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Psychological Testing
Principles, Applications, & Issues
Ninth Edition
Robert M. Kaplan Dennis P. Saccuzzo

Stanford University San Diego State University
Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
Psychological Testing: Principles, © 2018, 2013 Cengage Learning
Applications, and Issues, Ninth Edition
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 02 Print Year: 2017
Brief Contents
PA R T I PRINCIPLES
1 Introduction 1
2 Norms and Basic Statistics for Testing 23
3 Correlation and Regression 63
4 Reliability 99
5 Validity 133
6 Writing and Evaluating Test Items 159
7 Test Administration 187
PA R T I I APPLICATIONS
8 Interviewing Techniques 203
9 Theories of Intelligence and the Binet Scales 225
10 The Wechsler Intelligence Scales: WAIS-IV, WISC-V, and WPPSI-IV 247
11 Tests for Infants, Disabilities, and Special Populations 267
12 Standardized Tests in Education, Civil Service, and the Military 299
13 Applications in Clinical and Counseling Settings 329
14 Projective Personality Tests 371
15 Computers and Basic Psychological Science in Testing 401
16 Testing in Counseling Psychology 425
17 Testing in Health Psychology and Health Care 443
18 Testing in Industrial and Business Settings 483
PA R T I I I ISSUES
19 Test Bias 513
20 Testing and the Law 547
21 The Future of Psychological Testing 587
iii
Contents
P art I Principles
1 Introduction 1
Basic Concepts 6
What a Test Is 6
Types of Tests 7
Overview of the Book 9
Principles of Psychological Testing 10
Applications of Psychological Testing 10
Issues of Psychological Testing 11
Historical Perspective 11
Early Antecedents 11
Charles Darwin and Individual Differences 12
Experimental Psychology and Psychophysical Measurement 13
The Evolution of Intelligence and Standardized Achievement Tests 14
Personality Tests: 1920–1940 16
The Emergence of New Approaches to Personality Testing 18
The Period of Rapid Changes in the Status of Testing 20
The Current Environment 21
Summary 21
2 Norms and Basic Statistics for Testing 23

Why We Need Statistics 24
Scales of Measurement 25
Properties of Scales 25
Types of Scales 27
Permissible Operations 28
Frequency Distributions 29
Percentile Ranks 32
Percentiles 36
Describing Distributions 37
Mean 37
Standard Deviation 38
iv
Contents v
Z Score 40
Standard Normal Distribution 41
McCall’s T 48
Quartiles and Deciles 50
Norms 51
Age-Related Norms 54
Tracking 54
Criterion-Referenced Tests 58
Summary 61
3 Correlation and Regression 63

The Scatter Diagram 64
Correlation 66
Regression 67
The Regression Line 67
The Best-Fitting Line 68
Testing the Statistical Significance of a Correlation Coefficient 74
How to Interpret a Regression Plot 76
Other Correlation Coefficients 80
Terms and Issues in the Use of Correlation 82
Residual 82
Standard Error of Estimate 83
Coefficient of Determination 83
Coefficient of Alienation 83
Shrinkage 84
Cross Validation 84
The Correlation-Causation Problem 84
Third Variable Explanation 85
Restricted Range 86
Multivariate Analysis (Optional) 87
General Approach 87
An Example Using Multiple Regression 87
Discriminant Analysis 88
Factor Analysis 89
Summary 92
APPENDIX 3.1: Calculation of a Regression Equation and a Correlation
Coefficient 93
Calculation of a Regression Equation (Data from Table 3.5) 94
4 Reliability 99
History and Theory of Reliability 100
Conceptualization of Error 100
vi Contents
Spearman’s Early Studies 101

Basics of Test Score Theory 101
The Domain Sampling Model 103
Item Response Theory 104
Models of Reliability 106
Sources of Error 106
Time Sampling: The Test–Retest Method 107
Item Sampling: Parallel Forms Method 108
Split-Half Method 109
KR20 Formula 111
Coefficient Alpha 112
Reliability of a Difference Score 113
Reliability in Behavioral Observation Studies 115
Connecting Sources of Error with Reliability Assessment Method 119
Using Reliability Information 122
Standard Errors of Measurement and the Rubber Yardstick 122
How Reliable Is Reliable? 123
What to Do about Low Reliability 124
Summary 129
APPENDIX 4.1: Using Coefficient Alpha to Estimate Split-Half
Reliability When the Variances for the Two Halves of the Test Are
Unequal 130
APPENDIX 4.2: The Calculation of Reliability Using KR20 130
5 Validity 133
Defining Validity 135
Aspects of Validity 136
Face Validity 136
Content-Related Evidence for Validity 136
Criterion-Related Evidence for Validity 138
Construct-Related Evidence for Validity 149
Relationship between Reliability and Validity 155
Summary 157
6 Writing and Evaluating Test Items 159

Item Writing 160
Item Formats 161
Guessing 163
Other Possibilities 170
Item Analysis 173
Item Difficulty 173
Contents vii
Discriminability 175
Pictures of Item Characteristics 177
Linking Uncommon Measures 182
Items for Criterion-Referenced Tests 184
Limitations of Item Analysis 185
Summary 186
7 Test Administration 187

Why We Changed Our Minds 188
The Examiner and the Subject 188
The Relationship Between Examiner and Test Taker 188
The Race of the Tester 189
Stereotype Threat 190
How Stereotype Threat Does Damage 191
Remedies for Stereotype Threat 192
Language of Test Taker 193
Training of Test Administrators 193
Expectancy Effects 193
Effects of Reinforcing Responses 196
Computer-Assisted Test Administration 197
Mode of Administration 199
Subject Variables 201
Summary 201
PA R T I I APPLICATIONS
8 Interviewing Techniques 203
The Interview as a Test 207
Reciprocal Nature of Interviewing 208
Principles of Effective Interviewing 208
The Proper Attitudes 209
Responses to Avoid 209
Effective Responses 211
Responses to Keep the Interaction Flowing 212
Measuring Understanding 215
Mental Status Examination 217
Developing Interviewing Skills 218
Sources of Error in the Interview 219
Interview Validity 219
Interview Reliability 222
Summary 223
viii Contents
9 Theories of Intelligence and the Binet Scales 225

The Problem of Defining Intelligence 226
Binet’s Principles of Test Construction 228
Principle 1: Age Differentiation 228
Principle 2: General Mental Ability 229
Spearman’s Model of General Mental Ability 229
Implications of General Mental Intelligence (g) 230
The gf-gc Theory of Intelligence 230
The Early Binet Scales 231
The 1905 Binet-Simon Scale 231
The 1908 Scale 232
Terman’s Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale 234
The 1916 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale 234
The Intelligence Quotient (IQ) 234
The 1937 Scale 235
The 1960 Stanford-Binet Revision and Deviation IQ (SB-LM) 237
The Modern Binet Scale 238
Model for the Fourth and Fifth Editions of the Binet Scale 238
Characteristics of the 1986 Revision 240
Characteristics of the 2003 Fifth Edition 242
Psychometric Properties of the 2003 Fifth Edition 243
Median Validity 244
Summary 244
10 The Wechsler Intelligence Scales: WAIS-IV,

WISC-V, and WPPSI-IV 247
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales 249
Point and Performance Scale Concepts 249
From the Wechsler–Bellevue Intelligence Scale to the WAIS-IV 251
Scales, Subtests, and Indexes 251
A Closer Look at Subtests 252
From Raw Scores to Scaled and Index Scale Scores 257
Index Scores 258
FSIQs 258
Interpretive Features of the Wechsler Tests 259
Index Comparisons 259
Pattern Analysis 260
Hypothetical Case Studies 260
Psychometric Properties of the Wechsler Adult Scale 262
Standardization 262
Reliability 263
Validity 263
Contents ix
Evaluation of the Wechsler Adult Scales 263

Downward Extensions of the WAIS-IV: The WISC-V and the WPPSI-IV 264
The WISC-V 264
The WPPSI-IV 265
Summary 266
11 Tests for Infants, Disabilities, and Special

Populations 267
Alternative Individual Ability Tests Compared With the Binet
and Wechsler Scales 268
Alternatives Compared With One Another 270
Early Tests 272
Infant Scales 272
Major Tests for Young Children 279
General Individual Ability Tests for Handicapped
and Special Populations 284
Testing Learning Disabilities 287
Visiographic Tests 292
Creativity: Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT) 294
Individual Achievement Tests: Wide Range Achievement
Test-4 (WRAT-4) 296
Summary 297
12 Standardized Tests in Education, Civil Service,

and the Military 299
Comparison of Group and Individual Ability Tests 301
Advantages of Individual Tests 302
Advantages of Group Tests 302
Overview of Group Tests 303
Characteristics of Group Tests 303
Selecting Group Tests 303
Using Group Tests 304
Group Tests in the Schools: Kindergarten Through 12th Grade 305
Achievement Tests Versus Aptitude Tests 305
Group Achievement Tests 305
Group Tests of Mental Abilities (Intelligence) 308
College Entrance Tests 312
The New (2016) SAT 312
The American College Test 313
Graduate and Professional School Entrance Tests 314
Graduate Record Examination Aptitude Test 314
x Contents
Miller Analogies Test 318

The Law School Admission Test 319
Nonverbal Group Ability Tests 321
Raven Progressive Matrices 322
Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test (G-HDT) 324
The Culture Fair Intelligence Test 325
Standardized Tests Used in the U.S. Civil Service System 326
Standardized Tests in the U.S. Military: The Armed Services
Vocational Aptitude Battery 326
Summary 327
13 Applications in Clinical and Counseling

Settings 329
Strategies of Structured Personality Test Construction 331
Deductive Strategies 332
Empirical Strategies 332
Criteria Used in Selecting Tests for Discussion 334
The Logical-Content Strategy 334
Woodworth Personal Data Sheet 334
Early Multidimensional Logical-Content Scales 335
Mooney Problem Checklist 335
Criticisms of the Logical-Content Approach 336
The Criterion-Group Strategy 336
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory 336
California Psychological Inventory (CPI)–Third Edition 347
The Factor Analytic Strategy 349
Guilford’s Pioneer Efforts 349
Cattell’s Contribution 350
Problems With the Factor Analytic Strategy 352
The Theoretical Strategy 353
Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS) 353
Personality Research Form, Third Edition (PRF-III) and
Jackson Personality Inventory Revised (JPI-R) 355
Self-Concept 357
Combination Strategies 358
Positive Personality Measurement and the NEO Personality
Inventory–Three (NEO-PI-3) 358
The NEO Personality Inventory–Three (NEO PI-R™) 359
Frequently Used Measures of Positive Personality Traits 362
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale 362
General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE) 363
Ego Resiliency Scale Revised 363
Dispositional Resilience Scale (DRS) 363
Hope Scale 364
Contents xi
Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R) 364

Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) 365
Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) 365
Coping Intervention for Stressful Situations (CISS) 366
Core Self-Evaluations 366
Future of Positive Personality Research 367
Summary 368
14 Projective Personality Tests 371

The Projective Hypothesis 373
The Rorschach Inkblot Test 374
Historical Antecedents 374
Stimuli, Administration, and Interpretation 375
Psychometric Properties 380
An Alternative Inkblot Test: The Holtzman 389
The Thematic Apperception Test 390
Stimuli, Administration, and Interpretation 391
Psychometric Properties 394
Alternative Apperception Procedures 395
Nonpictorial Projective Procedures 395
Word Association Test 396
Sentence Completion Tasks 396
Figure Drawing Tests 398
Summary 398
15 Computers and Basic Psychological Science

in Testing 401
Cognitive-Behavioral Assessment Procedures Versus the Medical
Model of Assessment 403
The Rationale for Cognitive-Behavioral Assessment 403
Early Procedures Based on Operant Conditioning 405
Self-Report Techniques 407
The Dysfunctional Attitude Scale 411
Irrational Beliefs Test 411
Irrational Beliefs Inventory (IBI) 412
Cognitive Functional Analysis 412
Psychophysiological Procedures 414
Physiological Variables With Treatment Implications 414
Evaluation of Psychophysiological Techniques 415
Computers and Psychological Testing 416
Computer-Assisted Interview 416
Computer-Administered Tests 417
Computer Diagnosis, Scoring, and Reporting of Results 418
xii Contents
Internet Usage for Psychological Testing 419

The Computerization of Cognitive-Behavioral Assessment 420
Tests Possible Only by Computer 420
Computer-Adaptive Testing 421
Summary 423
16 Testing in Counseling Psychology 425

Measuring Interests 426
The Strong Vocational Interest Blank 427
The Evolution of the Strong Measures 428
The Campbell Interest and Skill Survey 429
The Reemergence of the Strong Interest Inventory 430
The Kuder Occupational Interest Survey 432
The Career Assessment Inventory 436
The Self-Directed Search 436
Eliminating Gender Bias in Interest Measurement 437
Aptitudes and Interests 439
Measuring Personal Characteristics for Job Placement 439
Are There Stable Personality Traits? 440
Other Uses of Interest Matching Methods: The Case
of Internet Dating 440
Summary 441
17 Testing in Health Psychology and Health Care 443

Neuropsychological Assessment 444
Clinical Neuropsychology 444
Developmental Neuropsychology 449
Adult Neuropsychology 453
California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT) 459
Automated Neuropsychological Testing 462
Anxiety and Stress Assessment 463
Stress and Anxiety 464
The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory 464
Measures of Coping 466
Ecological Momentary Assessment 466
Depression 467
NIH Toolbox 470
Quality-of-Life Assessment 472
What Is Health-Related Quality of Life? 472
Common Methods for Measuring Quality of Life 473
mHealth and New Mobile Technologies 476
The 2015 Medical College Admissions Test (MCAT) 477
Summary 482
Contents xiii
18 Testing in Industrial and Business

Settings 483
Personnel Psychology—The Selection of Employees 484
Employment Interview 484
Base Rates and Hit Rates 486
Taylor-Russell Tables 489
Utility Theory and Decision Analysis 493
Value-Added Employee Assessments 495
Incremental Validity 499
Personnel Psychology From the Employee’s Perspective:
Fitting People to Jobs 501
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator 501
Tests for Use in Industry: Wonderlic Personnel Test (WPT) 502
Measuring Characteristics of the Work Setting 503
Classifying Environments 503
Job Analysis 505
Measuring the Person–Situation Interaction 508
Summary 511
PA R T I I I ISSUES
19 Test Bias 513
Why Is Test Bias Controversial? 514
The Traditional Defense of Testing 520
Content-Related Evidence for Validity 521
Criterion-Related Sources of Bias 524
Other Approaches to Testing Minority Group Members 529
Ignorance Versus Stupidity 529
Suggestions for Solutions 531
Ethical Concerns and the Definition of Test Bias 531
Thinking Differently: Finding New Interpretations of Data 535
Developing Different Criteria 535
When Tests Harm 536
Does It Matter? More Testing and Less Testing 537
Changing the Social Environment 540
Summary 544
20 Testing and the Law 547

Laws Governing the Use of Tests 549
Federal Authorities 549
Specific Laws 553
xiv Contents
Federal Initiatives in Education 555

The Common Core 556
Major Lawsuits That Have Affected Psychological Testing 558
Early Desegregation Cases 558
Stell v. Savannah-Chatham County Board of Education 559
Hobson v. Hansen 560
Diana v. State Board of Education 561
Larry P. v. Wilson Riles 561
Parents in Action on Special Education v. Hannon 563
Crawford et al. v. Honig et al. 564
Marchall v. Georgia 568
Debra P. v. Turlington 568
Regents of the University of California v. Bakke 571
Golden Rule Insurance Company et al. v. Washburn et al. 571
Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña, Secretary of
Transportation, et al. 572
Affirmative Action in Higher Education 572
Grutter v. Bollinger and Gratz v. Bollinger 573
Parents v. Seattle 575
Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education 576
Fisher v. University of Texas 576
Personnel Cases 577
Cases Relevant to the Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA) 583
A Critical Look at Lawsuits 584
Summary 585
21 The Future of Psychological Testing 587

Issues Shaping the Field of Testing 588
Professional Issues 588
Moral Issues 591
Social Issues 594
Current Trends 596
The Proliferation of New Tests 596
Higher Standards, Improved Technology, and Increasing
Objectivity 597
Greater Public Awareness and Influence 598
The Computerization of Tests 599
Testing on the Internet 599
Future Trends 599
Future Prospects for Testing Are as Promising as Ever Before 600
Controversy, Disagreement, and Change Will Continue 600
The Integration of Cognitive Science and Computer Science
Will Lead to Several Innovations in Testing 601
Summary 601
Contents xv
APPENDIX 1 Areas of a Standard Normal Distribution 603

APPENDIX 2 Critical Values of r for a 5 .05 and a 5 .01
(Two-Tailed Test) 606
APPENDIX 3 Critical Values of t 607
APPENDIX 4 Code of Fair Testing Practices in Education 609
GLOSSARY 614
REFERENCES 618
NAME INDEX 683
SUBJECT INDEX 700
List of Sample Test Profiles
FIGURE 9.7 Cover page of Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale 239
FIGURE 12.1 Example of a score report for the Stanford Achievement Test 307
FIGURE 12.2 A sample student profile from the ACT 313
FIGURE 12.3 GRE verbal ability sample items 315
FIGURE 12.4 GRE quantitative ability sample items 317
FIGURE 12.5 MAT sample items 319
FIGURE 13.2 An MMPI profile sheet 337
FIGURE 13.3 An MMPI-2 profile sheet 344
FIGURE 13.4 Jackson Personality Inventory profile sheet 356
FIGURE 13.5 NEO Personality Inventory profile sheet 360
TABLE 14.1 Summary of Rorschach scoring 381
Focused Example 14.2

The danger of basing Rorschach interpretations on insufficient
evidence 386–387
Sentence completion tasks 396

FIGURE 17.5 Profile of a patient tested with the Luria-Nebraska battery 459
FIGURE 18.2 Sample questions from the Wonderlic 503
FIGURE 19.8 Sample SOMPA profile 525
TABLE 20.1 Examples of items from a minimum competence test 569
xvi
Preface
P
sychology is a broad, exciting field. Psychologists work in settings ranging from
schools and clinics to basic research laboratories, pharmaceutical firms, and pri-
vate international companies. Despite this diversity, all psychologists have at
least two things in common: They all study behavior, and they all depend to some
extent on its measurement. This book concerns a particular type of measurement,
psychological tests, which measure characteristics pertaining to all aspects of behav-
ior in human beings.
Psychological Testing is the result of a long-standing partnership between the
authors. As active participants in the development and use of psychological tests,
we became disheartened because far too many undergraduate college students view
psychological testing courses as boring and unrelated to their goals or career inter-
ests. In contrast, we see psychological testing as an exciting field. It has a solid place
in the history of psychology, yet it is constantly in flux because of challenges, new
developments, and controversies. A book on testing should encourage, not dampen,
a student’s interest. Thus, we provide an overview of the many facets of psychologi-
cal tests and measurement principles in a style that will appeal to the contemporary
college student.
To understand the applications and issues in psychological testing, the student
must learn some basic principles, which requires some knowledge of introductory
statistics. Therefore, some reviewing and a careful reading of Part I will pave the way
for an understanding of the applications of tests discussed in Part II. Part III exam-
ines the issues now shaping the future of testing. Such issues include test anxiety, test
bias, and the interface between testing and the law. The future of applied psychology
may depend on the ability of psychologists to face these challenging issues.
Throughout the book, we present a series of focused discussions and focused
examples. These sections illustrate the material in the book through examples or
provide a more detailed discussion of a particular issue. We also use box features
called “Psychological Testing in Everyday Life” to demonstrate material such as sta-
tistical calculations.
Increased Emphasis on Application

Students today often favor informal discussions and personally relevant exam-
ples. Consequently, we decided to use models from various fields and to write in
an informal style. However, because testing is a serious and complicated field in
xvii
xviii Preface
which major disagreements exist even among scholars and experts, we have treated
the controversial aspects of testing with more formal discussion and detailed
referencing.
The first edition of Psychological Testing: Principles, Applications, and Issues was
published in 1982. The world has changed in many ways in the 35 years since the
text was first introduced. For example, personal computers were new in 1982. Most
students and professors had never heard of the Internet, nobody communicated
by e-mail, and the inventor of Facebook had not yet been born. Nobody had even
imagined smart portable phones. The first edition of Psychological Testing was pro-
duced on typewriters, before word processors were commonly used. At the time,
few professors or students had access to private computers. The early editions of the
book offered instruction for preparing the submission of statistical analyses to main-
frame computers. There were far fewer applications of psychological testing than
there are today. On the other hand, principles of psychological testing have remained
relatively constant. Thus, newer editions have included improvements and refine-
ments in the Principles chapters. The later chapters on Applications and Issues have
evolved considerably.
Not only has the field of psychological testing changed, but so have the lives
of the authors. One of us (RMK) spent most of his career as a professor in a school
of medicine, eventually moved to a school of public health, then to the federal gov-
ernment, and back again to a school of medicine. The other (DPS) completed law
school and works extensively with attorneys and the U.S. legal system on many of
the applied issues discussed in this book. While maintaining our central identities
as psychologists, we have also had the opportunity to explore cutting-edge practice
in medicine, public health, government regulation, education, and law. The ninth
edition goes further than any previous edition in spelling out the applications of
psychological testing in a wide variety of applied fields.
In developing this edition, we have organized topics around the application
areas. Chapter 11 considers psychological testing in education and special education.
Chapter 12 looks at the use of standardized tests in education, civil service, and the
military. Chapters 13 and 14 consider the use of psychological tests in clinical and
counseling settings.
The age of computers has completely revolutionized psychological testing. We
deal with some of these issues in the Principles chapters by discussing comput-
er-adaptive testing and item response theory. In Chapter 15, we discuss applications
of psychological science in the computer age. Chapter 16 discusses the use of psy-
chological testing in the field of counseling psychology and focuses primarily on
interest inventories. Chapter 17 explores the rapidly developing fields of psycholog-
ical assessment in health psychology, medicine, and health care. Chapter 18 reviews
psychological testing in industry and business settings. Several of these chapters dis-
cuss the role of new electronic technologies, such as cell phones and sensors, in the
acquisition of information about human behavior.
Over the last 35 years psycholological testing has faced important challenges
related to fairness and to social justice. Chapter 19 takes a careful look at these
controversies and attempts to spell out some of the differering perspectives in these
detates. Chapter 20 focuses on legal challenges to testing practices. Ethical issues
relevant to psychological tests are considered in Chapter 21.
Preface xix
Following a trend in our recent editions, the final chapters on issues in psycho-
logical testing have been extensively updated to reflect new developments in social
justice, law, and ethics.
Organization of the Ninth Edition:

A Note to Professors for Planning
Producing nine editions of Psychological Testing over the course of more than 35 years
has been challenging and rewarding. We are honored that hundreds of professors
have adopted our text, and that it is now used in hundreds of colleges and universi-
ties all over the world. However, some professors have suggested that we reorganize
the book to facilitate their approach to the class. To accommodate the large variety
of approaches, we have tried to keep the chapters independent enough for profes-
sors to teach them in whatever order they choose. For example, one approach to the
course is to go systematically through the chapter sequence.
Professors who wish to emphasize psychometric issues, however, might assign
Chapters 1 through 7, followed by Chapters 19 and 20. Then, they might return to
certain chapters from the Applications section. On campuses that require a strong
statistics course as a prerequisite, Chapters 2 and 3 might be dropped. Professors
who emphasize applications might assign Chapters 1 through 5 and then pro-
ceed directly to Part II, with some professors assigning only some of its chapters.
Although Chapters 9 through 13 are most likely to be used in a basic course, we
have found sufficient interest in Chapters 14 through 18 to retain them. Chapters 17
and 18 represent newer areas into which psychological testing is expanding. Finally,
Chapters 19 and 20 were written so that they could be assigned either at the end
of the course or near the beginning. For example, some professors prefer to assign
Chapters 19 and 20 after Chapter 5.
MindTap for Kaplan and Saccuzzo’s

Psychological Testing
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students to analyze, apply, and improve thinking, allowing instructors to measure
skills and outcomes with ease.
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comprehension to analysis and application.
▶▶ Personalized Teaching: Becomes yours with a Learning Path that is built with
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xx Preface
Supplements Beyond Compare

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Instructor’s Resource Manual and Test Bank

The Instructor’s Resource Manual (IRM) was written by Katherine Nicolai of
Rockhurst University the Test Bank by TBD. The IRM includes suggestions for:
▶▶ designing your course,
▶▶ using psychological tests in your course,
▶▶ using student data to teach measurement,
▶▶ using class time,
▶▶ demonstrations, activities, and activity-based lectures.
The IRM also provides a description of integrative assignments found on the
instructor’s companion Web site and unique mock projectives and much more.
The test bank contains more than 800 multiple-choice questions in addition to
many “thought” essay questions.
Acknowledgments
We are highly indebted to the many reviewers and professors who provided feed-
back that helped shape this textbook. Special thanks go to reviewers of all editions
of the text: Glen M. Adams, Harding University, John Dale Alden III, Lipscomb
University, Steven Anolik, St. Francis College; Michael DeDonno, Barry Univer-
sity, John C. Hotz, St. Cloud State University, Jacqueline Massa, Kean University,
Katherine Noll, University of Illinois at Chicago; Janet Panter, Rhodes College; and
Joneis Frandele Thomas, Howard University; Virginia Allen, Idaho State University,
David Bush, Utah State University; Ira Bernstein, University of Texas, Arlington; Jeff
Conte, San Diego State University, Imogen Hall, University of Windsor, Maureen
Hannah, Siena College; Ronald McLaughlin, Juniata College; Michael Mills, Loyola
Marymount University, Philip Moberg, University of Akron; M. J. Monnot, Central
Michigan University, Jennifer Neemann, University of Baltimore; Karen Obremski
Brandon, University of South Florida; Frederick Oswald, Michigan State University,
S. Mark Pancer, Wilfrid Laurier University, Christopher Ralston, Iowa State Uni-
versity, Sharon Rostosky, University of Kentucky, Stefan Schulenberg, University of
Mississippi; Theresa Sparks, Clayton State University; Chockalingam Viswesvaran,
Florida International University, Mark Wagner, Wagner College; and Nancy Zook
SUNY Purchase.
Preface xxi
The nine editions of this book have been developed under seven different
engage editors. The earlier editions benefited from the patient and inspired super-
C
vision of Todd Lueders, C. Deborah Laughton, Phil Curson, Marianne Taflinger,
and Jim Brace-Thompson, and Tim Matray. We are most appreciative of the support
we have received from current content developer, Tangelique Williams-Grayer. She
has been patient, helpful, and very well organized in directing the development of
the current edition. Each of our editors has come to the task with a different person-
ality and a different set of insights. We learned immensely from each of them and
the ninth edition represents a collection of what we have gained from advice and
consultations over many years. We want to give particular thanks to Kate Nicolai
for preparing the student workbook for past editions, and the ninth edition online
Instructor’s Manual. And, we also thank the editorial and production teams, includ-
ing Jennifer Ziegler, content production manager; Katie Chen, product assistant;
and Sharib Asrar of Lumina Datamatics.
The ninth edition was completed while one of us (RMK) was a fellow at the
Center for Advanced Studies in the Behavioral Sciences at Stanford University.
The Center gratiously provided office space, library services, and collegial support
that greatly facilitated the timely revision of the manuscript.
Robert M. Kaplan
Dennis P. Saccuzzo
September 2016
About the Authors
ROBERT M. KAPLAN has served as Chief Science Officer at the US Agency

for Health Care Research and Quality (AHRQ) and Associate Director of the
National Institutes of Health, where he led the behavioral and social sciences
programs. He is also a Distinguished Emeritus Professor of Health Services and
Robert M. Kaplan
Medicine at UCLA, where he led the UCLA/RAND AHRQ health services

training program and the UCLA/RAND CDC Prevention Research Center.
He was Chair of the Department of Health Services from 2004 to 2009. From
1997 to 2004 he was Professor and Chair of the Department of Family and
Preventive Medicine, at the University of California, San Diego. He is a past
President of several organizations, including the American Psychological Asso-
ciation Division of Health Psychology, Section J of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science (Pacific), the International Society for Qual-
ity of Life Research, the Society for Behavioral Medicine, and the Academy of
Behavioral Medicine Research. Kaplan is a former Editor-in-Chief of Health
Psychology and of the Annals of Behavioral Medicine. His 20 books and over 500
articles or chapters have been cited nearly 30,000 times and the ISI includes
him in the listing of the most cited authors in his field (defined as above the
99.5th percentile). Kaplan is an elected member of the National Academy of
Medicine (formerly the Institute of Medicine). Dr. Kaplan is currently Regens-
trief Distinguished Fellow at Purdue University and Adjunct Professor of Med-
icine at Stanford University, where he works with Stanford’s Clinical Excellence
Research Center (CERC).
DENNIS P. SACCUZZO is a professor emeritus at San Diego State Univer-

sity, president and co-founder of Applications of Psychology to Law, Inc., an
educational corporation devoted to applying cutting-edge psychological con-
cepts to the law, and a founding partner of Saccuzzo Johnson & Poplin, LLP, a
Robert M. Kaplan
law firm from which he uses his knowledge of testing and his legal background
to fight for the rights of special education students and other vulnerable groups
of individuals He has been a scholar and practitioner of psychological testing
for over 40 years. He has authored numerous peer-reviewed publications and
professional presentations in the field. Dr. Saccuzzo’s research has been sup-
ported by the National Science Foundation, the National Institutes of Mental
Health, the National Institutes of Health, the U.S. Department of Education,
xxii
About the Authors xxiii
the Scottish Rite Foundation, and the U.S. armed services. He is also a California-
licensed psychologist and a California-licensed attorney. He is board certified in
clinical psychology by the American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP).
In addition, he is a diplomate of the American Board of Assessment Psychology
(ABAP). He is a fellow of the American Psychological Association and Ameri-
can Psychological Society for outstanding and unusual contributions to the field
of psychology. Dr. Saccuzzo is the author or co-author of over 300 peer-reviewed
papers and publications, including 12 textbooks and over 20 law manuals.
CHAPTER
Introduction
LE AR N I NG O B J EC TIVES
When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to:
▶▶ Define the basic terms pertaining to psychological ▶▶ Explain how structured personality tests differ from
and educational tests projective personality tests
▶▶ Distinguish between an individual test and a group test ▶▶ Explain what a normative or standardization sample
is and why such a sample is important
▶▶ Define the terms achievement, aptitude, and
intelligence and identify a concept that can ▶▶ Identify the major developments in the history of
encompass all three terms psychological testing
▶▶ Distinguish between ability tests and personality tests ▶▶ Explain the relevance of psychological tests in
contemporary society
▶▶ Define the term structured personality test
1
2 CHAPTER 1 ● Introduction
Y
ou are sitting at a table. You have just been fingerprinted and have shown a
picture ID. You look around and see over 200 nervous people. A test proctor
with a stopwatch passes out booklets. You are warned not to open the booklet
until told to do so; you face possible disciplinary action if you disobey. This is not a
nightmare or some futuristic fantasy—this is real.
Finally, after what seems like an eternity, you are told to open your booklet to
page 3 and begin working. Your mouth is dry; your palms are soaking wet. You open
to page 3. You have 10 minutes to solve a five-part problem based on the following
information.1
A car drives into the center ring of a circus and exactly eight clowns—Q, R, S, T, V, W, Y,
and Z—get out of the car, one clown at a time. The order in which the clowns get out of
the car is consistent with the following conditions:
V gets out at some time before both Y and Q.
Q gets out at some time after Z.
T gets out at some time before V but at some time after R.
S gets out at some time after V.
R gets out at some time before W.
Question 1. If Q is the fifth clown to get out of the car, then each of the following could
be true except:
Z is the first clown to get out of the car.
T is the second clown to get out of the car.
V is the third clown to get out of the car.
W is the fourth clown to get out of the car.
Y is the sixth clown to get out of the car.
Not quite sure how to proceed, you look at the next question.
Question 2. If R is the second clown to get out of the car, which of the following must
be true?
S gets out of the car at some time before T does.
T gets out of the car at some time before W does.
W gets out of the car at some time before V does.
Y gets out of the car at some time before Q does.
Z gets out of the car at some time before W does.
Your heart beats a little faster and your mind starts to freeze up. You glance at your
watch and notice that 2 minutes have elapsed and you still don’t have your bearings.
The person sitting next to you looks a bit faint. Welcome to the world of competitive,
“high stakes,” standardized psychological tests. The questions you just faced were
actual problems from a past version of the LSAT—the Law School Admission Test.
Whether or not a student is admitted into law school in the United States is almost
entirely determined by that person’s score on the LSAT and undergraduate college
grade point average. Thus, one’s future can depend to a tremendous extent on a single
score from a single test given in a tension-packed morning or afternoon. Despite
1
Used by permission from the Law School Admission Test, October 2002. Answer to Question 1 is D;
answer to Question 2 is E.
CHAPTER 1 ● Introduction 3
efforts to improve tests like the LSAT to increase diversity (Kirkland & Hansen,
2011; Pashley, Thornton, & Duffy, 2005), standardized tests tend to disadvantage
women, test takers whose parents have lower incomes and levels of education, and
ethnic minorities (Atkinson & Geiser, 2009).
Partly because of diversity concerns, growing numbers of 4-year colleges are not
relying on the SAT test (Berger 2012; Espenshade & Chung, 2010). In 2011, the
website of the National Center for Fair and Open Testing named hundreds of 4-year
colleges that do not use the SAT test to admit substantial numbers of freshmen
(Fair Test, 2011), and updates the list to keep its website current, http://www.fairtest
.org/university/optional. As a result, there continues to be changes to the SAT to
make it more responsive to modern realities (Wainer, 2014). Similar problems have
appeared on the GRE—the Graduate Record Exam, a test that plays a major role
in determining who gets to study at the graduate level in the United States. (Later
in this book, we discuss how to prepare for such tests and what their significance,
or predictive validity, is.) ETS, creator of the GRE General Test, recently revised
the test in several significant ways. The revised GRE General Test was introduced
on August 1, 2011 (http://www.ets.org/gre/ institutions/about/general), and is now
even being used to evaluate European students (Schwager, Hülsheger, Lang, &
Bridgeman, 2015)
Today, some careers do ride on a single test. Perhaps you have already taken
the GRE or LSAT. Or perhaps you have not graduated yet but are thinking about
applying for an advanced degree or professional program and will soon be facing the
GRE, LSAT, or MCAT (Medical College Admission Test). Clearly, it will help you
have a basic understanding of the multitude of psychological tests people are asked
to take throughout their lives.
From birth, tests have a major influence on our lives. When the pediatrician
strokes the palms of our hands and the soles of our feet, he or she is performing a
test. When we enter school, tests decide whether we pass or fail classes. Testing may
determine if we need special education. In the United States, Europe, and many
other industrialized countries, competence tests determine if students will graduate
from high school (Lamb, 2011; Reardon, Nicole, Allison, & Michal, 2010). More
tests determine which college we may attend. And, of course, we still face more tests
once we are in college.
After graduation, those who choose to avoid tests such as the GRE may need
to take tests to determine where they will work. In the modern world, a large part of
everyone’s life and success depends on test results. Indeed, tests even have worldwide
significance.
For example, 15-year-old children in 32 nations were given problems such as
the following from the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD) and the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)
(Schleicher & Tamassia, 2000):
A result of global warming is that ice of some glaciers is melting.

Twelve years after the ice disappears, tiny plants, called lichen, start to grow on the
rocks. Each lichen grows approximately in the shape of a circle.
The relationship between the diameter of the circles and the age of the lichen can
be approximated with the formula: d = 7.0 3 the square root of (t 2 12) for any/less
4 CHAPTER 1 ● Introduction
FIGURE 1.1 International Mathematical Literacy

Approximate average Scores
scores of 15-year-old Brazil
students on the OECD Mexico
mathematical Luxembourg
literacy test. Greece
Portugal
Italy
Latvia
Poland
Spain
Russia
Hungary
Germany
U.S.A.
Czech Rep.
Norway
Ireland
Sweden
Liechtenstein
Iceland
Denmark
Austria
France
Belgium
U.K.
Switzerland
Canada
Australia
Finland
New Zealand
Japan
Korea
300 350 400 450 500 550 600
Points
Statistics used by permission of the OECD and PISA. Figure courtesy of W. J. Koen
than or equal to 12, where d represents the diameter of the lichen in millimeters, and t
represents the number of years after the ice has disappeared.
Calculate the diameter of the lichen 16 years after the ice disappeared. The com-
plete and correct answer is:
d 5 7.0 3 the square root of 116212 mm2

d 5 7.0 3 the square root of 4 mm
d 5 14 mm
Eighteen countries ranked above the United States in the percentage of 15-year-
olds who had mastered such concepts (see Figure 1.1).
The results were similar for an OECD science literacy test (see Figure 1.2),
which had questions such as the following:
A bus is moving along a straight stretch of road. The bus driver, named Ray, has a cup
of water resting in a holder on the dashboard. Suddenly Ray has to slam on the brakes.
CHAPTER 1 ● Introduction 5
FIGURE 1.2 International Scientific Literacy

Approximate average Scores
scores of 15-year-old Brazil
students on the OECD Mexico
scientific literacy test. Luxembourg
Portugal
Latvia
Russia
Greece
Liechtenstein
Italy
Denmark
Poland
Germany
Spain
Switzerland
Belgium
Iceland
Hungary
U.S.A.
Norway
France
Czech Rep.
Sweden
Ireland
Austria
Australia
New Zealand
Canada
U.K.
Finland
Japan
Korea
300 350 400 450 500 550 600
Points
Statistics used by permission of the OECD and PISA. Figure courtesy of W. J. Koen
What is most likely to happen to the water in the cup immediately after Ray slams on
the brakes?
A. The water will stay horizontal.
B. The water will spill over side 1.
C. The water will spill over side 2.
D. The water will spill but you cannot tell if it will spill over side 1 or side 2.
The correct answer is C.

How useful are tests such as these? Do they measure anything meaningful?
How accurate are they? Such questions concern not only every U.S. citizen but also
all members of the highly competitive international community. To answer them, you
must understand the principles of psychological testing that you are about to learn.
To answer questions about tests, you must understand the concepts presented
in this book, such as reliability, validity, item analysis, and test construction. A full
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rupture of the external ligament. On the other hand, as in the horse,
it seems possible that the patella may be caught on the summit of the
internal lip of the trochlea, especially if the trochlea happens to
present a flattening at that point.
Outward luxation may be spontaneous or accidental. It is termed
spontaneous, when produced by relaxation of the ligaments of
attachment or by irregular muscular action; accidental, when
resulting directly from any external mechanical cause. Violent
contraction of the triceps cruralis, by lifting the patella beyond its
normal limit of travel, helps, or at least permits, the patella to be
displaced outwardly at the moment when the muscle relaxes.
Pathological relaxation of the ligaments and muscles, by allowing
the patella to descend too far on the trochlea, also renders
displacement possible, hence spontaneous luxation sometimes
occurs even while the animal is at rest in the stable. This luxation is
certainly only of a temporary character, or perhaps only of the nature
of subluxation, and is often reduced by mere muscular contraction
when the animals are forced to move.
Should the hind limb slip in a backward direction the angle of the
joint becomes more obtuse and the lips of the trochlea are turned
downwards, thus greatly favouring lateral displacement of the
patella, which under these circumstances is no longer immobilised
on the trochlear pulley; displacement outwards then occurs,
constituting the condition termed luxation.
Various forms of mechanical violence, like blows, collisions of the
stifle with the jambs of doors, falls, etc., may also bring about this
luxation.
The symptoms of fully-developed accidental luxation are
characteristic. Immediately the accident occurs, the limb is
immobilised in a state of complete extension; neither the stifle nor
the hock joint can be flexed, and only the fetlock joint retains any
degree of mobility.
Movement is very difficult. The hind limb appears rigid, as though
formed of one bone. The pastern is directed backwards and dragged
along the ground, and when weight is placed on the limb the anterior
surface of the pastern may almost be in touch with the ground. The
limb is advanced, but the foot cannot be placed properly on the
ground.
Locally the patella is found to be outside the external lip of the
trochlea, and its internal ligaments are extremely tense.
If the luxation is spontaneous and of muscular origin, or a
consequence of relaxation of the tendons, it is usually noticeable
immediately the animal leaves the stall. The animal cannot move
without great difficulty. It grows steadily worse with the lapse of
time, because the synovial membrane becomes irritated and chronic
arthritis is set up.
The symptoms are identical with those of traumatic luxation, but
are only temporary.
Diagnosis. The position of the limb and the displacement of the
patella are sufficiently distinctive to render diagnosis fairly easy, and
to allow of this accident being differentiated from luxation of the
femoro-tibial joint or hooking of the patella in the ischio-tibial
muscle.
Prognosis. The prognosis varies greatly. If the luxation is of
traumatic origin and the accompanying symptoms are not grave,
reduction may be followed by permanent recovery. On the other
hand, in spontaneous luxation recurrence is almost inevitable.
Treatment. The indications for treatment may be comprised in a
single phrase: reduction, with immobilisation of the parts for a
sufficient time. To effect reduction, a strip of webbing is fixed around
the pastern of the affected limb, passed over the withers, in front of
the shoulder of the opposite side, and brought round in front of the
neck or between the front limbs. By means of this an assistant
exercises strong traction on the limb until the fetlock is raised as high
as the elbow of the same side. The operator then applies strong
inward pressure to the patella, which usually slips back on to the
gliding surface of the trochlea at the first or second effort.
Fig. 22.—Bandage for luxation of the patella.

After-treatment comprises the application of a smart blister,
producing œdematous infiltration of all the tissues around the joint,
and thus impeding movement and recurrence of luxation. For this
purpose various preparations are used—e.g., cantharides, biniodide
of mercury, croton oil, etc. It is also advisable to fix the animal so
that for a time it cannot lie down, and to secure the pastern to the
neck by means of a side-line.
As an experiment, cases of simple fixation of the patella on the
summit of the internal lip of the trochlea might be treated by Bassi’s
method—i.e., subcutaneous division of the internal lateral ligament
of the patella which holds the bone in its abnormal position.
Finally, in spontaneous luxation, occurring in young animals in
which blisters have been ineffectually tried after reduction, Bénard’s
bandage may be used, though it is not generally regarded as very
practical. It consists of a piece of cloth of elongated lozenge form
about four feet in length, six inches in breadth at its centre and two
inches at its ends. Its centre is pierced by a transverse opening
intended to surround the patella, and carries a loop for the purpose
of supporting the turns of bandage. A second longitudinal opening is
situated about eight inches from the centre.
Reduction being effected, the whole region of the stifle joint is
covered with Burgundy or ordinary pitch and the bandage then
applied. The patella projects through the central opening. The end A
is passed backwards around the thigh, and through the aperture B;
the two cross ends are then brought forward, crossed again at the
end, the loop over the patella carried a second time backwards, again
crossed, and finally fixed in front under the patella. The bandage
should be firmly applied, without, however, being so tight as to
interfere with circulation, and must be left in place from eight to ten
days.
Fig. 23.—Backward luxation of the femoro-tibial joint. (From a photograph by
Professor Besnoit.)
Van Denmoegdenberg recommends placing the patient on an

inclined plane, with the hind quarters a foot higher than the front, so
as to cause permanent contraction of the anterior muscles of the
quarter, and thus immobilise the patella. Simple cold baths,
frequently repeated, friction with camphorated alcohol or essence of
turpentine, complete this original but somewhat questionable
treatment, and are said to result in recovery in a fortnight.
LUXATION OF THE FEMORO-TIBIAL ARTICULATION.
This form of luxation is rare, a fact explained by the strength of the

lateral ligaments of the joint, and of the cruciform interosseus
ligaments. It may assume different forms, according as the head of
the tibia is displaced in front of, behind, to the inside, or to the
outside of the lower extremity of the femur. In all, therefore, it may
appear in four different forms. The commonest is backward luxation.
Causation. With the sole exception of luxations or subluxations
due to tuberculosis (lateral luxations, either inwardly or outwardly,
occurring during tubercular arthritis, with more or less marked
destruction of the condyles), these luxations are always accidental or
the result of mechanical violence.
They result from leaping into hollows, falling into deep ditches or
ravines, or galloping through broken or steep places. Any violent
shock affecting the femur, either in front or from the outside, is
capable of causing luxation backwards or inwards.
Symptoms. The most frequent
condition is backward luxation of
the upper extremity of the tibia.
Movement becomes difficult, the
limb is held rigidly, and all the
lower part of the leg is extended.
None of the joints can be flexed.
The leg is dragged forward,
without the animal being able to
place the foot flat on the ground,
and the claws are trailed over the
litter or the toe grazes the soil.
On local examination the stifle is
seen to be deformed. The lower
extremity of the femur and the
patella appear prominent. The
upper part of the tibia is thrust
backwards, and seems to have
disappeared, leaving a depression
below the femoro-patellar region.
The muscles forming the back of
the thigh at this level are thrust
Fig. 24.—Luxation backwards
out of position, and appear to
and inwards of the femoro-
project abnormally.
tibial joint. (From a photograph
by Professor Besnoit.) Viewed from behind, the inner
line of the thigh appears more or
less convex when the upper
extremity of the tibia is luxated inwardly. On local examination the
displacement of the bones can be readily detected. In luxation
forwards the prominence of the stifle is caused by the summit of the
tibial crest and by the patella, whilst the lower extremity of the femur
cannot be felt. In outward luxation the upper extremity of the tibia
forms an abnormal prominence, above which a horizontal digital
depression appears.
Diagnosis. Provided that the examination is made soon after the
occurrence of the accident, little difficulty will be found in coming to
a conclusion, but the diagnosis necessitates more care when
examination is deferred for two or three days, because extensive
effusion then exists. Luxations or subluxations of tuberculous origin
are generally consecutive to old-standing destructive tuberculous
arthritis.
The prognosis is grave—firstly, because reduction is difficult;
and, secondly, because it is often impossible to maintain the
reduction and to preserve complete immobilisation of the injured
joint.
Treatment should not be undertaken except in young animals
which have not yet attained full development.
In attempting to reduce outward or inward luxation of the tibia the
animal should be cast on the side opposite to the lesion.
Counterextension is practised by passing a length of webbing around
the limb in the region of the groin; extension in the direction of the
length of the femur by means of a loop of webbing fixed to the
cannon bone: the operator uses both hands in endeavouring to
replace the head of the tibia.
In forward luxation of the tibia counter-extension is effected by
means of a loop of webbing passed above the hock and drawn
forward. Extension is made backwards in an oblique direction, the
operator again being left free to effect reduction with both hands.
Reduction of backward luxation of the tibia is still more difficult,
in consequence of the contraction of the mass of muscle at the back
of the thigh.
Plaster bandages are the most convenient means of immobilising
the parts after reduction.
LUXATION OF THE SCAPULO-HUMERAL JOINT.

This luxation, like that of the femoro-tibial articulation, is
exceptional. It may assume one of two forms, depending on whether
the head of the humerus is displaced inwardly, or towards the back of
the glenoid cavity; but as a rule luxation occurs inwardly. Forward
luxation of the head of the humerus is almost impossible, in
consequence of the resistance offered by the tendons of the flexor
brachii and antea spinatus muscles. Similarly, luxation outwards is
very difficult, the tendon of the postea spinatus being very powerful
and offering enormous resistance.
Inwardly, on the other hand, the insertion of the subscapularis is
much less powerful, and there is no real opposition to movement of
the head of the humerus.
Causation. Violent mechanical shocks transverse to the upper
third of the arm may, by sheer force, displace the head of the
humerus in an inward direction, causing rupture of the internal wall
of the capsular ligament and of the subscapularis muscle. Jumping
from high to low ground and falling on the front limbs tend to
displace the glenoid cavity in front of the head of the humerus, and
often result in luxation of the bone in a backward direction, a
luxation, however, which almost always assumes a postero-internal
direction. The commonest causes of these luxations are the sideward
falls of animals which have attempted to cover others. Whether the
subject be a bull or a cow, if the stationary animal suddenly moves to
one side, or if the moving animal is frightened by the appearance of a
dog, one of the front limbs may be violently dragged away from the
body; the resistance of the capsular ligament and internal muscles of
the shoulder may be overcome and luxation produced.
Symptoms. Symptoms are immediately apparent: no weight can
be placed on the injured limb, and the animal moves on three legs.
All muscular action is avoided, the limb is slightly shortened as a
consequence of the head of the humerus slipping behind the
shoulder, which is held rigidly during movement; the points of the
claws are dragged along the ground.
On local examination the point of the shoulder appears to be
deformed and outwardly displaced, in consequence of the pressure
exercised by the displaced head of the humerus. Below the glenoid
cavity and coracoid process lies a depression, at the base of which the
displaced humerus can be felt. This depression, however, is soon
filled up by the sero-sanguinolent effusion consequent on luxation.
Diagnosis. Bearing in mind the conditions to which the accident
is due, the diagnosis presents no great difficulty.
Prognosis. The prognosis is grave, for although it is relatively
easy to reduce the displacement, it is very difficult to keep the joint
fixed in position.
Treatment. To effect reduction, the animal should be cast on the
sound side, and a loop of webbing passed under the arm, in order to
provide for counter-extension. The limb is extended by direct
traction on the cannon bone or fetlock, whilst the operator
endeavours to effect reduction with one hand placed in front and one
behind the joint.
In young animals of trifling weight immobilisation may be
attempted, the best method being the application of pitch plasters. If,
on the other hand, the subject is heavy, there is so great a chance of
displacement when lying down and rising, that such cases are usually
sent to the butcher, or abandoned to chance. Relative recovery,
sufficient to permit of growth or fattening, may take place without
professional assistance.
IV.—HYGROMAS.
Hygromas result from chronic inflammation of serous bursæ,

naturally existing, or of serous bursæ which form at prominent
points where the skin is exposed to repeated friction, blows, shocks,
or over-extension.
They usually develop slowly, without producing marked pain or
alarming symptoms, and therefore the practitioner is seldom
consulted until the swelling has attained a considerable size.
The hygroma is usually characterised by its non-painful character
and by regular fluctuation throughout. The walls of the serous bursæ
are merely thickened, so that palpation is easy.
Should the hygroma become infected and inflamed, it assumes the
same characters as an abscess: it becomes highly sensitive, is
surrounded by œdematous infiltration, shows more marked
fluctuation at some specialised point, and eventually breaks,
discharging pus.
Long-standing hygromas often have thickened fibro-cartilaginous
and extremely hard walls, which render examination more difficult.
Where the hygroma is much
exposed to friction the skin covering
it undergoes complete
transformation, the layers of
epidermis becoming converted into
a substance resembling horn. The
entire substance of the wall of the
hygroma then undergoes change,
and is often infiltrated with lime
salts or encrusted with plates of
bone of varying thickness.
HYGROMA OF THE KNEE.
This condition is very common in

bovines, a fact explained by the
manner in which these animals rise.
Whilst the hind limbs are being
lifted, the entire burden of the body
weight is transmitted to the knees
and the tissues covering them; so
that, if the ground is rough, the skin Fig. 25.—Old-standing
may be sufficiently displaced to hygroma of the knee. PE,
produce laceration of the external coat; CC, cornified
subcutaneous connective tissue, coat; CO, osseous coat; CP,
serous effusion in the layers of pus cavity; PI, internal coat.
connective tissue, and the
immediate production of an
hygroma beneath the skin and in front of the synovial sheaths of the
extensor tendons.
Hygroma is principally caused by falls on the knees, roughness of
the stable floor, prolonged decubitus during the course of a serious
disease, or after an attack of foot-and-mouth disease.
Hygromas may be no larger than a turkey’s egg or a man’s
clenched fist, but sometimes assume the dimensions of a child’s
head. Calcification and ossification of the walls and cornification of
the skin are commonest in old hygromas of the knee.
The sensibility and uniform fluctuation make mistakes in
diagnosis difficult. The condition can only be confused with
distension of the synovial sheath of the extensor metacarpi magnus;
but this (synovial) swelling extends in the same direction as the
tendon, i.e., vertically, attains the lower third of the radius, and is
broadest above. Hygromas must also be distinguished from tumours.
Moussu only mentions a single case of this kind, the tumour being
very slightly bosselated and, naturally, revealing no fluctuation.
The prognosis is not grave, though the condition may prove
troublesome, because the original injuries may be continued even
during treatment and prevent recovery.
Treatment. Success rarely
follows cold applications or
blistering, which are only of value
at the commencement. It is better
to puncture the cavity aseptically,
remove the fluid contents, and fire
the growth in points. Free opening
of the lowest portion of the
swelling is followed by discharge of
liquid, but almost inevitably by
infection at a later stage, and by
suppuration. Recovery certainly
may occur, a slight thickening of
the anterior surface of the knee
remaining; but the process is often
very prolonged. Some authors
prefer to pass a seton or drain
vertically through the swelling.
The results are identical with those
following free opening and
drainage, suppuration being
unavoidable.
Fig. 26.—Hygroma of the knee. If the animal be sufficiently
The skin has undergone valuable to warrant surgical
conversion into a substance intervention, the entire hygroma,
resembling horn. together with its indurated wall,
may be excised. An elliptical
fragment of skin is removed from
the front of the swelling, and the whole mass separated by dissecting
away or tearing through the connective tissue. Considerable care is
necessary to avoid injuring the synovial sheaths of the extensor
tendons. This treatment, which is only applicable in valuable
animals, is completed by firmly suturing the lips of the wound, and
applying an antiseptic surgical dressing or a plaster bandage similar
to that used in operating on broken knees in horses.[1] The animal
must be prevented from lying down until the wound has firmly
united.
1. See Dollar’s “A Surgical Operating Table for the Horse.” (London: Gay and
Bird.)
HYGROMA OF THE HAUNCH.
With the exception of hygroma of the knee, hygromas are

commoner on hind than on front limbs. That of the haunch is limited
to the external angle of the ilium. It follows violent falls or collisions
with door posts, and results from laceration of the layers of
subcutaneous connective tissue and separation of the skin from
subjacent parts.
The effusion is often of a sero-sanguinolent character. It is more
frequent in animals occupying narrow or irregularly shaped stalls,
the hygroma being developed through repeated collision of the angle
of the haunch with the wall. Finally, it may follow prolonged
decubitus.
Diagnosis is easy, but the prognosis has a certain element of
gravity, because, should suppuration occur, it may be succeeded by
necrosis of the aponeurosis inserted into the external angle of the
ilium.
Treatment should first be directed to removing the cause. Of the
various modes of intervention, the best probably consists in
disinfecting the parts, puncturing the swelling, and injecting some
irritant of an antiseptic character, or simply washing out the cavity.
Iodine and carbolic solutions are most commonly employed. Firing is
contra-indicated.
HYGROMA OF THE TROCHANTER OF THE FEMUR.
This condition is rare, except in thin milch cows kept under bad
hygienic conditions and insufficiently supplied with bedding.
Continual bruising of the prominences of the quarters whilst the
animal is lying is the usual cause.
This hygroma forms a hemispherical swelling covering the
trochanteric prominence. Movement is interfered with, and the
stride is shortened.
The condition can only be confused with the diffuse swellings due
to periarthritis in the coxo-femoral region, which frequently occur in
cows suffering from infectious pseudo-rheumatism.
The prognosis is somewhat grave, for in case of suppuration the
insertions of tendons and fascia into the summit of the trochanter
may become necrotic.
Treatment. The first point is to supply the animal with ample
clean bedding. The swelling may be repeatedly blistered. If
considered necessary, a puncture may be made under antiseptic
precautions, the fluid drawn off, and the cavity washed out; but it is
better to avoid opening the parts with a bistoury, on account of the
danger of suppuration and of necrosis of the tendons and
aponeurotic tissues in the neighbourhood.
HYGROMA OF THE STIFLE.
Hygroma of the stifle or of the patella appears under the skin,

outside the external ligament of the femoro-tibial articulation. It
usually follows repeated abrasion when lying down, especially if the
paving of the stalls is rough or irregular.
The swelling varies in size from a hen’s egg up to that of a child’s
head, and exhibits fluctuation throughout.
The prognosis is
somewhat serious, for here
again complications may
result from necrosis of
neighbouring aponeuroses.
Some authors recommend
passing a seton dressed with
some irritant material
through the swelling. Aseptic
puncture, however, seems
preferable, followed by
washing out of the cavity and
the application of a blister.
HYGROMA OF THE POINT OF

THE HOCK.
This hygroma usually

results from blows with the
ox-goad, which cause
inflammation of the
subcutaneous connective Fig. 27.—Capped hock.
tissue and œdematous
infiltration extending down
the leg. Afterwards the slightest injury, or even the friction due to the
animal lying down, causes liquid to collect and an hygroma to form.
Fig. 28.—Hygroma of the point of the sternum.
This hygroma is readily infected and often suppurates; it then

becomes very sensitive, producing intense lameness. More
frequently, however, under the influence of prompt treatment, the
liquid is absorbed, the layers of subcutaneous connective tissue
become hardened, and undergo more or less extensive induration.
HYGROMA OF THE POINT OF THE STERNUM.
Hygroma of the point of the sternum is a rarity. It only occurs in

thin animals in which the point of the sternum is prominent, and
which are confined to stables with rough floors and provided with
insufficient bedding.
The swelling should not be opened, for the tissues in front of the
sternum readily become the seat of suppuration.
If treatment is desirable, the fluid may be drained off by means of
an aseptic puncture.
CHAPTER IV.
DISEASES OF MUSCLES AND TENDONS.
RUPTURE OF THE EXTERNAL ISCHIO-TIBIAL MUSCLE (BICEPS

FEMORIS).
The biceps femoris muscle extends from the superior spinous

process of the sacrum to the region of the patella and the external
surface of the thigh. Above, it is inserted into the sacrum and the
posterior margin of the ischium, below into the supero-external
surface of the tibia. It completely covers the coxo-femoral
articulation, and its passage over the summit of the trochanter is
lubricated by a serous bursa. The whole of its anterior margin is
connected with the fascia lata by an aponeurotic expansion. From
varying causes this aponeurotic layer may become fissured; during
the backward and forward movements of the limb the summit of the
trochanter may enter the fissure and become fixed there by the
tension and resistance of neighbouring tissues. This accident has
been described as “displacement or rupture of the biceps femoris
muscle.”
According to Cruzel, fixation of the biceps femoris may occur, in
very thin animals, without rupture of the musculo-aponeurotic layer,
the process being then simply confined to stretching of the
aponeurotic layer over the summit of the trochanter. Under such
circumstances the musculo-aponeurotic layer presents a cup-like
depression, into which the summit of the trochanter fits, and thus
effectually prevents movement of the muscle.
Whether the accident is due to an actual fissure, or only to
stretching of the aponeurosis, the symptoms are the same.
Causes. The principal predisposing causes are thin condition and
malformation of the limbs (turning outward of the hind toes).
The accident may occasionally be caused by a slip backwards, or by
extreme efforts in draught when ascending hills.
Symptoms. Immediately the accident occurs the limb becomes
fixed in a position of maximal extension. The trochanter being
caught, the femur can no longer be flexed, and the lower joints are
also fixed in such a way that the limb can only be moved as a whole.
The claws are dragged along the ground, and the affected limb, which
can never be completely advanced, is brought forward with a mowing
movement.
On local examination, the trochanter appears to be very
prominent, and situated directly above a rigid cord which extends
parallel with the anterior margin of the affected muscle.
If the accident consists merely in the formation of a depression in
the muscle, in which the summit of the trochanter is fixed, and if
there is no fissuring, the muscle and the femur are certainly
immobilised, but the limb can be moved to a certain extent, the
“mowing” movement is less marked, and there is no well-defined
rigid cord along the anterior margin of the muscle.
Fig. 29.—Arrangement of the external ischio-tibialis

muscle. 1, Anterior margin of the muscle; 2, fascia lata.
Diagnosis. The condition can only be confused with luxation of
the patella; but manual examination of the affected parts revealing
the presence of a rigid cord below the trochanter at once removes
any doubt.
Prognosis. The prognosis is only grave in working animals.
Moreover, the accident is now much rarer than formerly, if only
because animals are better looked after and better fed.
Treatment. If the accident results simply from the formation of a
depression in the musculo-aponeurotic layer which replaces the
muscle at the point where it passes over the trochanter, there is
nothing to be done. Reduction will occur spontaneously, and entire
liberty of action will be regained. Cruzel states that it is sometimes
sufficient to force the animal to move down a slope, in order to
withdraw the trochanter from the depression in which it has been
lodged, and to restore its normal mobility.
Rest and good feeding favour the deposition of fat, and soon alter
the conditions responsible for the accident; the muscles of the
quarter become surrounded with fat, the external ischio-tibial
muscle (biceps femoris) is thrust outwards on account of its
superficial position, and then cannot be ruptured by the summit of
the trochanter. If, on the other hand, the musculo-aponeurotic layer
is fissured and the summit of the trochanter firmly fixed in the
opening, operation becomes necessary. This consists in incising the
anterior margin of the muscle over the afore-mentioned rigid cord.
The margins of the wound retract, the tension of the cord is
diminished, the trochanter released, and the normal play of the limb
restored.
Numerous methods of operation have been described and a
number of special instruments invented. The earlier methods
consisted in simple subcutaneous section of the rigid cord formed by
the musculo-aponeurotic layer and the muscle. Subcutaneous section
is carried out exactly like tenotomy, using straight and curved
tenotomes. The seat of operation is about three inches below the
summit of the trochanter. In the absence of tenotomes, section may
be performed with a bistoury introduced from below the muscle by
means of a grooved director, which has been inserted through a
cutaneous puncture made at the point indicated over the anterior
margin of the prominent cord.
In better nourished subjects, in which this cord is less prominent,
the operator may, to ensure greater accuracy, make a vertical
incision an inch or two in length at the point selected over the
anterior margin of the muscle, isolate this muscle by means of the
director, and afterwards perform the section. Considerable
hæmorrhage occasionally follows division of some small muscular
vessel, but is of no consequence unless the wound has been infected.
RUPTURE OF THE FLEXOR METATARSI.
The rupture of this tendon-muscle is exceptional, and, according

to the description given by Furlanetto, is attended by the same
symptoms as in the horse—i.e., flexion of the stifle joint is not
accompanied by flexion of the hock or of the metatarsus on the tibia.
The cannon bone hangs vertically when the limb is moved.
Recovery follows prolonged rest.
Wounds and sections of tendons in the region of the cannon bone,
sections of the tendo-Achillis, etc., have been seen and described. All
such injuries may heal under antiseptic treatment and after aseptic
suture of the divided ends, provided the sutures and dressings are
applied immediately. If, on the other hand, suppuration, infection,
necrosis of tendons, synovitis or arthritis occur as complications,
such injuries become extremely serious, and from an economic
standpoint render it better to sacrifice the animal rather than
attempt treatment.
Strains of tendons and tendinitis occur in the front limbs of oxen,

particularly of those used in carts. The chief indications are swelling
in the region of the cannon bone and fetlock, uneven contour of the
flexor tendons, sensibility on pressure, and lameness of varying
intensity.
Treatment consists in continuous cold irrigation, massage, the
application of a blister or even of the actual cautery. As a rule,
however, it is better to rest and fatten the animal.
A frequent complication of such injuries of tendons consists in
knuckling over at the fetlock.
PARASITIC DISEASES OF MUSCLES.
INFECTION WITH CYSTICERCI.
Infection of the connective and muscular tissues with cysticerci

results from the entry into the body of embryos of Tænia solium and
Tænia saginata of man. It occurs in man and almost all animals, but
is only of grave clinical importance in the pig and ox.
The following table shows the chief cystic (cestode) parasites of
animals, though the cysts are not always confined to muscular
structures:—
Adult. Larva.
Name. Host. Name. Host.
Tænia saginata Man Cysticercus bovis Cattle.
Tænia solium Man Cysticercus cellulosæ Swine and man.
Tænia
Dogs Cysticercus tenuicollis Cattle, sheep, and swine.
marginata
Tænia cœnurus Dogs Cœnurus cerebralis Cattle and sheep.
Tænia Echinococcus Cattle, sheep, swine, man,
Dogs
echinococcus polymorphus etc.
CYSTICERCUS DISEASE OF THE PIG.
This disease of the pig is due to Cysticercus cellulosæ, the cystic

form of the Tænia solium or Tænia armata of man. As a disease of
the pig it has been recognised from the most ancient times, and is
stated to be the cause of Moses and Mohammed having prohibited
the consumption of pork by their disciples. In the Middle Ages it
formed the subject of legislation. It was, however, only when the
investigations of Van Beneden and Kuchenmeister had completed
those of the zoologists of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
that the evolution of tæniæ became well known and the importance
of the cystic phase clearly established.

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Psychological Testing: Principles,

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Robert M. Kaplan Dennis P. Saccuzzo

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2 Norms and Basic Statistics for Testing 23

3 Correlation and Regression 63

Spearman’s Early Studies 101

6 Writing and Evaluating Test Items 159

7 Test Administration 187

9 Theories of Intelligence and the Binet Scales 225

10 The Wechsler Intelligence Scales: WAIS-IV,

Evaluation of the Wechsler Adult Scales 263

11 Tests for Infants, Disabilities, and Special

12 Standardized Tests in Education, Civil Service,

Miller Analogies Test 318

13 Applications in Clinical and Counseling

Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R) 364

14 Projective Personality Tests 371

15 Computers and Basic Psychological Science

Internet Usage for Psychological Testing 419

16 Testing in Counseling Psychology 425

17 Testing in Health Psychology and Health Care 443

18 Testing in Industrial and Business

20 Testing and the Law 547

Federal Initiatives in Education 555

21 The Future of Psychological Testing 587

APPENDIX 1 Areas of a Standard Normal Distribution 603

FIGURE 12.2 A sample student profile from the ACT 313

FIGURE 12.3 GRE verbal ability sample items 315

FIGURE 12.4 GRE quantitative ability sample items 317

FIGURE 12.5 MAT sample items 319

FIGURE 13.2 An MMPI profile sheet 337

FIGURE 13.3 An MMPI-2 profile sheet 344

FIGURE 13.4 Jackson Personality Inventory profile sheet 356

FIGURE 13.5 NEO Personality Inventory profile sheet 360

TABLE 14.1 Summary of Rorschach scoring 381

Focused Example 14.2 

Sentence completion tasks 396

FIGURE 18.2 Sample questions from the Wonderlic 503

FIGURE 19.8 Sample SOMPA profile 525

TABLE 20.1 Examples of items from a minimum competence test 569

Increased Emphasis on Application

Organization of the Ninth Edition:

MindTap for Kaplan and Saccuzzo’s

Supplements Beyond Compare

Instructor’s Resource Manual and Test Bank

ROBERT M. KAPLAN has served as Chief Science Officer at the US Agency

Medicine at UCLA, where he led the UCLA/RAND AHRQ health services

DENNIS P. SACCUZZO is a professor emeritus at San Diego State Univer-

A result of global warming is that ice of some glaciers is melting.

FIGURE 1.1 International Mathematical Literacy

d 5 7.0 3 the square root of 116212 mm2

Focused Example 14.2