Climate Resilient Villages1

CHAPTER FOUR
Climate Resilient Villages for

Sustainable Food Security in
Tropical India: Concept, Process,
Technologies, Institutions, and
Impacts
Ch. Srinivasa Rao*,1, K.A. Gopinath*, J.V.N.S. Prasad*, Prasannakumar*,
A.K. Singh**
*
ICAR-Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
**
Agricultural Extension Division, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India
1
Corresponding author. E-mail address: cherukumalli2011@gmail.com
Contents
1. Introduction 104
1.1 Food Production 105
1.2 Food Demand 106
1.3 Food Security and Climate Change 107
2. Climate Change Scenario 111
2.1 Microlevel Assessment of Vulnerability to Climate Change and Variability 114
3. Climate Resilient Villages 126
3.1 Concept of Climate Resilient Village 126
3.2 Process of Development of CRVs 127
3.3 Innovative Institutional Setup in CRVs and Their Roles 133
3.4 Technological Modules of CRVs 138
3.5 Impacts of Climate Resilient Interventions 157
3.6 Supporting Systems Toward Climate Resilient Villages 192
4. Government Policy and Support 198
5. Conclusions 201
6. Way Forward 202
Acknowledgments 204
Annexure I. List of Crops and their Scientific Names 204
Annexure II. List of Acronyms 205
References 206
Advances in Agronomy, Volume 140

ISSN 0065-2113 © 2016 Elsevier Inc.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/bs.agron.2016.06.003 All rights reserved. 101
102 Ch. Srinivasa Rao et al.
Abstract
The world population is expected to increase by a further three billion by 2050 and
90% of the three billion will be from developing countries that rely on existing land,
water, and ecology for food and well-being of human kind. The Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in its fifth assessment report (AR5) stated that warm-
ing of the climate system is unequivocal and is more pronounced since the 1950s. The
atmosphere and oceans have warmed, the amounts of snow and ice have diminished,
and sea level has risen. Each of the last three decades has been successively warmer at
the earth’s surface than any preceding decade since 1850 and the globally averaged
combined land and ocean surface temperature data as calculated by a linear trend
show a warming of 0.85°C (0.65–1.06°C) over the period of 1880–2012. World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) ranked 2015 as the hottest year on record.
Climate change poses many challenges to growth and development in South
Asia. The Indian agriculture production system faces the daunting task of feeding
17.5% of the global population with only 2.4% of land and 4% of water resources at its
disposal. India is more vulnerable to climate change in view of the dependence of
huge population on agriculture, excessive pressure on natural resources, and rela-
tively weak coping mechanisms. The warming trend in India over the past 100 years
has indicated an increase of 0.6°C, which is likely to impact many crops, negatively
impacting food and livelihood security of millions of farmers. There are already
evidences of negative impacts on yield of wheat and paddy in some parts of India
due to increased temperature, water stress, and reduction in number of rainy days.
Significant negative impacts have been projected under medium-term (2020–39)
climate change scenario, for example, yield reduction by 4.5–9%, depending on
the magnitude and distribution of warming. Since agriculture currently contributes
about 15% of India’s gross domestic product (GDP), a negative impact on production
implies cost of climate change to roughly range from 0.7% to 1.35% of GDP per year.
Indian agriculture, with 80% of farmers being smallholders (<0.5 ha) having
diverse socioeconomic backgrounds, is monsoon-dependent rainfed agriculture
(58%), about 30% of population undernourished, migration from rural to urban
regions, child malnutrition etc., has become more vulnerable with changed climate
or variability situations. During the past decade, frequency of droughts, cyclone,
and hailstorms increased, with 2002, 2004, 2009, 2012, and 2014 being severe
droughts. Frequent cyclones and severe hailstorms in drought prone areas have
become common. Eastern part of the country is affected by seawater intrusion.
Reduced food grain productivity, loss to vegetable and fruit crops, fodder scarcity,
shortage of drinking water to animals during summer, forced migration of animals,
severe loss to poultry and fishery sectors were registered, threatening the livelihoods
of rural poor.
Enhancing agricultural productivity, therefore, is critical for ensuring food and
nutritional security for all, particularly the resource-poor, small, and marginal farmers
who would be the most affected. In the absence of planned adaptation, the con-
sequences of long-term climate change on the livelihood security of the poor could
be severe. In India, the estimated countrywide agricultural loss in 2030 is expected to
be over $7 billion that will severely affect the income of at least 10% of the population.
Climate Resilient Villages for Sustainable Food Security 103
However, this could be reduced by 80%, if cost-effective climate resilient measures are
implemented.
Climate risks are best addressed through increasing adaptive capacity and building
resilience which can bring immediate benefits and can also reduce the adverse impacts
of climate change. Climate resilient agriculture (CRA) encompasses the incorporation of
adaptation and resilient practices in agriculture which increases the capacity of the
system to respond to various climate-related disturbances by resisting damage and
ensures quick recovery. Such disturbances include events such as drought, flood,
heat/cold wave, erratic rainfall pattern, pest outbreaks, and other threats caused by
changing climate. Resilience is the ability of the system to bounce back and essentially
involves judicious and improved management of natural resources, land, water, soil, and
genetic resources through adoption of best bet practices.
CRA is a way to achieve short- and long-term agricultural development priorities
in the face of climate change and serves as a bridge to other development priorities. It
seeks to support countries and other actors in securing the necessary policy, technical
and financial conditions to enable them to: (1) sustainably increase agricultural pro-
ductivity and incomes in order to meet national food security and development goals,
(2) build resilience and the capacity of agricultural and food systems to adapt to
climate change, and (3) seek opportunities to mitigate emissions of greenhouse gases
(GHGs) and increase carbon sequestration. These three conditions (food security,
adaptation, and mitigation) are referred to as the “triple win” of overall CRA.
The concept of climate resilient village (CRV) has been taken up by Government of
India, to provide stability to farm productivity and household incomes and resilience
through livelihood diversification in the face of extreme climatic events like droughts,
cyclones, floods, hailstorms, heat wave, frost, and seawater inundation. Development
of CRVs warrants establishment of a host of enabling mechanisms to mobilize and
empower communities in the decision-making process to manage and recover from
climate risks.
The overall program of establishing CRVs have structured village level institutions
such as Village Climate Risk Management Committee (VCRMC), custom hiring center
(CHC) for farm implements, community seed and fodder banks, commodity groups
etc. The establishment of CRVs was based on bottom-up approach with village
community taking a central role in decision making on institutional requirements,
technological interventions and supporting systems with able support from experts. In
our knowledge, the CRV network of National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture
(NICRA) is by far the largest outreach program involving farmer’s participation ever
undertaken in the field of climate change adaptation anywhere in the world.
Planning, coordination, monitoring, and capacity building of the program at the
country level is the responsibility of the research organization (ICAR-Central Research
Institute for Dryland Agriculture). At the district level, Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK; Farm
Science Centre) under the Division of Agricultural Extension under Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR), All India Coordinated Research Project for Dryland
Agriculture (AICRPDA) centers and Transfer of Technology divisions of various ICAR
Institutions across the country are responsible in implementing the project at village
level through farmers’ participatory approach.
To address the climate vulnerabilities of the selected villages, different interven-

tions were planned under the four modules; however, the specific intervention under
each module for a particular village was need based and decided based on climatic
vulnerability and resource situation of the particular village. The four intervention
modules being implemented are (1) Natural resource management (in situ moisture
conservation, biomass mulching, residue recycling, manure management, soil health
card–based nutrient application, water harvesting and recycling for supplementary or
life saving irrigation, improved drainage in high rainfall/flood prone villages, conser-
vation tillage, and water saving irrigation methods). (2) Crop production module
consisting of introduction of short-duration and drought/flood-tolerant varieties,
modifications in planting dates for postrainy (winter) season crops to cope with
terminal heat stress, water saving paddy systems (System of Rice Intensification,
aerobic, direct seeding), frost management in fruit/vegetables, community nursery
in staggered dates to meet delay in onset of monsoon, energy-efficient farm machin-
ery through village CHC with timely completion of farm operation in limited sowing
window, location specific intercropping systems, and suitable agroforestry systems. (3)
Module III covers livestock and fisheries interventions through augmentation of fodder
production, fodder storage methods, prophylaxis, and improved shelters for reducing
heat stress in livestock, management of fish ponds/tanks during water scarcity and
excess water, and promotion of livestock as climate adaptation strategy. (4) Module IV
consists of village level institutions, collective marketing groups, introduction of
weather-based insurance, and climate literacy though establishment of automated
weather stations.
Impacts of these climate resilient interventions in the villages were assessed
through various resilience indicators, importantly, improved farm productivity, farm
income, livelihoods at household and village level. Environmental impacts were
assessed on improved soil carbon sequestration, groundwater recharge, vegetation
and forest cover, and measurements of GHG emissions which were correlated with ex
ante assessment of village level carbon balance and overall contribution to global
warming potential.
These 151 CRVs are learning sites for further expanding resilient villages to adjoining
clusters and districts so that large number of villages will become part of the overall
adaptation-led climate change mitigation mission in the country.
1. INTRODUCTION
India accounts for about 2.3% of world’s geographical area and 4.2% of
its water resources but has to support almost 18% of world’s human popu-
lation and 15% of the livestock. Agriculture remains the most important
sector of Indian economy with 18% share in gross domestic product (GDP) at
2011–12 prices, 11% of exports and 53.3% share in total employment or
workforce in 2013–14. As per the Agriculture Census 2010–11, the total
100
Marginal Small
Number of holders (million) 90
80 Semi medium Medium
70 Large
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 7 1 6 1 6 1 6 1
–7 –7 –8 –8 –9 –9 –0 –0 –1
70 76 80 85 90 95 00 05 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20
Figure 1 Number of operational holdings in India. Adapted from GOI (2014).
number of operational holdings in the country has almost doubled from

71.01 million in 1970–71 to 138.35 million in 2010–11 (Fig. 1). During the
same period, the average size of operational holding has declined to 1.15 ha
from 2.28 ha in 1970–71 (GOI, 2014). The small and marginal holdings
taken together (below 2.0 ha) constituted 85.01% with operated area of
44.58% in 2010–11 against 83.29% with 41.14% of operated area in
2005–06.
1.1 Food Production

The country’s production of cereals is next only to China and USA. Among
the important cereals, India is the second largest producer globally of rice and
wheat, and the top producer of pulses. India is also the largest producer of
milk and second largest producer of groundnut, vegetables, fruits, sugarcane,
and cotton. As per the fourth advance estimates for 2013–14, total food
grain production in India has been estimated at 264.77 Mt (DAC, 2015).
Total production of pulses and oilseeds estimated at record levels of 19.27
and 32.88 Mt, respectively. Total production of rice in the country is esti-
mated at 106.54 Mt which is a new record, higher by 1.30 Mt than the
production of rice during 2012–13. Production of wheat, estimated at
record level of 95.91 Mt is also higher than the production of 93.51 Mt
during 2012–13. The production of coarse cereals is estimated at 43.05 Mt.
Similarly, the production of milk (137.7 Mt), eggs (73.4 billion nos.),
and wool (47.9 million kg) was also higher during 2013–14 compared to
previous years.
1.2 Food Demand

Long-term trends in household-level consumption patterns show that
per capita direct consumption of food grains has been declining and of
livestock products, fruits, and vegetables has been increasing for a fairly
long time (Kumar et al., 2007; Mittal, 2007; Chand, 2009). Despite
this shift, food grains are of paramount importance for household
food and nutritional security because cereals and pulses are staple foods
and the cheapest sources of energy and protein for low-income groups,
and the requirement as livestock feed is growing rapidly as the demand
for animal products is increasing rapidly. Any slackness toward their
production translates into persistent price rise with adverse impact
on the nutritional levels of common people (Venkateswarlu and
Prasad, 2012).
The consumption pattern of food grains, which contribute to major
nutritional intake, is decreasing; it was 64% during the base year 2000, and
may decrease to 57 and 48% during the projected years of 2025 and 2050,
respectively (Amarasinghe et al., 2007). Contributions from nongrain crops
and other animal products are increasing. The contribution from nongrain
crops was 28% during 2000, and is projected to be 33 and 36% during 2025
and 2050, respectively. Contribution from other animal products was 8%
during 2000, and is projected to increase to 12 and 16% during 2025 and
2050, respectively. Taking these trends into consideration the total food
grain demand is estimated to be 291 Mt by 2025 and 377 Mt by 2050,
whereas the total production is estimated to be 292 Mt by 2025 and 385 Mt
by 2050, which is 2.0% more than the demand. However, production
deficits are projected for other cereals, oilseeds, and pulses. The projected
deficit is 33 and 3% in 2025 and 43 and 7% in 2050 for other cereals and
pulses, respectively. Another study by Singh (2009) found that the food
consumption levels in India will increase from the current level of
2400 kcal/capita per day to about 3000 kcal/capita per day in 2050 and
the demand for cereals will rise to 243 Mt in 2050. The rainfed crop yields
are expected to increase to 1.8 t/ha in 2030 and 2.0 t/ha in 2050. The
irrigated cereal yields are projected to increase from 3.5 to 4.6 t/ha during
the same period. The cereal production in India is thus projected to
increase by 0.9% per year between 1999–2001 and 2050, and is expected
to exceed the demand by 2050 even if the projected growth is about 0.9%
per year. The projected food demand made by several studies is given
in Table 1.
Table 1 Food demand projections of different studies for India.

Total Food
Source of study Year Rice Wheat cereals Pulses grains
Bansil (1996) 2020 — — — — 241.4
Kumar (1998) 2020 134.0 127.3 309.0 — —
Paroda and Kumar 2020 111.9 79.9 229.0 23.8 252.8
(2000)
Radhakrishna and 2020 118.9 92.4 221.1 19.5 240.6
Reddy (2004)
Mittal (2008) 2021 96.8 64.3 245.1 42.5 287.6
2026 102.1 65.9 277.2 57.7 334.9
Kumar et al. (2009) 2021–22 113.3 89.5 233.6 19.5 253.2
Amarasinghe and 2025 109 91 273 18 291.0
Singh (2009) 2050 117 102 356 21 377.0
Singh (2013) 2020 106.7 85.7 220.0 23.2 243.2
Source: Compiled from different sources.
1.3 Food Security and Climate Change

The concept of food security has been undergoing an evolutionary change
during the last 50 years. In the 1950s, food security was considered essentially
in terms of production. More recently, it is becoming evident that even if
availability and access are satisfactory, the biological absorption of food in the
body is related to the consumption of clean drinking water as well as
to environmental hygiene, primary health care, and primary education.
Finally, even if physical and economic access to food is assured, ecological
factors will determine the long-term sustainability of food security systems
(Swaminathan, 2001). The Asia-Pacific region has achieved the Millennium
Development Goals’ hunger target (MDG-1c) of halving the proportion of
undernourished people in 2015. The region has also achieved the largest
reduction in the absolute number of undernourished people (236 million).
However, this was not sufficient to meet the target set by the World Food
Summit of halving the number of undernourished people by 2015
(FAO, 2015). There are large disparities among subregions and countries
in the region. India still has the second-highest estimated number of under-
nourished people in the world. The number of undernourished people in
India is 194.6 (15.2%) million during 2014–16 compared to 210.1 million
(23.7%) during 1990–92; “Global Hunger Index-2015” released by
International Food Policy Research Institute ranks India at 25 with a score
of 29 among 117 countries. About 54% of pregnant women suffer from
anemia in India. The prevalence of vitamin A deficiency in the population

is also very high in India (62% in 2003). The Indian Government has
been responding with a number of measures to overcome hunger and
malnutrition.
India’s Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) is an example of a
food price subsidy that reached about 45% of the population in 2010–11 and
was expected to reach about two-thirds of the population (75% of the rural
and half the urban population) from 2013. The TPDS has had a strong
poverty-reducing impact: the poverty headcount rate in 2009–10 would
have been 4.6 percentage points higher in the absence of the TPDS and
the midday school meal (Himanshu and Sen, 2013). India enacted the
National Food Security Act in 2013, which is one of the largest social safety
net programs in the world. It seeks to “provide food and nutritional security
by ensuring access to adequate quantity of quality food at affordable prices to
people.” The act entitles two-thirds of India’s total population of 1.25 billion
to 5 kg of rice, wheat, or coarse cereals per person per month at the highly
subsidized price of Rs. 1–3 (US $0.015–$0.045) per kilogram.
Agricultural production in India is closely linked to the performance of
summer monsoon (June–September) which contributes about 75% of the
annual precipitation (Fig. 2). Apart from the interannual variability in sum-
mer monsoon rainfall, occurrence of many of the hydrometeorological
events is found to influence Indian agriculture at different spatial scales.
Apart from the summer monsoon rainfall, India receives about 15% of
Monsoon rainfall deviation Kharif food grains production deviation

150 21
Deviation in food grains production (Mt)
100 14
Deviation in rainfall (mm)
7
50
0
0
–7
–50
–14
–100
–21
–150 –28
–200 –35
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Figure 2 Monsoon rainfall versus deviation in food grain production during kharif
(rainy season) during different years. Compiled by authors.
annual precipitation during the winter months of December–March. This

precipitation is very important for rabi (winter) crops. Though rainfall and
its distribution have profound influence on the Indian food grain produc-
tion, other climatic elements like radiation and temperature are also exerting
considerable effect. Changes in many components in the climate system
including floods, cyclones, heat wave, hailstorms, etc. also have been
observed. Projected climate change may exacerbate the extreme climatic
events and aggravate the risks of drought, flooding, pest infestation, and
water scarcity to agroecosystems already under great stress (Beddington
et al., 2012). Climate change may affect food systems in several ways
(Gregory et al., 2005), although not all effects of climate change may be
adverse to agronomic/food production (Lal, 2013).
In spite of the uncertainties about the precise magnitude of climate
change at regional scales, an assessment of the possible impacts of changes
in key climatic elements on agricultural resources is important for formu-
lating response strategies (Rajeevan, 2013). Climate change may affect agri-
cultural crops in four ways (Hulme, 1996). First, changes in temperature and
precipitation will alter the distribution of agroecological zones. An increase
in potential evapotranspiration is likely to intensify drought stress, especially
in the semiarid tropics and subtropics. Second, carbon dioxide effects are
expected to have a positive impact due to greater water use efficiency and
higher rate of photosynthesis. Third, water availability (or runoff) is another
critical factor in determining the impact of climate change. Fourth, agricul-
tural losses can result from climatic variability and the increased frequency of
extreme events such as droughts and floods or changes in precipitation and
temperature variance.
Estimating the effect of a changing climate on crop production in India is
difficult due to the variety of cropping systems and levels of technology used
(Mall et al., 2006). Several crop models including DSSAT series, ORYZA,
WTGROWS, INFOCROP, and INFOCANE have been used in large
number of studies to evaluate the impacts of changes in CO2, rainfall, and
temperature on agriculture in India. The predicted changes to agriculture
vary greatly by region and crop. The increases in temperature (by about 2°C)
are predicted to reduce potential grain yields of wheat in most places.
Regions with higher potential productivity (such as northern India) are
likely to be relatively less impacted by climate change than areas with lower
potential productivity. Climate change is also predicted to lead to boundary
changes in areas suitable for growing certain crops. Reductions in yields as a
result of climate change are predicted to be more pronounced for rainfed
crops (as opposed to irrigated crops) and under limited water supply situa-
tions because there are few coping mechanisms for rainfall variability. Rice
production in eastern regions is predicted to be most impacted by increased
temperatures and decreased radiation, resulting in relatively fewer grains and
shorter grain filling durations. By contrast, potential reductions in yields due
to increased temperatures in northern India are predicted to be offset by
higher radiation, lessening the impacts of climate change. Although addi-
tional CO2 can benefit crops, this effect is predicted to be nullified by an
increase of temperature.
Birthal et al. (2014) projected the effects of climate change on crop
yields for three timescales (2035, 2065, and 2100) at minimum and max-
imum changes in temperature and rainfall. In general, the production of
pulses will be affected more by climate change than other crops. By the year
2100, with a significant change in climate, the yield of chick pea and
pigeon pea will be lower by around 25% vis-a-vis without climate change
(Table 2). The climate impacts on cereals will vary widely in rainy season as
well as winter seasons. In the winter season, wheat yield will be less by
about 22%, almost 3 times that of barley. Similarly, among rainy season
cereals, rice will be affected more than maize and sorghum by the climate
change. Rice yield will decline by over 15% with significant changes in
climate as compared to loss of 7% in sorghum and of 4% in maize.
Groundnut also stands to lose, but rapeseed-mustard is likely to gain by a
Table 2 Projected changes in crop yields (%) at maximum changes in temperature and
rainfall by 2035, 2065, and 2100.
Crop 2035 2065 2100
Rainy season
Rice 7.1 11.5 15.4
Maize 1.2 3.7 4.2
Sorghum 3.3 5.3 7.1
Pigeon pea 10.1 17.7 23.3
Groundnut 5.6 8.6 11.8
Winter season
Wheat 8.3 15.4 22.0
Barley 2.5 4.7 6.8
Chick pea 10.0 18.6 26.2
Rapeseed-mustard 0.3 0.7 0.5
Maximum changes in temperature and rainfall are 1.3°C and 7% by 2035, 2.5°C and 26% by 2065, and
3.5°C and 27% by 2100, respectively.
Source: Adapted from Birthal et al. (2014).
small margin. If the climate does not change significantly, yield losses will
be much smaller. However, the climate impacts will not be so severe in the
short-run (2035).
The direct impacts of climate change would be small on rainy season crops
but the crops will become vulnerable due to increased incidence of weather
extremes such as changes in rainy days, rainfall intensity, duration and fre-
quency of drought and floods, diurnal asymmetry of temperature, change in
humidity, and pest incidence and virulence. Winter crop production may
become comparatively more vulnerable due to larger increase in temperature,
asymmetry of day and night temperature, and higher uncertainties in rainfall
(Rajeevan, 2013). The effects of climate change on food production are not
limited to crops. It will affect food production and food security via its direct
or indirect impact on other components of the agricultural production
systems, especially livestock production which is closely linked with crop
production. Livestock in India are raised under mixed crop–livestock systems
deriving a substantial share of their energy requirements from crop by-pro-
ducts and residues. Any decline in crop area or production will reduce fodder
supplies. Heat stress on animals will reduce rate of feed intake. The higher
temperatures and changing rainfall patterns may cause increased spread of
the existing vector-borne diseases and macroparasites, alter disease pattern,
give rise to new diseases, and affect reproduction behavior. All these factors
will affect performance of the livestock (Birthal et al., 2014).
By 2065, India’s population is likely to cross 1.7 billion mark demanding
more and diversified foods. With climate change, ensuring food security
with more food production under limited resources will be a big challenge. It
is, however, possible for farmers and other stakeholders to adapt to climate
change and reduce the losses. Simple adaptations, such as change in crop
variety, planting dates, rainwater conservation, adoption of resilient inter-
cropping systems, particularly in rainfed areas could help in reducing impacts
of climate change. For example, losses in wheat production can be reduced
from 4–5 to 1–2 Mt, if a large percentage of farmers could change to timely
planting (Aggarwal, 2008).
2. CLIMATE CHANGE SCENARIO
Climate change projections are associated with a range of limitations

and uncertainties, driven mainly by the model and scenario uncertainties.
Further, climate projections are generally more reliable at the global scale
than at smaller regional scales (Taylor et al., 2012). However, several

researchers have made climate projections for India using different climate
models (Bhaskaran et al., 1995; Lal et al., 1995, 2001; Rupa Kumar et al.,
2003; Kumar et al., 2011; Chaturvedi et al., 2012; Garg et al., 2015).
The UKMO GCM model (Bhaskaran et al., 1995) predicts a total
precipitation increase of approximately 20% and increase in winter or rabi
crop season temperature by 1–4°C with doubling of CO2 concentration.
The model also predicts a greater number of heavy rainfall days during the
summer monsoon or kharif period, and an increased interannual variability.
Lal et al. (2001) projected between 1–1.4 and 2.23–2.87°C area-averaged
annual mean warming by 2020 and 2050, respectively. Rupa Kumar and
Ashrit (2001) have projected 13% increase in monsoon or kharif season
rainfall in India using ECHAM4 model, while HadCM2 suggests reduc-
tion in kharif rainfall by 6%. However, both GCMs suggest an increase in
annual mean temperature by more than 1°C (1.3°C in ECHAM4 and
1.7°C HadCM2). Kumar et al. (2011), using CMIP3 multimodel data,
reported that monsoon seasonal rainfall over India in the latter half of the
21st century may not be different in abundance to that experienced at
present. However, their intensity and duration of wet and dry spells may
change appreciably. On the other hand, the near term future would witness
substantial increases in both day and night temperatures and increase
in frequency and intensity of extremes. These temperature changes are
likely to trigger abrupt responses in agricultural productivity and human
mortality.
Representative concentration pathways (RCP)-based climate projec-
tions are now available from a number of climate models under the
CMIP5 experiment. CMIP5 models are generally of higher resolution
compared to their CMIP3 counterparts (Stouffer et al., 2011). Chaturvedi
et al. (2012) made climate projections for India using 18 CMIP5 coupled
models. The range of temperature increase for all the RCPs by 2099 com-
pared to the preindustrial period (1880s, i.e., climatology over the period
1861–1900) is 1–8°C, while this range comes down to 0.5–7°C as the
reference period shifts to 1961–90. Under RCP 2.6 the mean temperature
increases by approximately 2°C over the period 1880s to 2070–99, and
4.8°C for RCP 8.5. For RCP 4.5 and RCP 6.0, which represent the
moderate scenarios, the projected increase in temperature ranges from 2.9
to 3.3°C (Fig. 3). Similarly, the projected all-India ensemble-mean annual
precipitation is 7, 9.4, 9.4, and 18.7% for RCP 2.6, RCP 4.5, RCP 6.0, and
RCP 8.5, respectively, by 2099 compared to the 1961–90 baseline (Fig. 3).
Temperature change since 1861 Precipitation change since 1861

8.0
RCP 2.6 RCP 2.6
8.0
India temperature change(°C)
RCP 4.5 RCP 4.5
India precipitation change(%)

RCP 6.0 6.0 RCP 6.0
RCP 8.5 RCP 8.5
6.0 Historical Historical
CRU 4.0 CRU
4.0
2.0
2.0 0
0.0 –20
–2.0 –4.0
1880 1920 1960 2000 2040 2080 1880 1920 1960 2000 2040 2080
Figure 3 CMIP5 model-based time series of temperature and precipitation anomalies

(historical and projections) from 1861 to 2099 relative to the 1961–90 baseline for the
RCP scenarios. Chaturvedi et al. (2012).
However, all-India precipitation projections have larger uncertainties as

evident from the large spread of the precipitation change projections in
Fig. 3, which ranges from –20% to 60% toward the end of the century.
Studies based on the observed precipitation records of India
Meteorological Department (IMD) have shown that the occurrence of
extreme precipitation events and their variability has already gone up in
many parts of India (Goswami et al., 2006; Ghosh et al., 2012). Chaturvedi
et al. (2012) projected consistently increasing trends in frequency of
extreme precipitation days (e.g., >40 mm/day) for decades 2060s and
beyond (Fig. 4). The decline in heavy rainfall events in the 2050s is likely
related to circulation changes on decadal variability in the model.
The percentage area in India that is projected to experience above 2°C
change between 2016 and 2099 was estimated for all the RCPs using the data
from the CMIP5 models (Garg et al., 2015). Under the RCP 4.5 scenario,
which is the most representative scenario, about 10% of the country is
projected to witness more than 2°C increase in air temperature by 2035.
Moreover, under the RCP 8.5 scenario, 35% of the country is projected to
experience rise of more than 2°C in air temperature. Mean annual temper-
ature is projected to increase by 1–1.5°C under all the RCPs in the near
(2016–45) term climate. However, based on multimodel ensemble mean
projections, mean annual temperature is projected to increase between 1.8
and 3.0°C in the midterm climate (2046–75). Multimodel ensemble mean
monsoon season precipitation is projected to increase by 10–15% under near
Change in number of days with rainfall greater than threshold (%)

80
2091
2081
Change in the number of days over 1861–70 (%)
2071
2061
60 2051
2041
2031
2021
2011
40
20
–20
–40
–60
0 20 40 60 80 100
Threshold rainfall (mm)
Figure 4 Projected change in the frequency of extreme rainfall days for future decades
relative to the 1861–70 baseline based on the MIROC-ESM-CHEM model for RCP 4.5
scenario. Chaturvedi et al. (2012).
and midterm climate in most of the RCPs. However, under the RCP 4.5
scenario, the monsoon season precipitation is projected to decline in the near
(2016–45) term climate especially in the Central India.
2.1 Microlevel Assessment of Vulnerability to Climate Change

and Variability
Climate change projections made for India indicate an overall increase
in temperature by 1–4°C and precipitation by 9–16% toward 2050s
(Krishna Kumar et al., 2011). However, different regions are expected to
experience differential change in the amount of rainfall that is likely to be
received in the coming decades. Another significant aspect of climate change
is the increase in the frequency of occurrence of extreme events such as
droughts, floods, and cyclones. All of these expected changes will have
adverse impacts on climate sensitive sectors such as agriculture, forest, and
coastal ecosystems and also on availability of water for different uses and on
human health. Historical trends also show a noticeable increase in mean
temperature in the country though there is no discernible trend in the rainfall

during the last several decades. However, regional variation in behavior of
monsoon rainfall was observed over the years. Vulnerability to climate
change varies across regions, sectors, and social groups. To develop and target
appropriate adaptation measures, it is important to identify regions that are
more vulnerable to climate change and variability (Rama Rao et al., 2013).
In the context of climate change and agriculture, vulnerability refers to
the propensity of the entity to face a climate shock and suffer loss in pro-
duction and/or income from agriculture, though the latter is not always
specified explicitly (Kavi Kumar et al., 2007). Vulnerability is essentially an ex
ante concept and refers to the possibility of being hit or propensity to be
harmed by a stress or shock (Ionescu et al., 2008). The vulnerability assess-
ment of 572 rural districts in India was carried out by Rama Rao et al. (2013),
as per the definition of vulnerability given by Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC). At present, many districts in states of Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Karnataka and some districts in Andhra Pradesh,
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Uttarakhand, and Jharkhand exhibit high and very
high vulnerability. Most districts along the eastern and western coast, north-
eastern states are less vulnerable (Fig. 5A). By midcentury (2021–50), dis-
tricts in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, eastern Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar exhibit very
high and high vulnerability. Districts along the west coast, northern Andhra
Pradesh, and northeastern states are relatively less vulnerable (Fig. 5B).
Toward end of the century (2071–98), almost all districts in Rajasthan and
many districts in Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Karnataka and a few districts in
Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, and Andhra Pradesh exhibit very high vulnerability. A major-
ity of districts with low and very low vulnerability are located along the west
coast and southern and eastern parts of the country (Fig. 5C).
2.1.1 Droughts
Drought has been a recurring feature of agriculture in India. During the
period 1900–2014, the number of occasions in which large Indian popula-
tion got affected from drought was more than any other natural disaster. In
the past, India experienced 24 large-scale droughts with increasing frequen-
cies during the periods 1891–1920, 1965–90, and 1999–2012. Long-term
rainfall data for India indicate that rainfed areas experience 3–4 drought years
in every 10-year period. Of these, two to three are in moderate and one or
two may be of severe intensity. Occurrence of drought is very frequent in the
(A) (B)
km
km 0 100200 400 600
0 100200 400 600
Vulnerability Index Vulnerability Index

Very Low Very Low
Low Low
Medium Medium
High High
Very High Very High
Copyright @ 2013 CRIDA (ICAR) Copyright @ 2013 CRIDA (ICAR)
N
(C)
km
0 100200 400 600
Vulnerability Index
Very Low
Low
Medium
High
Very High
Copyright @ 2013 CRIDA (ICAR)
Figure 5 District-level vulnerability of Indian agriculture to climate change, (A) present,

(B) midcentury (2021–50), and (C) end of the century (2071–98). Rama Rao et al. (2013).
meteorological subdivisions like West Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Jammu and

Kashmir, and Telangana (Table 3; NRAA, 2013). The risk involved in
successful cultivation of crops depends on the nature of drought (chronic
and contingent), its duration, and frequency of occurrence within the season.
Table 3 Probability of occurrence of drought in different regions of India.

Frequency of occurrence
Region of drought
Assam Very rare, once in 15 years
West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Konkan, Bihar, Once in 5 years
and Odisha
South interior Karnataka, eastern Uttar Pradesh, Once in 4 years
and Vidarbha region of Maharashtra
Gujarat, East Rajasthan, and western Uttar Pradesh Once in 3 years
Tamil Nadu, Jammu and Kashmir, and Telangana Once in 2.5 years
West Rajasthan Once in 2 years
Source: Adapted from NRAA (2013).
Loss of assets in the form of crop and livestock (mortality, loss in pro-
ductivity, health, and fertility); productive capital damage as a direct conse-
quence of water shortage or related power cuts; agro-based industries,
domestic water availability, health, household activities, etc. are some of
the major causalities due to drought. Analysis of top six most severe droughts
during 1877–2005 in India indicated that the rainfall deficit varied from
–19% to –29.1%, whereas the geographical area affected ranged from 49%
to 63%. Rainfall deficiency in the month of July (crop sowing period)
was agronomically more critical for agricultural production and the deficit
was highest during the drought of 2002 with the most severe economic losses
(Samra, 2006). For example, the impact of 2002 drought was such that the
water storage in 70 major reservoirs was 33% less than the average of previous
10 years, 22 Mha area was not sown and 47 Mha of the sown area was
subsequently damaged and food grain production was reduced by 29 Mt,
and agricultural GDP was reduced by 3.1% (DAC, 2004). In 2009, the whole
country (about 352 districts were declared drought hit) suffered from the
effects of a severe drought which led to immense agricultural loss and
affected the life and living of about 400 million people. The seasonal
(June–September) mean rainfall recorded a deficit of 22% of its long-term
mean. The food grain loss was about 15 Mt. Similarly, the year 2012 was
unique in experiencing a delayed onset and deficient monsoon in the initial
phase, followed by heavy rainfall, cloud burst, extended withdrawal, and
floods in various parts of India. About 5.68 Mha of area was not sown during
kharif (June–September) with a loss of about 12.76 Mt of kharif food grain
production. Distress sale of animals were reported especially from Karnataka.
In 2014–15, the country’s food grain production is estimated to have
declined by 4.66% to 252.68 Mt due to poor monsoon (12% deficit rainfall)

and unseasonal rains in February–March.
Very high incidence of drought (>20%) is observed in a few districts in
Rajasthan and Gujarat. The incidence is relatively low in the Western Ghats
and eastern and northeastern India (Fig. 6). The incidence of drought,
measured in terms of occurrence of number of severe droughts per 100
years, is likely to increase in a few districts in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh, northeastern states,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Jammu and Kashmir, and in a majority of districts
in Kerala. Some districts in eastern Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh,
km
0 100200 400 600
Probability (%)
<5
5–10
10–15
15–20
20–25
> 25
Figure 6 Probability of drought occurrence in India. Rama Rao et al. (2013); derived from
Gore et al. (2010).
Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka are projected to experience drought less

frequently (Rama Rao et al., 2013).
2.1.2 Cyclones
The major natural disaster that affects the coastal regions of India is cyclone
and as India has a coastline of about 7516 km; it is exposed to nearly 10% of
the world’s tropical cyclones (TC). On an average, about five or six TC form
in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea, and hit the coast every year. Out of
these, two or three are severe (Sikka et al., 2016). When a cyclone approaches
to coast, a risk of serious loss or damage arises from severe winds, heavy
rainfall, storm surges, and river floods. Most cyclones occur in the Bay of
Bengal followed by those in the Arabian Sea and the ratio is approximately
4:1. The incidence of cyclonic storms, with wind speeds between 65 and
117 kmph and severe cyclonic storms with wind speeds between 119 and
164 kmph, reaching Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh is high during the
northeast monsoon season (October–December), whereas the highest
annual number of storms and severe storms occur in the Odisha-West
Bengal coast.
Though several studies by De and Joshi (1999), Srivastava et al. (2000),
Bhaskar Rao et al. (2001), and De et al. (2005) show a decreasing trend in
frequency of TC and Monsoon Depressions (MD) over the North Indian
Ocean (The Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea) in recent years, their
potential for damage and destruction still continues to be significant. The
districts along the west coast, except those in Gujarat, are relatively less
cyclone prone compared to those on the east coast (Fig. 7). Most of the
districts in Odisha state are prone to both cyclones and floods. Balasore,
Bhadrak, Jaipur, Kendrapara, Malkangiri, Nabarangpur, Nuapada, and
Rayagada districts have vulnerability levels higher than the other districts
of the state. Balasore, Bhadrak, and Kendrapara are the coastal districts, while
the remaining five districts are noncoastal (Bahinipati, 2014).
2.1.3 Floods
Twenty-three of the 36 states and union territories in the country are subject
to floods. About 49.8 Mha land (15.2% of geographical area) is flood prone
and about 10–12 Mha is actually flooded each year. India’s vulnerability to
floods can be visualized from the flood damages at current prices during
1953–2010 of Rs. 8.12 trillion. Floods occur in almost all river basins in
India. The main causes of floods are heavy rainfall, inadequate capacity of
rivers to carry the high flood discharge, and inadequate drainage to carry
away the rainwater quickly to streams/rivers. Ice jams or landslides blocking
km
0 100200 400 600
Index
Low
Moderate
High
Very High
Figure 7 Areas prone to cyclones in India. Rama Rao et al. (2013); NDMA website.
streams, and cyclones also cause floods. Flash floods occur due to high rate of
water flow as also due to poor permeability of the soil. Most of the floods
occur during the monsoon period and are usually associated with tropical
storms or depressions and active monsoon conditions (Sikka et al., 2016).
The extent of area affected and damage caused to agriculture due to floods
that occurred during 1953–2011 is given in Table 4.
Table 4 Flood/heavy rain affected areas and damages in India (1953–2011).

Maximum
Item Unit Average damage Year
Area affected Mha 7.2 17.5 1978
Population affected Million 32.4 70.5 1978
Cropped area affected Mha 3.7 12.3 2005
Value of damage crops Rs. in billions 11.2 73.0 2003
Value of total damage to houses, Rs. in billions 36.1 325.4 2009
crops, and public utilities
Source: Compiled by authors from different sources.
In the period between October 2013 and October 2014, floods in three
states—Odisha, Assam, and Jammu and Kashmir—have affected more than
19.3 million people. Over 62,000 people have been affected by floods in
Gujarat and Bihar in the same period. Paddy crop on 31,000 ha and other
crops on 7,000 ha were damaged in 509 villages of Odisha. The floods in
Kashmir, its worst ever in four decades, affected about five million people
and caused an immediate loss of Rs. 54–57 billion to the state’s economy.
More than 20% of geographical area is prone to incidence of floods in a
majority of districts in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal
and in a few districts in northeastern states, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala,
and Odisha (Fig. 8).
2.1.4 Hailstorms
Hail formation requires environments with strong upward motion of air
and/or lowered heights of freezing level. In the middle latitudes, hailstones
are formed near the interior of continents while in tropics, they tend to be
confined to higher levels of freezing (Rao et al., 2014). Out of 597 hailstorms
in India, 153 yielded hailstones of diameter 3 cm or greater. These events
killed 250 persons and caused extensive damage to winter wheat crops. A
cropped area of 0.46 Mha in 1994–95, 0.74 Mha in 1995–96, 1.2 Mha in
1997–98, and 2.9 Mha in 1998–99 in the states of Haryana, Punjab,
Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, and erstwhile
Andhra Pradesh was badly hit by hailstorms. In January 2002, many parts
of Karnataka state were lashed by hailstorm and the estimated loss suffered by
the farming community was around Rs. 275 million. In the state of Odisha,
about 375 villages were affected due to hailstorms and whirlwinds in 2005.
In the erstwhile Andhra Pradesh, hailstorm caused a huge damage to
77,000 ha of agricultural fields in 2005–06. The state of Madhya Pradesh
was badly hit during March 2006 by heavy hailstorm causing widespread
km
0 100200 400 600
Area (%)
0–3
3–10
10–30
30–60
>60
Figure 8 Areas prone to floods in India. Rama Rao et al. (2013).
damage to standing winter crops. In March 2007, heavy rains accompanied

by hailstorm damaged wheat, sugarcane, and oilseed crops in thousands of
hectares in Punjab and Haryana. The estimated loss ran into billions of rupees
and crops were severely damaged over 50,000 ha of land (Bhardwaj et al.,
2007). In 2014, a series of hailstorms struck Central India during February
26th to March 15th. The loss due to the hailstorms is estimated between
Rs. 100 and 150 billion, with all fields and orchard crops put together. Apart
from crop damage, loss to livestock and infrastructure was also substantial
(Rao et al., 2014). The authors used hailstorm data of 38 years for the period
Hail frequency
No events
1–5
6–10
11–15
16–20
21–25
26–30
>30
Figure 9 Areas prone to hailstorms in India. Rao et al. (2014).
1972–2011 (excluding 1977 and 1984, for which data are not available) for
mapping areas prone to frequent hailstorms. More than 61% of the districts
experienced at least one hail event in a 38-year period. Highest frequency
is noticed over districts in the northern parts of Vidharbha region of
Maharashtra that are adjoining the state of Madhya Pradesh (Fig. 9).
2.1.5 Cold Wave

Cold wave/frost is a localized seasonal phenomenon prevalent in the country
except in southern India. Prevalence of extreme low temperature in associ-
ation with incursion of dry cold winds from north into the subcontinent
is known as cold waves. The cold waves mainly affect the areas to the north
of 20°N. In India, a cold wave is considered to be severe when the night
temperature drops below its daily normal by 7°C or more, when normal
minimum temperature is 10°C or more. If the normal minimum tempera-

ture is less than 10°C, then 5°C or more below normal is called the severe
cold wave condition. Maximum number of cold waves generally occur in
Rajasthan followed by Jammu and Kashmir and Uttar Pradesh. The fre-
quency of events over different time periods indicates that in recent years the
state of Rajasthan is experiencing more cold waves and Jammu and Kashmir
is experiencing a few (Sikka et al., 2016). Depending upon the time of
occurrence, they are either beneficial or harmful to the field and orchard
crops. Cold wave conditions that prevailed during winter of 2010–11 and
2011–12 coincided with flowering and seed formation stage of wheat in
Punjab resulting in good yields (Samra et al., 2012). Frost and cold waves
greatly impact legume crops. During flowering stages, these crops are likely
to be adversely affected at temperature of 2 to 3°C. Those in pod
formation stage are a bit more tolerant but are likely to be damaged at a
temperature of 3 to 4°C.
The number of cold waves in Gujarat and Maharashtra is almost one per
year although these states are located more to the south. Occurrence of cold
waves is expected to increase in whole of Gujarat, in a large number of
districts in Rajasthan, and in some districts in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, and northeastern states.
In the rest of the country, the number of days with cold wave conditions is
expected to decrease. Occurrence of frost is projected to decrease by more
than 5 days in a few districts in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Uttarakhand, and Arunachal Pradesh. Frost
occurrence is expected to decrease by a maximum of 5 days in most parts
of Central and northern India.
2.1.6 Heat Wave

Extreme positive departures from the normal maximum temperature
result in heat wave in different parts of the country. The maximum
number of heat waves occur over East Uttar Pradesh followed by Punjab,
East Madhya Pradesh, and Saurashtra and Kutch in Gujarat (Raghavan,
1967). During the decade 1991–2000, a significant increase in the fre-
quency, persistency, and spatial coverage of heat wave/severe heat wave was
observed in comparison to that during the earlier decades 1971–80 and
1981–90 (Pai et al., 2004). These changes might be the regional impact of
the observed general increase in the global warming during the decade
(1991–2000), which was the warmest decade during the past 140 years
(WMO, 2001).
During March 2004, heat wave conditions prevailed over different parts
of North India coinciding with maturity phase of wheat, rapeseed, and
vegetables. The minimum temperature was also higher than normal in
several places of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, and
Uttar Pradesh, for many days continuously. This resulted in a loss of about
4.6 Mt of wheat production (Ranuzzi and Srivastava, 2012). Coconut,
banana, cardamom, black pepper, cashew etc. were affected in Kerala due
to heat wave–induced lower humidity and soil moisture. Milk production
was affected slightly due to early disappearance of green fodder. A few
districts in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana,
Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, and northeastern states are
likely to experience more frequent hot days compared to the baseline. In a
recent study, sensitivity of wheat yields to minimum temperature during
postanthesis period was quantified and it was found that wheat yields in India
for the period 1980–2011 declined by 7% (204 kg/ha) for a 1°C rise in
minimum temperature. Exposure to minimum temperature exceeding 12°C
for 6 days and to maximum temperature exceeding 34°C for 7 days during
postanthesis period are thermal constraints to achieving high productivity
levels in wheat (Bapuji Rao et al., 2015).
2.1.7 Seawater Intrusion

Seawater intrusion (or salt water intrusion) is the encroachment of saline
water into fresh groundwater regions in coastal aquifer settings (Werner and
Simmons, 2009). Coastal zones contain some of the most densely populated
areas in the world as they generally present the best conditions for productivity.
However, these regions face many hydrological problems like flooding due to
cyclones and wave surge, and drinking water scarcity due to problem of salt
water intrusion (Bhosale and Kumar, 2002). As seawater intrusion progresses,
existing pumping wells, especially close to the coast, become saline and have to
be abandoned, thus reducing the value of the aquifer as a source of freshwater.
It is well known that seawater intrusion is affected by both natural and
anthropogenic processes. In particular, sea-level rise associated with climate
change (by way of changes to atmospheric pressure, expansion of oceans and
seas as they warm, and melting of ice sheets and glaciers) is one potentially
significant process that is expected to play a role in seawater intrusion.
On December 26, 2004, devastating tsunami waves caused a terrible
human disaster affecting thousands of kilometers of the coastal belt in
Southeast Asia. Many coastal wetlands were affected by the large inflow of
salt seawater and littoral sediments that were deposited during the tsunami,
with longer-term effects that include changes in the local hydrogeology

caused by changes to coastlines and damage to sea defenses (Gupta, 2005).
Serious problems pertaining to salinity changes were encountered in coastal
South India and the consequent loss of fertility of agricultural land was also
reported in these regions (Kontar, 2007). In Indian Sundarbans, out of total
3500 km of embankment, 800 km is vulnerable to breach during high-
intensity weather events. Present trend in sea level rise will have serious
impacts on the embankments making these more vulnerable and susceptible
to breach and overtopping (Mondal and Bandyopadhyay, 2014).
3. CLIMATE RESILIENT VILLAGES
3.1 Concept of Climate Resilient Village

Climate resilient agriculture (CRA) involves integration of adaptation, miti-
gation, and other practices in agriculture which increases the capacity of
the system to respond to various climate-related disturbances by resisting or
tolerating the damage and recovering quickly. Such perturbations and distur-
bances can include events such as drought, flooding, heat/cold wave, erratic
rainfall pattern, long dry spells, insect or pest population explosions, and other
perceived threats caused by changing climate (NAAS, 2013). CRA includes an
inbuilt property in the system for the recognition of a threat that needs to be
responded to, and also the degree of effectiveness of the response and focuses
on judicious and improved management of integrated genetic resources along
with natural resources namely, land, water, and soil through adoption of best
bet practices (Venkateswarlu and Shanker, 2009). The focus of CRA has been
on the implementation of these best bet farm practices, and the ways and
means by which they can be further improved in the context of a changing
climate. Climate resilient agricultural practices are crop and location specific
and can be tailored to fit into the agroecological and socioeconomic condi-
tions and priorities of farmers (Rosenstock et al., 2015).
Similarly, climate smart agriculture is an integrative approach to address
the interlinked challenges of food security and climate change that explicitly
aims for three objectives: (1) sustainably increasing agricultural productivity
to support equitable increases in farm incomes, food security, and human
development; (2) adapting and building resilience of agricultural and food
security systems to climate change at multiple levels, and (3) reducing green-
house gas (GHG) emissions from agriculture (including crops, livestock, and
fisheries) to the extent possible (FAO, 2013). CRA also consists of elements
of preparedness such as documentation of aberrant weather conditions,
weather-based agroadvisory, awareness about the impacts of weather, etc.
In case of water, resilient practices consist of aquifer and groundwater
recharge, in situ moisture conservation, farm ponds, efficient application
system, etc. Some of the crop-based practices consist of drought- and
flood-tolerant varieties, intercropping systems, etc. and interventions related
to carbon, fertilizer, and institutions in the village (Fig. 10), which are
similar to the climate smart interventions indicated by Scherr et al. (2012)
and Aryal et al. (2015).
The concept of climate resilient villages (CRVs) consists of implementing
these resilient practices at a scale to cover the entire village in a saturation
mode depending on the resource endowments of the farmers with one
or several interventions for imparting resilience to the production systems.
A village consists of contiguous farms, well integrated in a landscape and also
contains habitations. Each village is a local administrative unit within which
the communities own the land and can take decisive actions. It is similar to a
landscape, can vary from 500 to 1500 ha area depending on the size of the
habitation, contiguous in area and all the biophysical and socioeconomic
variables interact and operate. The CRVs adopt a portfolio of interventions
that cover the full spectrum of farm activities consisting of adaptation,
mitigation, natural resource management, better crop management, live-
stock production, etc. (Fig. 11). Through climate resilient agricultural land-
scapes/villages, important synergies for agricultural production, climate
adaptation, and mitigation, as well as other livelihood and environmental
objectives can be fulfilled by coordinated action at farm and landscape scales
(Scherr et al., 2012).
3.2 Process of Development of CRVs

To address the issues related to climate variability and to enhance the adaptive
capacity of communities, extensive farmer participatory demonstrations of
location-specific climate resilient technologies were initiated on farmers’
fields in each of the 151 climatically vulnerable districts of the country
(Fig. 12) as part of National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture
(NICRA). The climatically vulnerable districts of the country were identi-
fied based on a scientific analysis of climate-related problems, exposure,
sensitivity, and adaptive capacity in relation to climate change (Rama Rao
et al., 2013) and adaptation and mitigation strategies were identified
128
Climate resilient village
Weather Water Crop Fertilizer Carbon Institutional/

knowledge
1. Village-based 1. Aquifer recharge 1. Drought- and 1. Soil 1. Village
rain gauge flood-tolerant health cards organic resource 1. VCRMC
2. Ground water varieties inventory
2. Automatic recharge 2. SSNM 2. CHC
weather stations 2. Salinity 2. Residue
3. In situ moisture -tolerant 3. Legumes recycling
3. Seed and fodder
3. Weather-based
conservation banks
agro advisory cultivars
4. INM 3. Conservation
4. Documenation 4. Farm ponds 4. Commodity
3. Intercropping agriculture
of aberrant 5. Precision interest groups
weather 5. Efficient 4. Crop application 4. Tank silt
application system 5. Community
conditions diversification application
6. Coated nursery
5. Climate 6. Drainage 5. Planting fertilizer 5. Agroforestry
awareness 6.Capacity building
methods
7. Integrated 6. Livestock
farming system management
Ch. Srinivasa Rao et al.

Figure 10 Components and technology framework of climate resilient villages (CRV). CHC, Custom hiring center; INM, integrated nutrient
management; SSNM, Site-specific nutrient management; VCRMC, Village Climate Risk Management Committee.
Conserving
Better crop Livestock
natural
management production
resources
Integrated
Agro farming
advisories systems
Climate
resilient
village
Adaptation to weather Household/village food

Climate change
aberration and extreme security/sustainable
mitigation
events development
Figure 11 Conceptual outlay of CRV.
following a bottom-up approach. The objective of the program is not only to

demonstrate the CRA technologies but also to institutionalize mechanisms
at the village level for continued adoption of such practices in a sustainable
manner.
Resilience to climate change is context specific and subject to the pri-
orities of farmers, communities, and governments where it is implemented
(Rosenstock et al., 2015). A number of technologies developed by the
national agricultural system in India have been tested and refined in outreach
programs and subsequently recommended for various agroclimatic condi-
tions of the country. These technologies can effectively address the climate
change and food security concerns and meet the objectives of enhanced
agricultural productivity, increase resilience of farming systems to climate
change, contribute to the mitigation of climate change, and thus can con-
tribute to CRA, if implemented in synergetic manner. The primary goal of
all the interventions is to impart resilience to agriculture and ensure house-
hold food security. However, communities can effectively adopt these prac-
tices when they are aware of the performance of these technologies. Hence
technology demonstration is one of the effective means in showing the worth
of the practice. Participatory demonstration of climate resilient technologies
N
W E
S
Drought (73)
Drought & Heat wave (17)
Drought & Flood (8)
Drought & Salinity (8)
Heat wave & High Temperature stress (4)
Heat wave & Cold wave (1)
Frost/Cold wave/Cold stress (7)
Cold wave & Hail storm (5)
Water stress & Cold stress (7)
Scanty/Erratic rainfall (2)
Flood/Cyclone/High rainfall (23)
Figure 12 Identified 151 climatically vulnerable districts of the country where resilient
technologies are being implemented.
helps in training to build the knowledge and capacity to change local

practices and improve planning for adaptation to changing climatic condi-
tions. Testing of portfolio of climate resilient interventions helps in farm
households to make progressive changes to crops and cropping patterns as
well as introducing new livestock systems which can contribute toward
resilient production systems (Kinyangi et al., 2015) and when adopted on
a significant scale, contribute to CRVs. The strength of the approach lies in its
inclusiveness as farmers’ village communities, multidisciplinary researchers,
nongovernmental organizations, and other stakeholders, all come together
to test a range of options in an integrated way.
A village or a cluster of villages from each of these 151 vulnerable districts
were selected for this purpose and the program is piloted by the KVK or
Farm Science Center, and Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)
Institutes and state agricultural university (SAU) systems located in that
particular district. Planning, coordination, implementation, and monitoring
of the program at national level is done by Central Research Institute
for Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA) in association with eight Agricultural
Technology Application Research Institutes that coordinate the project in

their respective zones. At the district level, the project is being implemented
by selected KVK/ICAR institute/SAU and at the village level by institutions
established in the villages through farmers’ participatory approach, such as
Village Climate Risk Management Committees (VCRMCs).
3.2.1 Identifying Technological and Institutional Interventions

The type of climate vulnerability and farming situation in the agroecological
region were taken as basis to identify location-specific climate resilient
interventions in the 151 villages by involving farming community, and
personnel from various organizations working in the villages. To sensitize
the participating institutes, an orientation workshop was organized for
ground level implementation staff with the major objective of providing
the background information, the methodology to be adopted, and the
available technological options for addressing the climatic variability in the
districts. During the workshop, proven technological options available for
addressing particular climatic vulnerability were discussed. The participants
were divided into groups, each group representing partners from three
contiguous states having similar agroclimatic conditions. Each group delib-
erated on the issues concerning their respective zones and identified
the constraints and possible interventions for addressing the climate variabil-
ity and extreme weather events and also scope for convergence with
other development programs and probable stakeholders of the project.
Sensitization of various groups toward the possible climate resilient inter-
ventions is necessary as the prioritization of the interventions from among
the basket of options available for the particular village is done by them
depending on their expertise and knowledge (Fig. 13). This enabled
finalization of various adaptation and mitigation options for addressing the
climate vulnerability of selected villages.
Planning for agricultural adaptation and mitigation has to lean on
informed decision making and stakeholder involvement, integration of
comprehensive information, and expertise for technology targeting. Inputs
from interdisciplinary team consisting of specialists from plant breeding,
natural resource management, agronomy, horticulture, plant protection,
livestock, fisheries, agricultural economics, extension etc. were obtained
for finalizing climate resilient interventions. Inputs from the relevant devel-
opment departments of the state, zonal agricultural research stations of
agricultural universities, and progressive farmers were also obtained and used
in finalizing the interventions and action plans.
Evidence, metrics, resilience, indicators, barriers for

adaptation, trade-offs, synergies, and scalability
• In situ moisture conservation

• Rainwater harvesting and recycling Natural
Prioritization of context- and location-specific practices/technologies

• Soil health
• Carbon sequestration resource
• Resource conservation technologies management
• Stress-tolerant and short duration

cultivars
Resilient households and landscapes

• Resilient crops and cropping systems
Resilient production systems

• Planting and water saving methods Crop
Enhanced adaptive capacity

• Adjustments in planting time of rabi production
(winter) crops systems
• Soil test-based nutrient application
• Integrated farmingsystems
• Stress-tolerant breeds
• Feed and fodder
Livestock
• Shelter and health and
fisheries
• Village Climate Risk Management

Committee (VCRMC)
• Custom Hiring Centre for farm Enabling
implements
support
• Seed and fodder banks
• Climate information and agro advisory systems
services
Figure 13 Framework for developing CRVs.
Resource endowments of the individual farmers are important in target-

ing climate resilient technologies such as access to inputs, financing, markets,
etc. (Campbell and Thornton, 2014). Among the resilient practices available,
interventions which give long-term and sustainable benefits, address
resource conservation, and strengthen village level institutions were identi-
fied. An integrated package consisting of specific interventions related to
each of the four modules namely, natural resource management, crop pro-
duction, livestock and fishery, and institutional mechanism were identified
(Prasad et al., 2015).
3.2.2 Coverage of the Interventions

Though it is planned to saturate the entire village gradually with the resilient
interventions, the number and kind of interventions implemented are largely
determined by the resources available, and vulnerability status and involve-

ment of communities. Some of the technologies such as farm ponds and
percolation tanks require significant resources and hence locations were iden-
tified based on catchment and other technical requirements, either for indi-
vidual or community farm ponds. In situ moisture conservation and improved
agronomic practices, intercropping and new varieties were introduced on a
significant scale in the villages. To enhance the coverage of the interventions,
convergence with the development programs operational at the village level
was sought so that large number of farmers could be covered with the specific
technology. It was also ensured that each intervention had the farmers’
practice as control to assess the impact of interventions and successful inter-
ventions get expanded to adjoining villages or cluster of villages.
3.3 Innovative Institutional Setup in CRVs and Their Roles

It is essential to have institutional structures at the village level to guide the
implementation, and continuation of interventions for long lasting impact.
VCRMC was conceptualized as a central point for development of CRVs.
Institutional structures like community seed bank, fodder bank, custom
hiring center (CHC) for farm machinery, etc. were established in the
villages (Fig. 14) depending on the need, through active involvement of
farmers, and by making use of the existing democratic structures operational
at the village level (Venkateswarlu et al., 2012). A user group was created for
each activity so that the users of that particular activity are involved in its
VCRMC
Village seed bank CHC
CRV
Fodder bank
Commodity groups
AWS (Mobile groups)
Figure 14 Village level institutional setup in CRV. AWS, Automatic weather station; CHC,
custom hiring center; VCRMC, Village Climate Risk Management Committee.
operation, maintenance, and addressing specific problems associated with the

continuity of that particular activity. The capacity of the group was built on
each of these specific activities so that the communities understand the
intricacies involved in the respective activities which enable them for their
effective management. Well-organized committees in a village manage their
natural resources in a sustainable way and take a collective action in response
to external shocks, including those related to climate. The community-based
institutional structures foster group action among the communities, mobilize
individual resources for addressing community problems, generate under-
standing among the community and harness synergies, effectively manage
resources based on shared utilization, and promote collective action. Some of
the institutions established at the village and their modus operandi are pre-
sented in this section.
3.3.1 Village Climate Risk Management Committee
VCRMC, a unique institution at the village representing all categories of
farmers, was formed in all CRVs with the approval of the gram sabha (village
level decision-making body). Each VCRMC comprises of 12–20 villagers
with President, Secretary, and Treasurer elected among themselves unani-
mously, and has at least one woman member (Fig. 15). This committee is
responsible for the overall program implementation. VCRMC participates
in all discussions related to finalizing interventions, their implementation,
and provides community perspective about location of water conservation
structures, particularly selection of target farmers, and coordinates with gram
panchayat (village level elected organization) for the implementation of inter-
ventions. A bank account was opened in the name of VCRMC in every
CRV which is used for all financial transactions under the program including
farmers’ contributions toward implementation of different activities. Various
Figure 15 Discussion of the VCRMC (A) and shed for farm implements/machines (B).
interventions implemented in the village are shared on cost basis by

the project as well as the farmer. For example, a farmer has to contribute
nearly 25–50% of the cost of seed of high yielding drought escaping
varieties and the collected money is deposited in the bank which is main-
tained by the VCRMC. The utilization of money is taken up by the
committee and decisions are taken unanimously. Farmers’ contributory
share toward inputs like fertilizer, improved animal breeds, etc., is also
deposited in the bank account. The revenue and expenditure details are
shared with the general body periodically. Extensive capacity building of
VCRMC was taken up at village level as well as in research institutes
regarding interventions, their implementation, and handling of resources
(Venkateswarlu et al., 2012).
3.3.2 Custom Hiring Centers for Farm Implements

Timeliness of agricultural operations is crucial to cope with climatic vari-
ability, especially for sowing and intercultural operations as soil moisture
status provides a limited sowing window, particularly in rainfed agroecosys-
tems (Reddy et al., 2015). With increasing climatic variability, timely sowing
or resowing is important, for ensuring optimum plant population and better
crop growth. However, smallholding farmers often are not able to take up
sowing in time due to the need of labor and implements. Though farm
machines are used for completing farm operations, their access is limited
(Mehta et al., 2014).
An innovative institutional mechanism was put in place at each of the 151
villages, for management of the CHC for farm machinery. The essential farm
tools and implements required for the smallholder situations depending on
the agroecosystem of each village were procured and made accessible at a
central location in the village called CHC under the supervision and man-
agement of the community (Fig. 15). These machines/implements can be
used by any farmer by paying usage charges. The kind and number of
machines/implements were decided by VCRMC and village level extension
experts. The hiring charges for machines and implements were decided by
the VCRMC, displayed on the board and the amount collected is maintained
by the VCRMC (Fig. 15). The committee uses the revenue generated from
custom hiring for repair and maintenance of the implements and the remain-
ing amount goes into the revolving fund which is used for other needful farm
activities of the community. Much of the machines and equipment pur-
chased are related to tillage, sowing, intercultural operations, weeding,
spraying, harvesting, and postharvest operations and for performing special
operations such as transplanting of paddy, breaking up of hardpans under the

plough layer, etc. Different types of farm machinery are stocked in CHCs
and the most popular are rotavator for good seedbed preparation, zero till
drill, and drum seeder for sowing of paddy, multicrop planter, power weeder,
and chaff cutter.
3.3.3 Village Seed Banks

Providing seeds of improved and stress-tolerant varieties to farmers in time is
one of the important interventions for imparting resilience against climate
variability. The purpose of a village seed bank is to serve as an emergency seed
supply when farmers experience shortage of seeds, where there is a need for
resowing of crop. Further, community seed banks are essential instruments
for conserving local varieties, restoring lost varieties, sharing of indigenous
traditional knowledge (ITKs) and expertise among farmers for improving
availability and accessibility of quality seeds, and for providing seed at lower
cost than through purchase from seed vendors. Seed banks ensure sufficient
seed of the right varieties available at the right time and at an affordable price,
thus enhancing seed security (Boef et al., 2010). Seed banks serve as backup
to the informal seed sector, and they motivate farming communities to rely
on their own institutions and remain autonomous in their food and seed
security.
The community seed bank is emerging as an effective rural institution at
the village level that strengthens local farmers’ access to diverse crop genetic
resources while conserving the agrobiodiversity on farm (Maharjan et al.,
2011). Small-scale farmers not only in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, but
also in Europe and North America, use farm-saved seed and rely to a large
degree on the informal system for accessing new materials (Louwaars and de
Boef, 2012).
A group of 20–25 farmers were selected for seed production of relevant
varieties for 2–4 important crops of the village (Venkateswarlu et al., 2012).
The farmers group was trained and given seed and guidance to multiply the
seed. Initially the group is being supplied with the foundation seed and
training on seed production, processing, and storage. Participatory village
level seed production of short-duration, drought- and flood-tolerant varie-
ties was demonstrated in several villages with the support of KVKs in rice,
soybean, groundnut, green gram, finger millet, foxtail millet, and pigeon
pea. The resilient varieties are multiplied on the farms, processed, and stored
by the communities to ensure more farmers access the improved seeds. Seeds
are obtained from the farmers and are selected and stored depending on the
prevalent storage system of the region. Community seed banks can take
different forms, for example, seeds can be stored in pots in a shed or com-
munity buildings, in clay pots on the floor, or in a family granary.
3.3.4 Community Fodder Banks

Smallholder farmers in developing countries generally manage intensive,
mixed crop–livestock systems where animals are extremely important compo-
nents and contribute to food and nutritional security of the household, provide
for system diversification, generate income, spread risk, provide draft power
and transportation, and are important assets for investment and savings
(de Hann et al., 1997). Livestock producers generally meet their fodder
requirements through a combination of crop residues, grazing on community
and private property resources, cultivable fallows and crop lands after harvest
apart from cultivation of forage crops to a limited extent. It is widely believed
that changes in temperature, rainfall regime, and CO2 levels will affect grass-
land productivity and species composition and dynamics, resulting in changes
in animal diets and possibly reduced nutrient availability for animals (Izaurralde
et al., 2011; Thornton and Herrero, 2014). During the wet season these lands
provide adequate forage whereas during the dry season, the quantity and
quality of forage greatly decreases and is generally low in nutritional value
and livestock sustained on such diets often are less productive.
Providing animals with quality feed to augment dry season forages
through concentrates or supplemental feeding is one of the options but
associated with the high cost and limited availability of supplements and
may not be affordable for smallholders. A more practical option is to establish
fodder banks where significant area is under pasture in the village. Fodder
bank consists of planting of high-quality fodder species which can provide
high biomass in short time and bridge the forage scarcity during the annual
dry seasons (Bayala et al., 2014) and also during the long dry spells within the
growing season. Planting of high biomass yielding and fast-growing grasses
and shrubs suitable for fodder not only increases fodder availability, but also
reduces erosion and landslides that originate in these areas. These fodder
banks also help in the preservation and storage of surplus fodder, availability
of nutritious fodder during the period of fodder scarcity, and enhance
nutritive value of crop residue and other cellulosic waste for animal feeding
(Dhyani et al., 2013). Fodder banks do not meet 100% of feed requirements,
but supplement the available dry season forage. Community fodder banks
were established in different villages, particularly, in villages which face acute
scarcity of fodder during dry/summer seasons.
3.3.5 Automatic Weather Stations

Rainfed agriculture in India is highly dependent on monsoon and gets
impacted by rainfall variability. Access to weather information on real-time
basis enables farmers to manage the risk. This can be accomplished by
establishment of good network of weather observatories with rapid com-
munication facilities. Weather and climatic information plays a major role in
the entire crop cycle right from selecting the most suitable crop/variety up to
postharvest operations and marketing; and if provided in advance can help
farmers to organize and activate their own resources to reap the benefits by
judicious use of costly inputs. A network of automatic weather stations
(AWS) is the best way of getting real-time weather data, which will help
the scientists to develop location-specific forecasts and aid in farm manage-
ment decisions. In addition to the real-time weather data, weather forecast
and agrometeorological advisories help to stabilize crop yields through man-
agement of agroclimatic resources as well as other inputs such as irrigation,
fertilizer, and pesticides (Rathore, 2013).
AWS were established in majority of the KVK experimental farms and
mini weather observatories in project villages to record real-time weather
parameters such as rainfall, temperature, sunshine hours, and wind speed.
The collected information is stored, archived, and shared with the needy.
Regular capacity-building activities on collection of weather data and its
utilization as agroadvisories are undertaken.
3.4 Technological Modules of CRVs

Planned adaptation is essential to impart resilience to agricultural production
against climate variability. Several improved agricultural practices evolved for
diverse agroecological regions over time by the National Agricultural
Research System (NARS) in India have potential to enhance climate change
adaptation, if deployed prudently. Management practices that increase agri-
cultural production under adverse climatic conditions also contribute to
adaptation because they increase resilience and reduce yield variability under
variable climate and extreme events. Practices that help adapt to climate
change in Indian agriculture can be broadly categorized into crop-, natural
resource-, livestock-, horticulture-, and poultry- and fishery-based inter-
ventions (Table 5a–h). Institutional interventions promote collective action
and build resilience among communities. Capacity building by extensive
participatory demonstrations of location-specific agricultural practices helps
farmers to gain access to knowledge and provides confidence to cope with
Climate Resilient Villages for Sustainable Food Security
Table 5 Resilient interventions implemented in CRVs toward adaptation to climatic vulnerability in different rainfall regions of India.
NARP zone and state District Crop-based interventions NRM interventions
(a) Interventions against drought and heat wave in regions receiving <500 mm mean annual rainfall
Arid western plain zone of Jodhpur • Short-duration and drought-tolerant • Improved planting methods in
Rajasthan (RJ-1) varieties black soil regions
Transitional plain of inland Jhunjhunu • Advancement of planting dates of rabi • Recharging of wells through
drainage zone of Rajasthan (postrainy season) crops for escaping heat stop dams, check dams, and
(RJ-3) wave at maturity efficient use of water
Northwest zone of Gujarat Kutch
(GJ-5)
Western Ghat zone of Ahmednagar • Short-duration and drought-tolerant • Efficient utilization of
Maharashtra (MH-3) varieties of soybean harvested rainwater for
• Foliar nutrient application at critical horticulture crops
growth stages • Conservation furrows in field
• Intercropping systems crops to cope with midseason
drought
Northern transition zone of Belgaum • Short-duration and drought-tolerant • In situ moisture conservation
Karnataka (KA-8) cultivars of wheat and chick pea methods through field
• Intercropping systems bunding and trench cum
bunding
• Tank silt application
Northwestern zone of Tamil Namakkal • Short-duration and drought-tolerant • Rainwater harvesting and
Nadu (TN-2) varieties of groundnut and pulses efficient use
• Groundnut for seed production • Drip irrigation systems in
vegetables and flower crops
139
(Continued )
140
Table 5 Resilient interventions implemented in CRVs toward adaptation to climatic vulnerability in different rainfall regions of India.—cont'd.
(b) Interventions against drought, prolonged dry spells, and occasional flood in regions receiving rainfall ranging from 500 to 1000 mm
South Bihar alluvial plain zone Buxar, Jehanabad • Mat-type paddy nursery for mechanical • Development of degraded
of Bihar (BI-3) transplanting of rice lands for arable cropping
• Direct seeded rice in midlands and uplands • Rainwater harvesting for
• Drought-tolerant, short-duration paddy protective irrigation and for
varieties fish farming
• Contingency crops for rice fallows • Green and brown manuring
• Intercropping systems in rice and wheat
• Resource conservation
through zero tillage
Western plateau zone of Chatra • Drought-tolerant, short-duration paddy • Storing excess runoff and
Jharkhand (BI-5) • Zero till wheat sowing recycling with sprinkler and
• Advancement of planting dates of rabi crops drip irrigation system
for escaping heat stress at maturity • In situ moisture conservation
practices
• Foliar sprays
Western plain zone of Uttar Baghpat, • Short-duration varieties • Soil test–based nutrient
Pradesh (UP-3) Muzaffarnagar • SRI and direct seeded rice application
Bundelkhand zone of Uttar Jhansi, Hamirpur • Location-specific intercropping systems • In situ conservation measures
Pradesh (UP-10) such as ridge and furrow

method, contour cultivation,
etc.
• Rainwater harvesting and
recycling for increasing
cropping intensity
Scarce rainfall zone of Andhra Anantapur, • Crop diversification, sustainable • In situ moisture conservation
Pradesh (AP-3) Kurnool intercropping systems for contingency methods
Southern Telangana zone Nalgonda, situations • Rainwater harvesting and
(AP-4) Rangareddy • Foliar sprays with KNO3 recycling with
• DSR and drum seeding of paddy microirrigation system
• Tank silt application
Western Maharashtra plain Nandurbar, • Short-duration and drought-tolerant • Water harvesting and
zone of Maharashtra (MH-5) Baramati crop varieties recycling (sand bag check
Central Maharastra plateau Amravati • Sustainable intercropping systems dam, ponds)
zone (MH-7) • Fodder production and efficient • Organic mulching in rainfed
Scarcity zone of Maharashtra Aurangabad storage horticulture
(MH-6) • Crop diversification toward horticulture • Improved planting methods,
• Foliar spray for midseason BBF, bed and furrow for in
droughts situ moisture conservation
South Saurashtra (GJ-6) Rajkot • Short-duration and drought-tolerant • Improved planting methods in
Flood prone eastern plain zone Bharatpur varieties black soil region
of Rajasthan (RJ-6) • Midseason droughts—foliar spray • Recharging of wells through
Humid southeastern plain of Kota • Crop diversification through vegetable stop check dams and efficient
Rajasthan (RJ-9) production recycling
• Location-specific intercropping systems • In situ moisture conservation
through bunding
(Continued )
141
142
Girid zone of Madhya Pradesh Guna, Morena • Short-duration and drought-tolerant • Improved planting methods
(MP-7) varieties (soybean, sesame, pigeon pea, for in situ moisture
Bundelkhand region of Datia groundnut, chick pea, mustard, wheat, conservation and improved
Madhya Pradesh (MP-8) black gram) drainage
Central Narmada valley zone Tikamgarh • Relay cropping • Rainwater harvesting and
of Madhya Pradesh (MP-6) • Drought-tolerant varieties of paddy recycling
• Intercropping system • Recharging of wells through
• Advancement of planting dates of postrainy stop check dams and efficient
season crops in terminal heat stress areas use through drip irrigation
• Soil test–based nutrient
application
Southern zone of Tamil Nadu Ramanathapuram • Short-duration and drought-tolerant • Water harvesting and
(TN-5) varieties of paddy, groundnut, green gram recycling through drip and
• Feed and fodder management for livestock sprinkler systems
• Soil test–based nutrient
application
• Vermicompost production
Central dry zone of Karnataka Tumakuru • Short-duration and drought-tolerant • Water harvesting and efficient
(KA-4) cultivars use
Eastern dry zone of Karnataka Chikkaballapur • Aerobic paddy cultivation • Recharging of wells through

(KA-5) • Sustainable intercropping systems stop check dams and efficient
Southern transition zone of Davanagere • High value vegetable crops with the use through drip irrigation
Karnataka (KA-7) harvested water • In situ conservation methods
through bunding and trench
cum bunding
(c) Interventions against midseason drought and occasional flood in regions receiving rainfall ranging from 1000 to 1500 mm
Northwest alluvial plain zone Saran • Community paddy nursery as a • Improving conveyance
of Bihar (BI-1) contingency measure for delayed planting efficiency of traditional canal
Northeast alluvial plain zone of Supaul • Direct seeded rice systems
Bihar (BI-1) • Zero till sown wheat • Groundwater recharge by
• Crop diversification renovating defunct water tank
and old check dam
through land leveling
South Bihar alluvial plain zone Nawada, • Direct seeded rice in midlands and uplands • Development of degraded
of Bihar (BI-3) Aurangabad • Drought-tolerant, short-duration paddy lands (leveling, bunding) for
varieties arable cropping
• Community paddy nursery production • Rainwater harvesting and
supplemental irrigation
through microirrigation
• Conservation tillage
Western plateau zone of Palamu, Gumla • Drought-tolerant, short-duration paddy • Storing excess runoff and
Jharkhand (BI-5) varieties Anjali, Birsa Vikas Dhan 109 recycling with sprinkler and
• Direct seeded rice drip irrigation system
• Drought-tolerant varieties of finger millet • Low-cost rainwater
and niger harvesting structure—sand
• Intercropping systems bag check dam
• Summer vegetable cultivation • In situ moisture conservation
(Continued )
143
144
Central and northeastern Koderma • Drought-tolerant, short-duration paddy • In situ conservation through
plateau zone of Jharkhand varieties Anjali, Abhishek, Sahabhagi bunding
(BI-4) • Direct seeded rice • Water harvesting and
• Protective vegetable cultivation recycling for supplemental
irrigation
• Zero till sown wheat
Subtropical zone of Manipur Senapati • Drought-tolerant black gram, toria, and • Water harvesting and
(NEH-4) rapeseed varieties recycling for increasing
• Water saving paddy cultivation cropping intensity
• Integrated farming system • Artificial groundwater
recharge
• Zero till winter pulse crops in
rice fallows
Midhills zone of Nagaland Mokokchung • Drought-tolerant paddy cultivars • Rainwater harvesting for
(AZ-52) • Moisture-tolerant mustard variety alleviation of drought stress and
• Water saving paddy cultivation increasing cropping intensity
• Protected vegetable cultivation
• Plastic mulching in vegetable
crops
Hill zone of Uttarakhand Tehri Garhwal • Drought-tolerant varieties of pigeon pea, • Low-cost rainwater

(UP-1) HYV of oilseeds, cereals, and millets crops harvesting structures—
Jalkund (farm pond)
Southern Telangana zone Khammam • Salinity-tolerant paddy variety • Rainwater harvesting through
(AP-7) • Drought-tolerant and short-duration farm ponds and its efficient
varieties of pigeon pea and cotton utilization
• Drum seeded rice • Zero tillage maize
• Crop diversification to pulse crops • Reclamation of low fertile
• Intercropping systems saline soils
• Mulching in vegetable crops
Chhattisgarh plain of Bhatapara, • Rice fallow pulses • Water harvesting and
Chhattisgarh (MP-1) Bilaspur • Short-duration and drought-tolerant recycling for enhancing
Bastar plateau zone in Dantewada cultivars of paddy, black gram, and cropping intensity
Chhattisgarh (MP-2) green gram • Presowing irrigation in wheat
• Direct seeded rice • Deep ploughing in summer
Kymore plateau and Satpura Satna • Short-duration varieties (soybean, sesame, • Improved planting methods
hill zone of Madhya Pradesh and pigeon pea) for in situ moisture
(MP-4) • Relay cropping conservation and drainage of
Central Narmada Valley zone Chhatarpur • Contingency crop plan implementation excess water
of Madhya Pradesh (MP-6) • Location-specific intercropping systems • Rainwater harvesting and
Chhattisgarh plain zone of Balaghat recycling
Madhya Pradesh (MP-1) • Recharging of wells through
stop check dams
(Continued )
145
146
Western Central table land Jharsuguda, • Direct seeded rice • Efficient use of harvested
zone of Odisha (OR-9) Sonepur • Flood-tolerant paddy cultivars water with microirrigation
Northeastern ghat zone of Ganjam • Short-duration and drought-tolerant paddy systems
Odisha (OR-5) varieties • Zero till sown wheat
• Crop diversification to high value crops • Green manuring
• Integrated farming systems
(d) Interventions against drought due to prolonged dry spells and intense storms in regions receiving rainfall more than 1500 mm
Southeastern plateau of East Singhbhum • Drought-tolerant, short-duration paddy • Storing excess runoff and
Jharkhand (BI-6) varieties recycling with
• Direct seeded rice microirrigation system
• Advancement of wheat sowing • Sand bag check dam
• Soil test based nutrient
application
Subtropical plain zone of Tirap • Cultivation of drought-tolerant upland rice • Jalkund—water harvesting
Arunachal Pradesh (NEH-4) variety: Dehangi structure
Subtemperate zone of West Kameng • Intercropping systems • Liming for acid soil
Arunachal Pradesh (AZ-49) • Crop diversification reclamation
Subtropical zone of Arunachal West Siang • Advancement of sowing time of rapeseed • Mulching in field crops
Pradesh (AZ-49) and maize • Growing of legumes as cover
Subtropical hill zone of Lunglei crops

Mizoram
Hill zone of Uttarakhand Uttarkashi • Drought-tolerant varieties of field crops • Low cost rainwater harvesting
(UP-1) • Plantation of temperate fruit crops structures—Jalkund
(farm pond)
• Recharge pits for
groundwater recharge
Subtropical plain zone of Imphal East • Drought-tolerant crop varieties • Water harvesting and
Manipur (NEH-4) • Integrated farming system recycling for increasing
Subtropical hill zone of Ri-Bhoi • Crop diversification cropping intensity
Meghalaya (NEH-5) West Garo Hills • Zero till winter pulse crops in
rice fallows
• Soil health improvement with
vermicompost application
• Low-cost polyhouse
technology for crops
cultivation during high
rainfall
Subtropical hill zone of Phek • Drought-tolerant paddy cultivars • Jalkund for rainwater
Nagaland (NEH-2) • Drought-tolerant varieties of wheat, harvesting and increasing
Midtropical hill zone of Dimapur mustard, gram, barley cropping intensity
Nagaland (AZ52) • Drought- and temperature-tolerant • Protected vegetable
Humid subtropical zone of East Sikkim varieties of wheat and maize cultivation
Sikkim • Soil health improvement with
vermicompost application
• Mulching in ginger and pea
(e) Interventions against flood due to cyclonic storms, riverine flooding, and intense storms
Terai zone of West Bengal Cooch Behar • Flood-tolerant paddy varieties • Rainwater harvesting with
(WB-2) • Organic mulching in vegetables provision for drainage of
Old alluvial zone of West Malda • Zero tillage in wheat excess water
Bengal (WB-3) • Crop diversification • Ridge and furrow method of
Coastal saline zone of West South 24 Parganas • Intercropping systems with vegetables sowing
Bengal (WB-6) • Land shaping for rainwater
harvesting and integrated
147
farming system
(Continued )
148
Northeastern plain zone of Maharajganj • Flood-tolerant paddy varieties (Swarna- • Improving drainage system
Uttar Pradesh (UP-8) sub1, NDR-359) • Green manuring with
Central plain zone of Uttar Bahraich • Zero till sowing of wheat Sesbania
Pradesh (UP-6) • Horticulture production systems • Soil test–based nutrient
application
Northeastern plain zone of Gorakhpur, • Flood-tolerant paddy variety—Swarna- • Green manuring to improve
Uttar Pradesh (UP-8) Kushinagar, sub1 soil organic carbon
Gonda • Zero till sowing of wheat
• Direct seeded rice
Coastal zone of Andamans Port Blair • Drought-tolerant paddy variety • Tank cum well system of
• Fodder cultivation irrigation
• Integrated farming systems • Rainwater harvesting with
provision for drainage of
excess water
North bank plain zone of Sonitpur • Foliar sprays for midseason droughts/flash • Desilting of clogged drains for
Assam (AS-1) floods rapid drainage
Upper Brahmaputra Valley Dibrugarh • Flood-tolerant paddy cultivars: Jalashree, • Liming of acid soils
zone of Assam (AS-2) Jalkuwari, Phanindra • Vermicompost production
Lower Brahmaputra Valley Dhubri • Short-duration paddy varieties for • Low-cost rainwater
zone of Assam (AS-4) postflood situation: Dishang, Luit (maturity harvesting structure—Jalkund

Barak Valley zone of Assam Cachar 100–105 days)
(AS-5)
Midtropical plain zone of West Tripura • SRI as water saving paddy cultivation • Mulching in vegetables
Tripura • Raised bed furrow irrigation
in maize
• Zero tillage in rapeseed
Krishna Godavari zone of West Godavari • Flood-tolerant varieties of paddy • Improved drainage to
Andhra Pradesh (AP-1) (Swarna-sub1, MTU, RGL, PLA1100) minimize flood damage
Northern coastal zone of Srikakulam • DSR and drum seeding of paddy • Zero till maize
Andhra Pradesh (AP-2)
South Konkan coastal zone of Ratnagiri • Flood-tolerant varieties of paddy • Jalkund for water harvesting
Maharashtra (MH-1) • Integrated pest management • Construction of check dam
South Gujarat heavy rainfall Valsad • Flood-tolerant paddy variety (MTU-1010) • Planting methods with
area of Gujarat (GJ-1) • Crop diversification provision for drainage
• Renovation of defunct check
dam
• Drip irrigation in banana
Northeastern zone of Tamil Villupuram • Short-duration and drought-tolerant • Water harvesting and
Nadu (TN-1) varieties of groundnut recycling through farm ponds
• SRI system • Mulching with crop residue in
• Intercropping systems field crops
Problem areas zone of Kerala Alleppey • Short-duration and flood-tolerant paddy • Strengthening and
(KE-5) varieties construction of bunds and
• Drum seeded rice deepening of ponds
• Soil test based–nutrient
application
East and southeastern coastal Kendrapara • Flood-tolerant rice varieties (Swarna-sub1, • In situ moisture conservation
plain zone of Odisha (OR-4) Lalat) through ridge and furrow
• Cultivation of YMV-tolerant green gram system
• SRI method of rice cultivation • Green manuring—Sesbania
(Continued )
149
150
(f) Interventions against cold wave and frost
Eastern zone of Uttar Pradesh Yamunanagar • Direct seeded rice • Laser land leveling
• Zero till sown wheat • Soil test–based nutrient
• Residue retention with happy seeder application
• Intercropping in sugarcane • Green manuring with Sesbania
Midhills subhumid zone of Chamba • Improved varieties of maize, wheat, and • Rainwater harvesting through
Himachal Pradesh (HP-2) pulses farm ponds
• Spur type of apple plantation • Protected cultivation of
vegetables in polyhouses
Mid to high altitude of Jammu Pulwama • Drought-tolerant varieties • Rainwater harvesting through
and Kashmir (JK-2) • Intercropping systems with apple farm ponds and
microirrigation
through mulching
Undulating plain zone of Ropar • Advancement of date of sowing and zero till • Low-tunnel technology for
Punjab (PB-2) seeding of wheat vegetable nurseries
• Direct seeding of paddy • Irrigation management in
paddy using tensiometer
• Incorporation of paddy
residue into the soil

Submountainous undulating Fatehgarh Sahib • Advancement of sowing dates and zero till • In situ moisture conservation
zone of Punjab (PB-I) sowing of wheat through biomulching
• Direct seeded rice • Green manuring with Sesbania
• Establishment of fruit nursery • Residue incorporation in soil
with turbo seeders
NARP zone and state District Interventions
(g) Livestock-based interventions implemented in CRVs in regions receiving <1000 mm rainfall
Arid western plain zone of Rajasthan (RJ-1) Jodhpur • Breed upgradation in cattle, buffalo, and goat
• Improved shelter for reducing heat stress
Northwest zone of Gujarat (GJ-5) Kutch • Improved shelter for reducing heat stress
Western Ghat zone of Maharashtra (MH-3) Ahmednagar • Improved breed of goat (Osmanabadi bucks)
Transitional plain of inland drainage zone of Jhunjhunu • Improved buffalo breeds “Sirohi” and “Murrah”
Rajasthan (RJ-3)
Scarcity zone of Maharashtra (MH-6) Aurangabad • Improved backyard poultry: Giriraja, Srinidhi, Gramapriya
Flood prone eastern plain zone of Rajasthan Bharatpur • Bred improvement of local buffalo and goats through
(RJ-6) Murrah bull and Jamunapari Buck, respectively
Southern Telangana zone (AP-5) Nalgonda • Improved poultry breed “Vanaraja”
Humid southeastern plain of Rajasthan (RJ-9) Kota • Backyard poultry breed “Pratap Dhan”
Western plateau zone of Jharkhand (BI-5) Chatra • Improved goat breed “Beetal”
(h) Livestock-based interventions in regions receiving >1000 mm rainfall
Western Maharashtra plain zone of Maharashtra Nandurbar • Improved poultry breed “Giriraja”
(MH-5)
Northern Telangana zone (AP-4) Khammam • Improved backyard poultry “Vanaraja”
Northern coastal zone of Andhra Pradesh (AP-2) Srikakulam • Superior elite breeding of rams
Western plateau zone of Jharkhand (BI-5) Gumla • Backyard poultry and improved duck “Khaki Campbell”
Subtropical plain zone of Manipur (NEH-4) Imphal East • Water reed cum fish farming
Midtropical hill zone of Nagaland (AZ52) Dimapur • Composite fish farming
• Backyard poultry breed “Vanaraja” and “Gramapriya”
• Integration of duck and pig farming
Southeastern plateau of Jharkhand (BI-6) East Singhbhum • Improved breed of duck “Khaki Campbell” and backyard
poultry breed “Vanaraja”
151
(Continued )
152
NARP zone and state District Interventions
Coastal saline zone of West Bengal (WB-6) South 24 Paragans • Farming of stress-tolerant poultry birds
• Introduction of stress-tolerant fish—tilapia in carp culture
North bank plain zone of Assam (AS-1) Sonitpur • Backyard poultry and rearing of Chara Chambelli Duck
• Cultivation of hybrid Napier (Var. CO3)
Midtropical plain zone of Tripura West Tripura • Pond-based IFS and fish systems
• Backyard poultry bird
Midtropical hill zone of Meghalaya (NEH-5) Ri-Bhoi • Improved housing for pig and elevated housing for goat
• Duck cum fish integrated farming
• Backyard poultry breed “Vanaraja”
Coastal zone of Andaman and Nicobar Islands Port Blair • Netted housing and raised housing for disease-free poultry
production
• Backyard duckery
• Composite fish farming
Barak Valley zone of Assam (AS-5) Cachar • Improved poultry breed “Vanaraja”
• Backyard poultry breed “Kalinga Brown”
• Netting fish pond
Lower Brahmaputra Valley zone of Assam (AS-4) Dhubri • Integrated fish cum duck farming
• Low-cost poultry house for flood-affected area
• Cage culture during flood situation
South Konkan coastal zone of Maharashtra (MH- Ratnagiri • Introduction of new goat breeds “Konkan Kanyal”

1) • Rearing of Giriraja birds in backyard
Humid subtropical zone of Sikkim East Sikkim • Backyard poultry under improved housing for protection
from cold
Subtropical hill zone of Meghalaya (NEH-5) West Garo Hills • Improved pig and poultry rearing methods
adverse weather conditions. Efforts were made to deploy available location-

specific farm technologies that have adaptation potential and demonstrate
them in farmers’ fields in the most vulnerable districts of the country through
a participatory approach.
3.4.1 Crop-Based Interventions

Farmers traditionally grow local varieties of crops which are of long dura-
tion resulting in exposure of the part of the crop growth to deficit or excess
rainfall which will have adverse effect on crop yield. The quantum of
impact on crop growth and yield depends on the frequency and duration
of the dry spells or excess moisture conditions. Majority of the improved
and high yielding varieties are of short duration and hence escape drought
which normally occurs at the end of the crop growing season particularly in
regions which receive a rainfall of less than 750 mm. Some of the varieties
besides short duration are also tolerant to moderate drought, saturated
moisture conditions for few days, and can tolerate flooding for varying
periods (Kinyangi et al., 2015) which can help to tide over the deficit or
excess moisture condition with little negative impact on yield. Under
rainfed conditions, deficit and excess moisture conditions commonly occur
in the same season, particularly in regions receiving more than 1000 mm
rainfall. Varieties selected for these regions should withstand both excess
and deficit moisture.
Intercropping with a combination of short- and long-duration crops,
shallow- and deep-rooted crops, legume and nonlegume crops is a resilient
practice as the system can perform better in the event of variable rainfall
(Ghosh et al., 2006). Further, by combining the legume and nonlegume
crops, the synergies and the complimentarity between the crops are better
harnessed. Diversifying with crops which give assured income and high
returns to the farming community were explored and demonstrated in the
villages. The criterion for selection of new crops was also that the crops are
more tolerant to moisture stress or withstand rainfall variability better than
the existing crops in the village.
In regions receiving rainfall of more than 1000 mm, opportunity for
double cropping exists even under rainfed conditions wherever soil moisture
storage is high (Vertic and Vertisols) and presowing irrigation is feasible.
Cropping intensification with a provision for double cropping is one of
the resilient measures in comparison to the single cropping as farmer can
maximize income from both the crops in the years of good rainfall and can
sustain himself from the second crop even if the first crop gets affected due to
the deficit or excess moisture. Sustainable cropping intensification is possible

when short-duration crops are selected both during the rainy and postrainy
seasons as both the crops have to complete their life cycle from the rainfall
which is normally received during the months of June–October.
Introducing drought/temperature-tolerant varieties, advancement of plant-
ing dates of winter crops in areas with terminal heat stress, frost management
in horticulture through fumigation, community nurseries for delayed mon-
soon, location-specific intercropping systems with high sustainable yield
index are some of the interventions that were widely demonstrated in
varying rainfall regions.
3.4.2 Natural Resource Management

Although large areas of the country receive relatively high rainfall, much of
the rainfall occurs in a brief period as high intensity storms. Due to the
temporal and spatial variability and skewed distribution of rainfall, crops
invariably suffer from moisture stress at one or the other stages of crop
growth and this gets compounded due to increasing rainfall variability
resulting in prolonged dry spells and frequent droughts. About 33% of
the net sown area of the country receives a rainfall of less than 750 mm
whereas 67% of rainfed area of the country receives rainfall more than
750 mm in India.
The strategy of crop production in arid and semiarid regions receiving
rainfall less than 750 mm consists of selection of short-duration and low
water requiring crops and conserving as much water as possible in situ so
that crops can escape moisture stress during the growing period (Jat et al.,
2004). In addition to in situ moisture conservation, efforts need to be made
to divert the surplus water into storage structures which can be used either
as standalone resource or in conjunction with groundwater for meeting the
critical irrigation requirements. In relatively high rainfall regions, the
strategy is to conserve as much rainwater as possible and to harvest the
surplus water for life saving irrigation or for enhancing the cropping
intensity and to maximize returns from the harvested water. Small-scale
water harvesting structures at individual farm level enable reuse of har-
vested water during critical periods of growth stage or for providing pre-
sowing irrigation to winter crop. Rainwater harvesting and recycling
through farm ponds, restoration of old rainwater harvesting structures,
percolation ponds for recharging of open wells, and injection wells for
recharging groundwater were taken up for enhancing farm level water
storage (Prasad et al., 2014).
Planting methods including ridge and furrow, bed and furrow, and
broad bed and furrow (BBF) sowing provide opportunities for moisture
storage as well as draining the excess water in the event of heavy storms
thus reducing the impact of both the drought as well as intense storms
during the cropping season (Patil et al., 2010; Praharaj et al., 2011; Mishra
et al., 2012).
Soil health is the key parameter that determines the resilience of crop
production under changing climate. A number of interventions were taken
up to build soil carbon, control soil loss due to erosion, and enhance water
holding capacity of soils, all of which build resilience in soil. Mandatory soil
testing was done in all villages to ensure balanced use of chemical fertilizers,
including improved methods of fertilizer application, matching with crop
requirement to reduce nitrous oxide emission (Srinivasarao et al., 2013b).
Particularly in paddy–wheat systems in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar
Pradesh, where large quantities of paddy straw is commonly burnt after
the harvest of paddy, demonstrations were taken up on recycling of paddy
residues, and wheat sowings by using the zero till planter. Recycling of paddy
residues followed by zero till wheat cultivation is an important intervention
and has multiple advantages; namely, reduces the CO2 emissions into the
environment by avoiding burning of paddy residues, reduces the soil distur-
bance, and saves water and energy for pumping water (Hobbs and Gupta,
2003; Sapkota et al., 2015).
Opportunities exist for green manuring where irrigation facilities are
available particularly in the Indo-Gangetic Plains region. Green manuring
reduces the nitrogen requirements for the succeeding crop and enhances
the crop productivity (Srinivasarao et al., 2014a). Similarly, possibility of
introducing summer legumes exists in Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar
Pradesh after the harvest of the wheat crop. Soil test–based fertilizer
application is one of the important technologies where adequate soil
analysis facilities exist (Srinivasarao et al., 2011). Application of soil test
based–fertilizer helps to minimize the excess use of a nutrient, identify
deficient nutrients, and optimize the nutrient use efficiency (Srinivasarao
et al., 2012). Tank silt application is another important intervention which
can enhance the water holding capacity of the soil and prolong the
availability of moisture to the crops. Tank silt also contains substantial
quantities of nutrients and helps to improve the crop growth and yields.
Desilting of tanks and its application to cultivated fields also enhances
the water storage capacity of reservoirs or tanks in the villages (Osman
et al., 2015).
3.4.3 Horticultural Systems

Fruit trees can withstand the variability of rainfall better than annual crops
due to the deep root systems and the perennial growth habit. Diversification
into fruit tree–based systems generates high returns to the farmer and creates
opportunities for value addition and avenues for employment creation at the
village level (Dhyani et al., 2013). Emphasis was placed on identification of
suitable fruit tree species based on the resource endowments of the region,
supplying quality planting material, mulching with crop residues and agri-
cultural wastes, efficient irrigation systems, capacity building of farmers on
these aspects and also on the market opportunities, export specifications,
opportunities for export, etc.
3.4.4 Livestock- and Fodder-Based Interventions
Livestock-based farming systems make significant contribution for liveli-
hood security of farmers particularly in arid zone of India. Although arid
zones are less suitable for crop production due to inherent soil constraints,
some grasses and tree species of forage value and economic importance can
grow well and help in augmenting forage production. Interventions in low
rainfall regions focused on enhancing the availability of fodders and its
quality, improving shelter for alleviating the heat stress in animals, introduc-
ing improved breeds of small ruminants, improving the health of animals as
better health makes animals more tolerant to climatic stresses (Kinyangi et al.,
2015), and conserving fodder during the rainy season so that it can be used
during the dry period.
In high rainfall regions, the emphasis was on enhancing the produc-
tivity of animals and returns from the livestock by cultivation of high
biomass producing improved fodder varieties for enhancing the green
fodder production, and efficient recycling of resources by development
of farming system–based models. Use of community lands for fodder
production during droughts/floods, improved fodder/feed storage meth-
ods, feed supplements, micronutrient use to enhance adaptation to heat
stress, preventive vaccination, improved shelters for reducing heat/cold
stress in livestock, and management of fish ponds/tanks both during water
scarcity and excess water are some key interventions in livestock/fishery
sector (Thornton and Herrero, 2014).
3.4.5 Poultry- and Fishery-Based Interventions
Introduction of improved breeds of poultry for various agroclimatic condi-
tions is one of the flagship interventions across rainfall regimes. Improved
shelter for poultry which helps to withstand the high temperatures during
the day and protection during the night were widely demonstrated. In case of
fishery, quality fingerlings, reducing the cost of fingerling production by
involving the communities in large-scale fingerling production, introduction
of fish into the existing water bodies, particularly in relatively high rainfall
regions, creating community institutions for their maintenance, operation
and benefit sharing, and capacity building are some of the common inter-
ventions taken up in fisheries.
3.5 Impacts of Climate Resilient Interventions

Several agricultural practices evolved over time from the NARS can reduce
the impact of the variable weather on agriculture and can contribute toward
adaptation to climate change, if deployed prudently. Further, management
practices that can reduce the yield variability or increase agricultural
production under variable climate and extreme events can contribute to
resilience (Mall et al., 2007; Singh et al., 2012).
3.5.1 Crops and System Productivity

As agriculture particularly in rainfed areas is risky due to weather aberra-
tions and frequent droughts, selection of appropriate crops and cultivars
based on the biophysical and climatic constraints of an area are essential
prerequisites for successful crop production and for maximizing produc-
tivity and profitability. Many criteria have been set out for selecting appro-
priate crop varieties for rainfed areas and some of them are of short
duration, drought tolerance and the capacity to produce reasonable yields
under limited soil moisture conditions (Webber et al., 2014). Selection of
appropriate crops, varieties, and systems such as mono cropping, intercrop-
ping, sequence cropping, etc. for a location can be effectively made based
on the analysis of long-term climatic data in terms of probability of the
onset and withdrawal of monsoon, occurrence of dry spells, and the soil
moisture supplying capacity (Udmale et al., 2014).
3.5.1.1 Resilient Crops and Stress-Tolerant Varieties

Drought, which indicates scarcity of water for ecosystems consequently soil
moisture deficit, affects crops, livestock, livelihoods, and human health, and
affects more people than any other climatic variability in India. Drought
occurring at different stages in crop development in different soil types and
under various management regimes affects crop growth differently; hence,
patterns of drought occurrence may require different sets of adaptive
traits (Srinivasarao and Gopinath, 2016). Among the various options for
addressing climate variability, improved cultivars play an important role

in stabilizing productivity in rainfed environments (Reddy et al., 2014).
In view of the frequent occurrence of drought, several short-duration
cultivars were assessed for their suitability in various drought prone regions
of the country.
In regions receiving low rainfall (<750 mm), the cropping season is
restricted to 10–14 weeks and the delay in the onset of the monsoon and
early withdrawal are the most commonly occurring contingencies limiting
the crop production (Niranjan Kumar et al., 2013). Short-duration varieties
which can complete life cycle within the growing period of a region can
escape drought during early withdrawal of monsoon and can also be grown
under delayed onset of monsoon conditions as an adaptation strategy.
For example, Rajkot district in Gujarat state receives 660 mm of rainfall
annually with irregular distribution and midseason droughts in July and
August resulting in lower yields of traditional spreading-type groundnut
varieties which are of 120 days duration. Bunch-type high yielding ground-
nut cultivars were introduced (GG-5, TG-38, GG-20) which are short in
duration (95–100 days) and performed better under late planted conditions
with 10–15% higher yield than that of traditional varieties of groundnut.
Similarly, in black soil (Vertisols) regions of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
and Kota district of Rajasthan, soybean is an important crop cultivated in
about 9 Mha with significant area under JS-335 variety which is of 110–115
days duration. Due to delay in onset of monsoon in recent years, planting of
soybean is extended up to first fortnight of July and the crop at maturity stage
is vulnerable to late season dry spells. Hence, a short-duration variety JS-93-
05 (95–100 days) in Maharashtra, and JS-95-60 (85–95 days) in Madhya
Pradesh and Rajasthan were introduced which gave 15–20% higher yield
compared to the farmers’ practice (Prasad et al., 2014) (Table 6).
To meet deficient rainfall situations, short-duration and drought-tolerant
varieties of pigeon pea (BDN-708), green gram (BM 2002-1), and chick pea
(Digvijay and Vijay) were introduced on selected farmers’ fields in
Aurangabad district of Maharashtra (rainfall of 645 mm), which gave
20–25% higher yield than the local varieties. Similarly, drought-tolerant,
short-duration varieties of sorghum (CSH-14) and pigeon pea (AKT-8811)
were introduced in the villages of Amravati district, Maharashtra (rainfall of
877 mm). Sorghum and pigeon pea gave about 60 and 37% higher yields,
respectively compared to local varieties (Reddy et al., 2014) (Table 7).
In black gram, Azad Urd-1, a high yielding and YMV-resistant short-
duration variety (65 days) was demonstrated on 50 ha in Tikamgarh (rainfall
Table 6 Yield improvement in farmers’ fields due to cultivation of short-duration and drought-tolerant varieties in regions receiving <750 mm
rainfall.
Improvement
No. of in yield over
Crop Variety Location/district farmers FP (%)
Black gram PU-35, Uttara, KU 96-3 Morena, Kota, Namakkal 107 25–30
Chick pea GNG-663, GJG-3, JG-11, Akash, Digvijay Jhunjhunu, Rajkot, Morena, 73 30–35
Aurangabad, Baramati
Cotton CICR-2, PAU-626, FDK-124, MRC-7918 Sirsa, Faridkot, Bathinda, Rajkot, 131 5–10
Davangere
Green RMG-344, PDM-139, SML-668, TJM-3, BM-2003 Jhunjhunu, Chitrakoot, Morena, 120 15–25
gram Aurangabad
Groundnut GG-20, MH-4, ICGV-91114, GG-5, TG-38, KCG-2 Kutch, Sirsa, Tumakuru, Rajkot, 111 5–10
Davanagere, Chikkaballapur
Maize PMH-1, Pro Agro 4212, 4644, JS-9560, Mukta, Ropar, Chitrakoot, Morena, Kota 134 25–30
Maharaja, NK-30, NKK-6240, PEHM-2, Anmol-11
Mustard GSC-6, PAC-10, PAC-40, NRCDR-2, Laxmi, Faridkot, Balaghat, Jhunjhunu, 410 15–25
Agrani, JM-4, NRCHB-104, RVM-2, Pusa M-27 Bharatpur, Morena, Baghpat,
Kota
Paddy CSR-30, PR-121, 122, PUSA 1121, PUSA 1509, Sirsa, Faridkot, Bathinda, 588 20–25
HD-2967, MAS-26, Kubel, Sugandha, PUSA Fatehgarh Sahib, Tumakuru,
Rajkot, Chitrakoot, Morena,
Baghpat
Pigeon pea BRG-2, BRG-4, ICPL-88039, PUSA-992, MP-1203, Tumakuru, Chitrakoot, Morena, 172 30–40
UPAS-120, BDN-711 Aurangabad, Chikkaballapur
(Continued )
159
160
Table 6 Yield improvement in farmers’ fields due to cultivation of short-duration and drought-tolerant varieties in regions receiving <750 mm
rainfall.—cont'd.
Improvement
Soybean JS-9305, JS-335, JS-9560, RGC-1038, Anmol-11, Jodhpur, Morena, Kota, 175 15–20
RKS-24, MAUS-71 Aurangabad
Wheat PBW-2967, HD-2967, Raj-3765, Raj-4037, GW-496, Faridkot, Bathinda, Jhunjhunu, 491 10–20
HD-2932, JW-3288, GW-366, MP-4010, RVW- Rajkot, Chitrakoot, Morena,
4106, Raj-4079, Raj-4120 Kota, Baramati
FP, Farmers’ practice.

Table 7 Yield improvements in farmers’ fields due to cultivation of short-duration and drought-tolerant varieties in regions receiving >750 mm

rainfall.
Improvement
Black gram CO-6, Azad-2, IPU-94-1, P-93, Kullu-4, Jhansi, Datia, Kullu, Chamba, Satna, 880 35–45
PDU-1, UG-218, T-9, UG-218, Tikamgarh, Gumla, Villupuram,
Shekhar-2, Samrat, PU-35, VBN bg-6, Koderma, Kathua, Ganjam, Senapati,
Pusa Vishal, Him mash-1, PU-31, TAU-1, Srikakulam, East Singhbhum, Dantewada,
KU-301, LBG-709, 752, 645, WBU-108 Dimapur, Kedrapara, Tehri Garhwal, Ri-
Bhoi, East Sikkim, Cooch Behar
Chick pea JG-11, KGD-1168, P-372, JAKI-9218, Belgaum, Jhansi, Bilaspur, Hamirpur, 341 35–40
JG-74, Pusa-663, GPF2, JG-11, JG-16, Koderma, Uttarkashi, Dantewada,
PG-186, Pusa-256 Balaghat, Tehri Garhwal, West Kameng
Cotton NCH-145 Amravati 25 5–10
Green VBN-3, S-4, AKM-4, Samrat, TARM-1, Namakkal, Belgaum, Tirap, Amravati, Satna, 447 30–40
gram TM 96-2, MGG-295, Pusa Vishal, PDM Ganjam, Srikakulam, Dantewada,
139, Pratap, SML-668, K-851, Meha Sonepur, Dimapur, East Sikkim,
Kendrapara
Groundnut CO-6, TMV-7, TG-37A, JGN-3, TMV-13, Jhansi, Datia, Nandurbar, Villupuram, 276 15–20
Smuti, JL-24, ICGV-350, AK-159, Ganjam, Ri-Bhoi, Senapati, Gumla,
ICGS-76, Abhaya Dantewada, Phek
Maize Azad Uttam, GM-6, RM-1899, Bajaura Nandurbar, Datia, Kullu, Chamba, Tirap, 1159 30–40
Makka, Girija, Kanchan, RCM-75, Jehanabad, Nawada, Kathua, Phek, Malda,
Shaktiman-5, GK 3017, Super-36, Sonabhadra, Ganjam, Senapati, Hamirpur,
HQPM-1, Him mash-1, Suman-1, Palamu, Gumla, East Singhbhum,
Birsa Vikas Makka, JM-216, RCM-76, Dantewada, Mokokchung, Balaghat, West
161
VQPM-9, Nath Samrat 1144, DHM-117 Kameng, Lunglei, West Tripura
(Continued )
162
Table 7 Yield improvements in farmers’ fields due to cultivation of short-duration and drought-tolerant varieties in regions receiving >750 mm
rainfall.—cont'd.
Improvement
Mustard Pusa jai kisan, Pusa tarak, Rohini, RVM-2, Muzaffarnagar, Jhansi, Datia, Jehanabad, 549 35–40
Pusa gold, Pusa bold, Pusa Jagannath, NPJ- Satna, Kathua, Bilaspur, Chatra, Gumla,
113, Mahak, SL-203, NDR 8501, TS-36, Gorakhpur, East Singhbhum, Supaul,
TS-67, NC-1 Dimapur, West Garo Hills, Cooch Behar
Paddy Abhishek, Anjali, Annada, Arize, Attey, Jehanabad, Koderma, Namakkal, Chatra, 1338 30–35
Basanti, Bhalum 1, 2, 3, and 4, Birsa A. 1, Gumla, West Garo hills, Balaghat, East
CR-40, GB-1, Dantesari, Indira Barani Singhbhum, Raipur, Bilaspur, Datia,
Dhan-1, Indira Maheshwar, IR-64, JR- Buxar, Sonbhadra, Satna, Yamunangar,
201, Kasturi, MTU 1010, Karmamasuri, Saran, Jharsuguda, Aurangabad, Nawada,
MTU-7029, Naveen, NDR-359, NDR- Palamu, East Sikkim
97, NRC-7, PB-1, PR-114, Prabhat,
Pratikshya, Pusa Basmati Pusa-1121, Pusa-
1509, R. Subhasni, Sahbhagi Dhan,
Samleshwari, Subhasni, Sudha, Swarna
Mahsuri, Vandana, VL-154
Pigeon pea BRG-1, TS-3R, ICPL-88039, Asha-87119, Belgaum, Guna, Satna, Nandurbur, Datia, 770 35–45
ICPL-88039, Vipula, NDA-1, MAL-13, Palamu, Amaravati, Jehanabad, Nawada,

PRG158, TJT-401, NDA-2, ICPL-85063, Sonbhadra, Koderma, Bilaspur, Uttarkashi,
VL Arhar-1, Azad Bahar, Birsa Niger-1, Hamirpur, Gumla, East Singhbhum,
JNC-6, PGR-158, KB-17, TS-36, P-9, Mokokchung, Supaul, Balaghat,
TJT-501 Dibrugarh, Port Blair
Soybean JS-9560, Harit Soya, Palam Soya, JS-335, Guna, Datia, Kullu, Khammam, Tikamgarh, 894 10–20
PS-1092, VRP-22 Chhatarpur, Dimapur, Tehri Garhwal,
West Kameng, Alleppey
Wheat PBW 550, DWR-2006, Raj-3077, Muzaffarnagar, Belgaum, Jhansi, Datia, 1364 30–40
MP-4010, HPW-155, HPW-184, Kullu, Buxar, Jehanabad, Nawada, Satna,
HPW-236, HS-907, VL-829, HS-507, Sonbhadra, Chhatarpur, Yumunanagar,
HUW 234, PBW-502, HD-2824, Koderma, Kushinagar, Kathua, Bilaspur,
HW-2045, CBW-38, JW-3020, DBW-17, Gonda, Raipur, Uttarkashi, Bhatapara,
DPW-621-50, HD-2967, K-307, Hamirpur, Chatra, Maharajgunj, East
HD-2733, PBW-502, HS-490, Raj-3765, Singhbhum, Dantewada, Supaul, Balaghat,
GW-273, Ratan, PBW-373, VL-829, Phek, Tehri Garhwal, Dhubri, Cooch
Kanchan, K7025, HD-2733, K-9107, Behar
Sujata, JW-3211, Sonalika, UP-2572,
PBW-343
FP, Farmers’ practice.
163
846 mm), Madhya Pradesh which gave 14–20% higher yield than that of the
local variety. Short-duration variety of green gram (TARM-1) (60–65 days),
tolerant to yellow vein mosaic disease, and K-851, a short-duration variety of
green gram (65–70 days), were demonstrated in Odisha and realized higher
yields to the extent of 43% compared to local cultivars despite rainfall
shortages during crop growth in 2013.
In high rainfall regions of Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal,
Assam, and Northeast India with more than 1000 mm rainfall, paddy is
the predominant crop and staple food of the communities and long-duration
crop varieties are generally grown which mature in 180 days. Rainfed and
less water consuming paddy systems in vogue such as puddled transplanted,
direct seeded, dry seeded rice etc. are significantly influenced by the delay in
onset, prolonged breaks, and early withdrawal of monsoon affecting paddy
production in these regions (Soora et al., 2013).
Short-duration and drought-tolerant varieties of rice which can with-
stand up to 2 weeks of exposure to dry spells in rainfed areas were demon-
strated to manage rainfall variability. Some of the drought-tolerant rice
cultivars demonstrated were Sahbhagi dhan which is of 105–110 days dura-
tion in plain areas and 110–115 days in uplands of Jharkhand state, Naveen
(115–120 days) in Odisha, and Anjali (90 days) for Jharkhand (Prasad et al.,
2014). Other early maturing varieties in the eastern states of India such as
Birsa Vikas Dhan 109 (85 days), Abhishek (120 days) were also assessed.
Average yield obtained in farmers’ fields with Sahbhagi dhan was 3.5 t/ha
with a yield advantage of 26% over traditional long-duration variety in
seasons that experienced deficit rainfall situation as in 2013 at Jehanabad,
Aurangabad, Buxar, Saran, and Supaul districts in Bihar; Koderma, Palamu,
and Gumla districts in Jharkhand; and Jharsuguda district in Odisha, whereas
average yield of Anjali variety was 4.1 t/ha with a yield advantage of 41% in
Gumla and Chatra districts of Jharkhand in 2013 during which these districts
received a deficit rainfall of 15% during the monsoon season. Yield advantage
with these varieties in drought years ranged between 8% and 38% as com-
pared to the existing practice of growing long-duration varieties which often
get affected due to drought resulting in lower yields (Kumar et al., 2014;
Prasad et al., 2014).
Long-duration varieties of pigeon pea which mature in 220–250 days
suffer from drought during the cropping period due to irregular rainfall
distribution and also frost during December–January in some regions
of northern India. Short-duration pigeon pea varieties of 130–140 days
duration, not only escape drought and frost but also provide opportunities
for taking up succeeding crop during the postrainy season (December–April)

in some of the potentially double cropping areas of northern India. Cropping
intensification with two short-duration crops in sequence is an important
resilience measure as income from at least one of the crop is assured even
under variable climatic situations (Campbell et al., 2014).
As chick pea is largely grown during postrainy season with the receding
soil moisture in Vertisols of Central India, short-duration varieties have
distinct advantage as they complete their life cycle much before the soil
moisture gets exhausted thus escaping terminal drought situations
(Udmale et al., 2014). Short-duration varieties of chick pea (GNG-663,
GJG-3, JG-11, and Digvijay) were demonstrated during the postrainy season
of 2013 and 2014 in the villages of Rajkot, Jhunjhunu, Morena, Baramati,
and Aurangabad districts which receive rainfall of 400–700 mm.
Improvement in yields was 30–35% than that of traditional varieties of the
region (Table 6).
In some of the districts of Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, significant area is
affected with increased salinity. Introduction of salt-tolerant wheat varieties,
KRL-213 and KRL-210 resulted in uniform germination and good crop
stand producing a yield of 3.4 and 3.9 t/ha, respectively, which was higher by
31 and 40% over the farmers’ practice (Prasad et al., 2015).
3.5.1.2 Flood-Tolerant Paddy Varieties

Flooding associated with intense rains and cyclonic activity with overflow
of rivers and canals are the major constraints for rice production in the
country particularly in the eastern, northeastern, and coastal regions, and
in some of the flood plains of the rivers such as Ganges, Brahmaputra,
Godavari, Krishna etc. High-intensity storms and associated high-speed
winds lead to water logging, inundation of paddy fields and lodging of the
crop at grain filling and maturity stages causing significant crop loss. The
problem is accentuated due to flat topography with poor drainage and
siltation of existing drainage channels resulting in impedance of fast drainage
from crop lands (Sarkar et al., 2009). Apart from improving the drainage and
other preventive measures, adoption of flood-tolerant varieties which can
withstand inundation for an extended period can reduce the risk from flood
damage and minimize losses (Dar et al., 2013).
Rice varieties, Swarna-sub1, MTU-1010, MTU-1001, and MTU-
1140 are high yielding with good grain quality apart from possessing
submergence tolerance and can perform better under flooded situation.
Swarna-sub1 was demonstrated in flood-prone villages in Nimpith and
(A) (B)
Figure 16 Lodging damage with susceptible paddy variety and paddy variety tolerant
to flooding (A), Joymoti variety of paddy tolerant to flooding (B).
Cooch Behar districts in West Bengal; Supaul and Jehanabad in Bihar;

Kushinagar, Maharajganj, and Bahraich in Uttar Pradesh which gave an
average yield of 4.4 t/ha with a yield advantage of 40% compared to the
traditional varieties (Prasad et al., 2014). MTU-1010 and MTU-1140
are short-duration, dwarf varieties that can tolerate lodging, withstand
moderate wind velocity, and also possess long and slender grain quality.
Varieties such as Indra(MTU-1061) with a seed dormancy of 2–3 weeks
was non-lodging and tolerant to inundation up to 10 days (Fig. 16). In
regions where depth of water was more than 1 m and duration of flooding
was more than 10 days submergence-tolerant varieties, such as Jalashree
and Jalkuwari produced about 53% higher grain yield compared to tradi-
tional rice varieties in Dhubri district, Assam (Table 8).
3.5.1.3 Resilient Cropping Systems

In scarce rainfall zones of India, practice of sole cropping is predominant but
is risky and often results in low yields or sometimes even in crop failure due
to erratic monsoon rainfall and skewed distribution. Intercropping is a
potential option to minimize risk in crop production, ensure reasonable
returns at least from one of the intercrops during the years of low rainfall
and also to maximize returns during the years of favorable rainfall, utilize
the natural resources such as light and moisture effectively, and contribute to
the soil fertility build up (Ghosh et al., 2006). Intercropping systems with the
predominant crops of the region were assessed in various drought-prone
regions of the country.
Intercropping of foxtail millet with pigeon pea (5:1 ratio) sown under
delayed onset of monsoon conditions showed that the system was more
profitable with highest B:C ratio (5.1 compared to 1.5–2.6 in sole cropping)
in all the 3 years and can also tolerate dry spell up to 25 days without
Table 8 Performance of flood-tolerant varieties of paddy in flood-prone villages of India.
Improvement
Flooding and No. of in yield over
submergence Variety Location farmers FP (%)
Water level <1 Swarna-sub1, Dishang, Joymoti, Kushinagar, Saran, Gorakhpur, Maharajgunj, 1071 30–35
m and MTU-1010, MTU-1100, MTU- Bahraich, Gonda, West Godavari,
submergence 1064, MTU-1140, MTU-7029, Srikakulam, Kendrapara, Jharsuguda,
<10 days BPT-5204, Dehangi, Gitesh, Buxar, Jehanabad, Villupuram
Shasharang
Water level >1 Jalashree, Jalkuwari, Rajashree, Dhubri, Cachar, Sonitpur, Dibrugarh, 208 20–25
m and Karjat-2, Karjat-6, GAR-13, Kushinagar, Kendrapara
submergence Lalat, Luit
>10 days
167
(A) (B)
Figure 17 Resilient intercropping systems: soybean + pigeon pea (4:2) (A) and foxtail
millet + pigeon pea (5:1) (B).
impacting yields (Fig. 17). Intercropping of soybean + pigeon pea (4:2),

pearl millet + pigeon pea (3:3), pigeon pea + green gram (1:2), and cot-
ton + green gram (1:1) performed significantly better than respective sole
crops at Aurangabad, Maharashtra which receives an average rainfall of
645 mm (Prasad et al., 2015). In regions receiving rainfall of more than
750 mm, intercropping systems of groundnut + pigeon pea (4:1) at
Gumla, pigeon pea + black gram (2:4) and pigeon pea + pearl millet (3:3)
at Koderma, outperformed the sole crops. Among rabi (winter) crops, inter-
cropping of sorghum + chick pea (6:3) performed well compared to farmers’
practice of sole cropping of either crops at Belgaum (Tables 9 and 10).
3.5.1.4 Water Management in Various Rainfall Regions of India

The strategy of water management consists of selection of short-duration
and low water requiring crops and conserving as much rainwater as
possible so that crops can escape moisture stress during the growing
period particularly in the rainfed regions. In irrigated regions, focus is
on efficient utilization of water, reducing the application losses, enhancing
the water use efficiency, and maximizing the returns from applied water.
Conjunctive use of rain water and irrigation water offers one of the best
options for optimizing water use in water scarce regions for better crop
production (Pandey et al., 2003). In rainfed regions, the focus is on in situ
conservation measures as these measures help in even distribution of
rainwater in the field and prolong the availability of moisture to the crop
thus minimizing the impact of water scarcity on crop growth (Fig. 18). In
situ moisture conservation practices require relatively less resources and
hence, smallholders can effectively implement these practices with less cost
(Srinivasarao et al., 2015).
Table 9 Promising intercropping systems for various drought prone regions receiving
rainfall of less than 750 mm.
Equivalent yield Yield of
of intercropping sole crops District/
Intercropping system system (t/ha) (t/ha) location
Soybean + pigeon pea (4:2) 1.6 1.2 Aurangabad
Pigeon pea + pearl millet (3:3) 2.0 1.6 Aurangabad
Rabi sorghum + safflower (6:3) 2.9 2.8 Aurangabad
Rabi sorghum + chick pea (1:4) 2.9 2.5 Belgaum
Safflower + chick pea (1:1) 2.7 2.3 Belgaum
Maize + black gram (2:2) 2.5 1.7 Arjia
Groundnut + sesame (6:2) 1.7 1.5 Arjia
Chick pea + mustard (4:2) 1.4 1.0 Agra
Pigeon pea + sunflower (1:2) 5.5 4.2 Solapur
Table 10 Promising intercropping systems for various drought prone regions receiving
rainfall of more than 750 mm.
Equivalent
yield of Yield of
intercropping sole crop
Intercropping system system (t/ha) (t/ha) District/location
Groundnut + pigeon pea (4:1) 1.7 1.5 Gumla
Maize + pigeon pea (6:2) 3.2 2.8 Chatra
Pigeon pea + black gram (2:4) 1.7 0.8 Koderma
Pigeon pea + sorghum (1:4) 1.0 0.9 Gumla
Soybean + pigeon pea (6:2) 2.2 1.8 Amravati
Pigeon pea + maize (8:1) 1.5 1.2 Chianki
Pigeon pea + okra (1:1) 1.4 0.4 Chianki
Pigeon pea + sorghum (1:2) 1.3 0.8 Chianki
Maize + pigeon pea (2:2) 5.5 4.0 Phulbani
Maize + cow pea (1:1) 3.4 1.9 Phulbani
Maize + black gram (2:1) 2.1 1.6 Ballowal Saunkhri
Maize + green gram (2:1) 2.0 1.5 Ballowal Saunkhri
Pigeon pea + soybean (1:1) 1.4 0.6 Bengaluru Rural
Groundnut + castor (8:1) 1.0 0.6 Bengaluru Rural
Finger millet + pigeon pea (8:2) 3.1 2.7 Bengaluru Rural
Soybean + pigeon pea (4:2) 2.5 1.7 Akola
Cotton + green gram (1:1) 1.4 1.2 Akola
Water management strategies in CRV
Rainfed systems Irrigated systems
In situ moisture Water saving Efficient crops/

conservation Farm ponds irrigation methods cropping systems
• Conservation Storage Pressurized

furrow irrigated
• Ridge and furrow systems
• Broad bed furrow
• Paired row
• Sunken and raised
bed
• Contour cultivation Reduced evaporation
Figure 18 Various water management strategies implemented in CRVs of India.
3.5.1.5 In Situ Moisture Conservation Measures in Different Rainfall Regions

In situ water harvesting using simple technologies enables greater water
infiltration, temporarily impounds water on the surface of the soil to
increase the opportunity time for infiltration, prolongs the availability
of moisture to the crop, and enables crop to survive under variable rainfall
conditions (Srinivasarao and Gopinath, 2016). Good in situ soil and water
conservation practices improve soil porosity, increase infiltration and soil
hydraulic conductivity, and consequently increase soil water storage and
promote crop growth (Srinivasarao et al., 2016a). Emphasis was given to
in situ measures such as conservation furrows, bunding, land leveling,
compartmental bunding, sowing across the slope, ridge and furrow, trench
cum bunding, contour farming, etc. (Fig. 19). Selection of appropriate
soil and water conservation measure for a location depends on the amount
and the distribution of rainfall, slope and soil type, depth and texture,
especially the clay content and clay type, which greatly influence water
holding capacity and hydraulic conductivity impacting runoff and soil
erosion (Pathak et al., 2005).
Adoption of conservation furrows at specified interval in a crop was
helpful to improve the soil moisture availability at the root zone and even-
tually increased the productivity of crops by 15–20% in dry regions of the
country compared to the traditional practices of farmers. Formation of
(A) (B)
(C) (D)
Figure 19 In situ moisture conservation through bunding (A), trench cum bunding (B),
ridge and furrow (C), and contour cultivation (D).
conservation furrow in between rows of castor, cotton, and pigeon pea

improved the crop productivity by 11–15% compared to the farmers’ prac-
tice of without furrow across various locations in peninsular India receiving
less than 750 mm of rainfall (Table 11).
Ridge and furrow method of sowing was demonstrated in Vertisols of
Madhya Pradesh receiving less than 750 mm rainfall as an in situ moisture
conservation and planting method in different crops like pigeon pea, black
gram, green gram, and soybean. Crops performed better under ridge and
furrow method of sowing and the seed yields increased by 22% in pigeon pea,
28% in black gram, 39% in green gram, and 27% in soybean when compared
to farmers’ practice of flat bed method of sowing across several locations.
In Alfisols of peninsular India which receive a rainfall of less than
750 mm, in situ soil moisture conservation through ridge and furrow plant-
ing in black gram, green gram, and soybean resulted in a yield of 0.5, 0.6, and
1.3 t/ha, respectively, despite prolonged dry spells during the crop season
in 2014. Similarly, ridge and furrow planting of soybean in Datia district
of Madhya Pradesh gave a yield of 1.1 t/ha compared to 0.8 t/ha in
172
Table 11 Impact of in situ water conservation measures on crop yields.
Yield improvement over
Practice Crop District/location farmers’ practice (%)
Regions receiving <500 mm rainfall
Bunding and leveling Sorghum Kutch 30
Cotton Kutch 61
Sesame Kutch 18
Castor Kutch 61
Conservation furrow Soybean, pearl millet Ahmednagar 15
Land leveling Paddy, cotton, cluster bean Sirsa 11–33
Regions receiving 500–1000 mm rainfall
Compartmental bunding Rabi sorghum Baramati 45
Pearl millet Agra 35
Pearl millet S K Nagar 26
Mulching Okra Jehanabad 51
Chilli Bengaluru 75
Cotton Rajkot 12
Conservation furrow Castor Kurnool 8
Cotton, pigeon pea Nalgonda, 5–8
Aurangabad
Cotton Aurangabad 10
Pigeon pea Aurangabad 15

Cotton Rajkot 18
Groundnut Anantapur 8
Soybean Akola 17
Soybean, pigeon pea, cotton Parbhani 35–40
Trench cum bunding Finger millet, maize, horse Davanagere 22–24
gram, groundnut
Bunding Paddy Jehanabad 45

Soybean Amaravati 32
Land leveling Paddy Jehanabad 35
Pearl millet Baramati 23
Sowing across slope Soybean Amravati 29
Ridge and furrow Cotton Amravati 58
Black gram, maize, pigeon Morena 8–10
pea, green gram, soybean,
mustard
Castor Kurnool 18
Maize, soybean Nandurbar 15
Pearl millet, black gram, green Agra 31–48
gram, sesame, cluster bean
Castor S K Nagar 29
Rabi sorghum Solapur 22
Regions receiving >1000 mm rainfall
Ridge and furrow Wheat, chick pea, lentil Uttarkashi 50
Cotton Khammam 11
Tomato Cooch Behar 74
Mulching Cucumber Cooch Behar 10
Mustard, toria East Sikkim 70–82
Chilli Khammam 12
Turmeric, ginger East Singhbhum 12–15
Potato, tomato Biswanath Chariali 75
Hoeing and weeding Paddy, maize, pigeon pea, Phulbani 16–22
groundnut, sesame
Summer ploughing Maize Ballowal Saunkhri 14
Sowing across slope Maize Ballowal Saunkhri 6
173
Set furrows Pearl millet, pigeon pea Vijayapura 11–14
conventional practice. Land leveling and compartmental bunding resulted in

15–20% higher yield of finger millet compared to without leveling and
bunding. Trench cum bunding was taken up at several locations which were
found to improve the crop yields by 12–30% over without bunding. During
intense rainfall events, most of the top soil from the cultivated fields was
retained in the trenches leading to conserving fertile top soil in trenches and
allowing safe disposal of excess rainwater. The soil trapped due to trench cum
bunding was in the range of 11.5–21.2 m3/acre per year and farmers could
save the valuable top soil being eroded from their fields. Similarly, in situ
moisture conservation measures like ploughing across the slope and contour
bunding increased the crop yields by 12–22% over no bunding. Tank silt
(fine soil particles deposited in tanks) application was done for improving
water holding capacity and productivity of soils which increased the yields
of finger millet by 16–22% over no tank silt application.
In high rainfall regions receiving rainfall of more than 1000 mm, mois-
ture conservation through mulching especially in high value vegetable crops
helped to overcome drought-like situations where the second crop was
grown with both the residual moisture and harvested water during the
postrainy season. This enabled less weed growth, pest infestation, and less
water application, thereby increasing the crop yield and water productivity.
Crops such as broccoli, tomato, capsicum, etc. were some of the high value
crops grown with the harvested water which provided higher returns to the
farmers even though the volume of production was less due to less quantity of
the harvested water. Similarly, in high rainfall regions such as Khagribari
village of Cooch Behar district of West Bengal which receives a rainfall of
2983 mm, raised bed cultivation of cucumber with plastic mulching gave
higher yield (29.1 t/ha) compared to flat bed cultivation (26.2 t/ha) due to
favorable soil moisture and temperature conditions (Table 11).
3.5.1.6 Effect of Supplemental Irrigation on Crop Yields in Various Rainfall

Regions
The importance of rainwater harvesting has increased in recent years due to
the increased rainfall variability and depletion of groundwater levels.
Rainwater harvesting in farm pond, check dam, percolation tank, recharge
pits, and wells with recharging structures enables to collect excess runoff
during high intensity rains, facilitates groundwater recharge, and thus pro-
vides opportunity to farmers to give supplemental irrigation to crops during
deficient monsoon season and also opportunities for double cropping
depending on the availability of water (Fig. 20).
Figure 20 Rainwater harvesting and efficient utilization—unlined farm pond (A), lined
farm pond (B), check dam (C), sand bag check dam (D), drip irrigation in cotton through
harvested rainwater (E), and sprinkler irrigation system (F).
Namakkal district of Tamil Nadu, receives annual rainfall of 400 mm, has
undulating topography, and experiences frequent droughts during crop
growing season. Desilting has increased the storage capacity of village tanks
by 36,617 m3 which further resulted in recharging of 22 bore wells, 10 open
wells and increased groundwater table by 2–2.5 m, met the drinking water
needs of livestock during summer months, provided opportunities for sup-
plemental irrigation to crops such as groundnut, sorghum, and onion in
137 ha, and improved the crop yields by 20–30% during 2012–14. In the
village of Kutch district, which receives an annual rainfall of 360 mm,
renovation of defunct check dams resulted in enhancing the water storage

capacity to the extent of 5000 m3 and contributed to recharge of adjoining
wells. Utilization of this harvested water with drip method of irrigation
increased crop yields by 15–26% during 2013.
In D. Nagenahalli village of Tumakuru district of Karnataka, which
receives annual rainfall less than 700 mm, intensive rainwater harvesting
was taken up involving about 72 new farm ponds, 5 check dams, 13
percolation ponds, 4 cement/plastic lined storage structures, 15 renovated
farm ponds, 8 renovated check dams, 2 renovated community tanks, desilt-
ing and widening of catchment channel for enhancing the water storage
capacity of the village tank to harvest as much water as possible and to
saturate the village with water harvesting structures and provide access to
harvested water for every farmer in the village. This resulted in creating a
water harvesting potential of 196,560 m3. Seventeen out of 32 open wells
and 11 out of 29 bore wells were recharged due to creation of water
harvesting structures. The water harvested in these structures increased
the area under irrigation by 75 ha of the village out of the total cultivated
area of 190 ha and contributed to increase in cropping intensity to 139%.
Efficient methods of irrigation such as sprinkler and drip methods resulted
in reducing the application losses and enhanced the income of farmers
through high value crops with optimum use of harvested water (Sharma
and Sharma, 2015). The quantum of water harvested in low rainfall regions
depends on the catchment area, the intensity, distribution of the rainfall,
and the capacity of the water harvesting structures. The benefits from these
structures can be maximized by sharing the precious water and selection of
high value crops.
In regions receiving rainfall of more than 750 mm, several options
for harvesting and storing of rainfall such as farm ponds, check dams,
percolation tanks exist which can be effectively used for coping with
droughts by providing supplemental irrigation. One of the low cost meth-
ods is polybag check dam which can be taken up at multiple locations
in the stream to augment the water storage. The augmented groundwater
in wells was used for providing lifesaving irrigation to soybean and
groundnut during pod formation stage in 71 ha, which enhanced the crop
yields by 26–32% with an additional net return of Rs. 5000–8000 per
hectare in a village which receives a rainfall of 743 mm in Datia district of
Madhya Pradesh. The harvested rainwater was also used for providing
presowing irrigation to postrainy season crops such as mustard and chick
pea (Table 12).
Table 12 Impact of water harvesting and method of irrigation on crop yields.
Water harvesting Method of Yield improvement over
structure Crop District/location supplemental irrigation farmers’ practice (%)
Regions receiving <500 mm rainfall
Farm pond Groundnut, rabi crops, vegetables Namakkal Furrow 25–30
Check dam Cotton, castor, chick pea, wheat, Kutch, Ahmednagar Sprinkler 4–42
sorghum
Pomegranate Ahmednagar Drip 127
Farm pond Maize Davangere Sprinkler 22
Paddy, wheat, lentil, chick pea Jehanabad Sprinkler 26
Soybean Amravati Sprinkler 5
Cotton, chick pea, wheat Amravati Sprinkler 40
Pigeon pea Morena Sprinkler 5
Pigeon pea Anantapur Furrow 85
Cotton Rajkot Drip 61
Groundnut Rajkot Raingun 52
Castor S K Nagar Drip 40
Soybean Akola Furrow 141
Cotton, onion, marigold Kovilpatti Raingun 12
Soybean, pigeon pea, cotton Parbhani Furrow 75
Check dam Rabi sorghum, wheat, onion Baramati Sprinkler, flood, drip 18–22
Paddy Jehanabad Basin 32
Sand bag check Chick pea Nandurbar Flood 15
dam
(Continued )
177
178
Table 12 Impact of water harvesting and method of irrigation on crop yields.—cont'd.
Water harvesting Method of Yield improvement over
structure Crop District/location supplemental irrigation farmers’ practice (%)
Storage tank Vegetables Kullu Sprinkler 20
Farm pond Paddy, wheat East Singhbhum, Flood 20–25
Cooch Behar
Wheat Bilaspur Flood 50
Wheat Cooch Behar Sprinkler 22
Paddy, wheat, lentil Aurangabad Flood 78
Paddy, cotton, chilli Khammam Flood 15
Paddy Supaul Flood 64
Potato Biswanath Chariali Flood 195
Rapeseed Biswanath Chariali Furrow 10
Paddy, maize Jagdalpur Furrow 15
Paddy Phulbani Flood 30
Paddy Rewa Flood 10
Sand bag check Paddy, wheat, vegetables East Singhbhum Furrow 22
dam Paddy, cotton Khammam Flood 10
Jalkund (traditional Vegetables Ri-Bhoi Furrow 38
farm pond) Vegetables East Sikkim Sprinkler 47
Drainage channel Paddy, wheat, lentil Supaul, Aurangabad Flood, sprinkler 75

In regions receiving rainfall of about 1000 mm or more, though the

total amount of rainfall received is sufficient for crop growth and produc-
tion, crops suffer from moisture stress due to erratic distribution of the
monsoon. Small-scale harvesting structures at individual farm level enabled
farmers’ to use the harvested water during critical periods of crop growth
and in some cases second crop was taken by providing presowing irrigation.
For example, in Gumla district of Jharkhand, which receives a rainfall of
1450 mm, a sand bag dam across the seasonal rivulet augmented water
storage significantly in the stream and lifting of this water for irrigation
provided opportunity for double and triple cropping. In the same village,
during 2012, about 50 ha were brought under wheat cultivation during
the postrainy season which was about 10% of the total cultivated area of the
village. During 2013, about 89 farmers cultivated wheat in 50 ha area
which gave a yield of 3.2 t/ha. With this guaranteed water source, some
of the farmers opted for cultivation of high value crops such as vegetables
which further improved their incomes.
In much of eastern India, with the rainfall of 1000 mm and above, rice is
grown under rainfed conditions. Delay in the onset of monsoon often affects
the transplanting resulting in overaging of the seedlings which reduces the
crop yields. Water harvesting and storage in the villages helped in use of
harvested water for taking up field operations timely so that the transplanting
operation does not get delayed. During 2014–15, though the onset of
monsoon was delayed by almost 15 days, farmers in East Singhbhum district
of Jharkhand prepared their nursery, puddled the main field, and took up
transplanting of rice using harvested water.
In hilly areas of Central and Eastern Himalayas, with rainfall during rainy
season >1500 mm, water scarcity is a major problem particularly during
offseason. In West Garo Hills, the Jalkund (traditional farm pond) of dimen-
sion 5 × 4 × 1.5 m with silpaulin as lining material created a storage capacity
of 30 m3 of harvested water during rainy season which was used for provid-
ing critical irrigation during dry spells in winter vegetables like cabbage,
cauliflower, and tomato and farmer realized a total net income of over
Rs. 0.1 million during 2014.
3.5.1.7 Improved Planting Methods in Various Rainfall Regions

Improved planting method reduces the velocity of runoff water, increases the
opportunity time for water to infiltrate and spread in the soil profile, and
reduces sediment losses. Improved planting methods also play a major role in
providing opportunity for safe disposal of excess water in deep black soils
where the rate of infiltration is low (Patil et al., 2010; Praharaj et al., 2011;
Mishra et al., 2012).
Formation of BBF in soybean in Vertisols of Central India served as
conservation as well as for draining excess water and increased yields to
the extent of 23% and also enhanced net benefit by Rs. 6223 per hectare
than that of flat method of sowing. Demonstrations on BBF method of
soybean planting in farmers’ fields of Datia district of Madhya Pradesh gave
about 15–20% higher yield compared to the farmers’ practice. Similarly, BBF
method of sowing resulted in postrainy season sorghum yield of 1.3 t/ha
compared to 0.4 t/ha in control plots (Table 13).
In many North Indian states, wheat sowing by conventional methods
requires two to three tillage operations to prepare a fine seedbed after
harvesting of paddy crop which costs both time and money for the farmers.
A delay in sowing of wheat may result in coinciding of wheat maturity with
high temperature which will have a bearing on yields. Providing irrigation
after the harvest of paddy and subsequent tillage and seedbed preparation
requires at least 15 days’ time and leads to delay in sowings. Zero tillage
allows timely sowing of wheat, enables uniform drilling of seed, improves
Table 13 Impact of planting methods on crop yields in various rainfall zones of the
country.
Yield
improvement
over farmers’
Planting method Crop District/location practice (%)
Zero tillage Wheat Morena 31
Broad bed and Soybean Amravati, 22–43
furrow (BBF) Aurangabad
Green gram, Kovilpatti 4
barnyard millet
Sorghum Kovilpatti 20
Maize Kovilpatti 15
Zero till Wheat Bilaspur, Cooch 23–34
Behar, Aurangabad
Pea Ri-Bhoi 32
Maize Srikakulam 20
Raised bed Ginger, turmeric Ri-Bhoi 56
planting
fertilizer use efficiency, saves water, and increases yield up to 20%

(Venkatesh et al., 2013). Zero till sowing using the seed drill also enables
wheat sowing in residues of paddy and can reduce the need for burning
which can minimize the emissions of GHGs due to burning of paddy
residues (Sapkota et al., 2015).
Zero tillage wheat sowing with paddy residues was demonstrated in
several wheat growing states of India, such as Punjab, Haryana, Uttar
Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh. Zero tillage planting reduced the cost of
cultivation by Rs. 3760 per hectare, increased grain yield by 5–6%,
reduced weed infestation due to the presence of straw mulch, and saved
water and energy in comparison to the conventional method of wheat
sowing. Wheat sowing with Happy Seeder provided an alternative
to burning of paddy residues and allowed direct drilling of wheat seed in
standing as well as loose residues thus effectively reducing the emissions to
the extent of 5.71 t CO2 per hectare per year (Hobbs and Gupta, 2003;
Sapkota et al., 2015).
3.5.1.8 Foliar Sprays to Mitigate Midseason Drought

Foliar nutrition is often timed to meet the demand of nutrients at specific
crop growth stages to aid plants in recovering from transplant shock,
drought, hail damage, and other damaging environmental conditions.
Foliar fertilization supplements, macro- and micronutrients, plant hor-
mones, stimulants, and other beneficial substances are found to increase
crop yields, impart tolerance to diseases and insect pests, drought, and
enhance crop quality. Urea is one of the most common N sources used
for foliar applications because it is highly soluble, inexpensive, and has a
relatively low potential of injuring foliage (Bowman and Paul, 1992). Foliar
spray of 2% KCl at flowering stage in rapeseed increased yields by 51% over
no spray (499 kg/ha) at Biswanath Chariali. Similarly, spray of KNO3
(twice) recorded 12–25% higher yields of cotton and soybean compared
to no foliar spray (Table 14).
3.5.2 Household Income and Livelihood
3.5.2.1 Integrated Farming System Models for Enhanced Resilience

The household, its resources and the resource flows, and interactions at the
individual farm levels are together referred to as a farm system (FAO, 2001)
and the proportion and the arrangement of farming enterprises depends on
physical, biological, and socioeconomic environment and in accordance
Table 14 Impact of foliar sprays on different crop yields during dry spells.
Improvement
in yield (%)
District/ over farmers’
Crop location Treatment practice
Rapeseed Biswanath KCI 2% 51
Chariali
Paddy Jagdalpur Urea 2% 6
Maize Arjia ZnSO4 0.5% 22
Maize Ballowal KNO3 1% and ZnSO4 0.5% 5–6
Saunkhri
Finger millet Bengaluru KCI 2% and thiourea 250 g/ha 40
Pearl millet Agra Urea 2% + KNO3 2% 71
Pearl millet S K Nagar Urea 1% and N @ 20 kg/ha 35
Groundnut Anantapur KNO3 2% 15
Cotton Rajkot KNO3 2% 25
Soybean, cotton Parbhani KNO3 2% 12
with farmer’s goals, preferences, and resources (Shanwad et al., 2015). No

single farm enterprise is likely to sustain the small and marginal farmers
without resorting to integrated farming systems (IFSs) for the generation
of adequate income, gainful employment year round, and minimizing the
risk in farming. Hence, it is necessary to integrate different enterprises like
livestock, poultry, duckery, apiary, field, and horticultural crops, etc. within
the biophysical and socioeconomic environment of the farmers to make
farming more profitable and reduce risk in farming particularly under small-
holder situation (Das et al., 2014; Shanwad et al., 2015). Diversification of
farming activities improves the utilization of labor, reduces unemployment
in areas where there is a surplus of underutilized labor, and provides a source
of living for those households that operate their farm as a full time occupa-
tion. The farming systems approach is considered as important and relevant
especially for the small and marginal farmers as location-specific IFS will be
more resilient and adaptive to climate variability (Gopinath et al., 2012).
Livelihood diversification opportunities were explored and demonstrated
by adopting location-specific IFS models combining small enterprises such as
crop, livestock, poultry, piggery, fish and duck rearing in several districts.
In regions with rainfall of 500–700 mm, the focus of the farming systems was
on livestock with promotion of low water requiring grasses, trees, and bushes
to meet fodder, fuel, and timber requirements of the farmers. In some of the
low rainfall regions, such as Datia in Madhya Pradesh, IFS model with a farm
pond was demonstrated for efficient utilization of harvested rainwater to
cultivate field crops, vegetables, and dairy and fish production. Fish finger-
lings of Catla, Rohu, Mrigal, and grass carp were introduced into the pond.
A net return from the IFS model was Rs. 52,000 per year. About 50% of the
cost of dugout pond could be recovered in the first year. In 700–1100 mm
rainfall regions, crop-, horticulture-, and livestock-based farming systems are
introduced depending on the soil type and the market demand. In areas
where the rainfall is more than 1100 mm, IFS module integrating paddy with
fisheries is ideal and can harness synergies among the components of the
system and give significantly higher returns in comparison to the arable
cropping alone (Fig. 21).
In Bhongeri village of South 24 Parganas district (rainfall >1000 mm),
which is frequently affected by TC, through land shaping treatment mono-
cropped paddy area was converted to an area with multiple cropping options
in addition to transforming into an IFS model. In the lowland paddy fields
which were prone to water logging, 20% area was excavated to create a
Farm
Rainfed systems Household food
ponds
security
Field crops
Household
nutrition
Horticulture society
IFS Ecological
sustainability
Livestock
Livelihood
security
Fish/
poultry/
High rainfall
duckery
systems
Compost/
Other on
vermicompost
farm
livelihoods
Figure 21 Integrated farming systems (IFSs) models for household food, livelihood, and
ecological sustainability.
Table 15 Income benefits associated with the integrated farming systems in Northeast
hill ecosystems of India.
Additional
income (Rs.
Technology per hectare
KVK State Intervention demonstrated per year)
Dhubri Assam Integrated Integrated fish cum 450,000
farming system duck farming
Dhubri Assam Integrated Integrated paddy cum 70,000
farming system fish farming in low
lying areas
Imphal East Manipur Integrated Water reed cum fish 17,000
farming system farming
Ri-Bhoi Meghalaya Integrated Duck cum fish 14,000
farming system integrated farming
Dimapur Nagaland Composite fish Catla, Rohu, Mrigal, 80,000
farming Silver Carp, Grass
Carp
West Tripura Tripura Composite fish Catla, Rohu, Mrigal, 146,300
culture Silver Carp, Grass
Carp
dugout pond of 8–9 ft. depth. The excavated soil was spread in the main field
with embankments and improved short-duration rice cultivars in kharif and
vegetables were grown during rabi which significantly enhanced the income
from crop diversification. Fish and duck rearing was taken up in the dugout
pond resulting in a revenue of Rs. 60,200 per hectare per year which was
significantly higher than that of sole arable cropping. In high rainfall regions
of eastern India (West Bengal and Odisha) and Kerala in South India intro-
duction of composite fish farming significantly increased the income. Six fish
species namely, Catla, Rohu, Mrigal, Silver Carp, Grass Carp, and Common
Carp were stocked in the tank for 8 months which gave a net return of Rs.
82,580 per hectare (Table 15).
3.5.2.2 Introduction of Stress-Tolerant Breeds of Livestock
Climate change has posed new challenges to the sustainability of livestock
production system with serious implications to smallholders. The availability
of natural resources that support livestock is sensitive to climate change thus
impacting the productivity of livestock. In developing countries, livestock
are important for contributing to the resilience of small and marginal farmers
through risk minimization. Besides, livestock offers multiple benefits such as
a source of protein, organic manure, and income to poor and marginal

farmers. However, improving productivity of livestock including small
ruminants (sheep and goats) under smallholder farming systems is faced with
challenges of unfavorable climatic events. As the productivity of the indig-
enous breeds is low and they often show poor recovery from drought and
disease, changes to the breeds and rearing practice can help adapt better to
the climatic variability and with greater productivity (Kinyangi et al., 2015).
Improved breeds of goat such as Sirohi (Ahmednagar, Aurangabad, and
Nandurbar districts), Jamunapari and Lalitpuri (Datia), and sheep such as
Tellicherry and Nari Suvarna (Namakkal) were introduced in the villages.
Improved breeds of pig such as Hampshire Cross, Ghungroo, Duric, and
White Yorkshire were introduced in the northeast districts of the country
where pig is an important component of the farming system. Initially,
breed improvement was focused in small ruminants as it takes less time and
labor to raise them compared to large cattle, and the meat and milk gains of
small ruminants far exceed cattle because they have shorter reproductive
cycles and maximize the available grass and fodder use from grazing sheep
and browsing goats. Stress-tolerant and productive breeds of poultry were
introduced in villages including breeds of Vanaraja and Gramapriya
(Dimapur, Dibrugarh, East Sikkim, Lunglei, Ri-Bhoi, Senapati, Cooch
Behar), Rajashree (Anantapur), Kalinga Brown (Cachar), Chabro (Jhansi),
and Kadaknath (Balaghat) (Table 16).
3.5.2.3 Fodder Production With Improved Cultivars

Adequate availability of fodder, either green or dry, is one of the limiting
factors for enhancing the productivity of the livestock particularly in rainfed
areas during the lean season (offseason) of fodder availability that is,
December–May (Sati and Singh, 2010). Introduction of livestock in the
regions should go hand in hand with ensuring fodder availability particularly
in drought prone districts in southern and western parts of India. Short- and
medium-duration fodder cultivars of several crops for both rainy and
postrainy seasons and perennial fodder crops were introduced in farmers’
fields under rainfed conditions with limited irrigation to enhance the fodder
production and income from the animal component. For example,
in Sakrorha village of Jehanabad, with rainfall of 439 mm during
June–September which was about 46% of the normal rainfall of 839 mm
in 2014, interventions were taken up with livestock farmers on cultivation
of fodder sorghum and pearl millet during the rainy season, and oats
(JHO 822) and berseem (Vardan) in postrainy season. Increase in availability
Table 16 Improved breeds introduced in CRVs across different districts.

No. of animals/
District Improved breed birds introduced
Cachar, Dibrugarh Kalinga Brown (poultry), Vanaraja 1000
(poultry)
Dimapur Vanaraja and Gramapriya (poultry) 200
East Sikkim Vanaraja (poultry) 140
Lunglei Vanaraja (poultry) 10
Anantapur Rajasree (poultry) 35
Khammam, Nalgonda Vanaraja (poultry) 30
Balaghat Kadaknath (poultry) 100
Kendrapara, Sonitpur Vanaraja and Blackrock (poultry) 1215
Ganjam Rainbow Rooster (poultry) 100
Jhansi Chabro (poultry) 400
Ri-Bhoi Vanaraja (poultry), Assam hill goat 48
and Hampshire cross (pig)
Senapati Gramapriya (poultry) and 300
Hampshire cross (pig)
West Kameng Ghungroo, Hampshire cross, 17
Duric, Large White Yorkshire
(pig)
Gumla, Chatra Beetal buck (goat) 21
Cooch Behar Khaki Campbell (duck), Vanaraja 46
(poultry)
Chitrakoot Lalitpuri (goat) 52
Gorakhpur Barbary (goat) 5
Ahmednagar, Sirohi (goat), Giriraja (poultry) 60
Aurangabad,
Nandurbar, Amravati
Datia, Satna Murrah (buffalo), Jamunapari and 30
Lalitpuri (goat)
Tikamgarh Jamunapari (goat) 5
Jharsuguda Black Bengal (goat) 40
Namakkal Rams of NARI Suvarna (sheep), 2
Tellicherry (goat)
Jodhpur Tharparkar (bullock) 82
of quality fodder throughout the year improved the milk production by 39%
and farmer’s income was increased by Rs. 70 per day per animal. In
salt affected regions of Baramati district, Maharashtra, introduction of salt-
tolerant marvel grass (Dichanthium annulatum Forssk.) Phule Govardhan
resulted in 29% increase in biomass over fodder sorghum under deficit
rainfall conditions (Prasad et al., 2015) (Table 17).
Table 17 Productivity of improved fodder crops and varieties in various climatically

vulnerable regions of the country.
Fodder
production
State District Fodder crop and cultivar (t/ha per year)
Uttar Bahraich, Chitrakoot, Sorghum (Pusa Chari-6), 35
Pradesh Gonda, Gorakhpur,
Jhansi, Muzaffarnagar,
Sonbhadra
Berseem (Vardan, 70
JHB-146)
Oat (JHO 822) 18
Hybrid Napier 121
(NB-21, PB-21)
Bihar Supaul, Buxar, Maize (African tall, M.P 30–45
Jehanabad, Chari), cow pea (Co-5),
Aurangabad, Saran oat (JHO 822), Sudan
grass, pearl millet
(HHB-67)
Telangana Khammam, Nalgonda Multicut sorghum 18
(Sugar graze)
Hybrid Napier 180
(APBN-1)
Andhra Anantapur Hybrid Napier (Co-4) 150
Pradesh
Maharashtra Ahmednagar Multicut fodder (pearl 31
millet)
Amravati Maize (Yashwant) 30
Nandurbar Lucerne (RL-88) 27
Gujarat Valsad Perennial grass (Co-1, 150
Co-2, and Co-4)
Punjab Fatehgarh Sahib, Maize (J-1006) 40
Faridkot
Madhya Balaghat Maize (J-1006, M.P 12
Pradesh Chari),
Datia Barseem (BL-1, BB-3), 35
Morena Oat (JHO-851) 31
Tamil Nadu Namakkal Sorghum (CoFS-29) 9
3.5.2.4 Silage Making

Making green fodder available during the dry period (December–May) is an
important intervention for sustaining the productivity of livestock in CRVs.
Silage making of green fodder was introduced in perennially drought prone
districts of Maharashtra. Silage making using polybags, plastic drum sand silo
pits was demonstrated for crops like fodder maize, giant pearl millet, and
multicut fodder sorghum. The practice saved costs toward purchase of green
fodder from the market while increasing the income by Rs. 0.04 million by
way of increase in milk yield and thus stabilized household income of farmer
during worst drought affected years. In Yagantipalle village of Kurnool,
ensiled chopped green fodder from maize in silage bags of 500 kg capacity
sufficient to feed one milch animal @ 5 kg/day resulted in increase in milk
yield by 15.5% compared to the farmers’ practice of feeding only dry fodder
(Prasad et al., 2015).
Addressing the deficiency of specific nutrients and providing balanced
feed contributed to improved animal health besides milk productivity. In
Sitara village of Bharatpur district, balanced ration coupled with feeding of
urea molasses bricks and mineral mixture supplementation increased milk
yield by 15–20%. The practice was then adopted by several other cattle
owners in the adjoining villages leading to increase in milk production to
the extent of 5 L/day per animal (Table 18).
3.5.2.5 Shelter Management for Livestock and Small Ruminants

Proper housing buffers the animal from climate extremes particularly heat
stress, rainstorm, cyclone, cold wave etc. allowing optimal animal perfor-
mance in terms of growth, health, and reproduction. A semiintensive system
of rearing of goats in a slatted floor with proper roof to provide shelter to the
animals was adopted to tackle heat stress during summer when temperature
often reaches 46°C in western and southern regions of the country and also
to protect the animals from rainstorms during monsoon. Locally available
wooden planks were used for making slatted floor. The roof of the shelter
was made with bamboo and covered with either thatched material or coarse
cereal crop residues which are locally available. This model of a semiintensive
system of rearing of goats in a slatted floor was demonstrated in Vadhavathur
village at Namakkal, Tamil Nadu. Due to the gap between the slats, collec-
tion of fecal material was easy and there was no accumulation of ammonia in
the shed during rainy and winter seasons. The problem of spread of coccid-
iosis and tape worm infestation to healthy animals was controlled to a great
extent. This resulted in decreased mortality from 10% to 2% and expenditure
for treatment of affected animals was also avoided. The live weight gain of
animals was enhanced from 60–70 to 78–86 g per day as a result of protection
from heat stress. Such locally made shelter management systems were intro-
duced in several districts namely, Khammam (Telangana), Srikakulam
Table 18 Improvement in income due to use of mineral mixture/urea molasses mineral

blocks in CRVs.
Additional income
realized (Rs. per
KVK State Intervention animal per year)
Faridkot Punjab Use of mineral mixture 1,000
in dairy animals
Hamirpur Himachal Pradesh Mineral mixture 2,500
supplementation
Kinnaur Himachal Pradesh Mineral mixture 2,000
supplementation
Cooch West Bengal Mineral mixture 4,200
Behar supplementation for
livestock
Tirap Arunachal Pradesh Supplementation of 1,100
mineral mixture in
goat
West Garo Meghalaya Mineral mixture 2,800
Hill supplementation in
pigs
Tikamgarh Madhya Pradesh Mineral mixture 1,800
supplementations in
livestock
(Andhra Pradesh), Kota and Jodhpur (Rajasthan), Kutch (Gujarat), West

Tripura (Tripura), Mokokchung (Nagaland), West Garo Hills (Meghalaya),
Lunglei (Mizoram), Phek (Nagaland), Jehanabad and Saran (Bihar),
Namakkal (Tamil Nadu) etc.
3.5.2.6 Housing for Backyard Poultry

Backyard poultry farming requires less inputs and is affordable by the poor
farmers, and its high return on investment is known to improve the farm-
ers’ living standards (Patel et al., 2014). Backyard poultry farming is an
inseparable part of rural households in the Northeast region as it plays an
important role in improving the economic status and fulfilling the protein
requirement thus contributing to the food and nutritional security of the
households (Khadait et al., 2011). In Kyrdem village of Ri-Bhoi,
Meghalaya about 32 farmers adopted 20 birds each of Vanaraja breed.
Farmers were advised on low-cost poultry housing made from locally
available materials like bamboo and thatch grass. The low-cost housing
improved survival of birds, their weight gain, and egg production com-
pared to local breeds without housing.
In Jehanabad (Bihar), low-cost portable poultry housing for heat tol-
erance was made using sand, mud, grass, and paddy husk. Birds were kept
in the mud house during the day time to prevent heat stress and protection
from predators. In Amravati district of Maharashtra, backyard poultry cages
provided to the farmers protected the birds from direct winds, sunlight, and
rain and mortality rate was reduced by 21%. In East Sikkim, a brooder
house was made using locally available materials such as bamboo and wood
and optimum night temperature was maintained in the shelter with the
help of light bulbs during cold stress period. Breed improvement was also
made with the introduction Vanaraja chicks.
3.5.2.7 Fish Rearing—A Livelihood Opportunity in Flood Prone Area

Climate change impacts on various fish species include decrease in habitat
area through a number of mechanisms, with temperature having a dominant
effect among various environmental factors which may not necessarily oper-
ate independently with the possibility of synergy or interactions between
factors. Captive rearing of fish seed that is, rearing of early stages (spawn to fry
and fry to fingerling stages) through appropriate feed and health management
in nursery pond was demonstrated in Sirusuwada village, Srikakulam district,
Andhra Pradesh.
Fishermen of Sirusuwada village practiced fresh water fish culture
during August–September in community tank. Earlier these farmers used
to stock the tank with fish seed at fry stage of 2–3-cm size resulting in poor
survival and inappropriate stocking ratios. During 2013–14, about 25,000
numbers of fish seed at fry stage were released in nursery pond. Rearing to
fingerling size was done for 29 days and then harvested to release into the
village tank. This intervention saved about Rs. 10,500 on cost of fish seed,
and farmers of entire village adopted the intervention (Prasad et al., 2014).
In many districts of high rainfall regions, fish component was included
in IFSs including rice–fish system, fish rearing in farm ponds, community
tanks in the villages etc. This resulted in regular income, household nutri-
tion, and overall livelihood security of farming community in CRVs.
3.5.3 Environmental Services

Various climate resilient interventions being taken up in CRVs across the
country to address the climatic vulnerabilities can also contribute to the
reduction in the GHG emissions and to the carbon balance in the village.
Reducing the GHG emissions from agriculture and increasing the carbon
sequestration not only has positive benefits on agricultural productivity,
enhancing resource use efficiency and soil quality but also has associated
mitigating effect on climate change (Srinivasarao et al., 2016b). For every ton
per hectare increase in SOC stock in the root zone, there was an increase in
grain yield (kilogram per hectare) of 13 for groundnut, 101 for finger millet,
90 for sorghum, 170 for pearl millet, 145 for soybean, 18 for lentil, and 160
for rice under rainfed agroecosystems of India (Srinivasarao et al., 2013b,
2014b). Quantification of carbon balance in the CRVs due to various resil-
ient practices is important to assess the quantum of emission reductions and
enhancement of carbon sinks from the agriculture and the allied sectors,
without compromising on the food production.
Ex-Ante Carbon balance Tool (EX-ACT) developed by FAO based on
the IPCC default values was used to study the impact of resilient manage-
ment practices on carbon balance in the CRVs. EX-ACT model compares
the impacts of interventions, between “with project” and “without project”
scenarios, followed in agriculture, forestry, and other land use sectors.
EX-ACT is a useful tool which can be used for developing country envir-
onments and allows the user to input their own emission factors to take a
Tier-II approach, and can also be used for landscape and project-based
accounting (Bernoux et al., 2010). Ex-Ante project assessment compares
the impacts of planned interventions to the business-as-usual scenario.
The main output of this tool consists of the C-balance resulting from the
difference between the two alternative scenarios namely, “with project” and
“without project” (business-as-usual) scenarios.
The carbon balance of seven villages from the state of Maharashtra in
western India showed that the adaptation and mitigation measures imple-
mented in these villages resulted in net sink and contributed to the mitigation
of GHGs to the extent of 1796 t CO2-eq./year (Fig. 22). The maximum
mitigation potential was from the arable systems due to the adoption of
management practices such as improved cultivar, fertilizer management,
and efficient irrigation systems (Srinivasarao et al., 2013a).
Much of the agricultural mitigation potential lies in developing coun-
tries where systems are dominated by smallholder farmers and the GHG
mitigation potential from the agricultural sector is set to increase in coming
decades. Opportunity exists for smallholders not only from the environ-
mental benefits of C-friendly practices but also to receive much needed
financial input either directly from C financing or from development
agencies looking to back C-friendly activities (Srinivasarao et al., 2013a).
Annuals Irrigated rice Perennials

1200 Nonforest LUC Livestock Inputs
1000
Csequestration rate (t CO 2-eq./year)
800
600
400
200
–200
–400
–600
–800
–1000
Pimpri Nirmal Takli Shekta Gondia Umrani Jalgaon Haral
Village
Figure 22 Greenhouse gas (GHG) balance (t CO2-eq./year) from climate resilient practices
in the seven study villages in Maharashtra (“negative” values indicate net sink and
“positive” values indicate net emissions). Adapted from Srinivasarao et al. (2013a).
Precise quantification of C gains from adaptation and mitigation activities

carried out by smallholder farmers is important particularly at the landscape
level involving several farms and systems (Milne et al., 2012).
3.6 Supporting Systems Toward Climate Resilient Villages

3.6.1 Weather-Based Agroadvisories
Advance information on possible weather conditions that are likely to occur
in the next 2–3 days is very useful in deciding farm operations as Indian
agriculture is highly vulnerable to aberrant weather. This information is also
useful for minimizing losses due to adverse weather conditions through
modification of crop environment, protection from frost, strong wind, and
also irrigation scheduling leading to efficient water management and
drought preparedness, thereby improving agricultural productivity.
IMD started weather services for farmers in the year 1945. Subsequently,
in the year 1976, IMD started Agrometeorological Advisory Services (AAS)
from its State Meteorological Centres, in collaboration with agriculture
departments of respective state governments. However, these forecasts pro-
vided 1 day in advance were inadequate for planning weather-based agri-
cultural practices because the lead-time needed for taking precautionary
measures in agriculture is longer. Therefore, there was a requirement to

provide these services in the medium range scale at a location to enable
the farmers to carry out various agricultural operations such as sowing of
weather-sensitive high yielding varieties, need-based application of fertilizer,
pesticides, efficient irrigation, planning for harvest etc. (Maini and Basu,
2016). As a result, AAS based on medium-range weather forecast was initi-
ated in 1991 in 127 agroclimatic zones of the country in a phased manner by
the National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF).
The NCMRWF under the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES), Government
of India in collaboration with IMD, ICAR, and State Agricultural
Universities had been providing AAS at the scale of agroclimatic zone to
the farming community based on location-specific medium-range weather
forecast. Since 2007, the entire framework of AAS, developed and success-
fully demonstrated by NCMRWF, has been relocated at IMD for extending
the service (in operational mode) to districts under these agroclimatic zones.
It is now called the Integrated Agrometeorological Advisory Service of
MoES. Thus, the AAS set up exhibits a multiinstitutional, multidisciplinary
synergy to render an operational service for use of the farming community
(Maini and Rathore, 2011).
AAS is disseminated through multiple modes of delivery such as mass and
electronic media including radio, television, print (local newspaper in dif-
ferent vernacular languages), Internet, and cell phone (Fig. 23). The use of
electronic media such as email or the Internet is picking up as the access of
these methods to the farming community is on significant rise.
The ICAR has started a web-based dissemination of agromet advisories
through its All India Coordinated Research Project on Agrometeorology
(AICRPAM) located at CRIDA (Fig. 24). Further improving the advisory
system at local level and extrapolating to national level, AICRPAM has
envisaged a web-based National Agromet Advisory Services for effective
and timely dissemination of advisories for the benefit of farming community.
3.6.2 Microlevel Agrometeorological Advisory Services

With advancements in technology, blanket recommendations of AAS at
district level become grossly inadequate. The district-level weather forecast
could be used along with current crop and weather condition for preparation
of block-level advisories by respective district-level farm science centers
(KVKs). A pilot methodology for preparing and issuing agromet advisories
at block level has been tested at KVK, Belgaum in Karnataka. The main
innovation in this project is to set up an architecture involving KVKs, state
Figure 23 AAS disseminated in local vernacular language through cell phones.
line departments, and field information facilitation for collection of real-time

crop data, formulation of an appropriate advisory, and its dissemination.
Field Information Facilitators were appointed in 10 blocks of the district
to collect information on weather, crops, disease, and pest incidence. They
supply information by phone or by email to contact staff at KVK who in
turn develop a qualitative agromet advisory specific to the village/farmers, in
consultation with agrometeorologist of SAU and scientists of KVK. This
helps in further value addition in terms of management options.
NCMRWF IMD
AICRPAM Centers and SAUs
Contingency planning
Agromet advisories
ICAR website
AICRPAM
Crop Weather Outlook

Agromet databank
website
Figure 24 Agromet advisory system in ICAR. AICRPAM, All India Coordinated Research
Project on Agrometeorology; IMD, India Meteorological Department; NCMRWF, National
Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting. Adapted from Rao and Bapuji Rao (2013).
The weather-based agroadvisories have been helping the farming com-

munity to take advantage of prognosticated weather conditions and thereby
form a response strategy. The AAS has helped in bringing out substantial
awareness among farmers about adoption of weather-based advisories, their
timely availability, and quality of service. It has also helped in encouraging the
adoption and use of modern agricultural production technologies and prac-
tices, in promoting weather-based irrigation management, pest/disease
management, etc. along with greater use of postharvest technologies and
commercial marketing of commodities. A pilot study by Maini and Rathore
(2011) revealed that the AAS farmers accrued a net benefit of 10–15% in the
overall yield and a reduction by 2–5% in the cost of cultivation over the non-
AAS farmers. Over the years, there is a definite increase in the economic
benefits with improvement in the outreach and worthiness of the service
which is direct fallout of improved weather predictions as a result of the huge
investments being made by Government of India (Maini and Basu, 2016).
However, there exists a wide gap between different organizations
issuing microlevel AAS and farmer as the end user. The outreach of
AAS system to deliver the information at block and village level, in a
timely manner, needs to be improved. The Common Service Centre of
Department of Information Technology is one of the solutions to bridge
the information gap by exploiting advances in information technology,
which has witnessed phenomenal use in dissemination of information in
the recent past (Rao and Bapuji Rao, 2013).
3.6.3 Risk Management Through Weather-Based Crop Insurance

The vulnerability of resource poor farmers is aggravated by the multitude
of uninsured risks in conditions where the full-insurance opportunities
are absent. The idea of crop insurance which emerged in India during the
early part of the 20th century was fiercely debated postindependence (Hazell
et al., 1986) and was significantly operational only in the 1990s (Mishra,
1995). It is still evolving in terms of scope, spread, and structure. The
Government of India has introduced several insurance schemes for protect-
ing farming community from nonpreventable risks in agriculture including
drought, floods, cyclone etc. (Table 19). The crop yield–based insurance
schemes have been largely unsuccessful with low coverage and high claims to
premium ratio. There are also problems with both the design and imple-
mentation of the schemes.
The alternative index-based weather insurance products (microinsurance
products) that were developed to overcome the defects in the traditional crop
Table 19 Major insurance schemes introduced in India during 1979–2016.
196
Year of
Insurance scheme launch Region Crop Risks covered
PCIS 1979 Implemented in 13 states Cereals, millets, Nonpreventable risks including
oilseeds, cotton, natural fire and lightning, storm,
potato, and chick hailstorm, cyclone, flood,
pea inundation, landslide, drought,
pests, and diseases
CCIS 1985 Implemented in 15 states and 2 Food crops and Nonpreventable risks including
union territories oilseeds natural fire and lightning, storm,
hailstorm, cyclone, flood,
inundation, landslide, drought,
pests, and diseases
NAIS 1999–2000 Implemented in 24 states and 2 All food crops, Nonpreventable risks including
union territories except in states oilseeds, annual natural fire and lightning, storm,
of Punjab and Arunachal Pradesh horticultural/ hailstorm, cyclone, flood,
commercial crops inundation, landslide, drought,
pests, and diseases
Rainfall insurance 2005 Voluntary for all classes of All food crops, Crop failures due to erratic rainfall
cultivators oilseeds, annual
horticultural/
commercial crops

WBCIS 2007 Implemented by Agricultural All crops for which Adverse rainfall incidence (both
Insurance Company, in 102 correlation is deficit and excess) during rainy
districts across 14 states during established between season, and adverse incidence in
rainy season, 2014 and as part of yield and weather weather parameters like frost,
NCIP in 88 districts across 11 parameters heat, relative humidity,
states during winter season, unseasonal rainfall during winter
2014–15 season, hailstorm, and cloud burst
NCIP 2013–14 Entire country All food crops, Nonpreventable risks including
oilseeds, annual natural fire and lightning, storm,
horticultural/ hailstorm, cyclone, flood,
commercial crops inundation, landslide, drought,
pests and diseases, including
planting risk and postharvest
losses
PMCIS 2016 Entire country All crops Multiple localized risks including
postharvest losses, prevented
sowing due to adverse weather
conditions; less premium
(1.5–5% depending on the crop
and season); timely settlements
CCIS, Comprehensive Crop Insurance Scheme; NAIS, National Agricultural Insurance Scheme; NCIP, National Crop Insurance Scheme; PCIS, Pilot Crop Insurance
Scheme; PMCIS, Prime Minister Crop Insurance Scheme; WBCIS, Weather-Based Crop Insurance Scheme.
197
insurance schemes could address the problems of moral hazard, adverse

selection, high administrative costs, inadequate indemnification levels, and
large units of insurance. Weather-based crop insurance uses weather para-
meters as “proxy” for crop yields in compensating the cultivators for deemed
crop losses. The first index-based weather insurance was a rainfall insurance
contract underwritten by ICICI-Lombard General Insurance Company for
groundnut and castor farmers of BASIX’s water user associations in
Mahabubnagar district of erstwhile Andhra Pradesh in 2003. In 2007, the
Government of India piloted a Weather-Based Crop Insurance Scheme
(WBCIS) across India to explore its effectiveness as an alternative to the
national agricultural insurance scheme. The scheme covers weather perils
including deficit rains, unseasonal/excess rains, frost, heat (temperature),
relative humidity, etc. However, there are several limitations for successful
implementation and further upscaling of the scheme including distance of
the farm from the weather station, noncoverage of perils other than weather,
wider sowing/planting window of the crop, differences in soil types and
management practices, shift in climatic and weather patterns, etc. leading to
weak correlation between the yield and the weather indices. Further, the
specialized nature of product development, the esoteric terminology used in
a term sheet, and the concoction of agrometeorology, statistics and econom-
ics within the underlying parameters have the undesirable effect of turning
weather insurance into an incomprehensible device (AFCL, 2011).
The density of AWS and IMD observatories holds the key to better
pricing of risk products with passage of time and enabling the introduction
of weather insurance based on other parameters. Warehouse of daily rainfall
data for weather insurance is also very important for disaster management as
well as weather advisory service. Services of private and third-party weather
data providers are critical for authentic and timely settlement of claims in
many areas and in situations where no other alternative is available. The value
of products can be enhanced by adding services to the insurance. For exam-
ple, insurance providers can offer agroadvisories to farmers as part of the
insurance package.
4. GOVERNMENT POLICY AND SUPPORT
India, as a developing country, has reasons to be more concerned about

the adverse impact of impending climate change on its economy and par-
ticularly on agriculture sector for food security. Agriculture remains the most
important sector of Indian economy with about 53% share in total employ-
ment or workforce. India has a very comprehensive framework of legal and
institutional mechanisms in the region to respond to the tremendous chal-
lenges to the environment it is facing, owing to population growth, poverty
and illiteracy augmented by urbanization, and industrial development
(Prasad and Kochher, 2009). The country has had, over the last six decades,
major programs addressing climate variability concerns. These include
cyclone warning and protection, coastal protection, floods and drought
control and relief, major and minor irrigation projects, food security mea-
sures, research on CRA, and several others. A summary of major policy
initiatives and programs toward climate change is presented in this section.
India is a party to the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change. It has established the National Clean Development
Mechanism Authority in 2003. A council has also been set up under the
Chairmanship of the Prime Minister of India in 2007 to coordinate national
action for assessment, adaptation, and mitigation of climate change. The
National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) was launched in 2008
to address climate change concerns and promote sustainable development.
There are eight National Missions including that on sustainable agriculture,
which form the core of the NAPCC, representing “multipronged, long-
term and integrated strategies for achieving key goals in the context of
climate change.” The National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture
(NMSA) aims to support climate adaptation in agriculture through the
development of climate-resilient crops, expansion of weather insurance
mechanisms, and agricultural practices. All Indian states are also developing
State Action Plans on Climate Change (SAPCC) in line with the NAPCC to
define how they will integrate adaptation and mitigation of climate change
into their ongoing government schemes and practical actions.
The ICAR, focal organization for agriculture research, technology
development, and transfer of technology, has accorded high priority to
understanding the impacts of climate change and developing adaptation
and mitigation strategies to meet the challenges posed by climate change
on the agricultural system. The ICAR launched a Network Project on
Climate Change in 2004 with 15 centers which were expanded later cov-
ering 23 centers across the country. The results of the project through crop
modeling have helped in understanding the impacts of changes in rainfall and
temperature regimes on important crops and livestock. In 2011, the ICAR
launched a megaproject called NICRA with four main modules—natural
resource management, improving crop production, livestock and fisheries,
and institutional innovations to make the farmers self-reliant for adaptation

under changing climate. One of the major objectives of the project is to
develop CRVs in about 151 districts of the country experiencing various
weather aberrations and extreme events such as droughts, floods, cyclones,
heat wave, cold wave, frost, hailstorm, seawater intrusion toward stabilizing
agricultural production and livelihoods, with low GHG emissions and
carbon positive practices. These villages will serve as models and also as
learning sites for scaling up or expanding to the cluster of villages, blocks,
and districts. A good convergence among research organizations and var-
ious government programs such as national/state action plans, NMSA,
Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY), Mahatma Gandhi
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), National
Agriculture Development Programme, soil health schemes, water mission,
and green climate fund etc. will further contribute to scaling up of CRVs
(Fig. 25).
The country has adopted National Agroforestry Policy in 2014 to
encourage and expand tree plantation in an integrated manner with crops
and livestock to improve productivity, employment, income, and livelihoods
of rural households, to protect and stabilize ecosystems, and promote resil-
ient cropping and farming systems to minimize risks during extreme climatic
events. The policy also envisages meeting the raw material requirements of
wood-based industries, and small timber for the rural and tribal populations,
and reducing the pressure on forests. Further, afforestation, natural resource
NMSA, MGNREGA, NADP,

DARE/ICAR DARE/ICAR
Soil health schemes, etc.
NPCC National/State
NICRA
action plan
Inter institutional Research institutes Village

climate research to villages to cluster of villages
Figure 25 Expansion of climate resilient research and development program in Indian

agriculture sector.
management, and drought-related programs are being promoted through

schemes such as MGNREGA and National Afforestation Programme.
Similarly, under Green India Mission (GIM), forest restoration, afforestation,
agroforestry, and urban forestry are being promoted.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Climate change impacts on agriculture are being witnessed all over

the world, but countries like India are more vulnerable in view of the huge
population dependent on agriculture, excessive pressure on natural
resources, and poor coping mechanisms. Significant negative impacts on
crops, livestock, poultry, and fishery have been projected with medium-
term and long-term climate change. Enhancing the resilience of agricul-
tural production to climate change, therefore, is critical for ensuring food
and nutritional security for all, particularly the resource poor small and
marginal farmers of developing countries like India. To address this chal-
lenge, the ICAR launched NICRA in 2011, with one of the objectives to
develop model CRVs which enhance farm productivity and profitability,
particularly during years of weather aberrations and extreme climate,
through adaptation to different climatic stresses. The 151 villages selected
are in areas vulnerable to different stresses such as drought, cyclone, flood,
heat/cold wave, seawater intrusion etc. Appropriate climate resilient inter-
ventions were tailored for each village in consultation with farming com-
munity along with village extension workers, rather than following a
“blanket recommendation” approach. Institutional interventions including
establishment of VCRMCs, CHCs for farm implements, seed banks
for access to improved crop cultivars, and fodder banks were promoted
through collective action to build resilience among communities. Capacity
building by extensive participatory demonstrations of location-specific
agricultural practices, trainings, and exposure visits helped farmers gain
access to knowledge and gave confidence to cope with adverse weather
conditions.
Location-specific integrated action plans including demonstration of
resilient technologies, management practices, and institutional and policy
interventions have shown promising results at several locations. Case studies
of different villages have demonstrated significant enhancement of system
productivity and livelihoods, and adaptation to weather aberrations with
mitigation cobenefits. Some of the successful technologies and practices that
promoted resilience to climatic stresses are being mainstreamed in many

national and state government programs for their upscaling in applicable
domains. The developed CRVs have become model villages for gradual
expansion horizontally in the cluster of villages and bring the element of
resilience in overall Indian agriculture. The dual benefits envisaged in the
strategy of CRA in India, is to improve and sustain the country’s food
security by adapting agriculture sector to weather aberrations and extreme
climatic events along with environmental services in terms of reducing GHG
emission.
6. WAY FORWARD
Enhancing the resilience of Indian agriculture to cope with climate

variability and climate change is vital to the livelihood security at household
and village level, and to meet the food requirement of the country. It is much
more essential in the context of increased frequencies of droughts of various
magnitude, cyclones, hailstorm, and terminal heat in postrainy season, and
floods in different parts of the country. Our experiences from location-
specific implementation of technical and institutional action plans for devel-
opment of CRVs indicate the potential of such technology package to
enhance climate change adaptation, if deployed prudently. Practices that
help adapt to climate change in Indian agriculture are soil organic carbon
build up, in situ moisture conservation, residue incorporation instead of
burning, rainwater harvesting and recycling for supplemental irrigation,
cultivation of drought- and flood-tolerant varieties, water saving technolo-
gies, location specific agronomic management, and improved livestock feed,
and feeding methods which also have potential for mitigation of GHG
emissions. Suggested measures for judicious up- and outscaling of proven
climate resilient technologies and CRV models include the following:
• Develop and diffuse crop varieties tolerant to drought, heat, and flood.
Establish village seed banks for easy and timely access to these varieties.
• Indigenous traditional knowledge (ITK) in collecting germplasm, pro-
tecting natural resources, etc. needs to be promoted at village level.
• Encourage diversification of rural income in vulnerable regions through
off-farm activities for sustainable livelihoods.
• Development of CRVs needs well-structured institutional support with
strong government policy and convergence among various institutions.
The technological and policy inputs for developing CRVs is expected to
come from national agroforestry policy, NAPCC, SAPCC, district con-

tingency plans, and NARS. On the other hand, up- and outscaling of
proven climate resilient technologies and CRV models should be taken up
in convergence with several national missions and schemes including
NMSA, Prime Minister’s Agriculture Irrigation Scheme/PMKSY,
MGNREGA, Water Mission, National Afforestation Mission, National
Agriculture Development Programme/Rashtriya Krishi VikasYojana, etc.
(Fig. 26).
• Establish institutional mechanisms at village level including farmers’
cooperative societies, self-help groups, climate risk management com-
mittees, and CHCs for mobilization and active participation of village
communities, sharing of information, planting material, and farm
implements.
• Manage climate risks through weather-based agroadvisories and afford-
able weather insurance products. Enhance the density of weather obser-
vatories and establish rain gauges at block/village level.
• Large-scale awareness on climate change, adaptation, and mitigation ben-
efits through human resource development and capacity building of all
stakeholders including officials, extension workers, and farmers for better
adaptation to climate change.
NMSA
Soil, land, water, and

agroforestry policy PMKSY
NAPCC MGNREGA
Water Mission
SAPCC CRV
(151 National Afforestation
District
models) Mission
contingency plans
Himalayan Ecosystem
Mission
NARS/ICAR/SAUs/
farm science centre
Green India Mission
HRD
National Soil Health Mission
RKVY
Figure 26 Expansion strategy of CRVs in India.

• Provide incentives and concessional credit to farmers for adoption of

resource conserving and climate resilient agricultural practices.
• Strengthening of agricultural extension and other technology delivery
services including advanced ICT modules to enhance farmers’ capability
to respond to climatic stresses.
• Climate research and policy in agriculture sector to manage various
extreme climatic events and implementation of climate friendly agricul-
ture programs at grass root level.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are thankful to ICAR and CRIDA for facilities and funding under NICRA for devel-
opment of CRVs. We acknowledge with gratitude the contribution of Directors and Nodal
Officers of ICAR-Agricultural Technology Applications Research Institutes, Principal
Investigators of Technology Demonstration Component of NICRA, Project Coordinator
of AICRPDA, scientists of AICRPDA centers, Principal Investigators at 7 core institutes of
ICAR, and Program Coordinators of KVK (Farm Science Centers) in successful implemen-
tation of the project across 151 villages in India. We are also thankful to participating farmers
in 151 CRVs and VCRMC members for their active involvement in the program.
ANNEXURE I. LIST OF CROPS AND THEIR SCIENTIFIC

NAMES
Crop Scientific name

Barley Hordeum vulgare
Barnyard millet Echinochloa frumentacea
Black gram Vigna mungo
Broccoli Brassica oleracea
Capsicum, Chilli Capsicum annuum
Castor Ricinus communis
Chick pea Cicerarietinum
Cluster bean Cyamopsis tetragonoloba
Cotton Gossypium sp.
Cow pea Vigna unguiculata
Cucumber Cucumis sativus
Finger millet Eleusine coracana
Ginger Zingiber o⁄cinale
Green gram Vigna radiata
Groundnut Arachis hypogaea
(Continued )
Crop Scientific name

Horse gram Macrotyloma uni£orum
Lentil Lens culinaris
Maize Zea mays
Marigold Tagetes sp.
Mustard Brassica juncea
Okra Abelmoschus esculentus
Onion Allium cepa
Paddy (Rice) Oryza sativa
Pearl millet Pennisetum glaucum
Pigeon pea Cajanus cajan
Rapeseed-mustard Brassica napus
Safflower Carthamus tinctorius
Sesame Sesamum indicum
Sorghum Sorghum bicolor
Soybean Glycine max
Sugarcane Saccharum o⁄cinarum
Sunflower Helianthus annuus
Tomato Lycopersicon esculentum
Turmeric Curcuma longa
Wheat Triticum aestivum
ANNEXURE II. LIST OF ACRONYMS
Acronym Definition
AAS Agrometeorological Advisory Services
AICRPDA All India Coordinated Research Project for Dryland Agriculture
AWS Automatic weather stations
BBF Broad bed and furrow
CCIS Comprehensive Crop Insurance Scheme
CHC Custom hiring center
CRA Climate resilient agriculture
CRIDA Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture
CRV Climate resilient village
DSR Direct seeded rice
GDP Gross domestic product
GHG Greenhouse gas
(Continued )
Acronym Definition
ICAR Indian Council of Agricultural Research
IFS Integrated farming system
IMD India Meteorological Department
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
KVK Krishi Vigyan Kendra (Farm science center)
MGNREGA Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
MoES Ministry of Earth Sciences
NAIS National Agricultural Insurance Scheme
NAPCC National Action Plan on Climate Change
NARS National Agricultural Research System
NCIP National Crop Insurance Scheme
NCMRWF National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting
NICRA National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture
NMSA National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture
PCIS Pilot Crop Insurance Scheme
PMCIS Prime Minister Crop Insurance Scheme
PMKSY Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana
Rs Rupee (1 Rs = 0.015$)
RCP Representative concentration pathways
SAPCC State Action Plan on Climate Change
TC Tropical cyclones
TPDS Targeted Public Distribution System
VCRMC Village Climate Risk Management Committee
WBCIS Weather-Based Crop Insurance Scheme
WMO World Meteorological Organization
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CHAPTER FOUR

Climate Resilient Villages for

Advances in Agronomy, Volume 140

To address the climate vulnerabilities of the selected villages, different interven-

Figure 1 Number of operational holdings in India. Adapted from GOI (2014).

number of operational holdings in the country has almost doubled from

1.1 Food Production

1.2 Food Demand

Table 1 Food demand projections of different studies for India.

1.3 Food Security and Climate Change

anemia in India. The prevalence of vitamin A deficiency in the population

Monsoon rainfall deviation Kharif food grains production deviation

annual precipitation during the winter months of December–March. This

2. CLIMATE CHANGE SCENARIO

Climate change projections are associated with a range of limitations

than at smaller regional scales (Taylor et al., 2012). However, several

Temperature change since 1861 Precipitation change since 1861

RCP 4.5 RCP 4.5

India precipitation change(%)

Figure 3 CMIP5 model-based time series of temperature and precipitation anomalies

However, all-India precipitation projections have larger uncertainties as

Change in number of days with rainfall greater than threshold (%)

2.1 Microlevel Assessment of Vulnerability to Climate Change

temperature in the country though there is no discernible trend in the rainfall

Vulnerability Index Vulnerability Index

Copyright @ 2013 CRIDA (ICAR) Copyright @ 2013 CRIDA (ICAR)

Copyright @ 2013 CRIDA (ICAR)

Figure 5 District-level vulnerability of Indian agriculture to climate change, (A) present,

meteorological subdivisions like West Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Jammu and

Table 3 Probability of occurrence of drought in different regions of India.

declined by 4.66% to 252.68 Mt due to poor monsoon (12% deficit rainfall)

Copyright @ 2013 CRIDA (ICAR)

Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka are projected to experience drought less

Copyright @ 2013 CRIDA (ICAR)

Table 4 Flood/heavy rain affected areas and damages in India (1953–2011).

Copyright @ 2013 CRIDA (ICAR)

Figure 8 Areas prone to floods in India. Rama Rao et al. (2013).

damage to standing winter crops. In March 2007, heavy rains accompanied

Figure 9 Areas prone to hailstorms in India. Rao et al. (2014).

2.1.5 Cold Wave

minimum temperature is 10°C or more. If the normal minimum tempera-

2.1.6 Heat Wave

2.1.7 Seawater Intrusion

with longer-term effects that include changes in the local hydrogeology

3. CLIMATE RESILIENT VILLAGES

3.1 Concept of Climate Resilient Village

3.2 Process of Development of CRVs

Weather Water Crop Fertilizer Carbon Institutional/

Ch. Srinivasa Rao et al.

Adaptation to weather Household/village food

Figure 11 Conceptual outlay of CRV.

following a bottom-up approach. The objective of the program is not only to

helps in training to build the knowledge and capacity to change local

Technology Application Research Institutes that coordinate the project in

3.2.1 Identifying Technological and Institutional Interventions

Evidence, metrics, resilience, indicators, barriers for

• In situ moisture conservation

Prioritization of context- and location-specific practices/technologies

• Stress-tolerant and short duration

Resilient households and landscapes

Resilient production systems

Enhanced adaptive capacity

• Village Climate Risk Management

Figure 13 Framework for developing CRVs.