After his death Sultan Khalil was killed in the battle with Jacob.
Sultan Jacob (1578-1590) had close relations with Shirvanshahs and Ardabil
supremacy, and married to Farrukh Yassar’s daughter. After Sultan Jacob, his son
Baysungur (1590-92) ruled the country. Sultan Rustam Mirza (1592-96) was
reminded as the man who gave more soyurgal. Soyurgal was given as igta, for
military service and was succeeded. After the battles in 1496, in Sultaniyye and
Nakhchievan Ugurlu Mohammad’s son Godak Ahmad entered Tabriz in 1497.
Nobles that disagreed with his domestic policy, after 7 months, killed Godak
Ahmad in the battle near Isfahan. So dual power was established in Aggoyunlu
state. In 1498 Alvand Mirza captured Tabriz. In 1500 according to Abhar peace
treaty Giziluzan River became border between Murad and Alvand’s power.
Azerbaijan territory from Kura River towards south Garabagh, Eastern Anatolia
was given to Alvand, Arabian Irag, Fars, Kirman was given to Murad. In 1501
Aggoyunlu state was replaced by Safavids. In 1503 Shah Ismayil ceased to exist to
this state.
Azerbaijan culture in XV century. Azerbaijan culture was developing. Schools
and religious schools ( medrese) were base of educational system. School was
primary education children about 6-15 years old. Reading Koran and shariat
lessons were base of learning. Koran was taught in khanagahs, zaviyas, mosques
and in “Dar ul-Koran”. Religious schools (medrese) were secondary education.
Seyid Yahya Bakuvi had a great role in developing of philosophy. The famous
historians of XV century in Azerbaijan were Sheikh Mahammad Amin, Jalaladdin
Mahammad Davvani, Abu Bakr Tehrani. Musician of this century was Abdulgadir
Maragayi and painter of this period was Amir Dovlatyar. Tabriz architectural
school had a great role in the town-building. It could be seen from Beylagan to
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Hamadan and from Qazvin to eastern Anatolia. In the construction of “Goy

masjid” in Tabriz in 1465, have been used marble and blue glazed tile by
Jahanshah’s order. Examples of the architecture of this time were “Hasan Padshah
jame” (mosque), Sultan Jacob’s palace “Hasht Behisht” (8 paradises), Shirvanshah
palace in Baki (built in 1420-1450), Mardakan tower inscription, “Bayil dashlari”
inscription,” Gheysariyya” (bazaar). Religious schools “Nasriyya” and
“Maqsudiyya” were famous examples too. Poetry in native language became
stronger. Famous poets of this time were Nasimi, Habibi who was cared by Sultan
Jacob, Kishvari, ruler of Kharaqoyunlu poet Jahanshah Hagigi (1337-1467), sufi
(mystic) poet shah Gasim Envar (Gasimi-1355-1433), Kishvari Tabrizi, Khatayi
Tabrizi ( poem Yusif (Josef) and Zuleykha), Hagiri (poem Leyli and Majnun) ,
Ashraf Maragayi (Khamsa-it was written in Persian language).

THE SAFAVID STATE

The founder of Safavid State Shah Ismail was born on July 17, 1487 in
Ardebil. He was descended from the Safaviyya dynasty founded by sufi saint
Safiaddin Iskhak al Ardabili (1252-1334). As a boy only a year old, he lost his
father - the leader of a growing Qizilbash Shi'i community in the Azerbaijan, who
died in Shahdag battle in 1488. His mother, Alamshah begim (Martha), was the
daughter of Uzun Hasan. After his elder brother Sultanali was killed in battle with
Rustam Mirza Aq Qoyunlu Ismail went into hiding for about 6 years. When he was
only 13 or 14 years old he set out for military campaign aiming to establish
Qizilbash state. Sheykhs of Safaviyya and particularly Ismail had huge influence
over the population of Azerbaijan as well as some parts of the Ottoman Empire,
mainly in Eastern Anatolia and Syria. Ismail's advent to power was due to
Turkoman tribes of Anatolia and Azerbaijan, who formed the most important part
of the Qizilbash movement. Having held the winter of 1499-1500 in Arjuvan
village near Astara Ismail then marched to Erzinjan in Anatolia. There Ismail was
joined by about 7000 Qizilbash forces, consisted of Ustajlu, Shamlu, Rumlu,
Tekelu, Zhulqadqr, Afshar, Qajar and Varsaq tribes. In summer 1500 Qizilbash
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forces passed over the Kura river, and marched towards the Shirvanshah’s state.
They defeated Shirvanshah’s forces in battle at Jabani (1500) near Shamakha,
killed Shirvanshah Farrukh Yassar and conquered Baku (1501). While the
Qizilbash army besieged the Gulustan fortress near Shamakha Ismail learned that
Alvend Mirza Aq Qoyunlu had prepared a campaign against him. Ismail
summoned "pillars of state" and asked them, "What do you want: the throne of
Azerbaijan or the fortress Gulustan?" They answered unanimously: "Azerbaijan”.
In the battle taken place on Sharur plain near Nakhchivan Ismail overwhelmed the
Aq qoyunlus. Afterwards Ismail entered Tabriz and enthroned as Shah of
Azerbaijan in July 1501. He was 14 years old.
Shiism was declared the state religion and Azerbaijan-Turkish language
became the language of the new Gizilbash state. In the period of flourishing of the
Safavid's state, the large territory that stretched from Herat to Baghdad spoke
Turkish.
In 1503 Shah Ismail levied war against Murad Aq Qoyunlu. In the battle at
Almabulagy near the town of Hamadan the Aq qoyunlu army was completely
defeated and the Aq Qoyunlu's state came to an end. Afterwards Shah Ismail
seized Shiraz, Isfahan, Kashan and Qum. By 1508, Shah Ismail had taken
possession of Arabian Iraq with Baghdad, Diyarbakir, Eastern Anatolia and other
regions and cities of the Middle East and Central Asia. In a short time, Shah Ismail
created a great state stretching from the Uzbeq state of Sheybani Khan to the
frontiers of the Osman's empire.
The founder of the Uzbeq state Sheybani Khan conquered Khorasan, which
had strategic importance for the Qizilbash state. After this, Sheybani Khan
proposed to seize Iran and Azerbaijan. In his letter to Shah Ismail, he wrote, "I'll
gather the armies to the frontiers of Iran and Azerbaijan, and after they are seized,
the time will arrive for capturing Arabian Iraq and Hijaz". As a reply, Shah Ismail
went to Khorasan with a large army. The enemy army hid in the fortress Merv, but
Shah Ismail by using trick managed to draw him out of the fortress. On 2
December 1510 the armies of Shah Ismail and Sheybani went into battle which
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ended in a decisive victory for Shah Ismail. Sheybani Khan tried to run and was
killed by Ismail's soldiers. Sheybani Khan's head was cut off and presented to Shah
Ismail. After this battle, Shah Ismail became the owner of the cities of Herat, Merv
and Balkh. Also, all of Khorasan became his possession. The Safavids' state ranked
as the strongest and richest state in this region. Its territory totaled about 2.8
million square meters. The strengthening of the power of the Shiites' and
Gizilbashes' state caused uneasiness among the Sunnites' of Turkey. Additionally,
Shah Ismail carried out active Shiite agitation in Anatolia and the neighboring
regions of the Ottomans' empire.
The Ottoman Sultan Selim I having feared for spreading of Shiism into
Ottoman dominions levied the war against the Safavids. Two armies encountered
each other at Chaldiran plain near Maku in Sothern Azerbaijan. The battle took
place on 23 August 1514. Although the Qizilbash army was more mobile and
better prepared the Ottomans prevailed due to their efficient modern army, and
possession of artillery. Ismail was wounded and hardly avoided being captured.
Selim I entered Tabriz on September 5, but did not linger. As a result of victory,
the Ottomans gained immediate control over eastern Anatolia including Diyarbekr
and Erzinjan. Two years after the Chaldiran battle, Shah Ismail attempted to win
back Diyarbekr. The Qizilbash army headed by Qara khan was defeated in the
battle at Qochkhisar. The Ottomans entered Tabriz again but soon they had to
retreat. As a result of Chaldiran and Qochkhisar battles the Ottomans conquered
eastern Anatolia and northern Iraq. Following these unsuccessful battles Shah
Ismail did not carry out any other military operations, with the exception of the
campaigns against Shirvan and Georgia. He devoted himself wholly to the process
of strengthening and developing his vast empire. Shah Ismail died in 1524. He was
buried in Ardebil in the burial vault of the Safavids.
In 1534 Ottoman sultan Suleyman invaded Safavid state and seized Tabriz.
From here he moved toward Baghdad. Having wintered in Baghdad Sultan
Suleyman attacked Tabriz again. Shah Tahmasib (1524 – 1576) tried in every
possible way to drag out the confrontation with the Ottomans. He retreated to
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Sultaniyya previously had used the so-called tactics of “scorched earth” through
evacuating Tabriz and suburbs’ residents deep in the heart of the country, and
destroying crops and water sources.
Attempting to defeat Safavid Shah once and for all, Sultan Suleyman
embarked upon a second campaign in 1548–1549. During this campaign Sultan
Suleyman was accompanied by Shah Tahmasib’s brother Alqas Mirza who
previously being beglarbeg of Shirvan raised a mutiny against the Safavids, then
escaped and found asylum in the Ottoman Empire. He was crushed and captured
near Hamadan. This military campaign coincided with the revolt in Shirvan headed
by Burhan Mirza against the Safavids. Sultan Suleyman invaded Tabriz for the
third time. But 4 days later the Ottomans had hastily departed Tabriz due to
provisions and forage shortage. The revolt in Shirvan headed by Burhan Mirza was
suppresed in 1549.
In 1554 Sultan Suleyman made the last invasion into the Safavid state.
Nakkhchivan was captured and burned. Nevertheless, Ottoman Empire’s attempts
to conquest Azerbaijan ended in failure. According to the Amasya Peace treaty
signed on May 29, 1555 between Shah Tahmasib and Sultan Suleyman western
parts of Georgia remained under the Ottomans, eastern part of Georgia,
Chukhursaad and Azerbaijan remained under the Safavids. The Ottoman Empire
obtained most of Iraq, including Baghdad.
The Ottoman-Safavid war (1578-1590). In the last quarter of the 16th
century the Ottoman-Safavid wars broke out again. The Savafid state had being
ruled in that time by Shah Muhammed Khudabende plunged into politic and social
crisis. In this circumstances Ottoman sultan Murad III levied war against the
Qizilbash state with the objective of conquering Azerbaijan and Caucasus. The
Ottoman army led by Mustafa Lala pasha took Qars, Tiflis, Shirvan, Derbent in
1578. Georgia became a tributary vassal of the Ottoman Empire. The Qizilbashs
intending to win back Shirvan. The decisive battle for Shirvan took place at the
bank of the Samur river in May 1583. It was the very bitter battle which went on
for 4 days without stopping. The fighting continued even at nights under the light
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of torches. But the Safavids couldn’t win back Shirvan. The Ottoman army
conquered also Irevan in 1583, Tabriz in 1585, Ganja and Qarabagh in 1588. The
Uzbeg army conquered Khorasan in 1587. Peace of Istanbul was concluded on 21
March 1590, in which Gizilbash state confirmed Ottoman conquests of Azerbaijan,
Eastern Georgia and Dagestan. Only small part of Azerbaijan – Safavis domein
Ardabil, Garajadagh, Mughan, Lankaran and Khalkhal stood under Gizilbash rule.
The Gizilbash state promised to end Shiite propaganda in Ottoman territories and
persecution of Sunnis in their own lands. As a result, the Ottomans effectively
came to rule over Azerbaijan and the Caucasus as far as the Caspian Sea.
Shah Abbas Grand (1587-1629) came to power in 1587, at the age of 16.
During the reign of Shah Abbas I (1587-1629) the Safavid state reached peak of
its mighty. Shah Abbas (1587-1629) came to the power when the Safavid state was
in deeply decline. He had 3 main goals in foreign policy: 1. To recapture Khorasan
from Uzbeks; 2. To return the areas which captured during the Safavid-Ottoman
war in 1578-1590; 3. To drive out the Portuguese from the Persian Gulf.
Shah Abbas realized that in order to retain absolute control over his empire,
he needed to carry out reforms that reduced the dependency of shah on military
support of the Qizilbash clans. For this purpose, Shah Abbas embarked on a
number of internal reforms designed to break the power of the Qizilbashes and
undermined their authority. He reorganized army and created new military forces
which would serve the shah only. These forces consisted of four separate branches.
Shahsevans – these were 200 000 strong and built up from the small group of
qurchis that Shah Abbas had inherited from his predecessor. The Shahsevans, or
“Fans base of the Shah”, were Qizilbash tribesmen who had forsaken their tribal
allegiance for allegiance to the shah alone.
Gulams – Tahmasp had started introducing Georgian, Armenian and Circassian
slaves from the Caucasus, appointing them either in the harem or the royal
household. Shah Abbas expanded this program significantly and eventually created
a force of 15 000 ghulam cavalrymen.
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Musketeers – realizing the advantages that the Ottomans had because of their
firearms, Shah Abbas was at pains to equip both the qurchi and the ghulam soldiers
with up-to-date weaponry. More importantly, for the first time in Iranian history, a
substantial infantry corps of musketeers (tofangchis), numbering 12 000, was
created.
Artillery Corps – with the help of Westerners, he also formed an artillery corps of
500 men, although this was the weakest element in his army. The Safavids relied
heavily on support from the Europeans in manufacturing cannons.
Despite the reforms, the Qizilbashes would remain the strongest and most effective
element within the military. But the creation of this large standing army serving
directly under the Shah, significantly reduced influence of the Gizilbashes.
For recapturing of the areas which were conquered by the Ottomans Shah
Abbas I began new war. The Safavids captured Tabriz in October 1603 and other
territories of Southern Azerbaijan. Then Ordubad, Julfa, Nakhchyvan (1603),
Irevan (1604) also were recaptured by the Gizilbashes. To prevent the Ottoman
army from advancing Shah Abbas I implemented the policies of “scorched lands”
and “Great exile”. As the result of this policy he displaced the population of
Nakhchyvan, Irevan, Julfa to Isfahan and Mazandaran. In 1605 the troops of
Safavids defeated the Ottomans and liberated the most part of Shirvan. Ganja was
taken by the Safavids in 1606 and Shamakhy in 1607. Recapturing of Baku and
Derbend was forced by the uprisings which were organized by the population of
these towns against the Ottomans. According to the peace treaty of Istanbul
signing in October 1612 the Safavids took back all the territory of Azerbaijan lost
in 1590 according to the peace treaty of Istanbul.
In 1616 the Ottomans broke the peace but were defeated in the battle near
Synyg kyorpu and were compelled to sign Marand treaty in summer of 1618.
New military campaign between was launched by Shah Abbas I against the
Ottoman in 1622. Shah Abbas I was aimed at capturing Baghdad and other
territories of Iraq. Initially, the Safavids were very successful as they managed to
take Baghdad, Kerbela, Nejef, Kerkuk. But after Shas Abbas I death in 1629 the
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Safavids were unable to retain Iraq. Eventually, the Ottomans were able to recover
Baghdad, and the signing of the Treaty of Qasri-Shirin in 1639 ended the war in an
Ottoman victory. Thenceforth, Mesopotamia was remained in Ottoman hands.
Azerbaijan culture in XV-XVII centuries. There was meeting of poets in Shah
Ismayil’s palace with headship of Habibi. These poets were Sururi, Matemi,
Tufeyli, and Gasimi. Shah Ismayil (1501-1524) wrote his poems with pseudonym
“Khatayi”. One of his famous poems was “Dahname” (10 letters). Mahammad
Fuzuli and Rahmati were also famous and lived in this period. Calligrapher of
XVII sentury Mir Abdulbagi Tabrizi wrote his poems with pseudonym “Bagi”.
Sadikh bay Afshar was memoirist and painter of this time. Painter Kamaladdin
Behzad was appointed as a head to the palace library in Tabriz in 1522. Mir
Ahmad Munshi expressed Safavids’ attention to library as “Prosperity of Book
House”. Great number of manuscripts had gathered in “Book House” in Shah
Abbas I time. Painter Sultan Mahammad was famous member of miniature school
(his famous work was “Muhammads’ (p.b.u.h) meraj”). Miniature school of Tabriz
created special direction in the art of East. Rug of “Sheikh Safi” which was woven
in 1536 is keep in Victoria and Albert museum in London.
There were famous architectural monuments as Sheikh Juneyd tomb (magbara)
(1544), bridge over Alinja river in Nakhchivan, Baku East gates, Tabriz and
Ardabil monuments. Famous historians of this period were Khandemir (Habib us-
siyar was written in XVI century), Hasan bay Rumlu (Ahsan at-tevarikh, was
written in XVI century), Isgandar bay Munshi (Tarikhi Alami arayi Abbasi, was
written in XVII century), Sharaf khan Bidlisi (Sharafname), Oruj bay Bayat (Don
Juan). Oruj bay called Tabriz as a capital of East. Don Juan was published his work
in Spanish language in 1604. Mahammad Amin gave information about Chaldiran
battle. Mahammad Tahir Vahid was historian of Shah Abbas II (1642-1665). Mirza
Murimi was chief of book house of Shah Abbas II. Shah Abbas II was initiative to
bring printing-house equipment from Europe, but indifference of Sultan Suleiman I
(1666-1694) prevented it. Calligraphy was developed connected with copy of
books. Holland traveler Yan Strays gave information about libraries. In the first
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half of XVII century poems were written in Azerbaijan language in literary

meeting in Tabriz palace while the second half of the century they were written in
two languages - Persian and Azerbaijan languages in Isphahan palace. Divan’s
manuscripts written by Govsi Tabrizi, who was patronized by Garabagh baylarbay
Ughurlu khan, is kept in British museum. Saib Tabrizi was considered head of the
literary school in Safavids period. Masihi Rukneddin wrote his poems both in
Azerbaijan and in Persian languages. Famous epos of XVII century were “Shah
Ismail”, “Ashiq Qarib”, “Yakhshi and Ashiq”, “Asli and Karam”, “Koroglu”.
Ali Rza Tabrizi arrayed Imam Rza grave by ornament. In the middle of XVII
century Sharden looked three acts of spectacle in Erevan, and called it “opera of
east”.
In 1634 Ottoman Sultan Murat IV destroyed the palace that was built by Shah Safi
I (1629-1642), while capturing Tabriz. Changing in town-building in XVII century
was the numerous mosques. Examples of the architecture of this time were Ganja
Shah Abbas (Juma) mosque, tomb (magbara) in Khallakhana in Shamakhi (1663),
mosque in Nardaran (1663), atashgah (church of fire) in Surakhani, reservoir in
Sangachal.

Azerbaijan in the first half of the XVIII century

At the beginning of the 18th century, Safavid empire was ruled by Shah
Sultan Husseyn (1694-1722), and the state was in economic and political crisis.
Due to fill state Treasury, to satisfy requirements of beurocracy and feudal nobility
state officers increased the taxes. The poored Shah Treasury did his the best to
gather much more taxes from ordinary subjects (citizens) and they did not take into
account their material circumstance. Central goverment carried out population
sensus in 1699 – 1702. Census enumeration aggravated economical situation in
society. Cruel feudal exploitation of wide mass caused to the intensifation of
antifeudal fight. Struggle began against Iranian regime since first decades of the
17th century in Azerbaijan. There began hunger and drought in Shirvan and other
regions of Azerbaijan in 1700-1703s. In 1707 Car-Balaken jamaats rebelled against
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Shah’s regime and happened revolts against the increasement of taxes in Tabriz
and Mughan (1709 -1715).
The struggle against central government yoke intensified in Azerbaijan and
Southern Daghestan during 1720-1721s. Haji Davud – one of the representatives of
clergy appealed to Russia for support in the fight for the throne in Shirvan and
Daghestan. This proposal was refused by tsar administration. In August of 1721,
Haji Davud besieged Shamakha in the alliance with Daghestanians’ detachment of
Kazikumukhlu Surkhay khan, hired troops and took the city. After the invasion of
Shamakha, there began robbery and plundering of the city by hired troops; Foreign
merhcants, which were in Shamakha at that time were also robbed. Russian
merchants were plundered much more and that was met with great disagreement
by Russian administration. After that rebels took Shamakha, Haji Davud
completely liquidated Safavids administration here, burnt tax registers and shaped
new and much lighter tax system. So, there was founded independent state -
khanate in the center of Shirvan beylerbeylik, around the ancient capital of
Northern Azerbaijan which was separated from Safavid state. Ottoman Sultan
Ahmad III (1703 – 1730) patronize Haji Davud.
Peter the Great pursued an expansionist police and attempted to expand
Russia’s influence in the Caspian and South Caucasus regions and to prevent the
Ottoman Empire from territorial gains in the region. Besides, Russia sought to
seize Azerbaijan’s mineral wealth and goods such as silk, cotton, wool, fruit,
spices and so on in order to increase its industry. Peter also had the plan on turning
the Caspian Sea into the internal sea of Russia and monopolizing Volga-Caspian
trade route as well as making Russia the only intermediary for trade between East
and West. As a preparation for expedition Peter I sent his representative Volynsky
to Iran in 1716. Peter I instructed him to collect intelligence and to establish
relationships with the local Christians.
On 8th March 1722, afgan chief Amir Uvays revolted against Shah Sultan
Huseyn and besieged Isfahan, capital of Gizilbash state. Shah sultan Huseyn was
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dethroned. His son Tahmasib could escape to Astrabad. Tahmasib II (1722 – 1732)
was declared as a new shah in there.
After the victory over Sweden Peter I began military campaign to the
Safavid state. On reaching Astrakhan Peter I sent to the people of Shirvan and pre-
Caspian regions Manifesto in Azerbaijan turkish language in summer 1722. It was
declared in Manifesto that the motive for invasion of the Safavid state was the
intention to punish rebels (Haji Davud and Surkhay khan) for plundering Russian
merchants and to support Safavid state in restoring its power in Shirvan as well as
to prevent the Ottoman Empire from capturing of South Caucasus. Peter I also
used the religious factor. To provide himself with the support of the Christian
population of South Caucasus Peter I declared that the campaign aimed at
liberating of Christians from Muslim yoke in another Manifest. On August 15,
1722 Russian navy arrived in Derbent. On August 23 land troops approached
Derbent. The governor of Derbent Imamgulu khan met the Russian army and
handed over the keys of Derbent to Peter I. The manuscript of Derbentname the
famous historical work of Azerbaijan also was presented to Peter I.
Peter I gave great importance to the capture of Baku. But soon Peter I was
forced to return due to some circumstances. First of all there was threat of new war
breaking out with Sweden, second was dissatisfication of Ottomans. In December
1722 Russian army and navy under major general Mikhail Matyushkin who was
assigned by Peter I seized Rasht, and on July 26 1723 captured Baku. Unlike the
governor of Derbent the ruler of Baku Muhammad Huseyn bey was determined to
resist using the forces he had. But after a long siege and cannon fire, Baku
surrendered to the Russians. According to Peter the Great's decree the soldiers of
two regiments (2,382 people) were left in the Baku garrison under the command of
Prince Baryatyanski, the commandant of the city.
On September 12, 1723 the envoy of Shah Tahmasib II – Ismail bey in Saint
Petersburg signed the treaty without permission of Shah. According to Petersburg
treaty Pre-Caspian regions such as Derbent, Baku, Gilan, Mazandaran, Astrabad
were surrendered to the Russians. Russia also promised to help the Safavids in
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repulsing the afghan invaders from the country. But Shah Tahmasib II didn’t
accept Russian help because this Treaty was signed without his approval.
The Ottoman Empire was extremely displeased with capture pre-Caspian
region by Russia. Therefore, in spring of 1723 the Ottoman troops led by pasha
(governor) of Arzrum invaded Georgia and captured Tiflis. Then the Ottoman
troops moved to Ganja. With 60-70 thousand troops the Ottoman Empire did its
best to intervene Ganja for 18-20 days. Population of Iravan voluntarily open gats
of city for Ottoman army. Caucasus became the centre of confrontation between
the Ottoman, Russia and Safavid Empires. But Russia preferred to negotiate with
the Ottoman empire peacefully. That’s why Russia signed treaty with Turkey in
Istanbul on July 12 1724. According to Istanbul treaty, the Ottoman Empire
agreed with the capture of Derbent, Baku, Salyan, Lenkeran, Resht and Anzali by
Russia. In turn Russia agreed with the capture Azerbaijan by the Ottoman Empire.
Ottoman empire could not hold army on North bank of Kur river. These areas were
controlled by local nobels subordinated to Ottoman sarasker-comander. Shirvan
was semi-independent khanate in Ottoman Empire. Sides agreed not to capture
Ardebil and suburbs - domain of Safavis.
In may Ganja, in August Tabriz, on 28th December Ardabil were captured by
Ottoman forces. After signing the treaty of Istanbul till the end of 1725 all major
strategic areas and cities of Azerbaijan were conquered by the Ottoman army.
Representatives of Ottoman and Russian Empires met in Nabur village near
Shamakhy in 1727 and agreed about demarcation of boundary in occupation zone.
This agreement led to dissatisficaton of Haji Davud. Ottomans exiled him Cyprus,
instead of him Kazikumik Surkhay khan was appointed as a new ruler of Shirvan
Khanate.
Due to the occupation of the extensive territories by the Afghans, Russians
and Ottomans in the first quarter of the 18th century the Safavid state was under
threat of a total collapse. This period coincided with rising of Nadir khan Afshar
who was also known as Nadir Gulu beg or Tahmasib Guli khan. Nadir Khan
originated from the Turkic Afshar tribe which had supplied military power to the
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Safavid state since the time of Shah Ismail I. Thanks to his military genius Nadir
khan became the powerful military figure and built up his own small army. Taking
into consideration Nadir khan’s military talent and authority Shah Tahmasp II
asked him to join him for driving the Ghilzai Afghans out of Khorasan. After a
decisive defeat over the Afghans and taking back Herat Nadir khan entered Isfahan
In spring of 1730, Nadir khan attacked the Ottomans and liberated Maragha,
Ardebil and Tabriz. Along with the military operations against the Ottomans Nadir
khan demanded from the Russians to reoccupy Caspian region. When Nadir
besieged Erevan he learned about afgans’ rebellion. He took his army for suppress.
As he wasn’t here Sah Takhmasib II (1722-1732) signed Kirmanshah treaty with
Ottaman empire in 16th January 1732. According to the treaty Ganja, Erevan and
Shemakha districts belonged to Ottaman empire. The lands to the south of Araz
river remained in Sefevids. To prevent relations with the Safavids from getting
worse Russian Empire signed the Rasht Treaty on January 21, 1732. According to
the treaty Russia reoccupied the Caspian region to the south of the Kura river on
conditions that this territory wouldn’t be ceded to the Ottomans. Besides, the Resht
Treaty granted privileges to Russian merchants.
After return Nadir khan dissatisfied with Takhmasib II and casted down him.
Infant Abbas III was declared as shah and Nadir was his patronize. Thereafter
Nadir khan demanded from the Ottomans to reoccupy all lands seized since 1723.
Having received a rejection Nadir khan renewed war against the Ottomans. In the
battle near Baghdad on January 1733, Nadir khan heavily defeated the Ottomans
and forced them to sign the Treaty of Baghdad. According to this treaty the
Ottomans were obligated to liberate all the territories conquered during last 10
years. Surkhay who declared himself independent in Shirvan, put an end to
Ottoman empire. In the end of 1734 Nadir attacked Shamakhy and captured, then
he moved people to Aghsu named “Yeni Shamakhy” (New Shamakhy). Surkhay
ran to Gazigumikh, but Gazigumikh was destroyed. Then he ran again. In 1735
Nadir carried his troops to Ganja. Thereafter he demanded from the Russians to re-
occupy all the Caspian region. Russian government complied with this demand.
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According to the Treaty of Ganja signed by Russian ambassador Golitsyn on 21

March, 1735 on the Holiday of Nowruz the Russian troops were totally withdrawn
from the Caspian region.
He besieged Ganja 4 months. Ganja was defended by Ottoman and Crimea
tatars. However, the Ottoman garrison in Ganja continued to resist. Complete
withdrawal of the Ottoman forces from the South Caucasus occurred only in late
1735 after Nadir khan inflicted the final defeat on the Ottomans in the battle near
Echmiadzin. Gaining a victory in June, 1735, in Uchmuadzin, Nadir made them to
lose hope waiting help from Gars and Erevan. Nadir khan took Ganja.
In the end of 1735 Ottoman troops went out from Azerbaijan by order of
sultan.
Nadir was declared shah in Sugovushan (Sabirabad) in the March, 1736.
Khans of Ganja which were famous with their name Ziyadogullari, kins of 32 tribe
of Kharabagh, Kabirli, Javanshir that were against declaring of shah were exiled.
Karabagh meliks were subordinated to Ganja baylarbay, Qazakh and Borchali were
subordinated to Kartly. Nadir shah (1739-1747) connected Shirvan, Karabakh,
Chukhursad and Tabriz then created unique administrative region under Azerbaijan
name. Nadir appointed his brother Ibrahim as khan to this region, that central was
Tabriz. Faithful feudal lords remained in their posts. To the high post apparatus
preferred the persons who were from Afshar-turk kin. Nadir khan leaded new fiscal
policy for paying the military expenses. For putting in order the tax gathering,
Nadir organized division of post. So, taxes were not being appropriated but was
entered the treasury. More parts of this means were spent to being kept of the
army. Internal policy of Nadir caused dissatisfaction. Feudal lords and peasants
dissatisfied. Wars, drought, starvation caused people to leaving their places.
Unlucky internal policy of Nadir aggravated situation in Azerbaijan in 30-40 years
of XVIII century. He attacked to India and Central Asia in 1737.
Nadir Shah had to suppress uprisings in Azerbaijan and Daghestan for many
times. In 1738, there occurred an outbreak of the union of “liberal communities” of
Car, which was established in North-Western Azerbaijan in 16th-17th centuries.
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Deli Ibrahim and Khalil who had received help from Southern Dagestan made
rising in Jar. Afshars troops were destroyed in the battle with Jarians near the
village of Gakh, in autumn of 1738. Brother of shah- Ibrahim went to suppressed
uprising was killed, but rising was suppressed.
In the same years, i.e. in 1743, there occurred revolt in South Azerbaijan – in
the tribe of Dumbuli, in the environs of Khoy and Salmas. This revolt was related
with increasing the amount of taxes from three thousand tumans into 100 thousand
ones (such sudden growth of taxes was simultaneously related with the fall of the
course of tuman for 10-12 times differing from the end of the 17th century). The
revolt expanded to the most part of Southern Azerbaijan and was hardly
suppressed. In the same year in Shirvan, the next “fake Safavid prince” Sam Mirza
II appeared. And this uprising was also suppressed and the Shah’s army dealt
brutally with the population of Shirvan.
In 1744, there was suppressed dangerous revolt for Afshars authority by
Shah’s troops with the aid of Georgia tsars-Teymuraz from Kartli and his son
Irakly from Cakhetia. This revolt was led by pretender Safi Mirza the son of Shah
Hussein (but it was false), who collected detachments from Azerbaijanis and other
subordinated nations to Nadir Shah in Kars. Soon, Nadir Shah again came to
Azerbaijan, destroyed and devastated Azerbaijan and Daghestan. During in this
new campaign of 1744, Nadir Shah unsuccessfully besieged the fortress of
“Gelersen ve gorersen”, where the rebels of the environs of Sheki, led by Haji
Chelebi Efendi-successor of an ancient local khan dynasty had hidden.
It is interesting that the jizya tax on non-Muslims was cancelled by decree of
Nadir Shah from 1736-1739. Nadir Shah started to take important steps in order to
end the religious discrimination that existed in the Turkic and Muslim world.
During the peace negotiations with the Ottomans, Nadir Shah’s proposal, which
sought to put an end the discrimination of Shia Islam, to recognize the moderate
Jafari mazhab as the fifth mazhab of Islam, and to define the space for Shia
Muslims in the Kaaba, was not accepted in the assembly of the high-level Ottoman
Muslim clergy. The main aim of Nadir Shah, who preferred the identity of
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Turkishness and who spoke Turkish in the palace, even with foreign ambassadors,
was to create a union of Turkic peoples. He sought to unify Azerbaijan, Central
Asia, and the Ottoman Turks under the same mazhab against the penetration of
Western Europe countries to the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf, and against
the Russian occupation of the Caspian Sea coast. Nadir Shah sent his decision
about the adoption of the Jafari denomination by the residents of the Afsharid
Empire to the Ottoman Empire in order to be confirmed by the qurultay in Najaf in
1743. But the supreme Muslim clergy of the Ottomans did not consider it suitable
to Sharia law to recognize the 5th denomination. Thus, neither Ottoman, nor
Central Asian (Turkistan) khans protected Nadir Shah’s progressive steps to end
sectarian differences. As a result, the historical opportunity for reconciling
different Islamic mazhabs was lost. Nadir shah attempted to create a naval fleet in
the Persian Gulf and the Caspian Sea in order to prevent the danger of military
intervention by foreign countries. From 1734-1735 Nadir khan, gave Latif Khan
the rank of admiral and instructed him to create a naval fleet in the Persian Gulf.
He was given authority to buy warships from Britain and Holland. The
construction of warships has been complicated by the fact that there was not
enough wood for this and they were far from the seashore. Nadir Shah also gave
the rank of admiral to the English captain John Elton and appointed him the head
of shipbuilding department in 1743. John Elton started to build ships in the
Caspian Sea.
Intention of Nadir to break people resistance was failed. Typical peculiarity of
this time risings were that they begin in the same period. It caused separation of
shah army. But risings were aimless, inconsistent and spontaneous. It led their
defeat. Nadir was killed in 1747 (19 of June) by conspiracy. State he created
disintegrated.
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Azerbaijan in the second half of the XVIII century

In the second half of the XVIII century in Azerbaijan: 1. feudal scatteredness,
2. the weakness of the economical relations, 3. the richness of natural economy
did not allow to create a state which was centralized. After death of Nadir shah
Azerbaijan had been divided into khanates, sultanates and meliks. Khanates were
Tabriz, Urmia, Serab, Maraga, Khoy, Garadagh, Ardabil, Maku, Karabakh, Ganja,
Shamaky, Baku, Guba, Derbend, Salyan and Talish. Sultanates were Gabala, Ilisu,
Arash, Qazaakh, Shamsaddil. Car-Balakan communities was located in the north-
west of Shamsaddil. Meliks were Xachin, Verende, Dizaq, Talish ( Gulustan),
Chilebord. Meliks had been accommodated by Nadir in Karabakh. Urmiya,
Shaki, Guba and Karabagh Khanates attemted to unit Azerbaijan lands.
Urmia khanate: It had the same borders with Khoy, Maraga khanates,
Kurdustan and Turkey. Feteli khan Afshar (1747-1763) who was Nadir’s cousin
had founded the khanate. After the Tabriz uprising in 1748 mayor of the city
Mehemmed khan Afshar was killed and Feteli khan occupied the city and moved
his capital from Urmia to Tabriz. Feteli khan acted in concert with one of Nadir’s
commanders efqan Azad khan on purpose being protected from new attacks and to
occupy new lands. At that time the khan of Xoy Shahbaz khan was compelled to
act in concert with Feteli khan. Making Garadagh, Maraga, Serab dependent Feteli
khan started the war with Kerim khan Zend and Mehemmedhesen khan Qacar for
capturing other Azerbaijan and Iran khanates. He sent Azad khan over the khan of
Erevan, Mir Mehdi khan at the end of 1751. But the tsar of Kakhetia, Irakly II
helped Erevan khanate with the troop which he had gathered from Qazakh and
Borchali. Azad khan moved backwards. Kerim khan who was struggling for power
in Iran attacked Azerbaijan at the end of 1752. Feteli khan Afshar defeated him
near Miyane. Kerim khan escaped to south-Fars district. Feteli khan who was
chasing him executed Kerim khan’s brother Iskender captiving in the battle of
Qemshe (1752). Eliqulu khan Afshar (Adil shah) had declared himself as shah
after the death of Nadir. Having discord with his lord Adil shah’s butler
Mehemmedhesen khan Qacar escaped to Astrabad. After the death of Adil shah
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he captured Mazandaran and Gilan and prepared for attack Isfahan. Khan of
Isfahan Kerim khan attacked Astrabad ,but was defeated and escaped to Tehran.
From Tehran he attacked Tabriz but was also defeated in Tabriz and forced to
return Shiraz. Feteli khan Afshar could spread his power over Central and South
Iran at the end of 1753 and at the beginning of 1754. But he lost his power
afterwards, that’s why Kerim khan Zend occupied first Shiraz, then Isfahan.
Mehemmedhesen khan Qacar who was also struggling for authority defeated
Zends in 1755 and occupied Isfahan in March, 1756. Kerim khan escaped to
Shiraz. Feteli khan took an opportunity which was Mehemmedhesen khan’s being
in Isfahan captured Gilan with Azad khan. After this Mehemmedhesen khan Qacar
came back and occupied Resht. Then passing the territories of Ardabil, Talish and
Mughan he came to Kharabakh and besieged Shusha. But he could not occupy and
returned, and then defeating Feteli khan he captured Tabriz and Urmia. Feteli khan
who became more active after the death of Mehemmedhesen khan Qacar (1759)
made khan of Kharabakh, Penaheli khan dependent in spring, 1759. That’s why
Penaheli khan sent his son Ibrahim to Feteli khan as a hostage. This event allowed
making Erevan, Shaki, Arash dependent. But again increasing of Kerim khan’s
desires for becoming shah destroyed completely Feteli khan’s plans. After
defeating Kerim khan Zend in the battle of Qarachemen in summer, 1761, both
Feteli khan and Necefqulu khan settled down. That’s why they could not stand to
Kerim khan’s new attack. Kerim khan took an opportunity from the conflict which
was among Azerbaijan khanates against Feteli khan. He called Penaheli khan with
this purpose. Penaheli khan appointed his little son, Mehreli agha as a ruler in
Kharabakh, and went to Kerim khan Zend. Kerim khan Zend who had made other
khans take his side with a lot of promises, occupied Urmia after 9 monthly
besiegement in the middle of 1763. Kerim khan who had captived Feteli khan sent
him to Shiraz and gave the authority of Urmia to Rustem bey Afshar . For
celebrating the victory Kerim khan invited also khans who had helped him, to
Shiraz. Khan of Kharabakh, Penaheli khan, khan of Khoy, Shahbaz khan and
others understood the main point of “ Shiraz party ” when they reached to Shiraz.
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Kerim khan had tried to separate them from their home. The khans tried to escape
in different ways. Feteli khan Afshar was killed in travel. “Shiraz party” did not
give good results.
Shaki khanate. The population of Shaki complained about Melik Nejef to
Nadir in 1741. That’s why Nadir had consented Haji Chelebi to be selected as
representative of Shaki. When Melik Nejef complained about Haji Chelebi’s
tyranny to Nadir he called Chelebi to his palace. Haji Chelebi was exempted from
punishment. After returning Haji Chelebi killed Melik Nejef and came to power in
Shaki. He declared Shaki as first independent khanate in 1743. With the purpose of
enlarging his territories and strengthening khanate in 1748 he attacked to Tabriz ,
but his attack was prevented by Amiraslan khan. While returning to Shaki he
wanted to capture Kharabakh. Though he had besieged Bayat fortress with khan of
Shamaky he was defeated in the battle of Bayat. When he was on the left bank of
the Kura he said: ” Penaheli khan was silver without coin till now, we came,
minted him and returned.” Haji Chelebi captured Arash and Gabala sultanates
after the battle of Bayat. Haji Chelebi defeated the tsar of Khaxetia, Irakly II in
1751. First getting agreement with Penaheli khan Irakly II created military alliance
against Haji Chelebi which consisted of khans of Ganja, Garadagh, Naxchivan,
Erevan. Irakli II attacked over Khans and captived them near Ganja, at the place
which was called Qizilqaya, in March ,1752. Haji Chelebi who had stood on the
left bank of the Kura against allies, said to members of conference: Whatever you
are giving advice to me, but to cross the Kura should be among proposals.” Haji
Chelebi got victory in the battle which happened near Sheyx Nizami’s grave and
liberated khans who had been captived by Irakli II. Qizilqaya betrayal showed that
khans should combine in united front and struggle against common enemy. Haji
Chelebi occupied Qazakh and Borchali and gave this territories Aghakishi bey to
rule. Haji Chelebi helped the population of Car on repulsing Irakly’s attack to Car
in spring, 1752. His effort for capturing Shirvan became unsuccessfull in 1755.
After Haji Chelebi’s death Aghakishi came to power. Then Mehemmedhesen khan
who was his father in law, came to power. He was banished from Shaki, but
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became again khan of Shaki in 1779, after the death of Huseyn khan who was Haji
Chelebi’s grandson. While his period Shaki became dependent on Guba khanate.
Then Salim khan (1795-1806 ) became khan of Shaki.
Guba khanate. Guba was situated on the trade way which connected
Azerbaijan with Daghistan, North Caucasus, and Southern Russia. The founder of
Guba was Huseyneli khan (1726-1758) who had been assigned to this post by
Russian tsar in 1726. First Xudat , then Guba (1735) was his residence. The
propitious geographical situation and suffering less from Nadir’s attacks of these
territories had influenced the development of the khanate positively. Salyan was
dependent on Huseyneli khan at the beginning of XVIII. Though Salyan was ruled
by Nadir’s representatives at the period of Nadir shah, but Huseyneli khan
inherited Salyan after Nadir’s death. To consolidate Salyan to Guba became basic
fulcrum in policy of consolidating Guba khanate. Feteli khan who was khan of
Guba after Huseyneli khan, applied tax reform and removed officials from this post
who were misappropriating taxes. The officials who ruled villages were assigned
to this post. For putting an end of authorities’ tyranny Feteli khan ordered to be
done some duties by only khan’s officials. In order to increase population Feteli
khan located people in Shabran, having moved them from South Khanates. Brave
shahseven kins moved from Mughan to guard the boundaries of the khanate. As
the result of Fatali khan’s policy all north –eastern Azerbaijan khanates were
connected. After Salyan he wanted to connect Shamakhy, because of Shaki khan
prevented to coonect Shamakhy, Fatali khan went to Derbent where was ruled by
Mahammad khan from 50s years of the XVIII century. Fatali did diplomatic
manoeuvre and prevented Shamakhy to create union among khanates of southern
Daghestan but he even could to ally with them in capturing Derbent. He captured
Derbend in 1759 and charged to his wife Tutu Bikhe. Then with diplomacy of
marriage settlement he made Baki and Absheron dependent in 1767. Fight for
Shamakhy khanate started second stage in connecting of the north-eastern
Azerbaijan land. He wanted capture Shamakhy khanate and made capital. Then he
had an intention to hold other other territory (Karabagh, Shaki).
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Shamakhy khanate was based by Haji Mahammadali and brothers –

Mohammad Said and Aghasi who were from Khanchoban kin. Difference from
other khanates there was diarchy (power). In 1763 Mahammad Said captured Yeni
Shamakhy and he put an end to diarchy. This time there was conflict between
Husein khan and Muhammad Said. Troops of union,that united with offer of Fatali
khan, defeated Muhammad Said and Aghasi,and divided the khanate. Western part
belonged to Shaki, eastern part belonged to Guba. Dissatisfaction of Fatali khan
made Husein khan to come an agreement with Aghasi who was in Khotevan
tower,and made ally with Avar khan against Fatali khan. Fatali gained a victoryin
the fight in September 1768, captured other territories of Shamakhy. In order to
make support for himself he moved part of population from Derbent to Shamakhy.
In 1768 Javad khanate became dependent from Guba khanate. Russian ruler
Ekaterina II had give instruction to Foreign Affairs College about putting in order
relations among Kartly-Kakhety-Guba. Karim khan Zand wanted his son to marry
with Fatali’s sister-Fatma. He wanted subordinate khanate peacefully. As Karim
khan got refusal he attacked Guba but was defeated. Shaki, Karabagh and Avar
rulers who didn’t want Guba khanate to become stronger attacked Guba khanate in
November, 1773. This attack was put down but in 1774, in Gavdushan fight near
Khudat, Fatali khan was defeated by Gragaytag usmi Emir Hamza and Aghasi, in
result he withdrawn to Salyan. Allies made deceitful funeral ceremony of Fatali
khan, but Tutu Bikhe didn’t believe them and defended the city. This time Fatali
khan addressed Russia for help. In 1775 Gubanian Fatali khan wrote a letter to
Russian tsarina Ekaterina II (1762-1796) and sent her ambassador -ruler of
Derbent- Mirzabay Farhadbayli. In the letter he informed giving Derbent to Russia
and accepted Russian patronage. Importance of the letter was that Fatali khan act
as independent ruler. Answer this; Russian troops in Caucasus headed by general
Medem helped him. In March, 1775 russian troops liberated Derbend. After
Gavdushan battle Fatali khan continued careful politics in connection with Iran and
had exchanged of ambassadors in 1775-1776 years. As Karim Khan couldn’t
subordinate Fatali khan he ordered to Hidayat khan-ruler of Gilan to go to Salyan
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in 1778. Fatali gained victory. Then he directed his attention to Karabagh. In 1779
he sent khan of baki Melik Mahammad to Ibrahimkhalil khan for concluding a
treaty. Khan of Garabagh imprisoned Malik Mahammad, because he knew that this
treaty will made him dependent from Guba. This event caused conflict between
Karabagh and Guba. Fatali khan attacked Karabagh in 1780-1781 years, but it was
unlucky. Squadron sent by Russia with headship of count Voynovich entered to
Astrabad then entered to Baki port willfully. Fatali khan’s efforts prevent it. In
1785 Fatali khan defeated khan of Shaki Mahammad Hasan, then he tried to put
relations in order with diplomacy of marriage settlement, but he defeated him again
in 1789 near Shamakhy and made dependent. Representative of Guba- Mirza Sadig
Mammadvaliyev’s embassy was unlucky in 1787.After Fatali kahan’s death his
sons- Ahmad and Sheykhali khan, ruled the khanate. In their period Shaki,
Shamakhy and Baki became independent.
The Baku Khanate. The Baku khanate was established by the Mirza
Muhammad Khan (1747-1768) in 1747. The khanate consisted of the 39 villages
and the capital city Baku. In the khanate, all the administrative, financial, military
and judicial powers were concentrated in the hands of the khan. The khan ruled the
khanate as his own property. In Baku khanate the administrative apparatus was
smaller than the other khanates' in comparison. At the council of the khan, there
were discussed issues of war, peace, and other important issues of state
importance. Oil wells, bazaars, shops were given to iltizam (revenue leasing) by
the khan. Khan's oil revenues reached 40-50 thousand manats a year. I Mirza
Mohammed Khan paid special attention to the economic revival and the
development of the shipping industry in the Caspian Sea. The khan had a
permanent army of more than 500 people. Population paid taxes such as maljahat,
(1/10), darqaliq, bayramliq, toy kherji, and so on. The sister of Fatali Khan Khadija
Bika and the ruler of Baku Mirza Muhammad khan’s son Malik Muhammad got
married in 1767; as a result, Baku accepted vassalage from Quba and because of
that Mirza Muhammad was protected by the Quba authority. During the whole
reign of Malik Muhammad Khan (1768-1784) the khanate depended on Fatali
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Khan of Quba. The Baku khan had to give military units by the first request of
Fatali Khan; during the time of war he should arrive leading his troops to the
destination and provide the army with food. Fatali Khan sent Malik Muhammad
Khan to negotiate with Ibrahim Khalil Khan of Karabakh in 1779 to create “a
friendly alliance” with this khanate. In 1784, 11-year-old Mirza Muhammad Khan
(1784-1791) came to power. The actual power of the Baku khanate still was in the
hands of Fatali Khan and his sister Khadija Bika. After the death of Fatali Khan in
1789, the Baku khanate put an end of vassalage. Huseinqulu Khan (1792-1806),
the last ruler of the khanate, pursued an independent policy and maintained
friendly relations with the Sheikh Ali Khan of Quba.
The Ganja Khanate. The khanate was founded in 1747, by the Shahverdi
Khan II Ziyadoglu (1747-1768), descended of Turkic origin Qajars. The khanate's
center was the city of Ganja. All power belonged to the khan and the khanate’s
coin was mint after his name. Maljahat, bahra, darqaliq and other taxes were levied
from population. Although the Ganja and Karabakh khanates, which had originally
been part of the same Beylerbeylik and initially had friendly relations, the
relationships worsened as a result of Panahali Khan's policy. In 1759-1761,
Shahverdi Khan became a vassal on the Karabakh khanate. During the reign of
Mohammed Hassan Khan (1768-1778), the economy of the khanate, especially
silkworm breeding had grown considerably. In 1789 the Kartli-Kakhetian tsar
Heraclius II and the Karabakh ruler Ibrahim Khalil Khan seized Ganja with the
combined forces. As each of the winners appointed separately their representatives
to rule the Ganja khanate, a dual power was established. In 1783 there was revolt
under the leadership of Haji Bey and both rulers were expelled from Ganja. In
1784 the attack of Russian troops, along with Heraclius II, to Ganja was prevented
with support of the Dagestan rulers. Javad Khan (1786-1804), who came to power
in 1786, although agreed to pay tribute in a certain amount to Heraclius II and
Ibrahim Khan of Karabakh, in 1795 refused payment. Javad Khan tried to use the
power of Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar to eliminate Kartli-Kakhetia. Javad Khan
Qajar provided him with food and troops during his campaign to Tiflis in 1795.
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Javad khan supported the Georgian prince Alexander for the return of Shamshadil
and Borchali, which was given under the control of Kartli kings by Nadir Shah.
This policy led to the deterioration of relations the Ganja khanate with Russia and
Georgia. In 1797, when the Russian troops led by V. Zubov had withdrawn from
Azerbaijan, Javad Khan retook Qazakh, Shamshadil and Borchali from Georgia.
The Irevan Khanate. The Irevan khanate emerged in 1747 under the
leadership of Mir Mehdi Khan, who was descendant of Turkic Afshars, in
Safavid's Chukhur-Saad territory. Khanate consisted of 15 districts. The center was
the city of Irevan. The khanate population, almost all of them was Azerbaijani
Turks. In the early 1750s the members of Qajar dynasty began to rule the khanate.
In 1751, Fatali Khan attacked to the Irevan khanate then he defeated Heraclius II,
who came for help. During the reign of Hussein Ali Khan Qajar, Heraclius II
attacked Irevan two times in 1765 and 1779 and tried to depend him and making
the khan his vassal to force him to pay tribute at certain times. In 1779, Heraclius
II who couldn't be seized Irevan fortress, then he had been captured a lot of
unarmed civilians. According to the agreement between Irevan khanate and the
KartliKakhetian kingdom, Heraclius II in exchange of to pay 30 thousand tumans
agreed to return of this people. In 1783, Irevan khanate began to use the help of
Ottoman Empire in order to avoid the aggressive intentions of Kartli-Kakhetia who
took shelter under the protection of Russia in accordance with the Georgievsk
treaty. During the reign of Mohammad Hussein Khan, he stopped the attacks of
Georgians, when Agha Mohammad Khan attacked to Irevan castle in 1795, they
resisted 35 day, but they had to obey. The khan agreed to pay tribute to Qajars and,
if necessary, to send a detachment of troops for military service of Qajars. The last
ruler of Irevan khanate was Huseinqulu Khan Qajar (1806- 1827). The leader of
Qajarid Iran Fatali Shah appointing Huseinqulu Khan as a commander of all
military forces, which located in the left coast of the Arax River and gave him the
title of sardar. Result of this, the ruler of Irevan Huseinqulu Khan concentrated all
civil and military reign in his hands. He had struggled resolutely against the
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Russian invaders for the independence of people with his brother Hasan khan,
whose honorary title was “Head of Lions”.
Karabakh khanate. Aga Muhammad Qajar’s raids
Javanshir, 24, 32, Kabirli, Baharli, Ziyadogullari tribes who based Karabakh
khanate were in Turkish origin, had been exiled to Khorasan and Afganistan by
Nadir. They had announced that they will accept only legal power of Safavids
dynasty. Karabagh khanate located between the rivers Kur and Araz. Panahali
khan (1748-1763) who founded the khanate took measures for strengthening
economical and political situation of state. Firstly, he had built protective castles.
He had returned group of people who had been exiled. He made meliks dependent.
Panahali khan brought many craftsmen from Ardabil and Tabriz to Kabirli region
in 1748 to build Bayat fortress (tower). Haji Chelebi who attacked Karabagh by
instigation of meliks, was defeated in Bayat battle. He concerned this place not
being suitable, that’s why he ordered to built Shahbulag and Shusha towers in
1751-1755. Shusha named Panahabad. Shusha became commercial and political
centre of khanate. Money was minted here named Panahabad.
Khamsa meliks- Khachin,Varanda, Dizag, Gulustan (Talysh), Chilabord
settled in Kharabagh territory and were dependend on Karabagh khanate. Khachin
was local, but other meliks were moved here by Nadir. Melik of Dizag came from
Majaviz; melik of Talysh- Usub came from Shirvan. Melik of Khachin – Mirza
khan Ulubab obeyed after battle of Balligaya. Then Dizag, Chilebord and Talysh
meliks obeyed. But then khan accused melik of Chilabord –Allahgulu in perfidy
and killed him. Allahgulu’s brother Malik Hatam made union with Talysh melik-
Usub, but was defeated by Panahali khan in Aghdara fight and hid in Jermukh
tower. That time Mahammad Hasan Gajar attacked Karabagh. In 1757 Panahali
khan defeated him in place named Khatin Arkhi. After Mahammad Hasan Gajar’s
death Fatali khan Afshar made Karabagh dependend and took Ibrahimkhalil as
hostage. In Shiraz party Panahali khan became Kharim khan’s hostage.
Ibrahimkhalil agha who came back from Urmia defeated his brother Mehrali bay
who ruled Karabagh with order of Panahali khan. Then Mehrali went to Fatali
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khan and took part in the marches against Karabagh. He was killed in 1785.
Ibrahimkhalil married to Avar khan’s sister- Umma khan. Ibrahimkhalil had
conflicts with meliks. Russia wanted to create Christian state with help of meliks.
Ibrahimkhalil had gathered meliks to Shusha and arrested them. Two of meliks ran
to Tiflis. With the help of Irakly II and Russian colonel Burnashov meliks
organized crusade. They should come to Ganja in September, 1787. Because of
beginning of Russian-Turkish war in 1787 this march was unfinished. Panahali
khan had made Erevan and Ardabil dependent. Ibrahim khan had influence in
khanate of Nakhchievan, Ganja, and Tabriz. He had punished catholicos of
Gansazar monastery.
After Karim khan Zand’s death Agha Mahammad khan Gajar became more
active and made Tehran capital in 1785. In the beginning of 90th years all the
khanates of South Azerbaijan except khan of Serab- Sadikh khan, accepted
dependence of Agha Mahammad Gajar. But Sarab was destroyed and Sadig khan
was compelled to obey. Then Garadag, Khoy, and Urmia were dependent. Agha
Mahammad khan Gajar was turk in originand his state was Turkish state. He
declared himself as shah in spring, 1796. In this time Garabagh khanate was
strongest from military and political point of view. Strengthening of Agha
Mahammad khan made khanates of North Azerbaijan to look through direction of
political activities once more. Russian-Ottoman war in 1787-1791th years resulted
with Yassi treaty that gave Russia free activity in Caucasus. Russian plan of
possessing South Caucasus didn’t succeed because of Agha Mahammad khan’s
attack, England and France stand against him in the east and khanates had no
confidence to him. Agha Gajar called Garabagh to obey, but Ibrahimkhalil’s
answer - “my father will me not to depend from any state” infuriated him. In
summer, 1795 Mahammad Gajar attacked in 3 directions. 1. Mughan- Shirvan,
Dagestan, 2. Erevan, 3. Karabagh-Georgia. Gajar’s heading to 3rd direction showed
importance of this direction. Ottoman sultan had informed Gajar’s ambassador that
he will accept Agha Mahammad Gajar as a shah in the case of Georgia would
capture. Ibrahimkhalil khan ordered to destroy Khudafarin bridge for preventing
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march. Despite of it, Agha Mahammad khan Gajar besieged Shusha in June, 1795.
Negotiations between Ibrahimkhalil khan and Gajar’s ambassador- Pirgulu khan
didn’t yield one results. That’s why after 33 days Agha Mahammad Gajar gave up
besiegement of Shusha and went to Aghdam then to Tiflis. Irakly II didn’t obey.
Agha Mahammad Gajar captured Tiflis on the 12th of September. Conflict in tsar
palace didn’t allow Russia to help Georgia. Shortage of food, danger of attack of
Russia and Nadir’s grandchild- Shahrukh’s rebellion in Khorasan made Gajar to
leave Tiflis. When Agha Mahammad khan returned he sent Suleiman khan to
capture Shusha, but his other commander Mustafa khan Davali captured Shamakhy
with help of khan of Shaki - Mahammadhasan. This time khan of Shirvan Mustafa
moved people from Shamakhy to Fit mountain. Soon Gajar came back from
Mughan to Iran. Salim khan’s rising made Mahammadhasan khan to come back
from Shamakhy to Shaki. Mustafa Develi was killed. Mustafa khan returned
Shamakhy in February, 1796. Ekaterina II ordered general Gudovich to capture
South Caucasus on 16 November, 1795. One bunches of Russian troops moved
forward to Ganja; the other bunches with headship Savelyev moved forward to
Derbend in February, 1796. Javad khan could save the city with paying taxes. But
basic march of Russia began on April 18, 1796 by headquarters of general Zubov
who suppressed Poland rising in 1794. This time Ekaterina II gave manifest as in
the period of Valentin Zubov captured Derbent on May 2, 1796. Gubanian
Sheykhali khan who put up resistance captivated. His sister- Perija khanim was
appointed as a ruler to Derbent. On the 6th of June Guba was captured and on June
13, Baki was captured, khan of Baki- Huseyngulu obeyed. Khan of Shamakhy
Mustafa also obeyed because of Zubov passed Pirsaat river. Khan of Karabagh sent
his son- Abulfat khan to negotiate with Zubov. There were armenians in Russian
troops. Armenian Argutinski from Gizilyar wrote instigating letters to meliks of
Garabagh and Armenian of South Caucasus. It is important to note that with the
head of Mahammad khan Nurali who ran from Agha Mahammad Gajar, prepared
conspiracy for Zubov, but it didn’t make success. Mustafa khan, Salim khan, some
rulers of Dagestan and Sheykhali khan joined in antirust front. Gubanian khan
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Sheykhali khan who ran from captivity joined with khan of Gazigumikh defeated
Russian troops about 500 persons, in Alpan village of Guba. But Russian troops
with the head of Sisianov came to help Zubov, on 21 st of October. Ganja was
occupied by bunch of general Rumski-Korsakov. Ekaterina II died in November,
1796. Pavel I who came to power called Russian troops back. Agha Mahammad
shah Gajar attacked Shusha for the second time after russians going in spring,
1797. Ibrahim khan had stuck a blow to Gajar’s artillery but when he come back
doors of Shusha had been caught by Gajar’s soldiers. That’s why Ibrahim went to
khan of Avar- Umma khan. Gajar determined 500 thousand ashraves indemnity for
population. Further, most Azerbaijan khanates informed about obey. Javad khan,
Huseyngulu khan- khan of Baki, vizier of Ibrahim khan-Vagif who came to Gajar
volunteerly were dungeoned. Khans of Shamakhy and Shaki informed their
obedience with the help of herald. Ibrahim khan’s nephew Mahammad nicknamed
“Batmangilinj” initiative to organize lucky conspiracy against Gajar with Safarli
bay and Abbas bay. Ibrahimkhalil came back and seized power, then sent Gajar’s
corpse to new Iran shah- Fatali shah, and he earned his sympathy with this. His
daughter Aghabeyim married to Fatali shah.
Urmiya, Shaki, Guba and Karabagh Khanates, in their foreign policy payed
attention in connecting Azerbaijan lands. Khanates have had diplomatic relations
with Iran, Russia, Georgia and Ottoman states. After Karim khan’s death,
Mahammad khan Gajar’s owning to authority in Iran, increased the role of Iran in
Southern Caucasus. When Russian-Ottoman war began in 1768-1774, Ottoman
ambassadors came to Azerbaijan khanates to inform necessity of fighting against
Russian-Georgia bloc. Azerbaijan khanates had approached with Ottoman empire
after kichik Gaynarcha treaty in 1774. In 1785 Garabagh, Shaki, and Guba
khanates sent thir ambassadors to Ottoman for asking patronizing, but Ottoman
empire didn’t want to strain relations between Russia that’s why unanswered. In
1787-1791 Russian Ottoman war, Ottoman empire deprived himself from the help
of khanates and it gave Russia an opportunity to expand their conquer. Russia was
creating external friendship with north khanates of Azerbaijan. Russia tried to
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achieve neutralism of the khanates in Russian-Ottoman wars. According to

Georgiyevsk treaty that was signed on July, 1783, Georgia was patronized by
Russia. Chief commander of Russian troops in Caucasus P.S Patyomkin has
informed Azerbaijan khanates about this treary on August 30, 1783 and offered to
sign treaty like this. According to this treaty Irakly II had to reckon with Russian
officials while governing.
CULTURE OF AZERBAIJAN IN THE PERIOD OF THE KHANATES
In this period Azerbaijan culture developed in the condition of feudal strife
and fought against foreign invaders. The turn of Azerbaijan into an arena of
permanent wars caused to the destruction of architectural monuments and to the
death of cultural figures. Simultaneously, there began prosper of cultural
development at this time. The capitals of khanates were not only the centre of craft,
trade but also the culture. There were schools, where studied the children in all
cities. The lessons were mostly conducted in Persian and Arabic languages. Along
with shariat, there were taught secular sciences too. The graduaters of these
schools were called mirza. They took the post in offices or entered to the line of
clergy – became religious figures. Along with schools, which gave junior
education, there existed medreses, which study equaled to high education. At the
result of the formation of khanates, the demand to high-educated men became the
reason to the certain development of enlightenment.
Despite of hard circumstances in 18 th century, science was developing. In the
first half of this century there was written the tractate of “Khanadane Sefevi” in
Azerbaijan language. There was talked about the creation of Safavids state.
In this period Molla Muhammed al-Cari composed “Cronicle of Car in 18 th
century”, in which was reflected the fought of Carians against Nadir Shah.
There were composed works in the sphere of geography. Well-known
geographer, Haji Zeynalabdin Shirvani travelled to the countries of the East and
described them in his works.
Poets of this time created qoshma, bayati and etc. in new janres,along with the
continuance of Fuzuli’s traditions. Among the poets,who lived and created in the
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period of khanates we can mention thenames of Nishat Shirvani, Shakir Shirvani,

Arif Shirvani, Arif Tabrizi,Agha Mesih Shirvani, Khasta Kasim, Shekili Naib and
others. There were reflected the historical events in the works of these authors
too.For example, poet Naib, who lived in Sheki in the period of Haji Chelebi
described the struggle of nation against Nadir shahs’ yoke. Shakir Shirvani
described the destruction of Shirvan uprising by Nadir Shah in1743, in his work
called “The History of Shirvan”.
Most prominent poets of the 18th century, were Molla Veli Vidadi (1709-
1809) and Molla Penah Vaqif (1717-1797), who made close the poetry to nation in
their works, written in simple national language. Vidadi was born in Shamkir, lived
in Karabakh and then in the palace of Georgian tsar, Irakly II. He was a great
master of goshma. The poems of Vidadi, such as “Vaqif”, “Chokdandir”,
“Aghlarsan” possessed special essence. There were reflected line of historical
events and were created the icon of many statesmen in high level in the poema of
“Musibetname” of Vidadi. Vaqif was born in the village of Qiraq-Salahli of
Kazakh region. In 1759, he came from Kazakh to Karabakh. He was inclined tothe
palace and lived in Shusha till the end of his life. Vaqif served as prime vezir of
Ibrahimkhalil khan and played special role in the governance of Karabakh khanate.
Leading theme in the creature of Vaqif was love lyrics. Therespect and
influence, which possessed Vaqif shaped a proverb in Karabakh as: “Not each
singer could be Molla Penah”. Vaqif, who created beautiful, simple, realist and
secular poetic icons of heros of his works, stepped from the type of classic
romantism to realism, determined the future literature direction.
In 18 th century, there had been copying the books by hand in Azerbaijan and
they were decorated by miniatures and various scenes. The library of Sheikh Sefi
in Ardebil possessed world fame. This library was brought to Sankt-Petersburg
when Ardebil was conquered by Russian troops in 1828.
Music, architecture and art reached to new level in 18 th century. As, before,
an art of mugham possessed special fame at this time: tesnifs were also included to
mughams.
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In 18 th century, although the feudal strife and military hostilities stopped the
development of construction in cities, it did not concerned to the built of residences
of khans and common buildings. There were created significant monuments of
architecture, to which we can concern the Goy-mesjid in Iravan that was built in
1760 and the palace of Sheki khans in Sheki, which was built by Haji Zeynalabdin
Shirazi in 1762. This constructions, as well as the house of Shekikhanovs, Juma
Mosque, “Gileyli” mosque in Sheki were decorated by rich and different theme.
Drawings and styled view of people and animals, which were drawn with bright
colours, multifigured compositions-the scenes of wars and hunting-substitutes one
another in interior halls of the palace. Naturally, there were not essential changes in
the development and design of structure of Azerbaijan cities in this period, which
showed that in which level the architecture and urban construction in Azerbaijan
developed. This was obvious especially in the architecture of houses. Major part of
the territory of cities were divided into mahallas. This division was related with
socio-economic causes. There were bathes, mosques, water-drilling constructions,
gardens, parks (green massive) in cities too. Such gardens were located in Tabriz,
Shamakha, Ganja,Ardebil and Nakhichevan.
Water-drilling construction of the city were located in the highest level. This
was the system of arkhs and kargiz canals, which were located in Tabriz, Ardebil,
Ganja, Shamakha and Baku.
There were constructed Shusha, Askeran and Bayat castles,Shusha mosque in
Karabakh. All above-mentioned monuments werethe beautiful samples of
architectural and decorative art of Azerbaijan.
Generally, the culture of the 18th century took essential place in the
development of centuries-old national culture of Azerbaijan.
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The Russian empire conquest of Azerbaijan.

Contradictions among Russia-england, france-iran became hard in the end of

XVIII century and at the beginning of XIX century. Russia looked South
Caucasus as source of raw material and wanted to finish conquest in North
Caucasus, then to solve Russian-turk competition for Russian sake and should
strike heavy blow to Ost India monopoly of Britain. Treaty that signed in 1801,
between Iran and Great Britain gave great opportunities to Britain in the South
Caucasus. But aggressive policy of France in Europe closed Great Britain with
Russia. Russian tsar Alexander I signed manifest about connecting eastern Georgia
to Russia on September 1, 1801. Adding Kazakh, Borchali and Pambak to Russia
was beginning of occupation of Azerbaijan. Javad khan as a sign of objection sent
a letter to Commander in Chief of Russian troops- Knoring and sent his
representative to major-general Lazarev who began occupation. In the result of
negotiations among Guba, Derbend, Talysh and Dagestan khanates that held in
Georgievsk in September- December months of 1802, signed Georgievsk treaty
had obligation to struggle together with Russia when Iran attacks, they had to
accept Russian patronage, and they had to intend to enlarge trade in South
Caucasus and develop navigation in Caspian Sea.
Russian tsar specified prince Sisianov as Commander in Chief for realizing
occupation. Russian troops with head of Gulyakov and with help of Georgians
suppressed population in the fight of Ganig (Alazan) and captured Jar- Balacan in
March, 1803. Agreement about “Oath of responsibility” (Andli ohdelik) signed in
Tiflis on April 12, 1803. Population didn’t keep these conditions. That is why
Gulyakov attacked Jar for the second time in January, 1804 and burnt there. He
was defeated in Zagatala and went to Mukhakh village. Gulyakov was killed. But
Sisianov’s new troops firstly captured Jar-Balacan, then Ilisu. Khan of Ganja-
Javad khan’s troops met with Sisianov’s troops in the place named Gurugobu.
Ganja was occupied at night from January 2 to January 3, 1804. Javad khan and his
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son Huseyngulu were killed. Ganja was named “Yelizavetpol”. Persons who used
“Ganja” word were fined silver manat.
Gajars demanded took out Russians troops from South Caucasus in May, 1804.
Russia gave the negative answer. War began between two states on June 16, 1804.
The first fight was in Uchmuadzin on July 27, 1804, second fight was in Gamarli
village near Erevan. Being defeated Sisianov departed back. Occupation of Ganja
had aggravated internal and foreign situation of Karabagh khanate. Ibrahimkhalil
khan signed Kurakchay treaty with Russia which consisted 11 matters, on 14 of
may in 1805. According to treaty khanate became dependent from Russia, khanate
deprived from independent trade and khanate ought to pay 8 million chervon every
year. Khan of Sheki signed treaty with Russia like this on 21 of May. Khan of
Shamakhy- Mustafa khan signed the treaty of being dependent from Russia on
December 27, 1805. Sisianov approached to Baki in the February, 1806. Sisianov
went Baki to meet with khan of Baki- Huseyingulu in February, 8. When
Huseyngulu prepared to present keys of city to Sisianov, khan’s cousin- Ibrahim
bay killed Sisianov
General Bulgakov occupied Darband on June 22, 1806 and then captured Baku
on October 3, 1806. Then Guba was captured. Besides Talish, Erevan,
Nakhchivan, the north lands of Azerbaijan were occupied at the end of 1806.
Turkey (Ottoman) which could not consent with occupation of Russia, declared
war on Russia (1806-1812). General Gudovich’s army defeated the Turks in the
fight of Gumru which happened on June 18, 1807. Gudovich, who led successful
operation against Gajars in 1808-1809 years, occupied Uchmuadzin and
Nakhchivan. The Gajars troops, under the leadership of Abbas Mirza defeated the
Russians in the fight which happened near Garababa village in May, 1809. The
besiegement of Erevan was ended. The military operation which happened in
autumn of 1808 and the spring of 1809 ended fatally for the Russians. They lost
also Nakhchivan. The Russian general Kotlyarevsky occupied Mehri with sudden
attack. The Gajars armies escaped to the South of the Araz River and started peace
negotiations. Russia also claimed Talish khanate. The negotiations which happened
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between Tormosov, the commander in chief and Mirza Bozurk, representative of

Gajars, did not give any results. Harfold Jekson, the representative of Great
Britain, disordered negotiations.
The Ottoman Empire signed the treaty of Bucharest on May 16, 1812. Turkey
recognized a part of Southern Caucasus as Russian occupation. The Russians gain
victory at Aslanduz upon Gajars army on October 10, 1812. Lankaran was
occupied (December 29, 1812- January 1, 1813). Victories of Aslanduz and
Lankaran solved the fate of the First War between Rusian Empire and Gajars. The
treaty of Gulustan was signed in Kharabakh on October 12, 1813. This treatment
was signed by Mirza Abdulhasan khan, the representative of Gajarian and Rtishev,
new commander in chief of Russians armies. According to treaty: 1) Gajars
recognized Russian occupation of Ganja, Kharabakh, Shaky, Shamaky, Guba,
Baku, Talish khanates, and also Eastern Georgia and Dagestan. Nakhchivan and
Erevan stayed under Gajarian’s sway. 2) Only Russia could keep navy in the
Caspian Sea. 3) The customs tariff with 5 % was intended for the Russian
merchants on trade with Gajarian. The Russian merchants were free by internal
customs payment. The contract between Great Britain and Gajars was signed in
Tehran, on November 25, 1814, against Russia. Under this agreement Gajars had
to secure the safety of India which was the colony of Great Britain, by their
boundaries. Britain undertook to support Gajars with financial, army and warships
and also to demand Gulustan treaty being look through again. Britain was
involving Gajars to start war with Russia. Abbas Mirza, the successor to the throne
of Gajars, the ruler of South Azerbaijan, wanted to benefit by relations of Britain
and Gajars. The treaty of cooperation between Gajars and Turkey was signed with
the mediation of Britain in 1823. Because of considering the struggle with
highland nations in North Caucasus, Russia sent Menshikov to Tehran in order to
delay the war with Gajars. Although Russia wanted to compromise a part of
Kharabakh and Talish, but Gajars rejected this proposal. Gajars wanted to benefit
by uprising of December (1825) and started attack choosing Kharabakh and Ganja
as main target on July 19, 1826. At that time the uprising against Russia began in
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Ganja. Exception Shusha which had stood besiege for 48 days, North Azerbaijan
was liberated from Russia in a short time. Besiege of Shusha was the mistake of
Gajars’s command. This helped Russian’s command to take the initiative. Russia
mostly paid attention the defence of Tiflis. Paskevich, the commander in chief and
his armenian general Medetov occupied Shamkir (September 3) and Ganja
(September 13) in 1826. The uprising which had been revolted by Huseyn khan in
Shaki was suppressed in December. Russia occupied Nakhchivan (1827),
Abbasabad after the fight of Cavanbulakh (July 5, 1827), then Sardarabad. Hasan
khan, the khan of Erevan, couldn’t stand any more in besiege and the city was
occupied by Russians on October 1, 1827. For the victory of Erevan (1827) Tsar
Nicolay I entitled “Erevanski” to Paskevich. After capturing Marand (October 2),
Russia occupied Tabriz on October 13, 1827. In order to rule the city, the interim
committee which was consisting of Russian officers and Agha Mirza Fattah, the
chief of clergymen and Fatali khan, the governor of Tabriz, was established.
Although negotiations between Russia and Gajars started on November 7, 1827,
the discontent in indemnity problem caused negotiations to be stopped. Continuing
attack Russia occupied Urmia (January 28) and Ardabil (February 8) in 1828.
Occupying Ardabil Russians carried off 166 manuscripts to Petersburg. Gajars
started negotiations again. The negotiations between Abbas Mirza and Paskevich
were finished with the treaty of Turkmanchay on February 10, 1828. Under the
treaty: 1) The whole Northern Azerbaijan, including Erevan and Nakhchivan were
given to Russia, 2) Only Russia might keep navy in the Caspian Sea, 3) Gajars had
to indemnify 20 million manat to Russia and army of Russia had to stay in
Southern Azerbaijan till indemnifying. 4) Under article 15 of the agreement
Armenians had to be moved from Gajars to Nouth Azerbaijan.
In 1828- 1829s Russia started war with Turkey. The threat of the occupation of
Adirna compelled Ottoman Empire to start negotiations. On September 2, 1829
states signed the treaty of Adirna. According to this treaty: 1. A part of Akhalskikh
was given to Russia, 2. Turkey recognized Russian occupation of Southern
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Caucasus, 3.The resettlement of armenians from Turkey to North Azerbaijan was

intended.
In the period of occupation and afterwards military management system which
was called the method of commandant’s management, was originated. In some
cases transition system was established for a short time. Being included of Gazakh,
Shamsaddil, Borchali, and Pambak to management system of Eastern Georgia was
first step of being separated of Azerbaijan by administrative means. Being
including of Ganja khanate which had been abolished, to the same lands was
second step. Instead of Shaky (1819), Shirvan (1820), Kharabakh (1822), Talish
khanates (1826) which had been abolished, the provinces, instead of Ganja
khanate, the district of Yelyzavetpol (1804) and the district of Jar- Balakhan, the
distances of Gazakh and Shamsaddil were originated. The provinces of Shaky,
Shirvan, Kharabakh and Lankharan were in subordinate of the command of
Moslem provinces the centre of which was located in Shusha. Baku and Guba were
in subordinate of the command of military district the centre of which was located
in Darband. The khanates of Nakhchivan and Erevan were abolished and instead of
them faked district was established which was called Armenian region.
Commendant who was Russian officer ruled provinces and districts. He was
assigned to this post by Commander – in – chief of Caucasus. Commendants were
considered absolute ruling in provinces. He did not only have right to condemn
somebody to death. Provinces to districts, districts were divided into villages. The
courts of provinces were established in Kharabakh and Shaky, the courts of city
were established in Baku, Guba, Ganja. Though the court was considered collegial,
but problems were solved with the management of commandant. In this case he
was not guided by any law. Villainies were heard by court martial. Court martial
was convenient punishment way for people who could protest against colonial
oppression. Punishments of the period of khanates were abolished. Primary Gazi
stood in the main post of ecclesiastical institution in provinces.
Russian Empire, which foreign and domestic policies carried out the anti-
Turkic and antiMuslim character in nature, was trying to create in the region the
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support of the Christian population in the process of the conquest of Northern

Azerbaijan and after its capture. Interestingly, that Russia has begun the relocation
not the Russians, but other Christian nationals. Ruined as a result of the
Napoleonic wars and heavy feudal oppression, the German population of
Württemberg, seeing salvation in the migration of the holy land, Jerusalem,
gathered on the shores of the Black Sea. The German colonists asked the Russian
government to help them to depart to Jerusalem. The Russian officials, conducting
agitation among the colonists, were able to convince them to be relocated to the
South Caucasus, allegedly close to the holy land. Starting from 1818, the
government placed the eighth group of Wurttemberg colonists, consisting of 300
families, as two German colonies in the Elisabethpol province. The Tsarist
authorities believed that the German colonists will play an important role “in the
dissemination of European farming culture” in the region. To accommodate these
two colonies, for the six months, were spent more than 500 thousand rubles at the
expense of revenues from Azerbaijan. The colonists, have not learned the local
population in any new ways of farming, could not compensate for the spent money
on them. In the 1830s, because of heavy casualties during the war and the plague,
they became bankrupt. A debt of the 172 families settled in Helennendorf and
Annenfeld has been written off in 1832, and they were exempt from state taxes on
the 20-years period. The government, mercilessly exploiting the local population,
at the expense of their income provided full support for the alien population of the
region. In politics of the creation of social support by the Christian population in
Northern Azerbaijan, the Tsarist government applied variety methods. For
example, in 1827, in Qazakh and Shamshadil distances, it transferred the control of
Muslim peasants, belonging to the Muslim beys, to the Armenian Archbishop
Nerses. Horrified by this unprecedented event, Muslim population of Azerbaijan
has expressed serious protest to the government actions.
Resettlement armenians from İran and Turkey to establish armenian state in
Azerbaijan was old plan of Russia. According to Pyotr’s I decree on October, 1724
armenians being settled down was allowed in lands which Russia had occupied.
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After Eravan khanate being occupied (October 1, 1727), Armenian catholicos

Nerses Ashtrakatasy made the project of Armenians being moved. With the effort
of A. S. Gribayedov and I. F. Paskevich, this problem was reflected on article 15 of
the agreement of Turkmanchay. The deportation committees were established in
Nakhchivan and Erevan. People, who were moved, were freed by all kind of taxes
and obligations for 6 years and they were assisted with money which Gajars
indemnified to Russia. The Turks’ defeat in the war between Russia and Ottoman
(1828- 1829s) helped Armenians being moved from Little Asia. About 40-50
thousand Armenians from Gajars and 90 thousand armenians from Turkey were
moved. 120 thousand armenian were settled down in the lands a part of which
belonged to beys and state. They were also settled in the district of Goycha.
Armenians were moved to Nakhchivan, Erevan and Kharabakh and ethnic
structure changed. Shavrov wrote in 1911: “At present 1.3 million Armenians live
in South Caucasus and a million of them were moved by us.”
According to the royal decree on October 20, 1830, for four years Russian
families of 504 (2522 persons), considered schismatics (raskolnikEd.) and a threat
to the official orthodoxy, were resettled in Azerbaijan and placed in Shirvan and
Karabakh. Only 39 sectarian families stationed in Karabakh, has been allocated for
the construction of houses about 160 of desyatin, and for sowing and haymaking
1000 acres of land. The Russian settlers were provided with food at the expense of
the local population. The government often relocated the Russian sectarians on the
summer and winter pastures of the beks, without notice or permission of the latters,
which inflicted great damage to livestock farming.

Culture of first half of XIX century

The development of economy influenced to the improvement of culture as
well. For the culture of this period, it was characteristic the strengthening of trends
of realism and enlightenment. Such prominent scientists and literature men, as
A.Bakikhanov, M.Sh.Vazeh, M.C.Topchubashov, Mirza Kazimbey,
M.F.Akhundov, K.B.Zakir and others put essential trade in the field of science and
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culture. Mirza Shafi Vazeh (1796-1852) was well-known in Azerbaijan with his
lyrics. His poems, translated into many languages, were encountered with pride in
Europe for many years. Orientalist works of prominent Azerbaijan scientists
M.C.Topchubashov and Mirza Kazimbey were known in all over the world; these
scientists were the founders of Russian Oriental studies.
Historiography was also developing in this period. The creature of that time
were “Gulistan-i Irem” of Bakikhanov, chronicles on history of Karabakh,
compiled by Mirza Adigozel bey, Mirza Camal Javanshir and Ahmed bey
Javanshir as well as the works of Kerim agha Fateh on the history of Sheki khans.
There lived and created such chroniclers as Muhammed Qazi, Muhammed Sadig,
Abdurrazaq Dunbuli at that time.
One of the prominent people of the 19th century, was great dramaturgist,
philosopher and poet Mirza Fatali Akhundov (1812-1878). Great dramaturgist was
the founder of several literature janres in Azerbaijan literature, had essential
services in the increasement of realistic direction in our literature.
Major theme of the creature of one of the prominent representatives of that
period in Azerbaijan, Kasim bey Zakir (1784-1857) was encountered with suffer
and misfortune of social-political life.
Geographer, ethnographer, historian and poet Haji Zeynalabdin Shirvani, who
made 37 years journeys to many countries of East-from India to Sudan also lived
and created in this period. There were known such masters as, Gambar from
Karabakh (restorater and decorater) and Avaz from Mughan (illustrater) at that
time.
There were published papers in Azerbaijan language such as, “Tatarian news”
(1832), “News about this side of Caucasus” (1841-1846) in Tiflis. In the first half
of the 19th century, there began to extend secular education in Azerbaijan.
Bourgeois reforms in 60th - 70th of XIX century. Cultural development in
second half of XIX century.
Capitalist relations arose in the industry in the 60s years of XIX century. In
this time North Azerbaijan was involved of all-Russian social labour division and
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joined to all- Russian market. In branches which produced raw material and in
mining industry that based on steam strength and application of the hired labour
arose production of big factory – plant. In order to make up the need of Russia for
oil, rental system was liquidated in oil industry on the February 17, 1872. The first
oil gusher in Balakhani in 1873 increased interest to this area. Company of Sweden
citizens, Nobel brothers in 1879, French capital of Rothschild in 1980s, and
English capital of Vishau had important place in the oil industry of Baku. The first
tanker in the world belonged to Nobel named Zoroastr carried out the first oil to
Astrakhan from Baku in 1878. Nobel brothers built narrow railroad for carrying oil
and passenger among mines. Masters of big companies created unity of grand
monopoly – union planters of Baku oil in St. Petersburg in 1893 (supervision to
98% of oil products in Russia). This monopoly divided world oil markets with
American company “Standard Oil”. Union disintegrated in 1897. World
economical crisis in 1900- 1903th years badly influenced to Russia including oil
industry. Baku oil industry stood at first row because of the level of centralizing of
capital. In 1904 Baku provided 47% of need of England and 71% of need of
France for kerosene. The activity of “Standard Oil”, which had signed contract
with industrialists of Baku, influenced badly kerosene exportation from Baku
afterwards. Russian – Japan war (1904 - 1905) and Russian bourgeois revolution I
(1905 - 1907) prevented economic reanimation which was expected after crisis.
Baku lost his first place in the world markets. USA gained first place.
Sipping companies “Caucasus and Mercury” (81 ships), “Lebed” and “Caspi”
(10 ships) which were created in the middle of XIX century, played important role
in Caspian Trade Navigation. Tiflis- Baku railway connected Baku with Black Sea
in 1883. In 1900 Bilajari – Petrovsk (Makhachkala) railway connected Baku to all-
Russian markets. Tiflis- Erevan – Nakhchivan (1864), Baku- Tiflis (1868)
telegraph lines were constructed. The first centralized telephone station was
established in Baku, 1886. Communication through telephone and telegraph
developed. Telephone lines were constructed in Banka settlement. Baku- Guba-
Khachmaz (1911) and Baku- Tiflis (1912) telephone lines were built.
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Development of the capitalist industry increased trade agriculture.

After earthquake of Shamaky the centre of gubernia was moved to Baku in
1859. Guba was given to Baku after the abolishment of Darband gubernia in 1860.
In Southern Caucasus administrative changes were fulfilled with tsar’s decree in
1867. Yelizavetpol gubernia was created from parts of land of Baku gubernia,
Tiflis gubernia, Erevan gubernia in 1868. In 1883 deputy was abolished and
Caucasus was given to the head of civil department. In order to suppress
revolutionary movement, Governor (deputy) was created for the second time in
1905 (1905- 1917).
Azerbaijan culture in srcond half of XIX century. Enlightenment
developed. Agha bay Yadigarov was the first Azerbaijani who had educated in
Russia and Mammadagha Shahtaktinsky was the first Azerbaijani who had
educated in Germany. Intellectuals who preferred to education in native language,
changed teaching from syllabic method to sound method. In 1894 Azerbaijani
schools which had desk and blackboards were opened in Nakhchivan and Ordubad.
New education was called Usuli-cadid (new method). In Azerbaijani department of
Gori seminary which was opened in 1876, prepared teachers for Azerbaijani
schools since 1879.
Theatre: Performing Akhundov’s “Sarguzeshti vazari-khani Lankaran” Baku
real school created theatre in 1873. This was changed into professional company of
actors in 1883 and at the same year H. Z. Tagiev built the building of theatre in
Baku. Since 1882 Shusha had been the centre of theatre. Baku Actors Corporation
was established in 1895.
Press: “Akinchi” newspaper which was the first newspaper in native language
was published by Hasan bay Zardabi in 1875-1877. “Ziya” (1879), “Ziyayi
Qafqaziyya” (1880-1884), “Kashkul” (1884) were published in Tiflis.
“Caspi”,”Baku” and others were published in 1880-1890s.
Architecture: G. Hajibababayov built Karvansara (now “Araz” cinema). I. V.
Goslavski built H. Z. Taghiev’s school for girls in 1898. Debur’s house (present
Art museum) was built in 1890s. The boulevard was started to build in 1865.
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Facade wall of Baku tower was destroyed. Facade gate was replaced to inner wall
by Karbalayi Mahammadhasan. In the second part of XIX century: 1. the
development of capitalism, 2. arising of common market, 3. Arising of economic
and cultural centers, 4. Changing of the structure of society, 5. The formation of
bourgeois and workers, and other factors allowed the formation of Azerbaijani
nation. Nation arose with having the unity of morality, language and territory and
arising of economic unity which belonged to nation. “Kashkul” newspaper which
was published by Jalal Unsizade, used the word of “Azerbaijan nation” for the first
time in 1884.

NORTHERN AZERBAIJAN IN EARLY 20th CENTURY

The Russian government had used our rich natural resources solely for their
own interests, developing Russian industry, at the expense of local strategic raw
materials. Not limited to this, the government was enriched at the expense of
investments of the world's major powers to the Azerbaijani oil industry, mining
and production of licorice. Along with Russia, the world-famous companies of
such developed countries, as Sweden, France, United Kingdom and Germany,
enriched by natural resources of Azerbaijan, providing a high standard of living of
its citizens.
At the enterprises of Azerbaijan and its main industrial center of Baku, a
workday lasted 10-14 hours, while wages were very low. Living and working
conditions of workers were unbearable. None of basic rules of health and safety
were followed. Drilling of each new well was accompanied by a death or injury,
often life-long disabilities of dozens people. Neither businessmen, nor the state
authorities were interested in the fate of the sick and disabled people. No one even
talked on the social and health insurance. In the early 1900s, in Azerbaijan,
especially in Baku, 10 thousands of people worked from Russia and South
Azerbaijan. The majority of the Russian workers had experience of the strike
struggle. The workers, operating at the various industrial sectors, saw the way out
of the dire socio-economic situation in the strikes and demonstrations against the
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government and entrepreneurs. The first open demonstration in Baku, in 1902,

even had a political character. The demonstrators chanted slogans “Down with
autocracy!” and “Freedom!”. On July 1, 1903 the workers went on strike
mechanical workshops of Bibiheybat, joined by workers in all districts of Baku, as
well as the railroad. Requirements, prepared by the strike committee, which the
capitalists called “workers' government”, included the 8-hours workday, increase
of wages, respect for the workers, and others. The number of strikers reached 45-
50 thousand people, and the number of enterprises, covered by strike, was equal to
42. All that bothered the government and entrepreneurs. The government brutally
suppressed the strike with the help of troops on July 22, 1903. It was obvious that
in Azerbaijan, the workers' and peasants' movement took place in the mainstream
of the national liberation movement. The General Strike of July had a great
response across the whole Russia. This is confirmed by the words of the Tsarist
officials “Baku is similar to the button of an electric bell. Once click on this button,
all the Russian embraces the excitement.” On December 13, 1904 at Balakhani oil
fields went on a strike, which was spreading to other trades and businesses and had
become a citywide. In a short time it had covered more than 50 thousand workers.
The strike committee prepared the demands, consisted of 34 items. Most of the
requirements were of an economic nature: the 8-hours workday, increase wages by
25-30%, 1 day off a week, vacation once a year with pay, eliminating the night
shift, the establishment of commercial commissions with the participation of the
workers and the capitalists to solve disputes. But there were some political
demands: to announce the 1st of May as day off, to grant freedom of speech, press,
assembly and association, etc. The Commission, comprising 15 oil magnates,
immediately rejected the political demands. The Commission agreed to meet
certain economic requirements, but stated that they would apply only to oil
workers. Dissatisfied with this decision, the workers continued to strike, in spite of
the martial law and the onset of the Cossacks and the police. The death of fifteen
workers of Balakhani on December 23, during clashes with the police and the
burning of 225 oilrigs by the tsarist provocateurs on December 25-30, accusing in
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this crime workers, could not force them to retreat. On December 30, 1904 a
collective agreement was signed between the oil owners and workers. This contract
is the first collective agreement not only in Azerbaijan, but also in the whole of
Russia. The workers called this legal document "Oil-Fired Constitution" or “Mazut
Constitution.” Businesses were forced to carry out socio-economic demands of the
workers and to introduce 9-hours workday, one day off per week, for two months
leave for health reasons, to increase wages by 20-25%, to create the mining and
plant commissions (Trade Unions) and to eliminate the unequal position of the
immigrant workers from South Azerbaijan. Since this agreement applied only to
the oilmen workers, the workers of mechanical factories went on strike, putting
forward 17 demands, and made signing the collective agreement in January 1905.
The December General Strike was the first major victory for the workers and their
leaders over the tsarist government and the capitalists, and became the forerunner
of the first Russian revolution of 1905-1907.
Enlarging of strike movement led to emergency of social-democratic
organizations in Baku on the eve of I Russian bourgeois revolution(1905-1907). In
1902 under the leadership of M.A.Rasulzadeh established “Musalman Ganjlik
Taskilat” (“Muslim youth organization”). Later this party became” Muslim
Democratic organization” or “Musavat society”. In 1904 autumn, prominent
members of the intelligentsia Mir Hasan Movsumov, Mammad hasan Hacinski and
Mammad Amin Rasulzadeh created Muslims Social Democratic “Hummet”
organization. During 1904-1905 years the “Hummet organization” published in
“Hummet” newspaper. Unfortunately Hummet newspaper gradually across the
Bolsheviks side and walked away from its essence. M.A.Rasulzadeh and his
collages comprehend Bolsheviks won’t destroyed Russia empire absolutely.
Therefore M.A.Rasulzadeh and his collages decided to keep away from Hummet
organization.
Genocide of Azerbaijanis by Armenians in 1905-1906. The parties of Difai,
“Mudafia” .National policy of massacres carried out by the Tsarist government in
1905-1906 was aimed at oppression of revolutionary movement in the Caucasus.
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These actions were organized at the state level with the knowledge and approval of
Tsar and his representative in the South Caucasus governor Nakashidze in Baku.
Armenian Dashnaks were only an instrument for implementation of massacres.
Armenian ultra-nationalist Artsurini having relied upon on Russian authorities
propagandized the notorious idea of establishing the Armenian autonomy in the
South Caucasus. 500 crimes were committed by Armenian bandits against the
Muslims during 1905-1906. The atrocities of the Armenians in Baku began with a
provocation of Armenian soldier on February 2. From 6 to 10 February, over a
thousand people were killed from both sides. Apart from Baku the massacres
against the Muslim population were committed in Nakhchivan, Jebrail, Zangezur
districts. The most tragic events were in Shusha. It began on August 16, when the
church bell gave signal to the Armenians to attack Azerbaijanis. 17 workers from
South Azerbaijan were killed in that bloody campaign. Armenians were supported
by Russian Cossacks. During five days of fighting Azeris give a decisive rebuff to
the enemy. With the support of several hundred riders led by Sultan bey Sultanov
Azerbaijani troops entered Shusha and them to flight.
As response to the Armenian-Muslim clashes the political party "Difai"
("defense") was established in mid-1906 by Ahmed bey Agayev, Mammad Hasan
Haji and others. The main objective of the party was the protection of the Muslim
population from the Armenian fighters and the arbitrariness of local administration
through terror. “Difai” had branches in several cities of Azerbaijan as well as in
Qars, Vladikavkaz. The similar mission had the party of "Mudafie" founded by
Ismail khan Ziyadkhanly in Ganja in May 1907. This party joined the landowners
and intelligentsia, and conducted educational work in the western zone of
Azerbaijan and Tiflis province. The party of "Ittifag" founded by Sharifzadeh and
Juvarlinsky in Baku also aimed to unify Muslims in dealing with the Armenian-
Russian forces with national slaughter.
On 15 August 1905 in Nizhny Novgorod was held the first congress of All
Russian Muslims which Azerbaijan and Tatar bourgeoisies’ participated. Ali
Mardan bek Topchubashov made an interesting presentation. At the congress noted
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importance of the merger on the basis of Islam and Turkism. Congress decided to
create the Union of Muslims(“Ittifaq-i Muslimin”) inside the Common Muslims
Alliance. In 1905 after the 17 October Manifest created the party which was
intended. In January 1906 in Petersburg held the II congress of All Russian
Muslims. At the first meeting accepted that charter and program about the “Union
of Muslims”. In the program purposes was that to unify common Russian and
Turkish unified front to fight against to colonial regime. III Congress was held in
August 1906 in Nizhny Novgorod. Congress decided to organize Central
committee in Baku and open Universities in Baku, Bakhchasaray, Kazan.
In June 1905 in Baku the newspaper “Heyat” published. At the newspaper has
been written we need economic and political progress. We are turkish, therefore
we wish turkish people prosperity and a happy life everywhere. İn 1906 autumn
“Muslims Charitable Society” was established. In 1906 H.Z.Tagiyev and
M.Mukhtarov established the charity of “Nashri-Maarif” society that had great
roles for educating people and development of national consciousness. In the
development of national movement democratic intellectuals, representatives as
C.Mammadkuluzadeh, M.A.Sabir, M.S.Ordubadi, A.Gamkusar, A.Azimzadeh and
others unified around the Molla Nasraddin magazine and fought over national
colonial system and social injustice. They also demanded political freedoms and
legal equality. H.Zardabi, U.Hajibayov, F.Kocerli called people to the national
renaissance with the publicist writings.
In 1911 Abbasqulu Kazımzade, Mirza Mammad Akhundov, Muhammad Ali
Rasulzade, Taghi Naghioghlu organized party “Musawat” (Equality). Goal of this
party was gaining national-cultural autonomy in Russian empire. In 1913-1915
Muhammad Amin Rasulzade was editor of newspaper “Achig soz”. This
newspaper was publishing organ of “Musawat” party.
Azerbaijani deputies of State Duma

The role of national bourgeoisie was also big in popular-liberative struggle of

1905-1907s. Progressive representatives of national bourgeoisie actively
participated in socio-political life of Azerbaijan by the vehicle of various
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communities, unions and publications. It’s enough to mention the activity of

A.Topchubashov, I.Ziyadkhanov, A.Khasmamedov, M.Jafarov, M.Aliyev,
F.Khoysky, M.Shakhtakhtinsky and others in the 1 st , 2 nd , as well as 3 rd and 4
th state Dumas of Russian Empire. A.Topchubashov was the chief of all muslim
fraction in the 1st Duma. Although the representatives of Azerbaijan, as other
muslim deputies in Duma stayed in the positions of “Kadets” party, they conducted
severe struggle against colonial emigration policy of tsarism, national
discrimination as well as for radical solvement of agrarian problems in village
during suitable circumstances.
Constitution movement (1905 – 1907) in Southern Azerbaijan.
During the Constitution movement (1905 – 1907) Russia which had
agreement with England (1907) brought troops to Tabriz with pretext of to guard
foreign citizen on April 25, 1909. Patriot (mujahid) and self-sacrificer ( fadai)
groups were disarmed at the beginning of May. Mahammadali shah overthrown
and his son of 14 years old was thrown in July, 1909. Sattar khan and Baghir khan
taken away to Tehran in 1910, constitution was restored. To come back to Tabriz
was prohibited them. Revolution finished by capturing Tabriz by Russian troops on
20-28 December in 1911. Military court executed Social-Democrat revolutionaries.
Russian influence was paramount in Azerbaijan, with nationalist and democratic
leaders arrested and executed in Tabriz.
AZERBAIJAN DURING THE FIRST WORLD WAR I
The World War I which broke out On 28 July 1914 by the Austro-Hungarian
invasion of Serbia following the assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian
throne Franz Ferdinand by Serbian extremist Gavrilo Princip in Sarayevo on 28
June 1914, was an imperialistic war for redivision of the world.
It involved all the world's great powers, including four major imperial powers
– the German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires, which were
assembled in two opposing alliances: the Triple Entente (Britain, France and
Russia) and the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy).
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Approximately 40 states were involved and more than 70 million military

personnel were mobilized in World War I - one of the largest wars in human
history. Each of states participated in World War I had persuaded the own interests
and aims. Azerbaijan due to its advantageous geographic location and rich natural
resources was a crucial point in the plans of the imperialistic states. Germany
strove to bring under its control rich oil deposits in Azerbaijan. Relying on the
assistance of the Ottoman Empire Germany calculated to establish its influence in
this region and thereby to strike a blow against England and Russia interests in the
Caucasian region. Antagonism between the Russian and Ottoman Empires was
determined by the long-time aspirations of the Russians to capture the straits
Bosphorus and Dardanelles while Ottoman government was going to liberate the
Muslim populations of Russia and the Caucasus from the Russian colonial yoke.
Military action on the Caucasian front. On October 20, 1914 Russia declared
war on the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman army was aimed at retaking Artvin,
Ardahan, Kars and the port of Batum capturing by Russia during the Russo-
Turkish war in 1877. The Ottoman Empire strove also to cut Russian access to
hydrocarbon resources around the Caspian Sea.
The main military campaign on the Caucasus front during World War I was
the Battle of Sarikamish which took place from December 22, 1914 to January 17,
1915. The Ottoman Army suffered heavy defeat in this campaign due to several
reasons. The Ottomans employed a strategy designed with the participation of the
German military specialists without taking into consideration the actual terms and
facilities of the battlefront as well as the climatic terms. Unlike the Russian
Caucasus Army which was a well-equipped 100,000 troops, the Ottoman troops
were ill-prepared for winter conditions and suffered major casualties. The Ottoman
3rd Army which numbered 118,000 fighting men in the beginning of the campaign
was reduced to 42,000 effective soldiers in January 1915.
It should be noted, that was marked by traitorous collaboration of the
Armenians with the Russian Army. Being encouraged personally by Tsar of Russia
Nicholas II who during his visit the "Caucasus front" on December 30, met with
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the head of the Armenian Church and promised that "a most brilliant future awaits
the Armenians" who “are hurrying to enter the ranks of the glorious Russian Army,
with their blood to serve the victory of the Russian Army” Nicolas II also said:
“Let the Russian flag wave freely over the Dardanelles and the Bosporus, Let your
will the peoples remaining under the Turkish yoke receive freedom. Let the
Armenian people of Turkey who have suffered for the faith of Christ received
resurrection for a new free life”.
Azerbaijani generals in the I World War. The Russian Empire didn’t recruited
Muslims into the army. This was a deliberate policy of colonialism, aimed at
depriving the Turkic peoples from accessing to weapons and military experience.
Besides, Tsarism was afraid that Muslim soldiers served in Russian army in case of
battle they wouldn’t fight against the Turks of the Ottoman Empire. Only
representatives of Muslim nobility graduated from military schools were accessed
into the army. Thus, more than 200 Azerbaijani officers served in Russian army
during WWI. Many of them had already won fame since Russo-Japanese War
(1904-1905).
1.Samadbey Mehmandarov Sadykhbey oglu was General of the Artillery in
the Imperial Russian Army. In period of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic
Mehmandarov served as the Minister of Defense. Mehmandarov primarily had
graduated from 2nd Constantine Military School in St. Petersburg in 1875 and later
completed a course in Officer's Artillery College in Tsarskoye Selo in 1903. When
the Russo-Japanese War broke out in 1904, Mehmandarov was appointed the
commander of 7th Eastern Siberia artillery battalion. During the siege of Port
Arthur he was the commander of the Eastern Front Artillery. For the services in
battle he was promoted to major general and decorated with the Order of Saint
George of IV degree. After the capitulation of the fortress the garrison was in
Japanese captivity. When Japanese commanders allowed the captured Russian
officers to return home in exchange to signing an obligation not to fight against
Japan, Mehmandarov refused and preferred to stay with his soldiers. During WWI
Mehmandarov in the rank of lieutenant-general commanded the 21st Infantry
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Division which earned the reputation of one of the best in the Russian Army.
During WWI Mehmandarov’s division taking part in Lodz operation of 1914
inflicted a defeat on the German Army under General Mackensen. Thereby
Russian army avoided being encircled. For this feat general Mehmandarov was
decorated with the Order of Saint George of III degree and Saint George sword
decorated with diamonds. It was the very high award. During WWI only 8 generals
including Mehmandarov become a holder of Saint George sword.
2. Aliagha Shikhlinski Ismail-Agha oglu. After graduating Tiflis military
school Shikhlinski finished Mikhaylovsky Artillery School in Saint Petersburg in
1886. During the Russo-Japanese War Shikhlinski was the commander of an
artillery battery. He especially distinguished himself during the siege of Port
Arthur. For his personal courage Shikhlinski was decorated with the Order of Saint
George 4th degree. He was also awarded a golden sword and conferred the rank of
lieutenant-colonel. After finishing Officer's Artillery College with honors
Shikhlinski published a number of works on artillery, including a book titled “Use
of Field Artillery in a Battle”. Shikhlinski was also known as the author of an
original target-finding device, which was called “Shiklinski triangle”. During WWI
Ali-Agha Shikhlinski was appointed the commander of St. Petersburg garrison
artillery.
3. Huseyn khan Nakhihivanski. General of the Cavalry. During the Russo-
Japanese War Nakhchivanski commanded the 2nd Dagestani cavalry regiment.
During the war the regiment distinguished itself, and Khan Nakhchivanski himself
received seven decorations including fourth-degree Order of Saint George and the
golden Saint George sword. During WWI Khan Nakhchivanski as the commander
of the 2nd cavalry corps was decorated with the Order of Saint George of III
degree, which was presented to him personally by Tsar Nikolas II. In June 1915, he
was appointed General-Adjutant of His Imperial Majesty and became the only
Muslim to hold that position. Later Huseyn Khan was appointed the chief
commander of the Caucasian Army and in 1916 he was promoted to the rank of the
General of the Cavalry.
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4. General Ibrahim Agha Vekilov served at army headquarters.

The first Azerbaijani pilot Farrukh aga Qaibov died in 1916 shooting down
three German aircraft in the skies over Vilnius. He was posthumously awarded the
4th degree of “Order of St. George.” “Tatar cavalry regiment”, created in Shusha at
the beginning of the war, became a member of “the Caucasian Native Cavalry
Division” as part of the 2nd Cavalry Corps under the command of Hussein Khan
Nakhchivanski.

National-liberation movement in Southern Azerbaijan in the first decades

of XX century
Only the entry of Ottoman Turkey into World War I on the side of the Central
Powers in November, 1914, compelled the withdrawal of Russian forces from
Azerbaijan at the end of 1914 under the threat of invasion by Ottoman-backed
Kurdish irregular troops, although they returned early in 1915. The outbreak of the
Russian Revolution in 1917 led to a withdrawal of Russian troops at the opening of
1918, and the Bolsheviks proclaimed that the new Russia no longer had any
political or territorial ambitions in Gajar state. The Russian military departure
enabled the Ottoman army to advance into Azerbaijan and to occupy Tabriz in
summer 1918. Meanwhile, a democratic party under Shaikh Mohammad
Khiyabani had arisen in Tabriz, and after the end of the war disputed control of
Azerbaijan with the central government of Wqtuq-al-dawla in Tehran. Early in
1920 Khiyabani proclaimed Azerbaijan to be Azadlstan "Land of the free" (q.v.),
but his movement was suppressed militarily in September.
National Liberation Movement in the South Azerbaijan (1917-1920). Sheikh
Muhammad Khiyabani The World War I (1914-1918) brought great disaster to
South Azerbaijan, which was part of the Qajar state (Iran). Thanks to incompetent
policies of the Qajars government, South Azerbaijan, first, was occupied by
Russian in 1915, and in 1917-1918, by British troops. The economic crisis has
deepened in the country and the situation of the population had worsened. Under
the rule of foreign invaders Qajar government was unable to protect not only the
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rights of Azerbaijani Turks, but also their safety. In Spring-Summer of 1918, the
Armenian Dashnak forces organized the massacre of the Muslim Turkic population
in Urmia, Khoy, Salmas and Tabriz. In Nowruz holiday, on March 21, 1918,
massacre of the population of Urmia, a great tragedy, because of its scale, was
named “Urmia disaster.” During these events 10 thousand Azerbaijani Turks were
murdered. In general, in the Southern Azerbaijan, the number of those, killed by
the Dashnak bandits, Azerbaijani Turks reached 80 thousand men. A crucial role
had played, in curbing these crimes that took place in front of the Tehran
government, military groups of the Azerbaijan Democratic Party, led by Sheikh
Mohammed Khiyabani and troops, sent from Turkey. The national liberation
movement in South Azerbaijan started in May of 1917 with rallies and
demonstrations in Tabriz against the Shah's regime and the foreign interventionists.
Movement was led by the Azerbaijan Democratic Party, broke away from the
Democratic Party of Iran, declared its separation on August 24, 1917. The party led
by a well-known politician Sheikh Mohammed Khiyabani (1880-1920), one of the
companions of Sattarkhan during the Mashruteh movement (1905-1911). He was
also the chief editor of the newspaper “Tajaddud” (“Renewal”), which started to
print in 1917. On August 9, 1919, the Anglo-Iranian agreement was signed, which
further strengthened the economic and political dependence of Iran from Britain
and had led to the growth of the liberation movement against the Shah's regime and
the foreign interventionists. The peasants, workers, artisans, merchants,
intellectuals and the national bourgeoisie participated in the movement. In response
to the government's attempts to deal with members of the movement, uprising
began on April 7, 1920, in Tabriz. Besides Shah Cossack troops, whose numbers in
Tabriz reached two thousand, the rest of the troops went over to the rebels. To
guide the insurrection was created the Public Council of the Governing led by
Sheikh Mohammed Khiyabani. The rebels in two days seized all the public
institutions in Tabriz. Rebellion won without bloodshed. The victory of Tabriz
uprising had found a great response in the neighboring countries, especially in
Russia and Turkey. The Soviet Russia offered to the Tabriz movement and S.M.
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Khiyabani, via the Soviet leader of Azerbaijan, weapons and material assistance,
trying to use the movement to expel the British from the region. S.M. Khiyabani,
who called the Bolsheviks “wrong side of the tsarist regime,” and was well aware
of the plans of the Soviet Russia by the “export of revolution” to seize the eastern
countries, completely rejected these proposals. Khiyabani relied only on the
strength of his nation, and even rejected the assistance offered by Mustafa Kemal
Pasha Ataturk. National liberation movement of South Azerbaijan reveals its
character clearly in the demands that were directed by Khiyabani to Tehran
government. These included the requirement to declare the country a republic,
giving autonomy to Azerbaijan, the implementation of the points of the
Constitution that concerned enjoumens (councils), the withdrawal of all foreign
troops, resignation of the pro-British government and termination of the contract
with United Kingdom from 1919. Unshakable will of Khiyabani, during the April
uprising, gave the movement a national character and, first representatives of
Tehran, then Indian Sepoys, under the command of the Britain, left Tabriz. Having
received no response from Tehran, regarding the claimed demands, on June 23,
1920, the Azerbaijan Democratic Party was created the National Government at
the Council of the Public Board, which has autonomous rights and the armed
forces. Important reforms have been carried out in the socio-economic life of South
Azerbaijan. The state lands were distributed among the peasants. In Tabriz,
children from poor families were involved in the school and classes for girls were
opened in several schools. Education was conducted in the native language. The
construction of a carpet factory started in Tabriz. The government planned to open
a national bank and to provide the currency reform. The national government
formed a new gendarmerie and police forces in Tabriz, involving 2 thousand of
citizens. The creation of the National Guard, which was supposed to reach the
number up to 12 thousand, was started. Sheikh Mohammed Khiyabani named the
state created by him not “Azerbaijan, but “Azadistan.” He attributed this to the
existence of the state have called Azerbaijan. Overall, Khiyabani treated with
caution to North Azerbaijan. This was due to the proximity of the Azerbaijan
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Democratic Republic and Britain, and later with the establishment of Soviet
Azerbaijan. Interestingly, that Jalil Mammadquluzade had met Khiyabani during
the revolutionary events and in his magazine “Molla Nasiraddin” called the
National Government the “Republic of Azerbaijan.” After the suppression of anti-
Soviet hostilities in Northern Azerbaijan Khiyabani’s hopes to release North
Azerbaijan from the occupation disappeared. He gave refuge to participants of the
anti-Soviet uprising in Ganja, fled from the Bolshevik terror to the South
Azerbaijan, many of who were soldiers. According to the offensive plan, prepared
by the Tehran government together with representatives of Britain, on September
11, 1920, all counterrevolutionary forces, including the shah's Cossack troops, led
by Russian command, were entered in Tabriz. Defenders of the National
Government, until September 14, heroically, fought until the last drop of blood.
S.M. Khiyabani himself, despite the possibility of escape, until the end of resisted
and was killed. On the Government's proposal to surrender and beg for mercy this
heroic man replied: “I prefer to die and did not kneel before the enemy. I am the
son era meshrute and descendant of Babak Khurremi, who was not submitted the
Arabs.” Sheikh Mohammed Khiyabani, who preferred the freedom of the country
above all, the author of the expression “If a nation has no independence, so it has
nothing” - shows value of freedom in the history of national liberation struggle of
our nation. The Turks of South Azerbaijan, led by Sheikh Mohammed Khiyabani
rose up to fight for the preservation of their national identity, and tried to create the
first national autonomy in the state Qajar (Iran). Despite the defeat, the liberation
movement was not successful. A new government replaced the pro-British Tehran
government. The unequal treaty of 1919, concluded with the United Kingdom was
annulled in 1921.
1920, and the control of Tehran re-asserted there, only momentarily to be
challenged in February, 1922, by the brief revolt of the gendarmerie officer Abu'l-
Qasem Lahuti against the commander in chief Reza Khan (later Reza Shah),
suppressed by the latter.
 110

The social-political situation in Azerbaijan after the revolution of

February in 1917. Anti-Azerbaijani policy of Baksovet.
The March Massacre in 1918.
After the overthrow of Tsarism during the February Revolution and the
formation of the Provisional Government in 1917 actually diarchy was established
in country.
Along with the Provisional Government which was the authority of the
bourgeoisie the Soviet of workers and soldiers' deputies was founded.
In March 1917, the elections were held to BakSoviet. Dashnaks, esers,
mensheviks and bolsheviks were essentially involved in these elections. There was
not a single Azeri in BakSoviet. As a result of a new elections hold in April the
same year only 2 Azeris entered BakSoviet. BakSoviet actually conducted Anti-
Azerbaijani policy.
As opposed to BakSoviet the progressive-minded representatives of the
Azerbaijani intelligentsia assembled around the “Turkic Federalist Party of
Musavat” fought for national ideas and demanded territorial autonomy for the
Muslim populated provinces of the Russian Empire.
After the Bolsheviks seized the power and overthrew the Provisional
Government in Novemver 1917 the Caucasusian deputies of Duma formed the
Transcaucasian Commissariat, later reorganized into the Transcaucasian Seim
(Parliament).
Baku was the only city in the South Caucasus, which didn’t recognized the
authority of Transcaucasian Seim. 1918. The Azerbaijani faction consisted of 44
persons was headed by M.E.Rasulzade. BakSoviet managed to capture power in
and proclaim the Soviet power in Baku.
Dashnak Shaumyan was elected as the Chairman of the BakSoviet Executive
Committee. He was also appointed an Extraordinary Commissioner of the South
Caucasus by Lenin. The Military Revolutionary Committee set up under the
leadership of the Armenian Korganov also was in Baku. BakSoviet had an army
numbering 20 thousand and composed primarily of Armenians. Thus, Baku turned
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into the den of Dashnak and Bolshevik groups. Being concerned about growing
political influence of the Musavat party BakSoviet decided to crush and annihilate
the Muslim population.
For this purpose BakSoviet in March 1918 arranged a massacre against the
peaceful defenceless population of the Turkish quarters which resulted in the death
of about 10 thousand citizens. Under the pretence of the struggle against the
Musavat members the Bolshevik and Armenian gangs started the annihilation of
the peaceful Azerbaijani population. The Azerbaijani quarters were fired both from
the air and sea. The massacre of the city’s Moslem population was headed by
S.Shaumyan, the Chairman of the Committee of Revolutionary Defence of Baku.
The Chief of the headquarters of the Red Army in Baku was Z.Avetisyan, a
colonel of the tsarist army and a member of the Dashnak Party. The outrages in
Baku from March 30 to April 2, and further in the uyezds(gazas), were nothing but
a genocide committed against the Azerbaijani people.
After the March massacre the BakSoviet undertook several measures to
strengthen its authority. All newspapers and magazines were banned, exception
was made only for the Bolshevik and Armenian ones. Baku municipality headed
by Khoysky was dissolved. All National Councils, except for the Armenian
National Council, were banned. On April 25, 1918 the Council of People's
Commissars (Sovnarkom), known also as the "Armenian Soviet Government"
headed by Shaumyan was established.
Sovnarkom carried out anti-Azerbaijani policy, it was against not only the
ideas of independence, but even autonomy of Azerbaijan. Sovnarkom considered
Azerbaijan as integral part of Russia and conducted the colonial policy in favor of
Soviet Russia. It expropriated all national banks, oil industry and the Caspian
merchant fleet. In exchange of 1 million 300 thousands tons of oil and petroleum
products and cotton, silk, rice, tea, fish sent to Soviet Russia Lenin ordered to
supply Baku Sovnarkom with weapons, military equipment and aircrafts, military
detachments.
AZERBAIJAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC (1918 – 1920)
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The created Transcaucasian Seim on February 23, 1918, had to be the highest
authority organ in the South Caucasus. But, since its creation there were serious
confrontations among the included fractions-Muslim, Georgian and Armenian
fractions to this Seim. Because of the sin of Armenians and Georgians, these
confrontations became strained during the negatiations, which were conducted in
Trabzon. Even the proclamation of Transcaucasian Independent Federative
Republic on April 22, 1918, did not stop these confrontations. Much more
intensified strife among fractions violated the activity of the Seim. During the
subsequent negotiations, occurring between Turkey and Transcaucasian Seim in
Batumi, the representative of Germany, Fon Lossov, who was only observer
attracted Georgians with several promises and distracted them from negotiations.
In such circumstances Georgians declared about the excluding from the content of
Transcaucasian Seim and the proclamation of the independence of Georgia; After
this event Transcaucasian Seim declared its self-dismissal on May 26, 1918. It was
obvious, because in the absence of Georgians who played a role of mediator,
Azerbaijani and Armenian nation, who were in the condition of conflict, could not
stay under the united state entity. After a day on May 27, Muslim delegation of the
Seim decided to create Temporary National Union of Azerbaijan, then after
negotiations, there was decided the proclamation of state independence of
Azerbaijan. In the Declaration of independence, which was composed by the
secretary of National Union, Hasan bey Aghayev was spoken: “During the Great
Revolution in Russia there was set political stage, which inclined the fall of
separate parts of state organs and the left of Transcaucasus by Russian troops”.
Transcaucasian nation took the solvement of their destiny into their hands and with
their own forces created Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic. But, in
later period of political events, Georgian nation decided to separate from the
structure of Transcaucasian Federative Republic and create independent Georgian
Democratic Republic. Current political circumstances in Azerbaijan, related with
liquidation of war, which occurred between Russian and Ottoman Empires, as well
as the existed anarchy inside of country dictated to Azerbaijan, which consisted of
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Eastern and Southern Transcaucasia, the necessity of creation of its own state
organization, in order to take out the peoples of Azerbaijan from heavy internal
and foreign circumstances, which they were in. On the basics of this, Muslim
National Union of Azerbaijan, which was choosen by national ballots declared
nationally: 1. Azerbaijan is fully soverign nation; it consists of Southern and
Eastern Transcaucasia under the authority of Azerbaijani people.
2. It is resolved that the form of government of independent Azerbaijani state
is a democratic Republic.
3. The Azerbaijani Democratic Republic is determined to establish friendly
relations with all especially with the neighboring nations and states.
4. The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic guarantees to all its citizens within its
borders full civil and political rights, regadless of their ethnic origin, religion,
class, profession or gender.
5. The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic encourages the free development of all
nationalities, inhabiting its territory.
6. Until the Azerbaijani Constituent Assembly is convened, thesupreme
authority over Azerbaijan is vested in a universally elected National Council and
the provisional government, responsible to this council.
The formation of the first government of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic was
instructed to Fatali khan Khoysky by National Council. The structure of the first
government of Azerbaijan was as following: Chairman of the council of Ministers
and The minister of internal affairs - F.Khoysky; The military minister -
Kh.Sultanov; The minister of finance and national enlightenment - N.Yusifbeyli;
The minister of foreign affairs - M.H.Hajinsky; The minister of
transcommunication, post and telegraph - K.Melikaslanov; The minister of
justice - Kh.Mammedov; The minister of trade and industry - M.Y.Jafarov; The
minister of agriculture and labour - A.Sheikhulislamov; The minister of state
control - C.Hajinsky.
THE STATE CONSTRUCTION AND FOREIGN POLICY OF ADR One of
the first steps of newly created Azerbaijan state was the conclusion of Batumi
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agreement about the peace and friendship with Turkey (June 4, 1918). According
to 4th article, Turkey took an obligation about the giving of military aid to ADR, in
the case of its protection from bolsheviks and dashnaks. Georgia demanded from
the Provisional National Council of Azerbaijan to leave its territory. In the mid of
June, 1918, Azerbaijan government moved from Tiflis to Ganja. But, here, the
commander of Turkish troops – Nuru pasha refused to recognize National
Government. Ahmed bey Aghayev, who was his adviser also played great role in
that. So, there appeared powerful opposition against the National Council.
According to bourgeoisie and certain circles of land-onwners. The National
Council and the created government by it stood in Ultra-left and revolutionary
position. These circles which defended the alliance of Azerbaijan and Trukey
began struggle against the National Council. On June 17, in the next assembly of
National Council there was suggested to dismiss the National Council. In the same
day there was formed the second administrative cabinet under the leadership of
F.Khoysky. The new administrative government, which consisted of twelve men,
were included six members of previous cabinet and six new ministers.
The structure of new cabinet was following: F.Khoyskychairman of the
Council and the minister of justice, M.H.Hajinskyminister of foreign affairs,
B.Javanshir-minister of internal affairs, Kh.Melikaslanov-minister of ways,
A.A.Amirjanov-minister of finance, Kh.Sultanov-minister of agriculture,
A.Ashurov-minister of trade and industry, Kh.Rafibeyli-minister of medicine and
charity. Taking into account the strain circumstance in Azerbaijan, the government
declared the military condition in the whole territory of the country. After the
March events, the political situation in Baku changed behalf on bolsheviks. By the
order of S.Shaumyan the armed forces of Baku Soviet began to attack to Ganja on
June 10, 1918. At the result of immediate military aid by Turkey, according to
Batumi agreement, concluded on June 4, 1918, the danger could be prevented. The
fight, lasted from June 27 to July 1 of the same year, decided the destiny of this
confrontation. Victory, gained over bolshevik-armenian armed forces in the battle
near Goychay, prevented the attack of enemy to Ganja. But, Baku was in the
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hands of the enemy yet. Shaumyan and his defenders, who understood that
resistance to Azerbaijan national army was meanless, decided to retire. After the
dismissed of Baku SNC, the authority in the city passed
to the hands of “Dictation of Sentrocaspia and Presidium Provisional
Executive Committee of Soviet of workers and soldier deputees” on August 1,
1918. Bolsheviks took in the ship “Ardagan” with stolen precious items and money
and escaped to Hashtarkhan. But, by the order of Sentrocasp Dictation they were
arrested and returned. Soon, these comissaries were sent to Kransnovodsk and
from there to the depth of Turkmenia-between the stations of Akcha-Kuyma and
Pereval with casual people, who jointed to them and killed on the 20th of
September.
The sin to this act put to English and Turkish men. The one of first attempts of
Sentroccaspia Dictation was to call English troops, who were in Enzeli, to Baku.
At the beginning of August, English troops came to Baku by the commandance of
general Denstervil. But, from the movement of entrance of English troop to Baku,
it became obvious that, their forces were unessential and weak. Azerbaijan-Turkish
troops, which distructed the Sentrocaspia dictation that was consisted of dashnaks
and on September 15, esers liberated Baku. The flag of the Republic of Azerbaijan
was confirmed by the setting of Azerbaijan government on June 24, 1918. The flag
presented the view of white crusant and eight-angled star on red context. After that,
general Tomson called Azerbaijan state the vehicle of the confrontations of
Turkey, the coherence of our flag with Turkish flag was rejected in the first work-
day of Provisional National Council-on November 9, 1918; it was substituted with
new flag, in which was reflected white crusant and eight-angled star on blue, red
and green context. Three colours of official flag of Azerbaijan Republic
symbolized “Turkish national culture, modern European democracy and Islamic
civilization”. On June 27, Azerbaijan (turkish) language was declared the official
language of the state. After the victory of allied troops of Great Britain and France
over Ottoman forces in the territory of Palastine and Syria, there was concluded
Mudross (Mondross) treaty between Turkey and winners on October 30, 1918.
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According to the clauses of this treaty, Turkey had to withdraw all its troops from
South Caucasus, as well as from Azerbaijan.
According to this agreement, South Caucasus was proclaimed the zone of
influence of Britain and there were entered English troops to Baku. English troops
entered to Baku on November 17, 1918. General Tomson appealed to the
population of the city, but he did not utilize the word of “Azerbaijan” in his appeal.
According to Tomson, South Caucasus was the structural part of Russia and Russia
was the ally of England in Antanta block during World War I. On November 16,
1918, after five months’ break, the National Council of Azerbaijan restored its
activity in Baku and on November 20, it approved law “About the formation of
Azerbaijan parliament”. As it was impossible to organize all-Azerbaijan Assembly,
there was decided to reformation of National Council into legislative organ-
Azerbaijan Parliament.
In the law was mentioned that in coherence with the structure of state
population, there should be representatives from all settlers of Azerbaijan nation in
the parliament. So, there were given 80 places to Azerbaijan, 21 places to-
Armenians, 10 places-to Russians and 1 placeto germans, jews, Georgians and
Polishmen in the parliament, consisted of 120 deputees. The remained five places
were implied for Baku profunions (3 places) and for the Union of oil Businessmen
and Tradeindustrail Union (2 places). The places were strictly determined among
uyezds, the Azerbaijan people, who lived in Irevan and Tiflis guberniyas (in the
context of 3:1) were also taken into account. On November 7, 1918, the chairman
of National Council of Azerbaijan, leader of Musavat party, M.E.Resulzadeh
opened the first assembly of Parliament, which was occurred in the gymnasium of
mercy girls of H.Z.Taghiyev. And although Englishmen prevented the opening of
Parliament for several times and even they could prevent the opening of assembly
on the appointed day-3rd of November, the Parliament began to its activity. In this
assembly the prominent statesman, neutral (he wasn’t the member of any party)
Alimardan bey Topchubashov was elected the chairman of Parliament and the
member of Musavat party Hasan bey Aghayev-his assistant (vice-chairman). There
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acted 10 fractions in the Parliament. The biggest parliamentary fraction was

constituted by Musavat. Along with it, there acted the fraction of socialists from
the representatives of “Ittihad”, “Akhrar” parties, “Hummet” organization, and the
organization of “Muslim Socialist Block”, the fraction of “Dashnaksutyun” in the
parliament.
Besides of it, Armenian community and the fraction of national Mensheviks
represented by four members to each of them. There acted the fractions of “non-
parties” and “independents” in
the Parliament. During the first assembly F.Khoysky declared about the
dismissal of provisional government and giving whole authority to parliament. The
formation of new cabinet was again entrusted to F.Khoysky. On December 26, the
structure of new executive cabinet was declared. On December 28, general
Tomson ratified this cabinet of Azerbaijan. The re-formed cabinet was coalitional.
It was not created by party principles, but by the principles of entrustment of
fractions to the program of government leader. At the result of strengthening of the
positions of the government, the Enlgand commandance gradually abolished the
limitations upon its activity in certain spheres of socioeconomic life.
The government of F.Khoysky again retired in March, 1919, and on April 14,
the new cabinet was led by one of the leaders of “Musavat” party, Nasib bey
Yusifbeyli. His program examined the ratification of state independence of
Azerbaijan by super-powers, protection of territorial integrity of the country and
creation of tight relations with negihbour states.
New prime minister expressed that he was ready to restore relations of
Azerbaijan with Soviet Russia in the principle of noninterference to internal affairs
of each other. There were reflected many lacks along with positive results in state
construction too. Political strife, uprisings of several parties of political powers
prevented the creation of unit platform and formation of state
organism. The absence of professionality and concrete activity, small size of
professionals, who were related with the idea of independence and etc. shaped
strict difficulties in the sphere of statehood. Other feature, which aggravated the
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circumstances was the begun attack of Denikin’s army to Daghestan and Georgia.
The capture of Port- Petrovsk and Derbent by Denikin’s army shaped real danger
to Azerbaijan independence. Due to prevent dangerous circumstances, which
shaped on the border of Azerbaijan, Azerbaijan government implemented strict
steps. By the order of the Parliament there was created special organ, which
possessed wide obligations – State Committee of Defence (SCD) in the sphere of
defence. On June 11, 1919, there was declared military circumstance in the whole
territory of Azerbaijan. On June 16, 1919, there was concluded military-defence
pact for 3 years between Azerbaijan and Georgia. According to clauses of the
treaty, in the case of danger to their independence and territorial intergrity both
sides had to implement mutual action. At the end of August, 1919, there began
withdrawal of English troops from the territory of Azerbaijan. They gave the
control over ports, part of military objects, military weapons and military ships to
Azerbaijan government, the others-to Daghestan troops. On the ground of received
military property there was formed Caspian navy of Azerbaijan.
In the second half of 1919, Azerbaijan parliament approved line of laws for
democratization of country life. On July 21, parliament ratified “Statute to the
elections to the Assembly of Azerbaijan Republic”. On August 11, there was
accepted “Law about Azerbaijan citizenship” and on September 30, - “Law about
press”. From December 2 to 11, 1919, there was organized the second congress of
“Musavat” party in Baku. There participated 140 delegations, including
Parliamentary fraction, as well as guests from other political parties and prominent
social figures in the Congress. The leader of the party, M.E.Resulzadeh made a
report about the activity of the party. The party, which discussed new agrarian
program, accepted it. On December 11, there was elected Central Committee of the
party, which Mammed Emin Resulzadeh (chairman), members-Hasan bey
Aghayev, Mammed Hasan Hajinsky, Shafi bey Rustambeyov and Mehdi bey
Hajinsky entered too. In the beginning of 1920, internal-political life essentially
stabilized. There was created normally functioned state system and organized army
in a short time. At the result of great attempts of military ministry there were two
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pedestrian and one cavalry division in the structure of Azerbaijan army at the
beginning of 1920. There were succeded essential achievements in the sphere of
national enlightenment as well. There was founded Baku State University (1919)
and were prepared lecturre staff. On January 1920, the Supreme Council of Allied
States accepted resolution about the de-facto recognition of the independence of
Azerbaijan. The recognition of the independence of Azerbaijan much more
increased the interest. Belgium, Holland, Sweeden, Finland and other countries
opened their representatives in Baku. So, the ratification of Azerbaijan Republic in
international world solved the problem of its recognition and there began the
involvement process of Azerbaijan to the system of multi-international relations.
THE COLLAPSE OF THE AZERBAIJAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC Stability,
which was shaped in internal-political life of Azerbaijan did not last long. There
shaped Bolshevic danger over the country. On February 11, 1920, the first
Congress of Communist Party of Azerbaijan began to its activity. The Congress
directed to the realization of armed state revolution in Azerbaijan. Local
Bolsheviks conducted active propaganda against the national government. But it
was obvious that the Azerbaijani communists did not only rely on themselves in
the realization of state revolution. They hoped to the aggression of Russia. The
most essential event in political life of Azerbaijan was the beginning of
governmental crisis. At the end of March, certain organs arrested socialists, who
conducted underground activity. Related with this event, socialistic fraction
rejected to defend the cabinet of N.Yusifbeyli. On April 1, the cabinet of
N.Yusifbeyli dismissed. The formation of new committee was entrusted to
M.Hajinsky. He prepared to form coalitional government with the participation of
left powers, including communists. But, the Bolsheviks rejected to participate in
that government. They began to the preparation of state revolution more stronger.
On April 22, when the needed time was missed, M.Hajinsky warned the parliament
that the formation of new government was impossible. So, the governmental crisis,
which began at the beginning of April, much more aggravated the political
circumstances in Azerbaijan along with foreign danger. The Minister of Foreign
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Affairs of RSFSR, Q.V.Chicherin demanded the Azerbaijan government to begin

the war against Denikin in his note of January 2, 1920. In responding note, the
minister of foreign affairs of Azerbaijan, F.Khoysky mentioned that the
warbetween Soviet government and Denikin was the internal issue of Russian
nation and the government of Azerbaijan would not be intervened to internal
affairs of Russia. The notes, presented at the end of February and at the beginning
of March, 1920, were close to this content. Gradually, it became obvious that
Russia seeked excute for the prepared military interference by these diplomatic
steps. Real attitude to Azerbaijan was reflected in the telegramme of Lenin to
I.T.Smilge and Q.K.Orcanikidze on March 17, 1920. There was written followings
on that telegramme: “The conguest of Baku is very, very essential for us. Direct all
your forces to this”. Armenian representatives, who arrived in Moscow suggested
their aid to dethrone of Azerbaijan government in the substructution of territorial
claims. They promised to realize revolt of Armenians against local government in
the territory of Mountaneous Karabakh and to distract the attention of Azerbaijan
army from Northern borders, creating suitable conditions for the entrance of
Russian troops to Azerbaijan without any prevents. In March, 1920, there began
the attack of Armenian Dashnakstuyun band, who armed by the side of Bolsheviks,
as well as white Guards to the garrison of Khankendi. Due to suppress Karabakh
revolt there was immediately sent military forces, commanded by general Salimov
from Baku to Mountaneous part of Karabakh. So, in the eve of April conquest the
Northern borders of Azerbaijan was not defended. On the other side, the local
Bolsheviks and small part of Azerbaijan population, who supported them, much
more intensified the propaganda against Azerbaijan government by utilizing the
revolt of Dashnaks; they called the population to appeal to Russia for military aid
and to invite Red army here in order to restorate “legal order” in the country. The
group of representatives, which “invited” 11th Red Army to Baku was led by
A.Mikoyan. Moscow had already prepared the plan of invasion to Baku and on
April 25-26, Russian troops crossed through Northern frontiers to Azerbaijan.
Major military forces of Azerbaijan was in the Western front and there could not
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organize good resistance against 11th Red Army. When Soviet troops approached
to Baku, local Bolsheviks presented notification to Azerbaijan Parliament about the
passing of the authority from the name of Baku Bureou of Caucasian Euvirons
Commitee (AKP) on April 27. In its last assembly, organized on April 27,
Parliament accepted resolution about the pass of the authority to Azerbaijan
communists, which consisted of six clauses after severe disputes. According to this
resolution, the government gave the authority to Muslim Bolsheviks in the
provisions: They would preserve of the entire independence of Azerbaijan; The
created government would be temporary; Former statesmen would be preserved in
their posts; The life and property of statesmen, the members of parliamentwould be
protected; and so on…
So, on April 27, 1920, at the result of foreign aggression-expansive policy of
Russia, which did not respond to international relations and international law,
National state and its government, which was existed in Azerbaijan and recognized
by world states was dethroned by violation. After two days, in Moscow and
Azerbaijan press was published the prepared information about the revolution
occurred in Azerbaijan in the same day.

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SOVIET REGIME IN AZERBAIJAN

People’s Republic of Azerbaijan collapsed due to the military aggression of the
Soviet Russia. Hence, the independent statehood of Azerbaijan was brought to an
end in North Azerbaijan. On April 28, 1920 the Soviet Socialist Republic of
Azerbaijan was declared. As a result of this the independent state government
system created by the People’s Republic of Azerbaijan was abolished. All
authority of the country was instantly delivered to the Interim Revolutionary
Committee and People’s Council of Commissars of Azerbaijan SSR. People’s
Council of Commissars was chaired by Nariman Narimanov.
According to the Decree of May 3, 1920 uyezd (qaza,(district)) and rural
revolutionary committees were formed. The police was eliminated and the worker-
peasant militia was formed. On May 7, 1920 Decree was issued on the
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reorganization of the army and Navy. The petroleum industry was nationalized and
on its base the Azerbaijan oil Committee (subsequently Azneft) was established. It
was headed by Serebrovski delegated to Baku by Lenin. Caspian trade fleet and the
fishing industry were also nationalized.
The I Congress of the Soviets of Azerbaijan SSR was convened in Baku on
May 6, 1921. It adopted the first Constitution of the Azerbaijan SSR. The
Constitution granted all citizens regardless of nationality, sex, religion, the right to
elect and be elected in the state institutions, as well as freedom of speech, press,
freedom of conscience. The Revolutionary Committee was disbanded and the
Azerbaijani Central Executive Committee (AzCIK) was elected. It possessed the
supreme legislative, administrative and supervisory authority in the period between
congresses. Congress reorganized the People’s Council of Commissars which had
supreme executive authority and was headed by N.Narimanov. Despite the
prevailing tough circumstances Narimanov did his best to defend Azerbaijani
nation.
Communist Party of Azerbaijan was in fact an affiliate organ of the
Communist (Bolsheviks) Party of Russia which was functioning on the direct
orders issued by Moscow under the strict leadership of A.I.Mikoyan. The party cell
was fundamentally composed of non-Azerbaijanis, particularly Armenians,
Georgians and Russians. This is the primary reason why Armenians, Georgians
and Russians and representatives of the other nationalities had found a favorable
opportunity to play a specifically important role in committing bloody crimes
against the Azerbaijani people.
Special Revolutionary Committees with extraordinary power set up in each
part of the country had established the repressive communist dictatorship regime.
The national police forces created by ADR were replaced by the special police
units called worker-peasant militia or “red militia”.
Along with this, Extraordinary Commission and Supreme Revolutionary
Tribunal were instituted to regulate and monitor the observance of law in the
country.
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Extraordinary Commission and Supreme Revolutionary Tribunal possessed

exclusive extraordinary power and boundless authority unrestrained by any
regulation or law. Any judgment delivered by these two establishments was
automatically and unquestioningly executed. Under the name of fighting against
the counterrevolutionary and subversive forces, the abovementioned organizations
started carrying out notorious policy of repression and extermination against the
leading intellectuals of Azerbaijan. Soviet regime implemented “red terror” against
the eminent statesmen of the People’s Republic of Azerbaijan, renowned generals
and high-ranking officers of the National Army, distinguished intellectuals,
leading thinkers, religious and literary figures, party leaders, political figures,
famous scientists of the nation were specifically singled out for being killed. The
Bolshevik-Dashnak faction was consciously implementing a well thought-out
policy of extermination the main pillars of the Azerbaijani society in order to
destroy the whole nation once and for all.
Orjonikidze, Kirov, Mikoyan, Mirzoyan, Lominadze, Yeqorov were the main
Bolshevik-Dashnak executioners the bloody massacres carried out against the
leading members of the Azerbaijani people. Approximately 50 thousand selected
members of the Azerbaijani people became the victims of “red terror”. They were
pitilessly executed and shot down within only one year after the invasion of
Azerbaijan on 28th of April in 1920.
In December 1922 Azerbaijan, Georgia and Armenia were confederated into
the united state under the name of Federal Soviet Socialist Republic of Southern
Caucasus (ZSFSR). This fusion created a favorable opportunity for the Georgian-
Armenian leadership of the confederacy to exploit the natural resources and
economic potential of Azerbaijan in order to boost the development and growth of
their own countries. This confederation actually served to discrimination policy
carried out against the Azerbaijani people in South Caucasus. The incorporation of
Azerbaijan into the USSR as a confederate member of the Federal Soviet Socialist
Republic of Southern Caucasus on 30th of December in 1922 actually meant the
complete abolition of the nominal independence of Azerbaijan.
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As soon as Azerbaijan was integrated into the USSR destructive utilization of

natural resources and overexploitation of the country grew deeper in all senses.
Uprising against the Soviet regime in the 20-s of the 20th century.
The bloody Bolshevik-Dashnak regime was unable to suppress the spirit of
resistance among the Azerbaijani people.
A strong armed uprising against the Bolshevik regime took place in the city of
Ganja from 26 to 31 May 1920. Ganja uprising was organized by the former
national army units as a reaction to the Soviets' plan to reorganize Azerbaijani
Army according to the Red Army model by discharging the officers and dividing
the units. The discharge of the Commander of the Ganja garrison Muhammad
Mirza Qajar and his officers led to the strongest civil unrest among Azerbaijanis.
On the night of May 25 to 26 1920 the garrison consisting of 1,800 servicemen
revolted and seized control over the Muslim quarter of Ganja. They were led by
General Qajar, General Javad bey Shikhlinski, General Teymur Novruzov, and
Colonel Jahangir Kazimbeyov. The Soviet units which arrived by railway ringed
the city. On 29 May, they repeatedly attempted to launch an attack but each time
were hurled back with heavy casualties. They only became successful upon
deploying heavy artillery. The battle lasted until 31 May and ended in the
Bolshevik victory. Ganja was captured by the detachments of the 11 th Red Army.
Afterwards the city was looted and pillaged for an entire week. The mass
repressions against those suspected of being linked to the uprising were carried out,
hundreds of people were publicly executed. Around 13,000 people were killed;
twenty-two officers (among them six generals) were immediately exiled on the
island of Nargin and were executed by shooting.
The 1920 Ganja revolt initiated a chain reaction of regional rebellions in June
1920 such as one in Shusha led by the Turkish general Nuri Pasha and one in
Zagatala led by Molla Hafiz Efendi, however neither was as large scale as the
Ganja Revolt. Sheki, Javanshir, Aghdam cavalry regiments and Baku infantry
regiment risen in arms in Shuha were shot down.
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Unlike the rebellions in Ganja and Shusha the uprising in Zagatala was risen
by the civilians who were soon joined by military men. The rebellion was brutally
suppressed.
Starting in September 1920, a new series of rebellions of various scale took
place in Dagestan and Quba, in Garabulag, in Shamkhor, and in Lankaran, overall
lasting until 1924.
The New Economic Policy which was launched in 1921 aimed at reviving
national economy destroying during the Civil War period (1918-1920). The NEP
allowed some private ventures, the small animal businesses, free trade and rental
system for promotion of private profit while the state continued to control banks,
foreign trade, and large industries.
In Azerbaijan the NEP was carried out in two steps. On May 17, 1921
Azrevkom issued a decree "On abolishment of a monopoly on all kinds of food",
which put an end to “prodrazverska” (translated as surplus appropriation system,
which obliged peasantry to surrender the surpluses of almost any kind of
agricultural produce for a fixed price). But in contrast to Russia, where
prodrazvyorstka was immediately exchanged for prodnalog (food tax), in
Azerbaijan prodrazvyorstka was exchanged for voluntarily paid tax of “chanag”
(20 grivenka) which was exchanged by food tax only in spring 1922.
The Central government paid particular attention to the development of the oil
industry in Azerbaijan. Therefore, Azneft was allowed to conclude the contract
with the American Standard Oil and English Gikkers Limited Companies for
purchasing the technical equipment. The Azneft offices were opened in London,
Paris, Berlin and New York. The new oil wells in Bail bay were put into operation,
in 1925 oil extraction had increased twice in comparison with 1921, Oil Machinery
Manufacturing Industry was developed, the Lieutenant Schmidt Plant (now
Sattarkhan Plant) was put into operation.
Besides, in 1925 cement plants in Baku and Tovuz, new cotton mills in Sharur
and the silk-spinning factories in Yevlakh, Sheki, Ordubad, Nagorno-Karabakh,
woolen factory in Ganja were constructed.
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In general, NEP had led to increased production of industrial and agricultural

products, bringing it closer to the pre-war level, improved social services.

The establishment of NKAO and Nakhchivan ASSR

Relying on the support of the Bolshevik government the Armenians continued
policy of occupation of the ancient Azerbaijani lands particularly the regions of
Nakhichevan, Zangazur, Sharur-Daralayaz and Nagorno Karabakh.
Encouraged by Bolsheviks, the Dashnak Armenians were committing
sanguinary massacres and ravaging hundreds of villages in Azerbaijan. Hundreds
of thousands of Azerbaijanis were displaced from their homelands. The Armenians
had readily accepted the integration to the Soviet system and Bolshevik rule in
order to be able to appropriate the Western Azerbaijani territories in return. On
10th of August in 1920 the ancient region of Sharur-Daralayaz was annexed to
Armenia with the support of Bolsheviks without prior consent or endorsement of
the Azerbaijani people. After the occupation of Sharur-Daralayaz, Armenians
embarked on the invasion of Zangazur with the backing of the XI Red Army. The
invasion ended with the incorporation of the Southern-western Zangazur (Mehri)
into Armenia and consequent detachment of Nakhichevan from the rest of
Azerbaijan geographically. By taking control over Mehri, Armenia in fact gained
an access to Gajars. This enabled the Dashnak Armenians to maintain close
relationship and strategic partnership with Gajars.
Under the constant pressures of Orjonikidze and Kirov the plenum of the
Caucasus Bureau of the Communist Party of Russia passed the decision on the
annexation of the region of Nagorno Karabakh to Armenia. But, this decision
caused rigorous opposition of N.Narimanov. Nevertheless, on July 5, 1921 the
Caucasus Bureau adopted new decision on the preservation of Nagorno Karabakh
within the territory of Azerbaijan with granting a broad self-autonomy status to
Nagorno Karabakh with Shusha as its capital.
Nariman Narimanov was against that autonomy. But, despite the Narimanov’s
resistance after he was transferred to work in Moscow beginning in January 1923
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the new leadership of the Communist Party of Azerbaijan was forced to solve the
issue of granting Nagorny Karabakh autonomy. On 7 July 1923 the government of
the republic passed a decree to establishment an autonomous area (NKAA) with
the center in Khankendi. On 18 September of 1923, it was decided in a session of
the Karabakh regional committee of Azerbaijan to rename the administrative
center of the NKAA from Khankendi to Stepanakert in the honor of Stepan
Shaumyan.
However, the schemes plotted by Armenians and Bolsheviks to secure control
over Nakhichevan were disrupted thanks to the intervention of Turkey. The
resolute standpoint of Turkey resulted in signing of the Moscow contract between
Turkey and Russia on 16th of March in 1921 which enforced the autonomy of
Nakhichevan within Azerbaijan. According to the terms of the agreement,
Nakhichevan was by no means authorized to compromise its self-autonomy status
to the third country. The Kars accord which was signed between Turkey and
Southern Caucasus Republics on October 13, 1921 reconfirmed the status of
Nakhichevan as self-autonomous. Therefore, Bolsheviks could not hand over
Nakhichevan to Armenians as they had promised. Thenceforth, the city that was
referred to as the “Gateway of the Turks” by M.K.Ataturk remained within the
boundaries of Azerbaijan for good.
Due to the judicious intervention and well-timed assistance of Turkey the legal
status of Nakhichevan had been determined as self-autonomous and integral part of
Azerbaijan. On 9th of February in 1924, the Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic
of Nakhichevan was created within Azerbaijan. Nevertheless, the Bolsheviks
hadn’t given up the perfidious policy of expanding the Armenian territories on
account of the lands belonging to Azerbaijan. Therefore, three villages of the
Zangilan province were bestowed to Armenians in 1929. Availing this opportunity,
Georgians seized the Azerbajani lands on the right bank of the Kanik (Alazan)
river and annexed them to Georgia.
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The socialist reorganization in the Azerbaijan SSR: Industrialization,

Collectivization, Cultural reform. The mass repressions.
Socialist transformation which started in the second half of the 20-ies of the
20th century had been realized through collectivization, industrialization and
cultural revolution.
Socialist industrialization which was proclaimed by the Communist Party in
December 1925 aimed at creation and development of large-scale machine
production in all sectors of the economy. The content and means of
industrialization under socialism were scientifically formulated by V. I. Lenin. At
the Eighth All-Russian Congress of Soviets (1920), Lenin said: “Only when the
country has been electrified, and industry, agriculture, and transport have been
placed on the technical basis of modern large-scale industry, only then shall we be
fully victorious”. In contrast to Russia, where the main attention was paid to the
development of heavy industry, machine building and military industries, in
Azerbaijan in essence was developed petroleum and energy industry. During the
industrialization period the silk-spinning, cotton-cleaning industries also increased
in Azerbaijan.
Thanks to high enthusiasm of the people which had believed in building
Communism based on the principle "from each according to his ability, to each
according to the need” the great progress was achieved. Baku as the only liquid-
fuel oil base in the USSR played an important role during industrialization.
Lieutenant Schmidt machine-building plant (presently Sattarkhan), Mechanic plant
in Surakhany, first cracking unit as well as oil lubricant, kerosene, gasoline, ship-
repair plants were set up in Baku. Thanks to the oil industry of Azerbaijan the
USSR took the 2-nd place in the world oil production. In 1937 Azerbaijan
produced 76% of all oil extracted in the USSR.
Baku-Batumi pipeline, Alyat-Julfa long distance railway line were built, for
the first time in the USSR electrified railway between Baku and oil-field areas
were built in Azerbaijan.
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Numerous textile mills in Ganja, Yevlakh, Ujar, canning factories in Lankaran

and Ordubad were built, thermal power and hydroelectric (power) plants in Sheki,
Khankendi, Zagatala, Salyan and Fizuli were put into operation. The main output
of industrialization was that Azerbaijan transformed from an agrarian country into
an agrarian-industrial one.
Socialist transformation in the rural economy (or agricultural sector) meant
Collectivization. The goal of Collectivization was to consolidate individual land
and labour into collective farms - kolkhoz. The Communist regime believed that
collectivization would improve agricultural productivity and would produce grain
reserves sufficiently large to feed the growing urban labor force.
Although the collectivization campaign was planned by the Communist Party
for 1928-1933 but Azerbaijani authority launched the collectivization campaign in
Azerbaijan in the second half of 1929 and intended to complete it by the spring of
1930. For this purpose collectivization campaign was forced by means of
organizing “weeks of collectivization” during which thousands of peasants-
proprietors were forcibly recorded in collective farms. There also was practice of
“solid collectivization areas” during which total collectivization of some areas was
conducted.
Peasants especially wealthy peasants which were called “kulak” in Russia and
“qolchomaq” in Azerbaijan opposed to collectivization campaign. They were
outraged by the idea that other people would use their tools/animals as common
property. To suppress kulak opposition Soviet regime launched “raskulachivaniye”
or “dekulakization” against them. Since 1928 the Soviet regime began oppression
against the wealthy peasants through imposing high taxes, confiscation of
surpluses of grain, restriction of their rights in hiring of workers, land leasing and
so on.
But following Stalin’s announcement on the "liquidation of the kulaks as a
class" made in December 1929 “dekulakization” campaign assumed even more
severe character. In January 1930 Politburo approved of the extermination of
kulaks as a class.
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During Dekulakization in 1929-1932 millions of the wealthy peasants and their

families underwent to the political repressions, including arrests, deportations, and
executions.
To provide machinery and equipment to the kolkhozes the Machine Tractor
Stations (MTS) were established in rural areas of the Soviet Union beginning in
1930. Politically, MTS also served as Soviet regime’s strongholds in the
countryside providing political and economic control.
In 1937, the collective farms were involved 86.5% of all households.
Resistance to collectivization in Azerbaijan caused numerous
anticollectivization revolts. Alreadi in 1930 peasant uprising took place in Sheki-
Zaqatala maghal, Kechili village of Nakhchivan, Aghdere village of Khyzy district,
Bitdili village of Shamkir district, Sirik village of Jebrail district. During 1931 the
number of the armed qachag troops fought against collectivization reached 132.
Cultural development in Azerbaijan in the 20-30-s of the 20th century.
Cultural revolution was a necessary part of the transition to a socialist society.
Communist party having taken power initiated cultural revolution whose
characteristics are democratization of culture, equalization of cultural opportunity,
rapid rise of the of the educational level of the population, and the formation of a
new popular intelligentsia. Cultural revolution unlike the political revolution, is
neither sudden nor violent. It was a process of gradual ideological transformation.
Soviet State focused on the development of education because it needed the
educated specialists.
The first step undertaken in educational field was a campaign of eradication of
illiteracy or "elimination of illiteracy" (“likbez” in Russian). To combat illiteracy
in 1923 the Special Committee had been established. In 1930, more than half of the
population was able to read and write. During this campaign great attention was
paid to establishment of various schools and courses. In the late 1930-s 4500
comprehensive schools were established. For providing these schools by teachers
pedagogical courses were also opened.
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Higher education system also improved by establishment of numerous

institutes including Azerbaijani State Pedagogical Institute, Azerbaijani
Polytechnic Institute, the first in the East Conservatory, Higher school of painting
in 1921, Azerbaijani agricultural Institute in Ganja in 1929, Azerbaijani Medical
Institute in 1930, Industrial Institute and Institute of national economy in 1934.
Soviet regime paid special attention to development of sciences. For this
purpose “Society for study and research of Azerbaijan" was founded in 1923. Later
it was reorganized as State Scientific Research Institute on the base of which
Azerbaijani department of the South Caucasus branch of the USSR Academy of
Sciences was established.
Azerbaijani Archaeological Society was founded in 1922, one year later it was
transformed into the Archaeological Committee, and in 1927 into the Committee
for protection of historical, art and natural monuments. As a result of
archaeological excavations the Khojaly-Gedabeg, Yaloylu tepe, Gizil-Veng ancient
cultures were found.
The first Turcological Congress held in Baku in Febrary-March 1926 had
played an important role in the development of Turkic studies. The most important
problem discussed at Congress was reform of alphabet through transition from
Arab graphics into Latin alphabet. This reform was completed in 1929, but later in
1939 Latin alphabet was replaced by Cyrillic. It should be noted, that frequent
changes of alphabet had very negative consequences for Azerbaijani people.
The considerable achievements were made in development of National theatre
by establishment Azerbaijan State Drama Theatre in 1922; Azerbaijan State
Theatre of Opera and Ballet in 1924; Azerbaijan puppet Theatre in 1931; Theatre
of the young spectator's in 1936; Azerbaijan State Russian Drama Theatre in 1937;
Theatre of musical comedy in 1938.
The opera “Koroglu” by Uzeir Gadjibekov was staged in 1937; the first
Azerbaijani ballet "Maiden Tower" by Afrasiyab Badalbeyli was staged in 1940.
“Union of Azerbaijani painters" was founded in 1932;
“Union of Azerbaijani painters" in 1932:
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“Union of Azerbaijani composers" in 1934

Mass-Media. Along with the newspapers "Communist" and "Bakinskiy
rabochiy" numerous newspapers and magazines were published during 20-30-s.
The first radio station was founded in Baku in 1926.
AZERBAIJAN DURING THE WORLD WAR II
Social-economic situation in Azerbaijan during the II World War. On
September 1, 1939, Germany attacked to Poland. After a day, the governments of
England and France declared war on Germany. And so the World War II began. In
a short time the fascist Germany, with its ally-Italy occupited and subordinated
approximately all countries of Central, Western and South-Eastern Europe. So, the
military power of the aggressor increased in two times.
Due to achieve the world supremacy, Germany attacked to USSR.
According to “Barbarossa” plan, german troops had to strike with Soviet army and
enter to the line of Arkhangelsk-Astrakhan in winter. Azerbaijan possessed special
place in expansive plans of Germany. The wealth of Azerbaijan, its suitable
strategic and geopolitical circumstances between East and West attracted the
fascists attention. German administration hoped to conquer the whole East by the
aid of utilizing of Baku oil. It planned to create comissariate in Azerbaijan, which
had to obey Caucasian Reykhs comissariate with the residence in Tbilisi. After the
victory over Soviet Union, Germany examined to conquer other territories, which
were settled by Turkish nations, as well as to create there the state, called “Great
Turkistan”. Extraction, refining and export of Baku oil was instructed to
“Continental oil community” in March, 1941, appointed big German leaders to
great industrial enterprises of Azerbaijan. Hitler personally ordered to turn Baku
into military object after the conquest. There were prepared accurate maps-plans of
industrial and military objects of Baku and Absheron. The invasion plan of fascists
to the Caucasus was called “Edelveys”. According to this plan, the conquest of
Baku was examined to September 25.
The USA and Great Britain were also interested in Caucasus, as well as
Azerbaijan. According to the designed plan by them, called 451“Velvet” there was
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examined to withdraw Soviet troops from Caucasus to Stalingrad and to settle

military forces of USA and Great Britain in these territories. So, they wanted to
annex the Caucasus, as well as Azerbaijan from USSR.
On the eve of the II World War (1939 – 1945) Baku was the cradle of the
Soviet oil industry, it was the major supplier of oil and oil products. In oil history
of Azerbaijan, a record indicator of oil production was attained during the Great
Patriotic War (1941 - 1945) thanks to the hard work of our oil specialists. It was
equal to 23,5 million tones of black gold which made 71.4 % of all oil extracted in
USSR. In general, during wartime, oil workers of Azerbaijan had supplied 75
million tons of oil, 22 million tons of petrol and other oil products to the whole
country. We can surely say that the Baku oil was one of main factors of the victory
over fascism. Suffice it to say that every four out of five aircrafts, five tanks, five
automobiles have running by the Baku petrol. The Great Patriotic War
demonstrated the mass heroism and bravery of the Azerbaijani people.
Because most of the engineers and oil workers left for the war front the women
took over the watch (went on watch). By the summer of 1942, more than 25,000
women or 33% of all the workers were working 18 hour shifts in the oil industries.
By 1944, women's participation had grown to 60%. Veterans and retirees also
returned to the oil fields to help as much as they could. Women's participation in
factories, industrial plants and mills grew, too, as did work on agricultural projects.
When the men left, it was the women who became machine operators and tractor
drivers, replacing their fathers, husbands and brothers. The women worked hard in
the fields to supply the front with cotton, corn, wool, tobacco, tea and many other
crops. By 1942, for example, Azerbaijan became the second largest tea producer of
the Soviet Army.
Under the leadership of Academician Yusif Mamedaliyev, the new technology
was invented to produce the aircraft motor gasoline (for production of the aviation
petroleum). The Baku oil played a vitally decisive role in the war.
The economy of Azerbaijan was reorganized for war needs. Azerbaijan
supplied the front with agricultural products, particular with cotton which had
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strategic importance. Working time in enterprises was risen from June 28, 1941 to
11 hours. Baku turned into the one of the arsenals of the fighting army:
- 130 types of weapons and ammunition, in particular, Katyusha rockets,
Shnyakin machinegun, aircraft "YAK-3" were composed in Baku:
- in accordance with the direction of the Moscow (Centre) the National
Committee of Assistance was established in Azerbaijan in autumn of 1943 for
assistance in reconstructing areas liberated from fascist occupation. A significant
amount of money products and equipment was sent by this Committee for
restoration of the Northern Caucasus, Leningrad, Stalingrad, Ukraine.During 1941-
1943s, Azerbaijan nation gave 15 kg gold, 952 kg silver, which cost 311 million
rubles to the foundation of defence. There were sent 1,6 million various items and
125 vagoon of warm dress to the front.
Participation of Azerbaijan soldiers in the battlefront and in the
antifascist movement.
During the Great Patriotic War the Azerbaijani people demonstrated an
exceptional bravery and heroism both in the battlegrounds and antifascist guerilla
[gə’rilə] movements in various European countries. More than 600 thousand
Azerbaijani soldiers were enlisted and mobilized for the war. Approximately, 170
thousand of them were rewarded with the highest medals and honorary degrees and
130 of them were granted the title “Hero of the Soviet Union” for their feats and
exploits in the war.
The National Rifle Divisions of 402, 223, 271, 416, 77 were formed in
Azerbaijan and sent to front. The divisions of 402, 223, 416 fought bravely for
Mozdok and in battles in coast of the Azov Sea and Crimea.
Despite of strict defeats in the battles under Moscow the enemy was powerful. In
the beginning of May, 1942, fascists captured Kerch, Sevastapol, Kharkhov and
began to move to Volga. In July, Krasnodar, Stavropol, Maykop were conquered.
Azerbaijan and Baku oil encountered with danger. On September 9, 1942, supreme
Head-quarters declared military circumstances in the Republics of South Caucasus,
as well as in Azerbaijan. There was created defence region of Baku. There were
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shaped defence fortifications around the city. There were placed tanks and guns in
entrenchments. The enemy did his best to intervene to the sky of Baku in 71 times
in 1942, and 3 times in 1943, but brave pilots and anti-aircraft gunners did not
permit them-they shaked 96 enemy plains down. After the conquest of Mozdok the
enemy, who encountered with severe resistance, changed his invasion tactics and
began to move not to Baku, but in the direction of Nalchik-Orcanikidze. 402 nd ,
416 th and 223 rd Azerbaijan divisions fought in the region of Mozdok, 77 th
division took part in defence battles. In the operations of Soviet Army for the
liberation of North Caucasus in October, 1942, Azerbaijan divisions showed
military braveness too. 77 th division participated in the liberation of Kerch,
Rostov, Stavropol and other settlements. 402 nd division changed 20 settlements
from the enemy in the region of Mozdok. 416 th divisions played an important role
in the liberation of several settlements in the North Caucasus and the shore of
Azov Sea. After the death, he was awarded with the title of Hero of Soviet Union.
Destruction of fascist troops in the Caucasus
saved Azerbaijan from the danger of fascist occupation.
After the liberation of Soviet territory from the Nazi invaders national
Azerbaijani Division participated in combat operations for the liberation of Eastern
Europe.
For participation in the liberation of Yugoslavia the division of 223 received
the honorary title "Belgrade". The division of 271 which received the honorary title
"Gorlovskaya" fought for liberation of Poland and Czechoslovakia. 20
Azerbaijanis including Zia Buniatov fighting in the ranks of this division were
awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union.
The Azerbaijani divisions have made the glorious frontline records from
Caucasus to far Berlin. The 416 Azeri division which named "Taganrogskaya"
reached the banks of the river Oder and moved to Berlin and on April 2 hoisted the
banner of victory at Brandenburg Gate in Berlin. For bravery and courage shown
by the Reichstag, Yusif Sadigov was awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union.
416 and 77 Divisions were awarded the Suvorov orders of second degree.
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Thousands of Azerbaijanis fought bravely against fascism since the first days
of the war. Among the brave defenders of the Brest fortress were 44 Azerbaijanis.
They fought bravely until the last breath.
Lieutenant Israfil Mamedov was the first among Azerbaijani soldiers who
earned the title Hero of the Soviet Union for bravery in the battle for the village of
Pustynka near Novgorod in 1941.
Azeri Major-General Azi Aslanov was awarded twice Hero of the Soviet
Union. He participated in the battles for Moscow and Stalingrad against Field
Marshal Manstein. As a commander of a tank battalion Aslanov in the battle of
Moscow personally led his battalion in the attack. In one of these battles, Azi
Aslanov, received two bullet wounds in his right leg and severe shrapnel wound to
the head, but continued to remain in the service. For distinction in the battles near
Moscow Azi Aslanov was awarded the "Red Star".
Later in 1942, Azi Aslanov led the 35th Tank Brigade from Stalingrad through
Borisovo, Vileyka, and Minsk to Vilnius and Riga and participated in battles of
Rostov and Taganrog. Aslanov was famous for his "thrust from flank" technique,
which was launching an attack by heading straight toward the enemy, while other
Soviet troops were sent to attack from the sides. For heroism in Stalingrad Aslanov
was awarded Hero of the Soviet Union. For liberation the city Pleshinitsy and 508
settlements from the enemy and participation in the liberation of the Baltic States
Major-General Azi Aslanov in June 1944 for the second time was submitted to the
title Hero of the Soviet Union under the recommendation of General of the Army
Ivan Chernyakhovsky, but because of discriminatory treatment he got it
posthumously, 46 years later, in 1991, after a special appeal by Azerbaijani
intelligentsia to Gorbachev.
Machinegunner Idris Veliyev in the battle at Borodinskiy field destroyed more
than 50 enemy soldiers. Pilot Huseynbala Aliyev in the Leningrad sky shot down
6 enemy aircraft.
In the battle for Tuapse Gafur Mammadov killed thirteen enemy soldiers and
at the cost of his own life saved his commander. Posthumously he was awarded the
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title Hero of the Soviet Union. Idris Suleymanov also earned the title Hero of the
Soviet Union.
20 Azerbaijanis including Ziya Buniatov fought in 271 Division, participated
in the liberation of Poland and Czechoslovakia, received the title Hero of the SU.
The Azerbaijanis demonstrated displayed an exceptional bravery and heroism
both in the battlegrounds and antifascist guerilla movements in various European
countries. Mehdi Huseynzade who seriously wounded in the battle near the town of
Kalach-na-Donu and captured by the Germans in August 1942 managed to escape
and join the Yugoslav-ltalian guerilla corps. Soon after he became a commander of
the special reconnaissance diversionary unit in People’s Liberation Army of
Yugoslavia where he got his nickname Mikhailo. In the middle of January 1944,
Mikhailo with the fighters grasped topographic maps of the opponent. Mehdi
showed the wonders of heroism and bravery. His group was released from Nazi
captivity 700 prisoners and destroyed more than 1000 German officers. With
another Azerbaijani guerrilla, Mirdamat Seidov Huseynzade installed a delayed-
action mine in the "Opchina" cinema in Trieste on April 2, 1944. The explosion
killed 80 and wounded 260 Germans, of which 40 died later in hospital. At the end
of April 1944, Huseynzade, Hans Fritz and Ali Tagiyev blew up a bridge near the
Postayno railway station, which led to a 24-car train crash. In May, Huseynzade
and Seidov blew up a casino, where 150 German officers died and 350 were
wounded. Growing concerned about these attacks, Germans set a reward of
400,000 Italian liras for killing Huseynzade. On November 2, 1944, returning from
a successfully executed mission to destroy a German ammunition depot, Mikhailo
was taken in a German ambush near the town of Vitovlje in Slovenia. During an
unequal battle with German forces Huseynzade killed 25 of them but having ran
out of bullets he used the last one to kill himself. In the war with the fascists, he
showed the wonders of heroism and bravery. His group was released from
captivity 700 prisoners and destroyed more than 1000 German officers. In 1957,
he was posthumously awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union.
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Azeri Ali Babayev participated in the Italian resistance movement. Another

Azeri Vilayat Huseynov was among the guerrillas, who arrested Mussolini.
Akbar Aghayev was one of the leaders of the clandestine (secret) organization the
Buchenwald death camp, was killed by fascists.
Having captured in heavy fighting and who continued to fight for freedom in
the Nazi camps Azerbaijanis committed shoots and went to the partisans. One of
these was Ismail Aliev, the Chief of staff of the partisan brigade that operated in
the Smolensk region. In 1943, 50 Azerbaijanis led by Aliyev escaped from fascist
camp and created in Crimea guerrilla squad.
Among the military captives were those, who considered that after the
victory of Germany over USSR, Germany would give in independence to
Azerbaijan. The one of these groups, who learnt that Stalin declared “nation’s
enemy” the military catives, understood that they would not able to return and
united in national legions, created under the leadership of A.Fatalibeyli-
Dyudanginsky. M.E.Resulzadeh and Kh.Khasmammedov, who also hoped to the
proclamation of independence of Azerbaijan, made negotiations with Hitler
administration. In 1943, when M.E.Resulzadeh understood that Germany would
not recognize the independence of Azerbaijan, declared about it in an open
antifascist report in front of national legion and at the result of it he was withdrawn
from Germany. Neverthless, the representatives of political immigration played an
important role in saving Azerbaijani military captives, who the Germans
considered Jews at first, from the death.
At the result of the unification of progressive forces of all over the world
there was gained great victory against fashism. On May 8, 1945, Germany signed
an act about capitulation. The 9 th of May, entered to the history as the Day of
Victory.
Neverthless, the war continued. On August 9, USSR entered to the war with Japan.
The World War II ended on September 2, 1945, with the capitulation of Japan.
USSR became the winner of the war. Great service and achievement of this
victory referred to Azerbaijan nation. Technics of Soviet Army worked behalf on
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Baku oil. Azerbaijanis showed braveness not only in rear, but also in the front.
Tens of generals of Azerbaijan– Hazi Aslanov, Akim Abbasov, Mehti Mahmudov,
Yagub Quliyev, Habibullah Husseinov, Melik Maherramov, Aslan Vezirov and
othersshowed great military and organizational capabilities, as well as military
braveness in the liberation of the country from fascist invasion. Among the brave
sons of our nation 121 men were awarded with the title of Hero of Soviet Union,
30 men were awarded with the orden of Honour in 3 levels, and 176 ones were
awarded with various ordens and medals.
South Azerbaijan during XX century
The World War II influenced to the socio-political life of Iran, as well as
Southern Azerbaijan. Although during the World War II Iran officially declared
about its neutrality, administrative circles under the leadership of Rza Shah turned
the country into the area of activity of German intelligence organs. But the collapse
of military – police regime of Rza Shah, transition of the real administration of the
country to the parliament restoration of 459 political freedom, liberation of
political prisoners shaped suitable condition for the revival of national democratic
movement in Iran. Major demands of the participants of the movement were the
democratization of state order, improvement of the circumstances of the population
and etc. In order to shape much more stable movement, the participants of
national-democratic movement and the group of democrats under the leadership of
Seid Jafar Pirsheveri appealed to the nation to create Azerbaijan Democratic Party
(ADP) on September 3, 1945. There were reflected such problems as introduce-
ment of autonomy to Azerbaijan inside of Iran, achievement of national solidarity,
realization of reforms, which responded to the requests of the people along with
the explaination of the program of the party. It is important to mention that Soviet
administration and personally I.V.Stalin, who was interested in the development of
national-liberation movement in Iran was completely informed about the situation
in Iran and South Azerbaijan, thanks to M.C.Baghirov. Stalin permitted to the
creation of ADP and the election of S.C.Pisheveri as its leader. On September 5,
1945, there began to be published the newspaper of “Azerbaijan”, who was the
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organ of ADP. On October 2-4, 1945, there occurred the first Congress of ADP.
Congress elected Central Committee under the leadership of S.C.Pisheveri. ADP,
which passed to open struggle, began to create detachment of fedaies and to agree
their activity. Along with it, the party called the nation to defend national existence
of Azerbaijan. At the result of accepted measures by democrats and their wise
tactics in the beginning of Tabriz and from November to December 7, in Maragha,
Maku, Marand, Ardebil, Sarab, Astara, Zenjan and in other regions of Azerbaijan
were created democratic organs of the government. On November 21, 1945, there
was created National Congress of Azerbaijan. Congress expressed its demands
about the call of Milli Mejlis and establishment of National government. The
called Milli Mejlis (on December 12) formed National Government under the
leadership S.C.Pisheveri. The government consisted of 10 ministers, Supreme
Court and General Advocacy. So, national-liberative struggle in South Azerbaijan
was all-national movement. Although Iranian governmental circles did their best to
accept several measures for preventing this movement, but they could not.
The Russians prevented the Persian government troops from advancing beyond
Qazvin, and in the next month, a Russian-protected autonomous republic of
Azerbaijan was proclaimed. Within Azerbaijan, Pishavari played down class
differences, focused on communal conflict, and with Soviet backing instituted two
reforms: redistribution of non-Azerbaijani-owned land (which was confiscated in
687 out of a total of over 7 000 villages) and nationalization of the larger banks. He
also began badly needed work on roads, established workers’ welfare pensions,
and "declared Azeri Turkish the official language of Azerbaijan. These reforms -
or at least the intention which motivated them – were popular, but economic
difficulties (the result, primarily, of bad weather and a bad harvest) forced him to
demand even more money from farmers and landlords than previously exacted
under the old system. With a police force modeled after the Soviet NKVD,
Azerbaijan became a police state. Even those friendly to Pishavari's rule
denounced his abuse of power.
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In the beginning of 1946, National government accepted “Law about

elections” in order to create new local administrative-territorial organs. On
January-February of the same year, there were realized elections. On February 16,
1946, National Government adopted agrarian law. According to this law, the lands
of “khalise”, which were under the property of state, as well as the lands of
escaped and fought people against new government and landowners were divided
among peasants. But the peasants did not have right to sell or hire these lands. The
one of the greatest achievements of National Government was the adoption of the
Law about language by Milli Mejlis, on January 6, 1946. With this Law the
Azerbaijan language was declared the official language in the whole territory of
Azerbaijan, office work in all enterprises and study at all schools should be
conducted in this language. In a short time there were published textbooks,
newspapers and journals in native language, were opened libararies, reading-halls
and hundreds of new schools. In June, 1946, there was established Tabriz
University. The success of National Government was confronted with disturbance
in administrative circles of Iran. The movement had not already limited only with
Azerbaijan and extended to other regions of Iran. That is why, Iran government
prepared to suppress this movement. Due to realize this plan Qvamush-Sultan, who
came to the governance in January of 1946, began to formal negotiations with
National Government. On June of 1946, there was concluded agreement between
them in Tabriz. For the achievement of agreement the National Government had to
go to serious discounts. According to the agreement, the National Government
accepted the states of provinsional organ of authority. Simultaneously, the
government of Teheran extended company of mass information, in which it
accused Azerbaijan democrats in the attempts of separation of Azerbaijan from
Iran. At the same time, Teheran government, which utilized from confirmations
among USA, England and USSR, succeeded to the discussion of “the problem of
Iran” in the UN. By the order of Security Council of UN, the Soviet troops were
withdrawn from Iran.
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Under a 1942 agreement of the Allies, all foreign troops were to be withdrawn
from Iranian soil by six months after the end of the War. In fact, by March, 1946,
the troops of the Western Allies were withdrawn, but the Russian ones did not
leave till May. By November-December, 1946, the central government army was
able to move into Azerbaijan. On December 1, governmental troops began to
attack. National government passed to contrattack in the direction of Zenjan,
Maragha and Miyana; National Government did not want to permit the massacre
and beginning of civil war, ordered to its armed forces to cease the fire. On
December 12, Iran troops entered to Tabriz, without resistance. Thousands people
were arrested and killed, 10 thousands patriots had to emigrated. So, the national-
liberative movement of 1941-1946 was defeated. The Provincial Assembly
abandoned resistance, and Jafar Pishavari fled to the USSR, where he later
allegedly died in an accident on June 12 of 1946. The authority of the central
government in Tehran was re-established, and in the ensuing years, signs of
recrudescent Azerbaijani secessionist feeling were closely watched and the use of
Azeri was once more discouraged.

Azerbaijan after World War II

Restoration of economy began after war. Though price of consumer goods was
lowered in 1947-52, purchasing capacity of people was low, too. Industry
production reached pre-war level in1948. Oil pier was built on the sea for the first
time in the world in 1948. Oil stones were built and the first well gushed here on
November 7, 1949. 7 electric power stations in 1945-50, cement factory in
Garadagh in 1951 were put into commission. “Shimal” (North) district electric
station in Absheron in 1954, Water electric station in Mingachevir, ore purification
group of enterprises in Dashkasan were put into commission. Television of Baki
was on air on February 14, 1956. Small kolkhozs have been liquidated and great
agricultures were created. MTS were liquidated in 1958. Canals of Upper
Garabagh and Samur – Absheron were built in this time. New Baki Oil Refinery
Plant in 1950-60, steel-smelting factory, tire-cover factory, refrigerators factory in
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Baki in 1958-66, group of enterprises of superphosphate and chemistry in Sumgait,

aluminum factory in Ganja, and treatment of gas in 1961 were put into
commission. Factories of chemistry, pipe, synthetical rubber were put into
commission in Sumgait. Money reform was held in 1961. Baki Krasnovodsk ship
way was used in 1962. Baki metro began to work on November 1967 and
Yevlakh-Barda-Aghdam railway was built. Heat-electric power station in Ali
Bayramli was put into commission in 1968.
1940-50s years
The USSR was turned to strong nucleus state after war. It broadened socialist
system. Under M.J.Baghirov’s supervision in Azerbaijan role of ministry of
internal affairs and state safety committee became stronger. Strengthening of
totalitarian regime and worship to personality continued in all USSR in 1940-1950.
Historians tried to ground false thesis about voluntarily connection of North
Azerbaijan to Russia. Oil scientists A. Alizadeh and Y. Safarov were killed.
Heydar Huseinov was oppressed who wrote article about Sheikh Shamil. Prize of
Stalin given to him, was gotten back. As a result he commits suicide. In this time
M.J.Baghirov concerned Sheikh Shamil as English spy; evil wisher called Khitabi
Dada Gorgud as feudal khan epos, Bakikhanov as believer, M.Kazimbey as
faithful servant of tsarism.
In these years secret organizations began activities against soviet regime
secretly. One of them was “Ildirim” created by I.Rahimov, H.Zeynalov,
G.Huseinoglu (Abdullayev) in 1943. M.Rasulzadeh who was in migration created
“Azerbaijan culture society” for purpose of enlightenment in 1949 and A.
Fatalibayli-Dudanginsky continued his anti-Soviet work as the chief of Azerbaijan
section of Radio Liberty.
Azerbaijan population was moved from Armenia in these years. Karabakh
committee was created in Armenia with A.Mikoyan’s initiative in the middle of
40th years. They put forward the demand to give them upper Garabagh in all union
government of Armenia in autumn, 1945. Chief of Azerbaijan M.Baghirov agreed
to give Nagorny Karabagh except Shusha on condition that Zangazur should be
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returned to Azerbaijan. But Armenians didn’t agree (Turkey factor). According to

decision gave on December 23, 1947 by Soviet Ministers of USSR, Azerbaijan
people moved from Armenia to Kur-Araz Lowland. According to decision of 1948,
they moved to Imishli, Kurdamir,S aatly and Sabirabad. Armenians, who moved
from abroad, were placed in their houses. 100 thousand Azerbaijanis were moved
in 1948-1950. H.Aliyev gave political value to this with decree of on December
18, 1997.
1950-1980s years
After I.V. Stalin’s death, N.Khrushov was elected as I secretary of the
Communist Party removed supporters of Stalin, including M.J.Baghirov from
authority. M.J. Baghirov was sentenced to be shot (1956 of April). In the XX
congress that held in September, 1956, decision about worship to personality was
accepted and past activities (works) of Stalin were condemned. In 1956, law-court
building, civil, crime and law-court were given to republic. Gulag was liquidated.
People who were arrested in repression time and who called nation’s enemy were
rehabilitated. Imam Mustafayev (1954-59) was elected as I secretary of ACP after
M.J.Baghirov in 1954. He had opened new works and increased the number of
Azerbaijanis in Baki in order to change demographic condition of Baki and
prevented no to subordinate Baki to Moscow under the name international city. I.
Mustafayev tried for economic independence of Azerbaijan and to make
Azerbaijan language as official state language. The matter about Azerbaijan
language being state language added to constitution in 1956. Moscow prevented I.
Mustafayev’s national politics and removed him from post. New claims
(pretensions) were put forward to Nagorny Karabagh by initiative of A. Mikoyan
and M. Suslov in the middle of the 50th years. Erevan pedagogical college moved
to Khanlar. Erevan Dramatic Theatre was closed. Armenian catholicos Vazgen II
came to Baki in 1958 and demanded upland Garabagh, opening of Armenian
confessor seminary and ringing of the church bell. He got negative answer.
Inclinations of national revival awakened in Azerbaijan in the middle of the 50 th
years. New generation joined the struggle for national freedom in 1960-1970.
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Abulfaz Aliyev (Elchibay) began his activity in Baku State University in 60s years.
Azerbaijan National Headquarters was created in 1962. This society that chairman
was O.Rafili and deputy was KH.Mammadov tried to appoint Azerbaijanis to
important posts and achieved this. H.Aliyev who was vice-president of Azerbaijan
KGB (SSC) from 1964, worked as chairman in 1967 was specified as I secretary of
the Communist Party in 1969 (1969-1982). He was elected as candidate to
membership of Political Bureau in 1976. Next movements of Armenians began in
the middle of 60th years. Armenian genocide was marked in 1965. Garabagh
Committee began activities openly. A few Azerbaijanis were killed at Khankandi
in 1967. Azerbaijan soviet guided nations friendship affirmed decision that to give
two thousand hectares of Azerbaijan land to Armenia on May 7, 1969. H.Aliyev
who came to power in July didn’t allow it. Azerbaijan constitution was accepted in
April,1978 and Nakhchievan constitution was accepted in May. Armenians stepped
from claim. Pedagogical institute was opened in 1973 at Khankandi. The effort of
to raise problem of Upper Garabagh was prevented in 1977. Aghdam-Khankandi
railway station was built in 1979. Moscow wanted to devide Kalbajar region
between two republics as summer pasture, but H.Aliyev revived economy. He built
Mughan road to Kalbajar. H. Aliyev was elected member to Soviet Union
Communist Party in 1987 then taken away to Moscow to post.
Social economic situation in 1970-80th years
Baki refrigerators factories opened in Baki in 1975. But Baki’s importance
decreased as a centre of oil. After Baki-Grozni oil-pipeline put into use in 1983,
Siberia oil was sent to Baki for processed. Railways of Baki- Boyuk Kasik and
Baki-Yalama began to work in 1975, Sabirabad water agricultural complex worked
in 1982, Baki-Actau ferry-boat and deep foundations plant began to work in 1985.
Exams applied from 1945, education for 8 years was applied from 1959, and
compulsory education for 10 years was applied from 1966.Baki theatre institute,
Institute of foreign language, Polytechnic, Russian language and Literature
institute were opened. “Arshin mal alan” was made in 1945, “O olmasin,bu olsun”
was made in 1956, “Uzag sahillarda” was made in 1958. Club named Shahriyar,
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government house, stadium, airport, academy town, circus were built in 50-60s
years. Famous painters of this time were Sattar Bahlulzade, Tahir Salahov,
Michael Abdullaev, Vajiha Samadova, Maral Rahmanzadeh, Togrul
Narimanbayov and rug painter was Latif Karimov. Main sculptors were Fuad
Abdurrahmanov (Ibn Sina in Bukhara), Jalal Garyagdi (N.Narimanov), Omar
Eldarov (Ayini), Tokay Mammadov (Nasimi), Ibrahim Zeynalov, Mirgasimov (J.
Mammadguluzadeh).
Educational system of 1970-80s years was subordinated to bring up faithful
cadre to existing regime. Military school named Nakhchievanski was opened in
1971; military cadres were prepared away from republic. Journal of Soviet
Turkology was printed from 1970. Unity of space investigations began activities in
Baki in 1987. ASE was edited in 1976-87. Sea station and palace of Republic were
built in 70s years. Gulustan palace, zoo, covered sport complex were built in 80s
years.
INDEPENDENT AZERBAIJAN REPUBLIC.
THE COLLAPSE OF THE SOVIET EMPIRE AND RESTORATION
OF THE STATE INDEPENDENCE OF AZERBAIJAN
In the mid of 80’s of the 20th century there lasted difficult circumstances in the
economic and social life of USSR, which ended with the collapse at that period.
There were laid down objective and subjective reasons, important internal and
foreign factors on the ground of economic, political and ideological crash of
Soviet empire. The cause of economic crash were the absence of interest of
workers to their labour uneffectivity of “socialistic model of economy” severe
noneconomic commanding-administrative system, the absence of stimulated output
of free rivalry. The difficulties in economy aggravated with the lost of belief to
political system, since there shaped controversion between official ideological
idols, thoughts about the waited society of “happy future” and real life,
incoherence between words and work of governing party-husbardry administration.
Even before on March of 1985, when M.Qorbachov was elected the general-
secretary of CC of CPSS, there became obvious to the leaders of USSR that
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commanding-administrative economic system lost to the system of modern

capitalism not only in civil life but also in military contest, which based on electro-
computer technic and USSR lagged in that sphere. This contest ate great part of
internal and financial resources, limited strategy of the decrease of amount and
prices of the Soviet export of oil and gas, as well as the blocade of import of
technical equipment. USSR lost the imperialistic war against Afgan nation as well.
Among the essential reasons of the collapse of Soviet system, it is important to
mention anti-soviet policy of western countries, whose leaders attentively traced
the destruction processes in the USSR and simulated them by their means, realized
their political aims on the ground of new world order too. At the result of the
policy of Soviet administration in the period of “reconstruction” USSR did not
achieve any success, i.e. did not turn into modern country, which preserved its
influensive sphere in Central Europe and other parts of the world, otherwise-
caused to collapse of all “socialistic camp” and the fall of Soviet Union in 1991, as
partybourecrathic administration under the leadership of M.Qorbachov continued
to rely on the former, basic economic-ideological idols and to conduct
discrimination policy in the context of Muslim republics. So, the reasons of the
collapse of USSR were not only related with economic, but also political, general-
cultural and moral factors. The attempts of Soviet administration to prevent the
deepened crisis with the mobilization of all potential powers of the country and in
the frame of declared reconstruction in the beginning of 1985, was not succeeded
at the result of wrong methods and directed activites. Implemented methods much
more aggravated the circumstances and increased the collapse of the empire, which
became the reason of original changes in geopolitical map of the world. There
immediately strengthened the tendency of nationalliberative movements of nations
in the shaped social-politicalcircumstances of USSR. As before, Armenian
separatists decided to utilize from the formed crisis and declared their national
platform, directed to the realization of expansive plans about Azerbaijan lands. In
the beginning of 1988, there began storm under the slogan of “clean Armenia from
Turks”, “Armenia for Armenians” by the vehicle of local leadership in Armenia.
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Simultaneously, nationalistic and separated mood elements in MKAR, which were

inspired by these events began to organize demonstrations with the demand of
unification of this region to Armenia. After one of such meetings, organized on
February 20, 1989, the session of Regional Soviet appealed with such demand to
the Supreme Soviet of Azerbaijan.
At the same time there continued the pursue and deportation of Azerbaijan
population from Armenia by the participation of Soviet organs that at the result
more than 260 thousand Azerbaijanis were departed from 185 villages and other
settlements - i.e. from their motherland. More than 31000 houses, 165 collective
and soviet farms, great amount of big and small cattle were plundered by
Armenians. Azerbaijan population resisted against these actions and demands of
Armenian separatists, but the Republic administration did its best to violate legal
rights of the nation instead of to support them. At the result of it, there was
organized massacre by Armenians, who killed two men and wounded 19
Azerbaijanis in Askeran. These events continued to increase under the weakness
and directed aid of first secretary of Communist party of Azerbaijan - A.Vezirov
by Armenian separatists and their protectors. Due to accuse Azerbaijanis in the
revenge of Armenians, present them in negative image to the international society
there was organized provocation in Sumgait on February 28. 1988. Active
organizators and participants of these realized attacks to Armenians were
Armenians themselves: later there was revealed that the murder of five Armenians
was organized by E.Qriqoryan-with the nickname of “Pasha” and his assistants,
who introduced themselves as Azerbaijanis. The calm uprisings of Azerbaijan
nations much more intensified. From November 17 till December 4, there occurred
meetings in the central square of “Azadlig”, but there was not single centre, which
could lead and direct the actions of thousand people. At that time, when
Armenians, relying on the support of central power of Moscow, realized their plans
step by step, the government of Azerbaijan, as worldwide leader Heydar Aliyev
mentioned, could not find power to prevent these actions of Armenians. Former
union and republic administration prevented this: central administration, which
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was afraid of the great respect of Heydar Aliyev, who supported and aided to his
nation in their difficult times, succeeded to dismiss him from leading posts in
Moscow, began campaign against him. For implementation their dirty aims about
the seizure of Mountainous Karabakh from Azerbaijan the USSR administration
violated the rights of Azerbaijan as united republic, realized a line of measures.
The adopted decision on March 24, 1988, about the intensification of socio-
economic development in the region pursued the aim to take the region away from
the subordination of state organ of our republic. Nagorno Karabakh gained special
rights, the solvement of many issues in autonomous region was instructed to the
union Ministries and Commities. Next step became the resolution of January 12,
1989, “About the appliance of special form of governance in MKAR of Azerbaijan
SSR and the establishment of the Committee of Special Governance, which was
instructed all authority over the governance of this region to; this region was
finally excluded from the subordination of Azerbaijan. The activity of this
committee lasted till November 28. In this period governing circles, as well as
special services, did their best to prevent the activites of social figures, who were
known among the nation, made reports against Armenian separation, disagreed
with the weakness of Republic leaders and unbearable attitude of imperial
administration. Major goal of special services was to prevent organizing of
national union under the leadership of patriotic leaders, to try appointing figures to
these unions, who were not capable.
Neverthless, on July 16, 1989, there was organized the Congress of National
Front of Azerbaijan, which elected Abulfaz Aliyev (Elchibey) as its chairman.
NFA supported the national movement and possessed wide social basics, but there
were many uncapable men, who considered themselves “biggest political figures.
These people put their own ambitions, ruling ambitions higher than national
interests” (H.Aliyev). At the result of it, A.Vezirov, who relied on the reign of
imperial Moscow, who was gradually loosing its power and “new national leaders”
began to the struggle for throne, instead of unification of the power of nation. It
was possible that the enemies of Azerbaijan intensified such increasement of
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events in order to distract the attention from Karabakh problem. The anger of
nation fill the patient. In many regions, the reign was substituted by forceful
means. At the result of “border movement” the people destroyed the border
between North and South Azerbaijan. There renewed the meetings with the
demands of dismissal of Republic administration in Baku; in this occasion “USSR
government chose the way of severe suppression of national movement, which
raised the voice for justice and its legal rights” (H.Aliyev). On January 15, 1990,
Supreme Soviet of USSR declared exceptional circumstance in MKAR and in
neighboring regions; in this case there was not mentioned anything about the
belongth of these territories. There was planned to attack to Baku and Nakhichevan
with military detachments. On January 19, 1990, Supreme Soviet of Nakhichevan
Autonomous Republic adopted resolution about the excluding from the structure of
USSR in order to attract the attention of world society and prevented the planned
bloodsheeding here. Due to prevent the attack of troops to the city, thousands of
people assembled in streets and intersections of Baku. In order to frighten the
nation, without any information regular troops of Soviet army and mobilized
soldiers of reserve attacked to the city, realized severe bloodsheeding over the
disarmed citizens at night of 19-20th of January. This day entered to the history of
Azerbaijan as “Bloody January” and caused to much more hate to the “empire of
evil” and to its leaders. “The tragedy of January 20 was the military aggression and
crime of totaliratian communist regime against Azerbaijan nation, it aimed to break
the belief and will of nation, who rebelled for its legal rights, regarded it and to
demonstrate the power of soviet military machine” (H.Aliyev). Due to distract the
attention of the world society and defend their actions, soviet propaganda machine
extended wrong information about the existence of 44 military terrorists in
Azerbaijan. “The operations” on the invasion of troops to Baku was personally led
by the Minister of Defence of USSR, Yazov. Soviet army committed great crime,
the buildings and any moving predmet were shooted, the “ambulances” were not
permitted to help the wounded people, heavy tanks pressed machines, people,
trees, monuments. At the result of “military operation” against disarmed people in
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Baku and in other settlements, there were killed 131, wounded 744 people,
hundreds of people lost and 400 people were arrested by the “defenders of the
Motherland” according to official documents. National husbandry was destroyed.
At the result of “Baku operation” there was died 25, wounded 283 military men.
Azerbaijan nation proved its devotion to heroic traditions of past, being ready to
sacrify their life for freedom and independence of the Motherland in front of the
world and wrote bright page to the chronicle of the Country. The republic
administration displayed weakness again in such difficult time and did not help to
the nation. Vezirov, who was scared from the anger of the nation escaped, others
maintained expectant position. They did not participate even in the session of
Supreme Soviet of the Republic, which was called by the initiative of deputies and
they called this session “illegal assemble”. The adopted decision by the session
about the withdrawal of troops from the city and abolishment of emergency
circumstance by military commandance, which obeyed to Moscow, was not
implemented. After these events, on January 21, 1990, Haydar Aliyev came to the
representation of Azerbaijan in Moscow; he took part in the organized assemble
here, expressed his disagreement about the entrance of troops, gave political
evoluation to the tragedy of January 20, revealed real goals of the actions of central
and republic administration, which were directed against law, democracy and
humanism. The text of H.Aliyev’s historical speech rapidly and widely extended in
the republic and over the world. There shaped hope in the hearts of people, who
felt themselves abondoned. But, the wish of H.Aliyev about returning to his
motherland in order to give an aid to the nation and to be their support in difficult
hour, frightened the leaders of the Republic. Despite of danger and difficulties,
H.Aliyev came to Baku on July 20, 1990. But the republic administration showed
that he and his assistans were not wished in the capital and that’s why, on July 22
H.Aliyev went to Nakhichevan. The population of Autonomous Republic gladly
met and assembled around their leader and soon in the organized ballots, they
elected him the deputy of Supreme Soviet of Azerbaijan SSR and Nakhichevan
ASSR. H.Aliyev called the nation to conduct struggle for freedom and
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independence till the end. Under his leadership there were made new steps on the
restoration of the traditions of national statehood in Nakhichevan. On November
19, 1990, there was abolished the phrase of “Soviet Socialistic” in the session of
parliament of Nakhichevan ASSR, which was conducted under the chairman
H.Aliyev; the three coloured flag was confirmed as the state flag of Autonomous
Republic. Supreme Soviet of Autonomous Republic was renamed to Supreme
Mejlis. Only after several months and under the influence of thesedecisions
Supreme Soviet of Azerbaijan SSR confirmed its name as “Azerbaijan Republic”
and three coloured flag with star and crusant on February 5, 1991. Soviet empire
could not break the will of Azerbaijan nation with its actions. “Bloody January”
became the lesson for the nation, it showed that sole way for the solvement of
existing problems was the restoration of the state independence. Neverthless, after
all of these events and losts because of the leaders who were dismissed from the
historical scene of Soviet Empire, Republic communists passed to the side of
powers, which aimed to preserve the empire. “We must not rely our hopes on the
Union”, said H.Aliyev and refused to participate in Referendum, organized by
Moscow as formal-legal basics for the protection of Empire. Despite of the protest
of H.Aliyev and other democratic powers, the Republic administration adobted
decision about the participation of Azerbaijan republic in Referendum, on March
17, 1991. The result of referendum was showed as-the nation elected for the
preserve of USSR; Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic did not participate in the
election.
Before May 19, 1990, the session of Supreme Soviet of Azerbaijan SSR
formed the post of “President of the Republic”. A.Mutallibov, who was appointed
the party leader of the Republic frightened that H.Aliyev would be able to win in
the President elections and achieved to adobtion of special article to the
Constitution, which confirmed age limit for the candidates to Presidency. The
Azerbaijan administration supported the forces, who attemted to organize state
revolution, overwhelmed at the end and supported Armenian separatists in the
period of events of 19-21st August of 1991, in Moscow and proclaimation of
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emergency circumstance in the territory of USSR under the leadership of QKCP.

After August events, the communist regime in USSR was abolished and on
September 14, 1991, declared its dismissal in the 33rd session of CP of Azerbaijan.
On August 30, 1991, by the demand of democratic powers of Azerbaijan the
session of Supreme Soviet of Azerbaijan Republic adopted declaration “About the
restoration of state independence of Azerbaijan Republic”. But, the governments of
the Republic could not organize national referendum for legalization of this
decision of Supreme Soviet as it was demanded in Constitution, despite of
H.Aliyev’s and other deputies’ call. The delay of such processes aimed to prevent
the collapse of USSR and preserve its reign. On October 18, 1991, the session of
Supreme Soviet had already adopted “Constitutional Act of the State Independence
of the Republic of Azerbaijan”, which was ratified by national referendum a little
bit lateron December, 29. It became possible only after the declaration of
dissolution of USSR on December 8, 1991. So, state independence of Azerbaijan
was completely legalized and the Republic became the subject of international-law
relations. There were mentioned the Articles of Constitutional Act of the 18th
October of 1991, which concerned to soverign rights of the Republic as the subject
of international law below:
Article 5. Any action against the indepenedence of the Republic of Azerbaijan
is the interference to the internal affairs of the sovereign state and these actions
will be responded in accordance with the international legal standards.
Article 6. The part of the state debt of the USSR that was formed as the result
of the economic activity of the republic and related to the USSR property that
transferred to the Republic may be considered the debt of the Republic of
Azerbaijan.
Article 7. The whole movable and immovable property on the territory of the
Republic of Azebaijan is the state property of the country. The exception is the part
of the USSR movable property that may pass to other establishments of the USSR
by the due contracts and in accordance with the international law. Property of the
USSR formed at the expense of the national incomes, national and other reserves
 154

of Azerbaijan though out of the bounds of the Republic of Azerbaijan yet during
the Azerbaijan’s existance within the USSR.
Article 8. The Azerbaijan people include the citizens of the republic of
Azerbaijan living on its territory or out of its bounds and those adhering to its laws;
that does not contradict to the norms defined by the international law.
Article 9. The Azerbaijan people have a right to choose the form of
government, to define the relations with other people, to develop their political,
economic and cultural traditions in accordance with the universal values.
Article 10. The Azerbaijan people are the source of the government in the
sovereign Republic of Azerbaijan. A part of the Azerbaijan people or any person
cannot adopt the regulation of the country. The direct state regulation of the
Azerbaijan people is carried out through the representatives elected by the direct
referendum or the general, equal and direct secret voting.
Article 11. The Azerbaijan people ensures the supremacy of the law and the
democratic structure of the Republic of Azerbaijan as the means of the expression
of will.
Article 12. The Azerbaijan people create the independent, secular, democratic
and unitarian state, the sovereign government of the state is restricted by the laws
in the inner affairs and by the principles subsequent from the treaties and contracts
agreed by the Azerbaijan people in their foreign policy. The sovereignity of the
republic of Azerbaijan is applied to the entire territory of the country. The
Republic of Azerbaijan does not pass the sovereign rights, it applied on its territory
to any other state or unions of states.
Article 13. The state power of the Republic of Azerbaijan is based on the
separation of powers. The legislative power is vested in the parliament of the
republic of Azerbaijan. The high executive power is carried out to the President of
the Republic of Azerbaijan. The judicial power is carried out by the independent
court and high instances-by the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Azerbaijan,
the Supreme Court of the Republic of Azerbaijan, the High Arbitrage Court of the
Republic of Azerbaijan.
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Article 14. The territory of the Republic of Azerbaijan is integral and cannot be
divided into parts. The Republic of Azerbaijan does not transfer its territory to
anyone and the borders of the country can be determined by the resolution of the
Parliament of the Republic of Azerbaijan on the basis of the national referendum
and the agreement of the Azerbaijan people. The lands of the Republic of
Azerbaijan cannot be sold to any other states or any legal enterprises of other
countries.
Article 15. The Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan and the laws of the
Republic of Azerbaijan are effective on the territory of the Republic of Azerbaijan.
The legislative power is restricted by the Constitution of the Republic of
Azerbaijan, the executive and legislative powers by the Constitution of the
Republic of Azerbaijan and its laws and acts. The Constitution of the Republic of
Azerbaijan is adopted among the entire population of the Republic by the general
national referendum.
Article 16. In accordance with the generally accepted international legal
standards the Republic of Azerbaijan builds the relations with other states in
accordance with the following principles: the sovereign equality of the states, the
peaceful settlement of the issues and conflicts of territorial intergrity of the state,
noninterference with the internal affairs of the countries, respect for the human
rights and principal liberties, the adherence to the peoples’ equality and the right to
determine their own fate, the cooperation of the states and international duties.

STRUGGLE FOR THE STRENGTHENING OF INDEPENDENCE OF THE

REPUBLIC OF AZERBAIJAN
The proclamation of the independence of Azerbaijan confronted with different
processes, shaped at the result of the collapse of USSR in the region and all over
the world. Essential changes in political and economic system, attempts of certain
powers to preserve Azerbaijan in dependant condition as it was before, the activity
of the men, who were appointed by foreign powers and the fought for throne inside
of the republic created strict diffuculties on the way of successful restoration of
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national statehood and realization of independence circumstances in the first

stages. In other words we can say the independence of “Azerbaijan stood in front
of the dilemma ‘life or death’ ” (H.Aliyev). The forces, who were in the throne
were not engaged in the interests of Azerbaijan, but the interests of protection of
their own throne, continued to maintain the orientation to Russia, which supported
the positions of Armenian separatists, did not take into account the processes,
occurring in the world in internal and foreign policy. All of them did not reply to
the political and economic development of Azerbaijan, demands of provision of
territorial intergrity, security and sovereignity. During 1991-1992s, Armenia
conducted big military operations relying firstly on USSR, then UIC. In
September, 1991, they organized puppet “Republic of Mountainous Karabakh”,
Azerbaijan regions were conguered step by step. At night of February 25-26, 1992,
Armenian armed forces and Russian 366th mechanized polk, which was placed in
Khankendi attacked to the city of Khojaly. There was realized one of the wildest
massacres of the 20th century-Khojaly genocide. There died 613 people, 487 of
population were wounded, 1275 were captivated, 8 families were completely
vanished and the city was burned. The cruel enemy even insulted the died people
in order to frighten the nation.
Khojaly genocide much more intensified political confrontation in the society.
With the order of nation A.Mutallibov dismissed in the session of Supreme Soviet.
Most of the people believed that H.Aliyev would be able to prevent the further
biggest tragedies. But, the National Front, which utilized from Karabakh problem
was eager to came to the reign. Moscow tried to return Ayaz Mutallibov to the
reign and used from political difficulties, extended its provocated policy in
Azerbaijan. Major figure was Armenia, the aim was sole to make Azerbaijan
surrender by conquering much more territories. Armenians, who were concentrated
in the direction of Shusha and Lachin began to invasion bythe aid of Russian
technics and military formations. At night of May 7-8, 1992, at the result of
betrayal, Shusha passed to the hands of the enemy. The lost of Shusha, withdrawal
of military detachments from Lachin much more aggravated political situation. By
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the order of Moscow, the defenders of A.Mutallibov, who declared that “We will
return Shusha” did their best to return him to the reign in the session of Supreme
Soviet, organized on May 14, 1992. The activists of NFA, who declared that this
would be unconstitutional action, attacked to the Parliamentary building by the
vehicle of military technics and armed forces, which were withdrawn from front by
them. At the result of it, the building of the Parliament, President’s palace and
other important state objects were captured. Isa Gambarov was elected the
chairman of Supreme Soviet in the session of Parliament, on May 18,
1992. At this time there was occurring fought for the reign in Baku; the enemy,
who utilized from the withdrawal of the defence detachments from Lachin,
occupied the city on May 18. There shaped the tie between separatists of Nagorno
Karabakh and Armenia through Lachin corridor.
In the presidential ballots of June 7, 1992, the chairman of NFAAbulfaz Aliyev
(Elchibey) was elected the president. There began the reign of NFA-Musavat
coalition. The economic and political crisis in the republic much more deepened in
the period of the reign of NFAMusavat block. After the first successful military
operations on the withdrawal of Armenian agressors, there began the period of
unfortunes since the autumn of 1992.
The existed ties in economy were violated. The output power of enterprises
decreased, 1/3 of national profit was wasted to military necessities. Most suitable
lands passed to the hands of the enemy. New administrative mechanisms did not
work. The properties were plundered, the monetary, obtained from the sold goods
to abroad, moved to personal accounts in foreign banks. The existing difficulties
were first of all the results of wrong staff policy of governmental organs, as well as
the war, which damaged the country. The coming of uncapable men to the reign
damaged Azerbaijan nation. The ruling circles, who were gradually losing the
support of nation were scared from the increasing influence of H.Aliyev and did
their best to prevent his work in Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic.
The giving of electro-energy to Nakhichevan, railway information of Baku-
Nakhichevan were stopped. There was created blocade around Nakhichevan AR.
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Autonomous Republic passed from difficult days. Thanks to the labour of the
chairman of Supreme Mejlis of Nakhichevan AR-H.Aliyev successfully solved the
important problems of the region. There was taken credit from Turkey. On May
28, 1992, there was opened the bridge of “Hope” (“Umid”) between Sadarak-
Dilucu. The relations with Iran was regulated. Thanks to the aid of neighbourhood
countries electro-energy demand of the region was gradually realized.
On October 16, 1992, the group of representatives of intelligence (91 men)
appealed to H.Aliyev by the vehicle of the paper of “Ses” (“Voice”). There was
expressed their request about returning to big policy in the appeal. In June, 1993,
there happened military revolt in Ganja-709th military detachment excluded from
the subordination of the Ministry of Defence by the aid of defenders of former
commanders of military corpus – S.Husseinov; by the way, S.Husseinov had been
awarded with the title of National Hero by “experienced and capable” reign.
Diffucult circumstances shaped in Southern and North-Eastern regions as well –
one more “commander” of National Front – S.Humbatov planned to create
“Talish-Mughan Republic” in the Southern region, relying on his armed
formations, simultaneously separatist elements planned to form “The state of
Lezgistan” in the North-East. All these actions were directed by Moscow. Due to
neutralize the revolt of June 4, the government directed about 3 thousand alive
forces and military technic to Ganja. The objects of 709 th military detachment,
airport were constructed, 135 people were wounded. Rebels captivated 1200
soldiers, as well as the advocate of the Republic. They did not get reply to their
ultimatums about dismissal of the chairman of Supreme Soviet, prime-minister and
president, so they began attack to the capital. By the call of nation and deputies
Heydar Aliyev, who neutralized military opposition of S.Husseinov by political
manevres and prevented the civil war in Azerbaijan intervened to this event. On
June 15, 1993, Heydar Aliyev was elected the chairman of Supreme Soviet. This
day entered to the history as the “Day of National Rescue”. The civil war was
prevented, it became possible to save the statehood and independence of
Azerbaijan. After that, when the president Abulfaz Aliyev suddenly left thecapital
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and went to his motherland – the village of Keleki of Ordubad region, on June 24,
Milli Mejlis gave all presidentional responsibities to the chairman of Supreme
Soviet – Heydar Aliyev. The politicaldevelopment in the country finally turned
into natural essence, peoplewho gained wise leader believed to their future.In
August, 1993, Cebrayil, Fuzuli, Gubadli regions were conquered. Nation, who saw
that how various forces did their best to capture the reign began to assemble
around H.Aliyev. There wasorganized referendum about the belief to President on
August 29, 1993, and 97% of participants expressed their unbelief to A.Elchibey.
On September 24, 1993, Azerbaijan entered to UIC and on October 3, 1993,
Azerbaijan nation elected H.Aliyev as the president with the majority of voices.
The elected as president by nation, H.Aliyev declared his decision about doing
everything for strengthening state independence, providing territorial integrity and
sovergnity, improving the level of life of population in his inauguration speech.
The realization of these duties began from the strengthening of state discipline,
legality of defence organs and army. The absence of attention to military
construction by previous governments caused to politization of military
detachments,strengthening of influence of various forces over them. By the order
of President there was created the state Soviet of Defence on November, 1993. On
November 2, 1993, President H.Aliyev appealed to nation by television and radio
and called them to defend their motherland. The appeal of President resulted with
the movement of nation. There were directed the detachments, which consisted of
volunters to the front. At the result of declaration of mobilization the number of
armed forces increased. President personally visited front zones, got acquianted
with military mood of the army. The national and state aid to the army increased.
At the result of the decisive action of Azerbaijan nation and thepresident Heydar
Aliyev the state passed from difficult circumstances during the attempts of state
revolutions in October, 1994, and in March, 1995. H.Aliyev demonstrated that he
was the president who was devoted to his sword. The decisive action of the head of
the state encouraged the nation and returned their belief to the future. In the mid of
1995, Azerbaijan was cleaned from illegal military formations, there was achieved
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socio-political stability, which was necessary for the beginning of important

actions in the state construction.
INTERNAL AND FOREIGN POLICY OF AZERBAIJAN REPUBLIC. AT
THE END OF 20th AND AT THE BEGINNING OF 21st CENTURIES
Despite all the difficulties, the processes of construction of a democratic state
and civil society in the country went on with a quickened tempo. There was
organized the commission under the chair of President for preparation of the first
constitution of independent Azerbaijan state. This commission prepared the project
of “The Constitution of Azerbaijan Republic” with the specialties of state
constitution and historical experience of our nation, as well as the experiences of
leading democratic countries of the world. After the national discussion, with
suggestions and notes, the project was accurated and adopted by the way of
national referendum on November 12, 1995. New Constitution of the independent
Azerbaijan shaped international-legal basis for the construction of democratic,
secular and unitarian state. One of the most important steps in the construction of
democratic legal state was the conduction of new democratic parliamentary
elections, happened on November 12, 1995. At the result of national elections there
was created the first democratic Parliament of independent Azerbaijan. There were
elected 125 deputies, representing various parties in Milli Mejlis. There was
created Special Comission on legal reforms under the president of the Azerbaijan
Republic in February of 1996, for the preparation of law projects, replying to the
traditions of the construction of legal state in developed states of the world and
international law norms. The President of Azerbaijan signed the Order “About the
provision of rights and freedom of person and citizen” in February, 1998; the
senzure was liquidated by the Order of President in August, 1998. The laws
“About the means of mass information”, “About the Freedom of Religion”, “About
the emigration and immigration to the country”, “About the freedom of Assembly”
shaped suitable conditions for the provision of political pluralism, opened socio-
political activity, coming to the big policy by the democratic and legal way. There
were registered 34 political parties, more than 1000 social unions in the Republic
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in 2000. Among them “The Union of Sole Azerbaijan, “Organization of the Youth
of Azerbaijan”, “Republic Children Organization”, “Society of Women of
Azerbaijan” and etc. were known. On December 12, 1999, there was firstly
conducted municipal elections in the Azerbaijan Republic. The preparation and
conduction of elections based on the democratic norms and world experience.
There was created legal basis for the conduction of next elections to the parliament
in much more democratic and tolerant conditions. On November 5, 2000, there was
elected new parliament, consisted of the representatives from 4 political parties.
Azerbaijan entered to the Union on Security and Cooperation in Europe (USCE)
on June 10, 1992. On May 12, 1994, at the result of great attempts of the president
Heydar Aliyev there was concluded agreement about ceasefire in Armenian
Azerbaijan conflict by the mediation of Russia and Minsk group of OSCE. The
basis of coorparation between NATO and Azerbaijan was laid down with the
signing frame document-programme of “Coorparation for peace” on May 4, 1994.
Azerbaijan was one of 27 states-members of OSCE, which first of all became the
participant of this program. In April, 1996, there was signed official document on
the frame of the programme of “Coorperation for Peace”, which determined
concrete directions of coorperation. In 1997, Georgia, Ukrain, Azerbaijan and
Moldovia created the organization of GUAM with the aim of intensification of
economic growth, shape of suitable conditions for the improvement of lifestock of
the nation and transcommunication corridor, deepening of profitable trade
relations. At the result of multivectoral foreign policy of the president of
Azerbaijan there began the restoration of Great Silk Way. There was conducted
conference in Baku, dedicated to the restoration of Silk Way on September 8,
1998. 32 countries and 13 international organizations participated here. There were
signed Baku declaration and multiside, major agreement about international
transport on the development of the corridor of “Europe-Caucasus-Asia”.
Headquarter of international organization, which was created in this conference
was located in Baku; Azerbaijan became the centre of this international structure.
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Coorparation of Azerbaijan with European economic commission in the frame

of the programmes of TACIC and TRACECA provided to increase the amount of
transite goods in the direction of Europe and Asia in 10 times, utilizing from
transport communication of the Republic. The attempts to blocade and to make
pressure to Azerbaijan were not succeded. During the organized Sammit of State
leaders-the mumbers of OSCE in Istanbul the presidents of Azerbaijan, Goergia
and Turkey signed an agreement about the “Transportation of raw-oil through
major export pipeline of Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan through the territories of the
Republic of Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkey” on November 18, 1999.
Simultaneously, the presidents of Azerbaijan, Georgia, Turkey, Kazakhistan, USA
signed “Istanbul Declaration”, where the support to the project was reflected in.
So, there was realized next step for the provision of long-wide political, economic
interests of Azerbaijan, the realization of wide size international coorperation,
confirmation of peace, stability and security in the region by Heydar Aliyev.
Deeply examined oil strategy by Heydar Aliyev turned Azerbaijan into the
state, which utilized from energetic potentiality of the Caspian Sea. The one of the
most important directions of national and systematic economic reforms, which
were realized in the country since 1995, was the privatization of state property and
the shape of suitable conditions for the development of free business. The land and
agrarian reforms have been ended by institutional viewpoint. More than 1350
thousand ha. lands were given to peasants, there were created farmer husbandry
instead of collective and Soviet farms. There were given nonpercentage
substitutions to farmer husbandry for the stimulation of the output of much more
important agricultural productions and
provision of food security of the country. This process influenced to the
growth of rationality of agricultural spheres along with socio-political changes in
the country; bright sample of this evidence is the decrease of import of several
kinds of food production (for instance, meat, milk,potato, cucumber, onion and
etc.) during latest years. In this phase, there was ended the first stage of
privatization of state property and began the realization of the second privatization
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programme. There’s examined the privatization of institutions of connection,

transport, chemistry, auto construction and full-energetic complexes in the form of
this programme. During the latest years, the investment to economy of the country
grew up. During the period after the achievement of independence there have been
put more than 17 billion US dollars investments to the economy of the country
thanks to financial sources. It is especially important to mention that there was
created the Oil Foundation at the end of 1999, among the realized actions in this
period. This order, which was given on time told about the beginning of new phase
in economic development and it should be evaluated as the impact of long-wide
economic strategy of world-wide leader of Azerbaijan nation-Heydar Aliyev,
which was directed the receive of benefit from national resources for future
generation and to the provision of complex development of the economy. All of
these evidences showed that the economy of the country raised to new level. By
the words of worldwide leader, President Heydar Aliyev, the transition period in
the country ended, there was constructed the Azerbaijan state, which possessed
own independent political and economic basis at the beginning of the 21st century.
Stability, shaped in the country, the conducted internal reforms positively
influenced to the extension of connections of Azerbaijan with foreign states. The
Republic, which constructed its foreign policy on the ground of the principles of
equality and mutual interests, turned into the country, which is opened for all states
of the world. Gradually, the fame of independent Azerbaijan Republic is growing
in Islamic world. The idea of restoration of Great Silk Way provided Azerbaijan to
rescue from economic blocade. We can bravely say that the international
conference, which was organized in Baku, on September 7-8, 1998, (with the
participation of the representatives of 32 states and 13 international organizations)
was on of the biggest events in the history of foreign policy of Azerbaijan. At the
end of 2002, there was attained the agreement about the export of extracted oil in
Kazakhistan through Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline. This event shaped condition
for receiving of essential extra vehicles to state boudget. At the beginning of new
century, the agriculture remained as one of the most important spheres of
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Azerbaijan economy. Charactirized specialty of the realized agrarian reforms in

Azerbaijan is that all properties and technics were privatized along with land parts
in agriculture. The social view of Azerbaijan village changed at the result of
privatization of lands, there were formed husbandry of various kinds of property
and multistage economy. 840 thousand families got the right of obtaining of land
property. Monopoly system of state was liquidated the agrarian sector of the
economy, there were shaped conditions for the enlargement of output issues and
the sold of goods on the ground of the laws of market economy. Due to increase
the attention of state to the development of ownership there was created the Soviet
of Owners under the President of the Republic on August 27, 2002. At the result of
realized policy in this sphere there was formed the detachment of businessmen and
organizers of national industry with private capital.
In the first ten years of 21th century, Ilham Aliyev the president of Azerbaijan
Republic has carried out progressive foreign policy according to our national
interests. There are 71 diplomatic responsibilities of Azerbaijan in foreign
countries of the world
SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT 2003-2008
After great historical individual as Heydar Aliyev, who succeeded stability in
internal life and realized exact foreign political strategy, at the result of which
Azerbaijan achieved high-level development of economy, policy, science and
culture there was not easy to become the leader of the State. This mission could be
continued only by the person, who appreciated the realities of Azerbaijan and was
able to conduct political course of Heydar Aliyev. In the shaped conditions, in the
elections of alternative ground, taken place on October 15, 2003, the candidate of
the party of “New Azerbaijan” (NYA) – Ilham Aliyev was elected the President of
the Azerbaijan Republic with the majority of voices. Major goal of new phase was
the provision of continuance of dynamic socio-economic development in the
country by the vehicle of improvement of concurrency capability of national
economy and its rational integration to world economic system. There were
determined certain and essential duties for realization of these goals in the orders
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and documents of economic policy, confirmed by the President of the Azerbaijan

Republic, Mr. Ilham Aliyev. Most important duties were the strengthening of
existed economic potentiality of the country, complex and rational utilization of
this potentiality, as well as the development of oil section, complete and rational
utilization of the potentiality of each region, the development of ownership and the
provision of the conditions for creation of big amount of new work places,
essential increasment of amount, quality and direction of social services also
decrease of poverty. Presidential elections of 2003, and the circumstance itself,
which they were organized in reflected the hopes of Azerbaijan nation to stable
development and prosperity of the country under the leadership of Ilham Aliyev –
devoted continuer of worldwide leader – Heydar Aliyev’s work. In the latest five
years, there were successfully conducted political and economic reforms, stable
democratization process in Azerbaijan. The one of the first signed documents by
new President was the Decree of November 24, 2003, “About the measures on the
intensification of socio-economic development of the Azerbaijan Republic”, a little
bit later – on February 11, 2004 the President gave an order “About the
confirmation of socio-economic development of the regions of the Azerbaijan
Republic (2004-2008)”. The results of the orders by the President, which were real
programmes for implementation were positively reflected in all spheres of national
husbandry, especially, in complex development of the regions of country. The
aimed development of the economy provided the improvement of life level and
social conditions of population. Wages were increased in all stratums of the
population during 2003- 2005s, the work on provision the students of 1st-11th
classes of secondary schools with free textbooks was ended. The ceremony, which
was examined in “State Programme on the decrease of proverty and economic
development” for 2002-2005, surrounded whole economic and social spheres.
In coherence with the adopted “State Programme of socioeconomic
development of the regions of the Azerbaijan Republic” (February 11, 2004) there
were exploited 27 big and middle enterprises, opened more than 135 thousand
work places in various fields in 2004. Year by year the quality of working or
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exploiting industrial enterprises had increased with foreign and local capital. So, if
in 2003, there were 192 foreign enterprises in the country, at present time that
number raised to 208. Simultaneously, the portion of non-governmental
organizations grew: if in 2003, the portion of non-governmental enterprises passed
the half and constituted 57%, after three years the weight of non-governmental
section reached to 75,8% at the result of realized measures, which were related
with the development of ownership and realization of privatization, as well as the
increasment of the amount of production of industrial output in 2,5 times. During
2003-2008s, there occurred essential events in internal and international life of our
country. There was organized elections to Milli Mejlis on November 6, 2005, new
structure of the Parliament began to work on December 2, 2005. In November,
2004, there was opened general consulate of Azerbaijan Republic in Tabriz, were
organized official visits of the President Ilham Aliyev to Iran, France, USA,
Turkey and other states, as well as his report on the General Assemble of UN. The
adoption of the Resolution about the circumstances in the occupied Azerbaijan
territories with the majority of voices on General Assemble of UN in March, 2008,
demonstrated strengthened international fame and power of our country and
became great political and diplomatic success of Azerbaijan. There was signed
mutual declaration on the Nagorno-Karabakh problem by the presidents of
Azerbaijan and Armenia, under the participation of the president of Russia in
Moscow, in 2008. This declaration, as President Ilham Aliyev mentioned, served to
national interests of Azerbaijan and was directed to the restoration of territorial
intergrity of our country. Great belief of the citizens of Azerbaijan to their leader,
the realized socio-economic policy by him were confirmed in the bright victory of
Ilham Aliyev in the presidential elections of October 2008, which were the
reflection of national support of the policy, conducted by him.
On March 18, 2009, there occurred national referendum on the apply of
Amendments to the Constitution. About 71% of the population took part in this
referendum, more than 90% of them voted positively to the suggested
amendments, which proved the necessity to renew Main Law of the country. Much
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more important moment of the referendum was the approvement of internal and
foreign policy of President Ilham Aliyev by the population and the voting for the
abolishment of 5th part of 101st Article, which had forbidden one person to be
president more than two times. Along with it, there were made changes concerned
to various sides of socio-political and spiritual life of the society. Energetic
projects, which became indicators of socio-economic development of Azerbaijan,
raised to new practice level. In the latest 5 years, the extraction of oil and gas
essentially increased in Azerbaijan. If in 2003, the oil extraction constituted 15,4%
million ton, in 2008, it raised to 50 million ton. In 2003, the gas extraction in
Azerbaijan constituted 5,5% billion cubemetres, in 2008-more than 20 billion
cubemetres. Generally, the exploitation of Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oilpipeline and
Baku-Tbilisi-Erzurum gas pipeline in July, 2006, which were the transnational
infrastructural projects, possessing great historical essence, increased economic
power of our state. The construction of Baku-Tbilisi-Qars railway is also strategic
project, which will be exploited in the future. Azerbaijan turned from the country
of gas important into country of gas exporter. Gasification of the Republic itself
was reached to 85 persent and the use of gas was provided in all regional centres.
During 2003-2008s, there were constructed and exploited 6 new electrostations
with the power of 750 megavatt, exploitation power of energetic system increased
to 24,3%. There were laid down new electric cable and air lines, adopted necessary
measures on the provision of durable work of electric network. In 2008, there was
constructed and exploited Sangachal electrostation with the power of 300
megavatt, the construction of modern electrostation with 525-megavat power in
Sumgait ended, the construction of the electrostation with the power of 780
megavatt in Shirvan and electrostation with the power of 104 megavatt are
continuing. Today, thanks to the diversification of the export of corbahydrate,
Azerbaijan possesses 7 oil and gas pipes. Energetic policy gave economic
independence to the country, provided to realization of projects on the creation,
infrastructural project successfully in the country. During 5 years, the average of
the minimum salary grew 3,5 times, pensions – 3,8 times. Our country obtained the
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highest economic growth in 2006, and in 2007 – 34,5 and 25 percent. Much more
interesting was that the temps of the development of work oil section (16 percent)
promoted the analogical temps of oil section (7 percent), which was the result of
policy of state support to ownership and limitation of the dependence from oil
section in the strategy of socioeconomic development – this strategy is successfully
realized by the president Ilham Aliyev. There were succeeded achievements in the
sphere of balanced development of regions, limitation of poverty, liquidation
constituted 38 billion manats, at the beginning of 2009, monetary reserves of our
country raised to 18 billions US dollar. There were signed a line of orders by the
President of the Azerbaijan Republic, which were directed to the provision of
social defence of the population, increasement of salary of workers, who were
engaged in boudget organizations. Since September 1, 2008, basic part of
minimum salary per month and labour pensions were increased to 50% in a year.
Number of people, who got direct addressed social aid by the state reached to more
than 600 thousand people. If in 2003, the number of citizens, living in poor
conditions constituted 49%, 5 years later this number constituted 16%. Generally,
in latest five years the leader of state confirmed more than 70 state programmes,
surrounding economic, social, and humanitarian spheres of the country. In 2003-
2008, there were constructed 36 new township for refugees, in latest five years
there were opened 766 thousand new work places, as well as 547 thousand
permanent ones. In the latest five years the state boudget increased more than ten
times. If in 2003, the state boudget of Azerbaijan constituted 1,2 billion US dollar,
in 2008, it reached to 13 billion US dollar. The expences on the public-health,
which constituted major part of state expences increased in 6,3 times, on
agriculture and forest husbandry-in 5,2 times, on education-in 4,8 times, on social
defence and social provision – in 3,9 times, in culture, sport, physical culture - in
4,5 times, on defence – in 9,7 times. The measures, realized in the latest five years
in the sphere of
army construction made Azerbaijan much more powerful. The state
administration always gives prior attention to this sphere – in 2008, defence
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expences which increased to 65%, constituted 1,34 billion manat, in 2009 all
military expences constituted 1,63 billion manat. This is big number, but duties
are bigger as well: the country should be ready to liberate its original regions by
any way, must be much more powerful. Due to strengthen the defence potentiality
of the country there began to the production of 18 defence outputs by the Ministry
of Defence. The activity, directed to the creation of medicine institutions that
would reply to high demand continued – during 2003-2008, there were
constructed, restored or repairled 289 hospitals, ambulatory specialized dispansers.
The creation of medicine service in modern level not only in Baku, but also in the
regions is the most important impact to the defence of health of Azerbaijan
population. Essential measures were separated for the improvement of ecological
conditions during the same period. At the result of intensive works around Baku
port, at the Zone of Bibi-Heybet, environs of international airport named after
Heydar Aliyev, polluted with oil and other production remainings turned into green
avenues. The construction of Oghuz-Gabala-Baku water pipeline, which will
provide the city of Baku with fresh and clean water is continuing and along with
this, there were exploited water-refinery constructions in 60 villages. The country
gives special attention to the provision of food security of population. There was
given great attention to transport infrastructure and its completing. On March 10,
2004, there was given the name of Heydar Aliyev to the international Airport of
Baku, on March 23, there was organized ceremonical opening of luggage of
international Airport of Baku, named after H.Aliyev, which was included to the
line of 10 best ones in Europe by the participation of President Ilham Aliyev. On
May 12, 2004, there was exploited international Airport in Nakhichevan, On
October 31, 2006, in Ganja, in 2008, in Lenkoran and in Zagatala Generally in
latest five years there were either constructed or reconstructed on the ground of
modern technology more than 800 km automobile roads, 10 bridges and passages
in the country. The sphere of provision of electric telephone network were reached
to 83,1% in the republic and the number of abonents of mobile connection
practically equals to the number of the population of the country. Generally, there
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was put investment in an amount of 775,4 million manat in the section of

telecommunication and the number of users of computers and web browser in 2,2
and 2,3 times during latest five years. The achievements in building industry were
essential – besides of tens of modern high buildings with improved planning in
Baku and in other big cities, there were exploited houses for refugees, families of
myrters and disabled persons of Karabakh war, sport olympyc complexes in Barda,
Quba, Lenkoran, Shamakha, Masalli, stadium with 15 thousand places in the
region of Lenkoran. There was continuing work on improvement of road
infrastructure – in these years there were constructed hundred kilometers roads,
bridges, underground and upground passages, replying to international standards.
During the mentioned period there were succeeded essential achievements in the
development of healthcare, education, science and culture along with the
development of economy in the Republic. The signed orders by the leader of the
state were directed to the improvement of material condition of workers on
boudget organizations engaging in these spheres. The President Ilham Aliyev
personally participated in ceremonical events on the opening of new or repaired
objects of education, science, sport, enterprises of industrial and agrarian
appointment not only in Baku, but also in the regions of the country. It is important
to mention the role of Heydar Aliyev Foundation in the development of science,
education, culture, healthcare and sport. The leader of the foundation, the deputy of
Milli Mejlis – Mrs. Mehriban Aliyeva always keeps under her consideration the
problems of orphanages, school-internats, the families of refugees and obligatory
immigrants. By her personal initiative and direct participation there was compiled
“Programme of development of school-internats and orphanages” by material
support of the Foundation of Heydar Aliyev there were built and repaired tens of
secondary schools in the capital and regions of the country. The Foundation of
Heydar Aliyev conducts great and useful work in the propaganda of Azerbaijan
culture: it organizes and conducts music of festivals in the country with the
participation of prominent figures of the world culture, contributes to the education
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of talented representatives of Azerbaijan youth in the best world centres of music

culture and decorative art, their participation in prestige international
and regional contests. The Azerbaijan Republic gives special attention year by
year to widening the relations with our citizens living in foreign countries and to
guarantee the unity and solidarity between them. On June 5, 2011, in Baku has
carried out the 3rd Congress of World’s Azerbaijanis. At the same Congress
participated 1272 members from 42 countries and Ilham Aliyev the president of
Azerbaijan Republic was elected the chairman of the Council of World’s
Azerbaijanis Association. On October 25, 2011, for the first time Azerbaijan
Republic collected the voice of 155 countries that considers the members of UNO
and elected non-constant member of Security Council of UNO the most famous
international organization. Since January, 2012, the Azerbaijan Republic as one of
10 of non-constant member of Security Council of UNO with high successes
conducted its duties. Ilham Aliyev the president of Azerbaijan Republic has
participated in the World Economic Forum that carried out in Davos of Norway in
January of 2014. On May of 2014s, Ilham Aliyev the leader of Azerbaijan
Republic was in an official visit in China Public Republic and with the same
official visit started the new cooperation stage between two countries.

The second Karabagh war

In July 2020, units of Armenia’s Armed Forces used artillery fire in an

attempt to seize favourable positions on the Azerbaijani-Armenian border towards
Tovuz, but were unsuccessful. On 23 July, the same forces announced the launch
of joint air defence system exercises with Russia. Following them, Azerbaijan’s
Armed Forces hosted forces from Turkey for a number of joint military exercises
until early September. Meanwhile, in August, an Armenian military sabotage-
reconnaissance group attempted sabotage in the Goranboy area of the line of
contact, but was forced to retreat with losses and the capture of the group's
commander, Senior Lieutenant Gurgin Alberyan.
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In 1994 Bishkek Protocol signed with Armenia, Azerbaijan, which lost 20

percent of its territory as a result of the First Karabakh War, held long-term
diplomatic talks with various international organizations. The purpose was to
implement UN Security Council resolutions that demanded the unconditional
withdrawal of occupying forces from Azerbaijani territory. The peace process was
severely shaken by populist statements such as "Karabakh is Armenia, full stop",
by Nikol Pashinyan, who came to power in Armenia after the colour revolution of
2018, as well as a succession of provocative and illegal visits to the occupied
territories of Azerbaijan and other actions. In a continuation of those provocations,
in March 2019, while on an official visit to the United States, Armenia’s Minister
of Defence David Tonoyan announced a policy of "new war for new lands."
Tonoyan's statement was accompanied by a series of military adventures on the
line of contact.

In addition to direct military provocation, and in violation of international

law, thousands of Lebanese Armenians, including a large number of YPG and
PKK terrorists, were resettled in the occupied territories, following the explosion in
the port of Beirut and this, too, exacerbated the conflict. Tensions peaked in late
August 2020 when Anna Hakobyan, wife of Armenian Prime Minister Pashinyan,
publicized her participation in illegal military training in the occupied territories.
However ineffective, these provocative actions and statements from Armenia have
been assessed by researchers as a total negation of the negotiation process.

On 25 September 2020, Republic of Azerbaijan President Ilham Aliyev, in

online debate at the 75th session of the UN General Assembly, noted the deaths of
Azerbaijani servicemen and a 76-year-old civilian, as well as serious damage to
civil infrastructure; the results of Armenian attacks. Further, the president declared
that more than a thousand tons of military equipment had been transported to
Armenia by military cargo planes since 17 July. On 27 September, Hikmet
Hajiyev, presidential aide and head of the Foreign Policy Department in the
Presidential Administration, issued a statement that at around 06:00 there had been
a gross violation of the ceasefire by Armenia’s Armed Forces. On the same day,
Azerbaijan’s Armed Forces launched a counter-offensive to prevent further
provocations and martial law was declared in the country.

On the morning of 27 September 2020, Armenia’s Armed Forces launched a

large-scale attack, subjecting settlements and frontline positions of the Azerbaijani
army to intensive fire from large-calibre weapons, mortars and artillery devices of
various calibre, following which, in order to halt the Armenian army’s attack and
ensure the security of the civilian population, the Azerbaijani army command
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decided to launch a rapid counter-offensive along the whole front. As a result of

these clashes, martial law and a general mobilization were declared in Armenia. In
Azerbaijan, martial law and a curfew were declared, with a partial mobilization
being declared on 28 September. The clashes escalated rapidly into the Second
Karabakh War.

Many countries and also the United Nations called for a cessation of
hostilities, for both sides to reduce tensions and resume talks without delay.
Afghanistan, Ukraine, Pakistan, Turkey and the Turkish Republic of Northern
Cyprus expressed support for Azerbaijan. On 29 September, the UN Security
Council held an emergency meeting on the situation in Nagorno-Karabakh.
Although a humanitarian ceasefire, supported by Russia and mediated by the
International Committee of the Red Cross, was accepted by both Armenia and
Azerbaijan, with official effect from 10 October, terrorist violations by Armenia’s
Armed Forces that targeted civilians led to the suspension of wounded and prisoner
exchange.

During the war, Jabrayil was liberated on 4 October, Fuzuli on 17

October, Zengilan on 20 October, Gubadli on 25 October and Shusha city on
8 November.

Details of the patriotic war have not yet been fully clarified, but it is safe to
say that the operation to liberate Shusha from occupation will be forever in the
annals of history. The crown, the beating heart of Karabakh - Shusha is a natural
fortification, so it was impossible to enter the city with tanks or other heavy
weaponry. There were two options to take it. Firstly, to defeat the enemy’s forces
in the city by air strikes and artillery fire. Azerbaijan’s military command did not
choose that way, due to the inevitably extensive destruction of the city that would
result. The alternative was hand-to-hand combat, and this was the strategy adopted.
Our heroic soldiers and officers traversed thick forests and deep ravines with light
weapons, climbed rocks and mountains and defeated the enemy in face-to-face
battle. A foreign journalist in Khankendi during the Shusha operation described the
deplorable situation of the Armenians as follows: the defenders of Shusha were
scattered. Dozens of wounded were taken in military ambulances to Khankendi
hospital, covered in blood. The rest of the fighters, exhausted and throwing off
their military uniforms, went down the mountain. Ambulances came and went non-
stop. Wounded soldiers were piled on top of each other inside. Their injuries were
evidence of hand-to-hand combat. Another report, published by Le Monde at the
time, said that the defeated soldiers of the Armenian army left Shusha wounded
and fled to Khankendi. On 8 November, the victorious Supreme Commander-in-
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Chief Ilham Aliyev gave our people the good news of Shusha’s liberation. The
winning of Shusha, in fact, decided the fate of the war. The next day came news
that more than 70 villages had been liberated, and one day later Prime Minister
Pashinyan was forced to sign an act of capitulation, accepting the terms of the
President of Azerbaijan.

On 10 November, the President of Azerbaijan, the Prime Minister of

Armenia and the President of Russia signed a statement declaring a complete
ceasefire and end to all military operations in the conflict zone. According to the
terms of the statement, Aghdam was liberated on 20 November, Kelbajar on 25
November, and Lachin on 1 December without a single shot being fired or single
casualty. The statement also announced the planned construction of new transport
communications connecting the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic with the
western regions of the rest of Azerbaijan. Thus, Azerbaijan's military victory had
forced Armenia to capitulate. The ceasefire was violated on 11 December - the first
time since the end of military operations in Nagorno-Karabakh and the start of
peacekeeping operations by the Russian Federation. The violation of the ceasefire
was registered in Hadrut, where one Azerbaijani soldier was wounded.

The Azerbaijani army made extensive use of the Israeli-made Harop strike
weaponry during the 44-day war, including the Israel-Azerbaijan, jointly-produced
Strike drone, as well as other UAVs like the Bayraktar TB2 strike drones.
Azerbaijan destroyed $1 billion worth of Armenian military equipment with the
Bayraktar TB2 drones alone. They were used to deliver precise strikes on enemy
equipment and manpower, as well as directing artillery fire and conducting
reconnaissance. Russian military expert Pavel Felgenhauer noted that despite an
approximate balance in the respective militaries, the Azerbaijani army had a
technological advantage.

According to information from Azerbaijan’s Ministry of Defence, its armed

forces incurred losses of 2,783 service personnel in the war. This number may
increase following DNA analysis of other bodies and enquiries into the fates of
more than 100 personnel still missing. The wounded are being treated in medical
facilities. Losses of military equipment were relatively minor.

Although the Armenian side confirms losses of 2,425 service personnel

during the war, in reality the figure is much higher.
As a result of the 44-day war, Armenia lost 10 x S-300 missiles and their
tactical-combat vehicles, 366 tanks, 352 cannon of various calibres, 22 unmanned
aerial vehicles, 5 x Su-25 aircraft, 50 Tor, Osa, Kub and Krug anti-aircraft missile
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systems. At the same time, of particular significance was the destruction in combat
operations of the following ballistic missiles: 97 Grad, 4 Smerch, 1 Tos
thermobaric, 2 Hurricane, 1 Yars and 1 Tochka-U, as well as Elbrus missile
complexes. The value of military equipment destroyed or captured by the
Azerbaijani army is estimated at a minimum of $3.8 billion.
Turkish sources reported that many members of the YPG and PKK from
Iraq and Syria had been relocated to Nagorno-Karabakh to train Armenian armed
fighters against Azerbaijan. On 30 September, they reported that about 300 PKK
fighters had been moved to Nagorno-Karabakh via Iran. According to the
Azerbaijani Armed Forces on 28 September, there were mercenaries of Armenian
origin from Syria and various countries in the Middle East among Armenian
casualties. On 30 September, Hikmet Hajiyev said that, "the international
community must respond adequately to the use of Armenian terrorist forces against
Azerbaijan." A number of PKK and YPG members also admitted in recent
interviews with various media outlets that members of those terrorist organizations
were fighting on the Armenian side in Karabakh.
Further, it is known that citizens of Armenian descent living in Lebanon, Syria,
France and some Latin American countries took part in hostilities at the urging of
the Armenian Diaspora, and in violation of the principles of international law. On 1
October, the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights confirmed that Syrian fighters
of Armenian descent had been taken from Syria to Armenia.
Political and economic stability prevailed in Azerbaijan during the Second
Karabakh War; the highest level of unity was apparent between people and
government.
On the morning of 27 September, the Ministry of Transport, Communications and
High Technologies announced that a number of restrictions had been imposed on
the internet within the country to counter provocations by Armenia. The State
Committee for Work with the Diaspora also appealed to Azerbaijanis living abroad
not to spread unofficial, unspecified or biased information on social networks or
electronic and other media. At a meeting in the Milli Majlis (parliament)
discussing the military situation, it was decided to declare a curfew in Baku, Ganja,
Goygol, Yevlakh and a number of regions from 00:00 on 27 September. By that
order, Vilayat Eyvazov, Minister of Internal Affairs, was appointed commandant
of the territories in which curfew was applied during martial law. Azerbaijan
Airlines’ press service also announced that all airports in Azerbaijan would be
closed to regular passenger flights until 30 September. President Ilham Aliyev
issued an order for partial mobilization in Azerbaijan and instructed the State
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Service for Mobilization and Conscription to ensure conscription of military

officials and the implementation of measures arising from military-transport
requirements in accordance with approved plans. That order came into force on 28
September. The Azerbaijani Army’s success in preventing military advances by the
Armenian Armed Forces and its victories over the enemy achieved along the front
were met with great joy and enthusiasm by the Azerbaijani people. Azerbaijani
citizens and those living abroad, as well as Turkish citizens, sent numerous letters
of congratulation and gratitude to President and Supreme Commander-in-Chief
Ilham Aliyev for those achievements. Thousands of Turkish citizens awaiting a
"command for war against the Armenians" also sent him letters, saying they were
always ready to free the fraternal state from the occupiers. Also since 27
September, the country’s tricolour flag has flown on the streets of Baku, on the
balconies of residential buildings, shop fronts and other facilities. People fly the
flag from their homes in honour of the successes achieved at the front and the
liberation of their lands. Cars are also adorned with smaller flags.
On 30 September, the Ministry of Youth and Sports, together with the Azerbaijani
FA, organized a flag campaign "We are strong together." Volunteers distributed
hundreds of flags in different parts of the capital, Baku.
The information war waged by Armenia against Azerbaijan during the
Second Karabakh War was also countered effectively, indeed Azerbaijan defeated
Armenia in the information arena, too. False news spread by Armenia was refuted
in timely fashion, and objective information delivered to the global community.
Cyber attacks were satisfactorily nullified.
President Ilham Aliyev, employed his deep knowledge, iron logic and irrefutable
arguments to single-handedly neutralize smear campaigns by pro-Armenian media
and support the effort on the information front. Some Western correspondents had
been specially assigned to divert attention, citing fake information to make
unfounded accusations against the Azerbaijani side. Certain of these were raised
repeatedly: Turkish participation in the conflict, the use of F-35s, the involvement
of mercenaries from Syria and Libya, violations of the ceasefire etc. And each
time, the head of state patiently demolished these accusations with irrefutable facts
and evidence, then spoke about the history of Karabakh, the causes of the conflict,
taking the opportunity to convey the real truth to the world. Let's take a question
during an interview with the German ARD TV channel and the president's answer.
Question: When we were there, in that area, a question arose. Why is Karabakh so
important for Azerbaijan? Is it a question of resources, or does it have symbolic
importance? Answer: Are Alsace and Lothringen important to you? Is Bavaria
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important to you? Or Rhine-Westphalia? This is our land, our territory, recognized

internationally. It is not a question of resources. The main resources are here in
Baku. It is a question of justice, a matter of national pride, and an issue of
international law. This response, brief but concise, was deeply meaningful. It was
so effective that I do not believe any other Western correspondent will ask our
president a similar question.
Any review of the past 17 years shows that President Ilham Aliyev has worked
constantly to keep the issue of Nagorno-Karabakh on the agenda. It has featured in
all his speeches and statements, at sessions of international organizations, in all his
meetings with world leaders and in interviews. He endeavoured to ensure that
everyone knew which side was aggressor and which victim. Now the whole world
is aware. This is one of the main factors that determined success in the war. As for
the victory on the battlefield, it suffices to describe two completely different scenes
at its end: on one side of the front, the victorious Supreme Commander-in-Chief of
the army, Ilham Aliyev, stands proud; on the other side, Nikol Pashinyan, with an
army scattered and humiliated. Our people raise portraits of their leader, Ilham
Aliyev, while Nikol Pashinyan is ridiculed and the butt of jokes. "You were going
to build a road in Jabrayil, Pashinyan. What happened? Where is that the road?
You were building a parliament building in Shusha, what happened? It went to
hell.” These words of our president are now proverbial for his people. When
someone’s actions do not live up to his words, they jeer and ask: "What happened,
Pashinyan?"
Azerbaijani hackers got into a number of Armenian websites and posted President
Ilham Aliyev's words from the international arena, "Karabakh is Azerbaijan,
exclamation mark", as well as "If an Armenian soldier does not want to die, he
should get off Azerbaijani land." Pictures of Azerbaijan's National Hero Mubariz
Ibrahimov were also posted on Armenian websites. A total of 90 Armenian
websites were hacked in attacks that began at noon on 27 September. These sites
include the country’s most popular news and video portals. And in attacks that
began on the evening of 27 September, Azerbaijani hackers seized a large number
of confidential documents from Armenian state structures. These documents
contained much information about the State Security Service, the president of
Armenia and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
And also to prevent possible Armenian provocations, the Electronic Security
Service of the Ministry of Transport, Communications and High Technologies
called on citizens not to access links on social media, and not to download files or
links in e-mails or phone messages. On 29 September, the hacker group Anti-
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Armenia Team seized 10 GB of confidential documents from Armenia’s armed

forces. Several hackers from the Karabakh Hacking Team hacked the Armenian
government's electronic document management system. As a result, 50 TB of
documents were obtained.
On 27 September, President Ilham Aliyev chaired a meeting of the Security
Council. The president said, "As you know, early this morning, the Armenian
armed forces committed another military provocation against Azerbaijan. As a
result, we have losses among both the civilian population and the military. I
warned Armenia. After the Tovuz events, I warned them several times that they
would regret it if they did not give up their dirty tricks. Our counter operation is
proceeding successfully. At the same time, tens of thousands are volunteering for
the army. This shows our people’s loyalty to their state."
During a telephone conversation with German Chancellor Angela Merkel, the
president noted that the statement by Armenia’s prime minister, "Karabakh is
Armenia, full stop", had rendered the negotiation process meaningless and the
Armenian leadership's demand that Azerbaijan talk with the so-called Nagorno-
Karabakh Republic should be regarded as an attempt to change the format of
negotiations. The Azerbaijani army was fighting on its own land, and the
Armenian army should not be on Azerbaijani soil.
On 30 September, Ilham Aliyev and Mehriban Aliyeva met with servicemen
wounded during the Armenian attack that began on 27 September and who were
undergoing treatment at the Defence Ministry’s Central Military Clinical Hospital.
The president said: “The prime minister of Armenia set conditions for us. I said a
while ago that we reject those conditions. We have one condition: that they leave
our lands unconditionally, completely and immediately. I said that the Azerbaijani
people will never be reconciled with this occupation".
On 8 November, the victorious Supreme Commander-in-Chief Ilham Aliyev
addressed the people of Azerbaijan from the Avenue of Martyrs following the
liberation of Shusha, saying, “We achieved this historic victory on the battlefield. 8
November 2020 will remain forever in the history of Azerbaijan. This history will
live forever. This is our glorious victory, our day of triumph! We achieved this
victory on the battlefield, not at a negotiating table. I have said many times that,
despite all statements to the contrary, there are military solutions to this conflict -
the Armenian-Azerbaijani Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, and today we are proving it
on the battlefield. After 28 years, the call to prayer will be heard again in Shusha.
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Without this unity, without national solidarity, we would never have been able to
liberate our lands from the occupiers. We have proved to the whole world that
Karabakh has always been Azerbaijani land. We have proven that the Azerbaijani
people have lived on these lands for centuries. We have proved that the Armenian
population was relocated to these lands 200 years ago, how they were relocated
and to what purpose, we have presented everything to the global community, with
evidence and facts. We have proved that Nagorno-Karabakh is a historical, ancient
land of Azerbaijan. At the same time, today I have visited the grave of the great
leader Heydar Aliyev and bowed to his spirit. In my heart I said that am a happy
man to have fulfilled my father's will. We have liberated Shusha! This is a great
victory! The souls of our martyrs and the Great Leader are happy today!
Congratulations, Azerbaijan! Congratulations Azerbaijanis of the world! Giving
this great news to the people of Azerbaijan on this historic day is perhaps one of
the happiest days of my life.”