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PREFACE
he last 25 years have been dramatic for the financial services industry. In
T
the 1990s and 2000s, boundaries between the traditional industry sectors,
such as commercial banking and investment banking, broke down and com-
petition became increasingly global in nature. Many forces contributed to
this breakdown in interindustry and intercountry barriers, including financial
innovation, technology, taxation, and regulation. Then in 2008–2009, the
financial services industry experienced the worst financial crisis since the Great Depres-
sion. Even into the mid-2010s, the U.S. and world economies have not recovered from this
crisis. It is in this context that this book is written.
As the economic and competitive environments change, attention to profit and, more
than ever, risk become increasingly important. This book offers a unique analysis of the
risks faced by investors and savers interacting through both financial institutions and finan-
cial markets, as well as strategies that can be adopted for controlling and better managing
these risks. Special emphasis is also put on new areas of operations in financial markets
and institutions such as asset securitization, off-balance-sheet activities, and globalization
of financial services.
While maintaining a risk measurement and management framework, Financial Mar-
kets and Institutions provides a broad application of this important perspective. This book
recognizes that domestic and foreign financial markets are becoming increasingly inte-
grated and that financial intermediaries are evolving toward a single financial services
industry. The analytical rigor is mathematically accessible to all levels of students, under-
graduate and graduate, and is balanced by a comprehensive discussion of the unique envi-
ronment within which financial markets and institutions operate. Important practical tools
such as how to issue and trade financial securities and how to analyze financial statements
and loan applications will arm students with the skills necessary to understand and man-
age financial market and institution risks in this dynamic environment. While descriptive
concepts, so important to financial management (financial market securities, regulation,
industry trends, industry characteristics, etc.) are included in the book, ample analytical
techniques are also included as practical tools to help students understand the operation of
modern financial markets and institutions.
INTENDED AUDIENCE
Financial Markets and Institutions is aimed at the first course in financial markets and
institutions at both the undergraduate and M.B.A. levels. While topics covered in this book
are found in more advanced textbooks on financial markets and institutions, the explana-
tions and illustrations are aimed at those with little or no practical or academic experience
beyond the introductory level finance courses. In most chapters, the main relationships are
presented by figures, graphs, and simple examples. The more complicated details and tech-
nical problems related to in-chapter discussion are provided in appendixes to the chapters
(available through McGraw-Hill Connect Finance or your course instructor).
ORGANIZATION
Since our focus is on return and risk and the sources of that return and risk in domestic and
foreign financial markets and institutions, this book relates ways in which a modern finan-
cial manager, saver, and investor can expand return with a managed level of risk to achieve
the best, or most favorable, return–risk outcome.
Part 1 provides an introduction to the text and an overview of financial markets and
institutions. Chapter 1 defines and introduces the various domestic and foreign financial
markets and describes the special functions of FIs. This chapter also takes an analytical
look at how financial markets and institutions benefit today’s economy. In Chapter 2, we
vii
viii Preface
provide an in-depth look at interest rates. We first look at factors that determine interest
rate levels, as well as their past, present, and expected future movements. We then review
the concept of time value of money. Chapter 3 then applies these interest rates to security
valuation. In Chapter 4, we describe the Federal Reserve System and how monetary pol-
icy implemented by the Federal Reserve affects interest rates and, ultimately, the overall
economy.
Part 2 of the text presents an overview of the various securities markets. We describe
each securities market, its participants, the securities traded in each, the trading process,
and how changes in interest rates, inflation, and foreign exchange rates impact a financial
manager’s decisions to hedge risk. These chapters cover the money markets (Chapter 5),
bond markets (Chapter 6), mortgage markets (Chapter 7), stock markets (Chapter 8), foreign
exchange markets (Chapter 9), and derivative securities markets (Chapter 10).
Part 3 of the text summarizes the operations of commercial banks. Chapter 11
describes the key characteristics and recent trends in the commercial banking sector.
Chapter 12 describes the financial statements of a typical commercial bank and the ratios
used to analyze those statements. This chapter also analyzes actual financial statements
for representative commercial banks. Chapter 13 provides a comprehensive look at the
regulations under which these financial institutions operate and, particularly, the effect of
recent changes in regulation.
Part 4 of the text provides an overview describing the key characteristics and
regulatory features of the other major sectors of the U.S. financial services industry.
We discuss other lending institutions (savings institutions, credit unions, and finance
companies) in Chapter 14, insurance companies in Chapter 15, securities firms and
investment banks in Chapter 16, investment companies in Chapter 17, and pension funds
in Chapter 18.
Part 5 concludes the text by examining the risks facing a modern FI and FI man-
agers and the various strategies for managing these risks. In Chapter 19, we preview
the risk measurement and management chapters in this section with an overview of the
risks facing a modern FI. We divide the chapters on risk measurement and management
along two lines: measuring and managing risks on the balance sheet, and managing risks
off the balance sheet. In Chapter 20, we begin the on-balance-sheet risk measurement
and management section by looking at credit risk on individual loans and bonds and
how these risks adversely impact an FI’s profits and value. The chapter also discusses
the lending process, including loans made to households and small, medium-size, and
large corporations. Chapter 21 covers liquidity risk in financial institutions. This chap-
ter includes a detailed analysis of the ways in which FIs can insulate themselves from
liquidity risk and the key role deposit insurance and other guarantee schemes play in
reducing liquidity risk.
In Chapter 22, we investigate the net interest margin as a source of profitability and
risk, with a focus on the effects of interest rate risk and the mismatching of asset and liabil-
ity maturities on FI risk exposure. At the core of FI risk insulation is the size and adequacy
of the owner’s capital stake, which is also a focus of this chapter.
The management of risk off the balance sheet is examined in Chapter 23. The chapter
highlights various new markets and instruments that have emerged to allow FIs to bet-
ter manage three important types of risk: interest rate risk, foreign exchange risk, and
credit risk. These markets and instruments and their strategic use by FIs include forwards,
futures, options, and swaps.
Finally, Chapter 24 explores ways of removing credit risk from the loan portfolio
through asset sales and securitization.
Preface ix
NEW FEATURES
Key changes to this edition include the following:
• Tables and figures in all chapters have been revised to include the most recently
available data.
• New boxes highlighting significant events occuring “After the Crisis” have been added
to chapters throughout the book.
• Major changes proposed for the regulation of financial institutions have been included
and updated where appropriate.
• How financial markets and institutions continue to recover from the financial crisis is
discussed throughout the book. Virtually every chapter includes new material detail-
ing how the financial crisis has affected risk management in financial institutions.
• New end-of-chapter questions and problems have been added to all chapters.
• Several chapters include a discussion of the European debt crisis and how it has
affected the risk and return for investors and financial institutions.
• Chapter 1 includes a new section on shadow banks. The chapter also provides an
update on the implementation of the Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection
Act, which was enacted as a result of the financial crisis.
• Chapter 4 provides an update on the Federal Reserve’s actions intended to strengthen the
U.S. economy, including the various quantitative easing programs instituted by the Fed.
• Chapter 5 includes coverage of the Fed’s new Treasury auction process, as well as a
discussion of the LIBOR scandal.
• Chapter 7 provides an update of the status of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac.
• Chapter 8 includes coverage of the merger of NYSE Euronext and ICE.
• Chapter 13 includes a discussion of Basel III capital adequacy rules. The major
changes are described in detail. Many in-chapter examples and end-of-chapter prob-
lems have been added to illustrate the many complex changes to capital adequacy
calculations.
• Chapter 16 includes a discussion of the losses incurred by J. P. Morgan Chase from
derivatives trading by the “London Whale,” as well as various other scandals plaguing
investment banks.
• Chapter 17 has been retitled “Investment Companies” to capture the broader nature of
the investment fund industry.
• Chapter 21 includes a detailed discussion and examples of the new international
liquidity standards enacted as a result of the financial crisis.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We take this opportunity to thank all of those individuals who helped us prepare this and
previous editions. We want to express our appreciation to those instructors whose insight-
ful comments and suggestions were invaluable to us during this revision.
Amanda Adkisson Emily Breit
Texas A&M University Fort Hays State University
Greg Arburn Eileen Eichler
University of Findlay Farmingdale State College
Murat Aydogdu Leo-Rey Gordon
Rhode Island College Wilmington University
Nate Barber Arthur Guarino
University of South Carolina Rutgers University–Newark
x Preface
Anthony Saunders
Chapter Features
LG 4-3 Identify the monetary policy tools used by the Federal Reserve.
Federal Open Market The Federal Open Market
LG 4-4 Appreciate how monetary policy changes affect key economic variables.
Committee (FOMC) body of the Federal Reserve
The major monetary policy- members of the Federal Rese
LG 4-5 Understand how central banks around the world adjusted their monetary making body of the Federal
Bank of New York, and the p
the recent financial crisis. Reserve System. basis). The chairman of the B
is required to meet at least fo
larly scheduled meetings hav
The main responsibiliti
LEARNING GOALS employment, economic grow
trade. The FOMC seeks to a
Learning goals (LGs) appear at the beginning of open market operations operations. Open market op
each chapter to provide a quick introduction to Purchases and sales of U.S. eral agency securities—is th
the key chapter material. These goals are also government and federal targets (although the operatio
integrated with the end-of-chapter questions
and problems, which allows instructors to easily
emphasize the learning goal(s) as they choose.
IN-CHAPTER EXAMPLES
IN THE NEWS
These examples provide numerical Banks Flock to
demonstrations of the analytical material Discount Window
described in many chapters.
sult, the federal funds rate regularly fell well officials are expected to cut the federal funds rate
he target rate of 5.25 percent. The Fed also for the first time in four years. Markets widely
EXAMPLE 2–1 Calculations of Real Risk-Free
the discount rate byRates
a half percentage point expect at least a quarter point cut to 5 percent,
percent, in a bid to encourage banks to though some analysts say a half point cut is pos-
The one-year Treasury bill rate in 2007 averaged 4.53 percent and inf
by the consumer price index) for the yeardirectly
was 4.10from thepercent.
Fed. But theIfFed had little
investors sible. The smaller cut might have less effect on
same inflation rate as that actually realized in(i.e.,
spurring the percent),
4.10 discount windowthenborrowing.
accord financial markets because it would simply bring the
effect the real risk-free rate for 2007 was: ypically are reluctant to borrow from the new target down to where interest rates had been
4.53% - 4.10% = 0.43%
The one-year T-bill rate in 2012 was 0.17 percent, while the CPI ch
was 1.70 percent. This implies a real risk-free rate of -1.53 percent, tha
AFTER THE CRISIS
sau61663_ch04_091-126.indd 102 5/13/14 7:38 PM
xii
WALKTHROUGH
End-of-Chapter Features
y , ,
EXCEL PROBLEMS In 8 years 54,143 54,143 × 0.05 × 28 = $78,800
In 10 years 55,231 55,231 × 0.05 × 30 = $82,847
Excel problems are featured in selected chapters
and are denoted by an icon. Spreadsheet
templates are available in Connect.
5.
xcel
e
Using a Spreadsheet to Calculate Pension
Benefit Payments: Your employer uses a final
pay formula to determine retirement payments to its
employees. You have 20 years of service at the company and
are considering retirement some time in the next 10 years.
Your employer uses a final pay formula by which you
receive an annual benefit payment of 4 percent of your aver-
age salary over the last three years of service times the num-
ber of years employed. Calculate the annual benefit if you
retire now, in 2 years, 5 years, 8 years, and 10 years using
the estimated annual salary during the last three years of
service listed below. (LG 18-2)
QUESTIONS
1. Who are the suppliers of loanable funds? (LG 2-1) END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS AND
2. Who are the demanders of loanable funds? (LG 2-2) PROBLEMS
3. What factors cause the supply of funds curve to shift? (LG 2-4) The questions and problems in the end-of-
4. What factors cause the demand for funds curve to shift? chapter material appear in separate sections,
(LG 2-4)
allowing instructors to choose whether they
5. What are six factors that determine the fair interest rate on a
prefer students to engage in quantitative or
security? (LG 2-6)
qualitative analysis of the material. Selected
6. What should happen to a security’s fair interest rate as the
security’s liquidity risk increases? (LG 2-6) 1
problems also appear in McGraw-Hill’s Connect
7. Discuss and compare the three explanations for the shape of 1
Finance online assessment product.
sau61663_ch18_548-568.indd 567 the yield curve. (LG 2-7) 02/07/14 2:03 PM
PROBLEMS
1. A particular security’s equilibrium rate of return is 8 percent.
For all securities, the inflation risk premium is 1.75 per-
cent and the real risk-free rate is 3.5 percent. The security’s
liquidity risk premium is 0.25 percent and maturity risk pre-
mium is 0.85 percent. The security has no special covenants.
1. What is the most recent dollar value of the U.S. national debt?
2. Calculate the percentage change in the U.S. national debt since June 7, 2013.
xiii
SUPPLEMENTS
xiv
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Finance helps students learn more efficiently by providing • An integrated eBook, allowing for anytime,
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dents immediate feedback on their work and side-by-side • A powerful search function to pinpoint and connect
comparisons with correct answers. key concepts in a snap.
• Access and review each response; manually change In short, Connect Finance offers you and your students
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instant quizzes. and student learning. Connect Finance also offers a wealth
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Instructor library state-of-the-art, thoroughly tested system supports you in
The Connect Finance Instructor Library is your preparing students for the world that awaits.
repository for additional resources to improve student For more information about Connect Finance, go
engagement in and out of class. You can select and use to www.mcgrawhillconnect.com, or contact your local
any asset that enhances your lecture. McGraw-Hill sales representative.
xv
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feature. This search helps students efficiently find what
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xvi
CONTENTS IN BRIEF
Preface vii
part 4 OTHER FINANCIAL
part 1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
INSTITUTIONS 444
OF FINANCIAL MARKETS 1 14 Other Lending Institutions: Savings Institutions,
Credit Unions, and Finance Companies 444
1 Introduction 1
2 Determinants of Interest Rates 26 15 Insurance Companies 469
3 Interest Rates and Security Valuation 57 16 Securities Firms and Investment Banks 494
References 723
Index 725
xvii
CONTENTS
xviii
Contents xix
Structure of the Federal Reserve System 92 Appendix 5A: Single versus Discriminating Price
Organization of the Federal Reserve Treasury Auctions (available through Connect or
System 92 your course instructor)
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve
Appendix 5B: Creation of a Banker’s Acceptance
System 94
(available through Connect or your course
Federal Open Market Committee 95
instructor)
Functions Performed by Federal Reserve
Banks 95
Balance Sheet of the Federal Reserve 100 6 Bond Markets 164
Monetary Policy Tools 103 Definition of Bond Markets: Chapter
Open Market Operations 105 Overview 164
The Discount Rate 108
Bond Market Securities 165
Reserve Requirements (Reserve Ratios) 110
Treasury Notes and Bonds 165
The Federal Reserve, the Money Supply, and Municipal Bonds 178
Interest Rates 114 Corporate Bonds 183
Effects of Monetary Tools on Various Economic Bond Ratings and Interest Rate Spreads 189
Variables 115 Bond Market Indexes 191
Money Supply versus Interest Rate
Bond Market Participants 192
Targeting 116
Comparison of Bond Market Securities 193
International Monetary Policies and
Strategies 119 International Aspects of Bond Markets 194
Systemwide Rescue Programs Employed Eurobonds, Foreign Bonds, and Sovereign
During the Financial Crisis 121 Bonds 197
Challenges Remain After the Crisis 124
7 Mortgage Markets 203
part 2 SECURITIES MARKETS 127 Mortgages and Mortgage-Backed Securities:
Chapter Overview 203
5 Money Markets 127 Primary Mortgage Market 205
Mortgage Characteristics 206
Definition of Money Markets: Chapter
Mortgage Amortization 211
Overview 127 Other Types of Mortgages 216
Money Markets 128 Secondary Mortgage Markets 218
Yields on Money Market Securities 128 History and Background of Secondary
Bond Equivalent Yields 129 Mortgage Markets 219
Effective Annual Return 129 Mortgage Sales 220
Discount Yields 129 Mortgage-Backed Securities 220
Single-Payment Yields 130
Participants in the Mortgage Markets 227
Money Market Securities 131 International Trends in Securitization 229
Treasury Bills 133
Federal Funds 139 Appendix 7A: Amortization Schedules for 30-Year
Repurchase Agreements 141 Mortgage in Example 7–1 and No-Points versus
Commercial Paper 143 Points Mortgages in Example 7–4 (available
Negotiable Certificates of Deposit 148 through Connect or your course instructor)
xx Contents
Appendix 8A: The Capital Asset Pricing Model 11 Commercial Banks: Industry
(available through Connect or your course Overview 346
instructor)
Commercial Banks as a Sector of the Financial
Appendix 8B: Event Study Tests (available Institutions Industry: Chapter Overview 346
through Connect or your course instructor)
Definition of a Commercial Bank 348
9 Foreign Exchange Markets 277 Balance Sheets and Recent Trends 348
Assets 348
Foreign Exchange Markets and Risk: Chapter Liabilities 351
Overview 277 Equity 352
Off-Balance-Sheet Activities 352
Background and History of Foreign Exchange
Other Fee-Generating Activities 356
Markets 278
Size, Structure, and Composition of the
Foreign Exchange Rates and Transactions 282
Industry 356
Foreign Exchange Rates 282
Bank Size and Concentration 358
Foreign Exchange Transactions 283
Bank Size and Activities 360
Return and Risk of Foreign Exchange
Transactions 286 Industry Performance 360
Role of Financial Institutions in Foreign Regulators 363
Exchange Transactions 292 Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation 364
Interaction of Interest Rates, Inflation, and Office of the Comptroller of the Currency 365
Exchange Rates 295 Federal Reserve System 365
Purchasing Power Parity 296 State Authorities 365
Interest Rate Parity 298 Global Issues 365
Appendix 9A: Balance of Payment Accounts Advantages and Disadvantages of International
(available through Connect or your course Expansion 366
Global Banking Performance 367
instructor)
12 Commercial Banks’ Financial
10 Derivative Securities Markets 304 Statements and Analysis 372
Derivative Securities: Chapter Overview 304 Why Evaluate the Performance of Commercial
Forwards and Futures 306 Banks? Chapter Overview 372
Spot Markets 306 Financial Statements of Commercial
Forward Markets 307
Banks 374
Futures Markets 309
Balance Sheet Structure 375
Options 316 Off-Balance-Sheet Assets and Liabilities 381
Call Options 317 Other Fee-Generating Activities 384
Put Options 319 Income Statement 385
Option Values 321 Direct Relationship between the Income
Option Markets 323 Statement and the Balance Sheet 389
Contents xxi
Financial Statement Analysis Using a Return on Appendix 13D: Deposit Insurance Coverage
Equity Framework 389 for Commercial Banks in Various Countries
Return on Equity and Its Components 390 (available through Connect or your course
Return on Assets and Its Components 392 instructor)
Other Ratios 397
Appendix 13E: Calculating Risk-Based Capital
Impact of Market Niche and Bank Size on Ratios (available through Connect or your course
Financial Statement Analysis 398 instructor)
Impact of a Bank’s Market Niche 398
Impact of Size on Financial Statement
Analysis 399 part 4 OTHER FINANCIAL
INSTITUTIONS 444
13 Regulation of Commercial
Banks 405 14 Other Lending Institutions:
Specialness and Regulation: Chapter Savings Institutions, Credit
Overview 405 Unions, and Finance
Companies 444
Types of Regulations and the Regulators 406
Safety and Soundness Regulation 406 Other Lending Institutions: Chapter
Monetary Policy Regulation 409 Overview 444
Credit Allocation Regulation 409
Savings Institutions 445
Consumer Protection Regulation 409
Size, Structure, and Composition of the
Investor Protection Regulation 410
Industry 445
Entry and Chartering Regulation 410
Balance Sheets and Recent Trends 447
Regulators 410
Regulators 449
Regulation of Product and Geographic Savings Institution Recent
Expansion 411 Performance 449
Product Segmentation in the U.S. Commercial
Credit Unions 450
Banking Industry 412
Size, Structure, and Composition of the
Geographic Expansion in the U.S. Commercial
Industry 452
Banking Industry 417
Balance Sheets and Recent Trends 454
Bank and Savings Institution Guarantee Regulators 456
Funds 419 Industry Performance 456
The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation Finance Companies 458
(FDIC) 419 Size, Structure, and Composition of the
The Demise of the Federal Savings Industry 458
and Loan Insurance Corporation Balance Sheets and Recent Trends 459
(FSLIC) 421 Industry Performance 464
Reform of Deposit Insurance 421 Regulation 465
Non-U.S. Deposit Insurance Systems 422
Global Issues 466
Balance Sheet Regulations 423
Regulations on Commercial Bank
Liquidity 423 15 Insurance Companies 469
Regulations on Capital Adequacy
(Leverage) 423 Two Categories of Insurance Companies:
Chapter Overview 469
Foreign Versus Domestic Regulation of
Commercial Banks 428 Life Insurance Companies 470
Size, Structure, and Composition of the
Product Diversification Activities 429
Industry 470
Global or International Expansion
Balance Sheets and Recent Trends 475
Activities 429
Regulation 477
Appendix 13A: Calculating Deposit Insurance
Property–Casualty Insurance
Premium Assessments
Companies 478
Appendix 13B: Calculating Minimum Required Size, Structure, and Composition of the
Reserves at U.S. Depository Institutions Industry 478
Appendix 13C: Primary Regulators of Balance Sheets and Recent Trends 479
Depository Institutions (available through Regulation 489
Connect or your course instructor) Global Issues 489
xxii Contents
Pension Funds Defined: Chapter Overview 548 Calculating the Return on a Loan 608
Return on Assets (ROA) 608
Size, Structure, and Composition of the
RAROC Models 610
Industry 549
Defined Benefit versus Defined Contribution Appendix 20A: Loan Portfolio Risk and
Pension Funds 549 Management (available through Connect or your
Insured versus Noninsured Pension Funds 551 course instructor)
Contents xxiii
Derivative Securities Used to Manage Risk: Can All Assets Be Securitized? 718
Chapter Overview 667
Forward and Futures Contracts 668 Reference 723
Hedging with Forward Contracts 669
Hedging with Futures Contracts 670 Index 725
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of A falu jegyzője
Language: Hungarian
MIKSZÁTH KÁLMÁN
16. KÖTET
A FALU JEGYZŐJE
Irta
BUDAPEST
FRANKLIN-TÁRSULAT
magyar irod. intézet és könyvnyomda
1911
A FALU JEGYZŐJE
REGÉNY
IRTA
MÁSODIK KÖTET
BUDAPEST
FRANKLIN-TÁRSULAT
magyar irod. intézet és könyvnyomda
1911
Révai testvérek tulajdona.
Franklin-Társulat nyomdája.
BÁRÓ EÖTVÖS JÓZSEF.1)
1813–1871.
A ki tehetséges és fogékony fiatal magyar a mult század első
felében sokat járt külföldön, mind nehéz podgyászszal jött haza.
Hozott benne először is jókora mennyiségű byroni világfájdalmat
(annak a kornak ez volt az erkölcsi epidémiája). Hozott aztán
mámoros elragadtatást a nyugati kultura gazdagságától és
szépségeitől; keserű szégyent az itthoni elmaradottság miatt;
haragos türelmetlenséget a hazai intézmények és közállapotok ellen,
a melyeket a nyugati intézmények fénye a kelleténél is sötétebbnek
mutatott; izgató vágyat az egész magyar élet megreformálására és
egy halom mintát, a melyek szerint ezt a reformot meg kell csinálni.
Idehaza pedig kissé idegenül néztek rá, mint afféle európéerre, a ki
itthoni intézményeink lényegét nem érti, a hamisítatlan magyar
szellemtől elrugaszkodott, a kit épen azért meg lehet hallgatni, mert
elvégre mégis csak okosan beszél, egyet-mást el kell fogadni jónak
abból, a mit mond, de eszméiért lelkesedni, őt magát vezérül
elfogadni veszedelemmel járó dolog.
Ilyesformán állott a harminczas-negyvenes évek magyar
életében báró Eötvös József. A cselekvés vágyával jött haza; tehát
először attól kellett megszabadulnia, a mi a cselekvésben
megbéníthatta volna: a világfájdalomtól. Hogy ezt kiküszöbölje
magából, megírta 25 éves korában (1838) első regényét, a
Karthauzi-t. Ez a legtisztább lyra, a mit valaha írt; egész meséje, a
milieu, a melyben ez a mese lefolyik, az alakok, a kik körül
bonyolódik, mind csak ürügy benne, hogy az iróban felgyülemlett
beteges, ifjúi érzéseket le lehessen csapolni. Talán azért hat ma is
legfrissebbül Eötvös összes művei közül, mert a költőknek mindig a
lírájuk él legtovább.
Eötvös életében fordulatot jelentő életrajzi étappe a Karthauzi:
ettől fogva megszabadult a mélabútól s teljes erővel belevethette
magát kora politikai mozgalmaiba. Abból a politikus-tipusból való
volt, a mely ma már jóformán teljesen kiveszett, akkor azonban
Európaszerte s kivált Francziaországban és Angliában javában
virágzott. A politikus, a ki szabad idejében tehetséggel és kedvvel
űzi az irodalmat is s ha lehet, szívesen használja fel politikai czélok
eszközéül. Eötvös első sorban politikai publiczista volt, a ki
Széchenyi után a legtöbb eszmét dobta bele a közéletbe, jóformán
teljes, minden térre kiterjedő politikai és társadalmi programot
dolgozott ki s azt hirdette szépirodalmi műveiben is. Minden
munkája, még verseinek túlnyomó része is, iránymű, valami közéleti
tendentia szolgálatában.
Az a regénye, melyet e kötetekben kap az olvasó, A falu
jegyzője, hét évvel a Karthauzi után jelent meg, 1845-ben. Hogy a
régi vármegyét állítja benne bonczasztalra, mint minden magyar
politikai és társadalmi baj eredendő okát, azt tudja mindenki. Ezen a
körön belül aztán szóba kerül az ő s elvbarátai, az ú. n. centralisták
egész munkaprogrammja: a jobbágyság, a választási visszaélések,
a börtönügy, iskolaügy, a közbiztonság, a zsidók emancipatiója és
még egy sereg fontos és kevésbbé fontos, de akkor egyformán
égetőn aktuális ügy. Ma ezek mind antiquált dolgok, jól-rosszul
megoldottuk valamennyit s nem égeti a körmünket egyikük sem. A
falu jegyzője tendentiabeli tartalma, mely megjelenésekor roppantul
izgatta az embereket, lelkes híveket és haragos ellenfeleket szerzett
Eötvösnek s a melynek kedvéért ő a regényt írta, közömbös a mai
olvasónak. És a regény mégis érdekes nekünk ma is. Érdekes,
pedig jól látjuk kompoziczióbeli ingadozásait s mindig érezzük, hogy
alakjai csaknem kivétel nélkül önkényesen konstruált marionettek,
melyek létüket csupán az író tendentiájának köszönhetik s melyeket
az író tetszése szerint rángat ide-oda. Nem emberileg megalkotott
lények, hanem merő figurák az író gondolatainak illusztrálására. Az
egyik a vármegyei urak családi politikáját jelenti, a másik a
vármegyei közigazgatás atrocitásait, a harmadik a választási
visszaéléseket, a negyedik a közügyekben való léha
könnyelműséget, az ötödik a jobbágyság embertelen szenvedéseit,
a hatodik a nemes és nem nemes ember közti különbség
igazságtalanságát – és így tovább. Az egy Vándori, a rousseaui
szellemű pap nem jelent politikát: ő Eötvöst magát jelenti, a mi
benne a Karthauzi forrongó gyötrelmei után lehiggadt. Ha ezekből a
Rétiekből, Nyúzókból, Tengelyiekből és Violákból kivonom azt, a mi
bennük tendentia, alig marad belőlük egyéb, mint a ruhájuk.
Mi érdekel tehát mégis a regényben, a melynek nyelvén is folyton
megérezzük az avatag hervadtságot? Miért tudjuk alakjának sorsát
mégis rokonszenvező figyelemmel kisérni mindvégig? Először is
azért a lendületért, a melylyel az író a maga egész egyéniségét, erős
meggyőződését és igazában való hitét beleviszi művébe. Ott látjuk
mindig a regény mögött Eötvöst, a ki igazat mond, mert föltétlenül
érzi annak az igazságát, a mit mond. Az író szelleme él ma is, nem
avult el s összetartja a regény széthulladozó elemeit. Önmagából
alkotta meg a regényt, a maga lelkének ideáljait, a maga életének
tartalmát vetítette ki bele. Ezért a regény a maga egészében
egységesen, következetesen van concipiálva és kifejlesztve s folyton
fentartja a kontaktus érzését az olvasó és az író között. Nem Nyúzó
vagy Macskaházy, nem is Tengelyi és Viola érdekel, hanem Eötvös
gondolatainak az az eleme, a melyet ők jelentenek. Az író önmagát
nyilatkoztatja ki bennük előttem. Ettől az alakok is reliefet, tehát
életet is kapnak. Vér lüktet a marionettekben; az író szíve vére. Még
inkább életet, igazságot kapnak a jelenetek. Ezekkel szemben
odaállít minket az író a maga perspektivájába s abból nézve
eleveneknek, igazaknak látjuk őket. Távlatból nézve az actióban levő
embereknek csak a legkirívóbb vonásait veszszük észre s mindjárt
valószinűbbeknek tünnek fel az író önkénye szerint mintázott alakok
és beleillenek az egész jelenet elevenségébe. Nemcsak kortörténeti
ismereteink segítségével, hanem szemünkkel, közvetlenül is látjuk,
hogy ezek a jelenetek, ha nem történtek is meg, de megtörténhettek
volna. Ezzel pedig az író megnyert a maga igazának, a maga
szemével láttatja velünk a regényt. Tehát elérte azt, a mi az írónak
czélja s hatásának alapfeltétele: a suggestiót. Mellékes, hogy
politikailag vagy psychologiailag igaza van-e, fődolog, hogy a maga
hitét, a maga igazáról való érzését át tudja vinni belénk is.
Szóval a tulajdonképeni hatást mégis csak a művész eszközeivel
éri el. S írói az az ügyesség is, a melylyel alakjait fel tudja ruházni a
külső valószerűség szinével, a mely pillanatokra csaknem teljesen el
tudja feledtetni belső valószinűtlenségüket. Látási illuziót kelt velük,
szemléletessé tudja őket tenni: velük kapcsolatban egy csomó
ismerős képzetet kelt életre bennünk, a melyek révén ismerősökké
válnak az alakok s a jelenetek is. A magyar földből nőttek ki, a
magyar traditióból s a magyar kulturállapotból, mindenki fölfedezi
bennük, tudva vagy tudatlanul, azokat a vonásokat, a melyek
ismerősek, a melyeket nem egyszer látott maga előtt az életben. Az
egész regény a magyar földből nőtt ki, ilyet nem írhatott más, csak
magyar író.
Hogy a regény hatását ezek a tagadhatatlanul benne meglevő
írói vonások adják meg, azt bizonyítja az is, hogy A falu jegyzője
külföldön, kivált Angliában is hatást tett, merőben írói tulajdonságai
révén, mert hiszen politikai tartalma idegen földön teljesen
érdektelen volt. Hiányai a műforma, az irány-regény tipikus hiányai,
olyan természetűek, hogy kiküszöbölésükkel alig lehet irány-regényt
elképzelni. Erényei igazi írói erények; az író lelke szólal meg bennük,
a mely Eötvösben lakozott.
Nagyjában ugyanezek a kritikai szempontok állanak harmadik
regényére is, a Magyarország 1514-ben czímű történeti regényre
(1847.). Ez is irány-regény, a jobbágyság felszabadításáért küzd. A
tendentia azonban nem olyan kirívó benne, nyilván azért, mert
concentrálva van egy gondolatra s mert a történelem
rekonstruálásának nehézségei is erősebb önfegyelmezésre
szorították az írót. Ezért emberei emberibbek, nem annyira s nem
mind a politikai czélzatból táplálkoznak. Ebben a regényben jutott
Eötvös legközelebb az írói tárgyilagossághoz. A romantikus történeti
regény módszereivel van csinálva, melyek ma már avultaknak
tetszenek, de a Walter Scott – Jósika-féle történeti regény kosztüm
és kulissza-stilusához képest jelentékeny haladást jelent a
történelem lelkének megelevenítése irányában.
Eötvös utolsó regénye, a Nővérek (1857.), már nem jelent semmi
tekintetben haladást. Az erkölcsi és paedagogiai didaktikus czélzat
túlhatalmasodik benne és elfojtja az irodalmi tartalmat. Ezzel a
regénynyel bucsuzott el Eötvös az irodalomtól s azontúl egészen a
politikának és főleg a kulturpolitikának szentelte minden erejét.
Ha most meg akarjuk állapítani Eötvös írói munkásságának
summáját, ezt találjuk: adott három regényt és néhány költeményt, a
melyek még ma is élnek, érdekelnek, gyönyörködtetnek. Adott egy
állambölcseleti könyvet (A XIX. század uralkodó eszméi), mely
nemcsak a maga kora európai irodalmának egyik legkiválóbb műve
a maga nemében, hanem ma is mély tanulságok forrása. A magyar
regényirást ő emelte európai szinvonalra; ő volt az első magyar író,
a kit nemcsak nemzete hallgatott meg, hanem mondhatni egész
Európa; csaknem minden művelt nemzetben voltak s vannak
olvasói. A politikában az elsők egyike s mindenesetre a legnagyobb
hatású volt azok között, a kik a politika központi problemájául a
társadalmi politikát tűzték ki. Nemes lendületű humanista volt, a
legjobb szívek és legszebb elmék egyike a magyar fajból.
XXII.