Principlesam Series

ABSTRACT
Earlier studies have found that students, including adults, have problems understanding the scientifically accepted model
of the Sun-Earth-Moon system and explaining day-to-day astronomical phenomena based on it. We have been examining
such problems in the context of recent research on visual-spatial reasoning. Working with some school students in Bono
East, we have developed a pedagogical sequence to build the mental model of the Earth and tried it in selected schools for
socially and educationally disadvantaged students. This pedagogy was developed based on;
(1) A reading of current research in imagery and visual-spatial reasoning and
(2) Students' difficulties identified during pretests and interviews about the geography syllabus. Visual-spatial tools such
as concrete (physical) models, gestures, and diagrams are used extensively in the teaching sequence. The building of a
mental model is continually integrated with drawing inferences to understand and explain everyday phenomena. The
focus of this article (book) is inferences drawn with diagrams.

FOREWORD
We write to foreword this book to the entitled PRINCIPLE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. The book is comprised of
well-researched work and systematic themes to facilitate understanding in the discipline of the physical environment as
far as geography is entreating to exhibit the behaviour of both students and well-readable persons about the physical
environment and current marine issues. The topics of the book are arranged to meet the current curriculum of the subject
to also meet the understanding of students, especially at the SHS level.
Some complicated issues are bordering with minds of people and learners of geography about the earth (environment) as
to what the earth is about and its existentialism. In this sense, the book is going to set as a reference to learners and
geographers, readers, and many more. This book has come and exists to meet the time of the newly learned topics in
geography especially students in PRANG SHS, where we did our National Service. We say well done to all our supporters
especially Mr. Fordjour Daniel of PRASEC for financial help, Mr. Mark Gyan who helped in turning the academic note
taken book into these Hand-out (Pamphlet).

DEDICATION
We dedicate this book to our beloved family and students of geography in PRASEC and every second cycle student.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We appreciate and acknowledge with gratitude and gratefulness to our Creator the Almighty, and all readers and
supporters, for helping us to glance through these tedious works of our effort in putting the existentialism to this book. To
our Dear, HOD, MR. ASUMA MAIKANO, PRANG SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL, we say ayekooo to your generous
receiving. We love to extend our sincere dedications to our noble Geography Tutors of Mr. Ibrahim Adamu, Mr. Karikari
Philip, and Mr. Solomon Ayubaa. We love and humble ourselves in your custody at all times. Again, we like to thank our
reviewer, editors and publisher, Ismael Yaw Dadson (Publisher, PhD), Senior Lecture, University of Education, Winneba
at the Department of Geography Education and President of Ghana Geographers Association and Mr. Mark Gyan
(Reviewer, MPhil), Lecture, Berekum College of Education.

PREFACE
This book contains all the topics in the geography syllabus which entitled the book PRINCIPLE PHYSICAL
GEOGRAPHY in the pre-tertiary and advance learners. It comprises and covered the topics in thematic areas of the
physical geography such as geomorphology, climatology, biogeography, and soils especially in the Tropics, etc.
Chapter one deals with the definition of geography and its importance, which explains the scope of geography. Chapters
of two, three, four, and five discuss the topics of the solar system and the shape of the earth, earth’s movement, earth’s
measurement, and the structure of the earth and to the last topic of glacial landforms which discusses the various glacial
landform features of the world such as cirque, moraine glacier, hanging valleys etc. Of the language of understanding, it’s
very simple and comprehensive to all levels of learners and readers.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

One: Meaning and scope of Geography………………………………………………….........................................1

Two: The Solar System and the Earth as a planet……………………………..........................................................2

Three: Movement of the Earth’s ……….…………………………………………………………………………..9

Four: The Earth’s Grid System and Measurement………………………………………………...........................14

Five: The Structure of the Earth…………………………………………………………........................................22

Six: The Theory of Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics…………………...........................................................28

Seven: The Rocks of the Earth…………………………………………..…………………………………………33

Eight: Rock Weathering and Weathering Profile……………….………………………………………………….43

Nine: Weather, Climate, Clouds and Precipitation…………………….…………………………………………..54

Ten: The Earth’s Atmosphere its Composition and Structure…………………………...........................................74

Eleven: Earth Internal and Exogenic Processes and Landforms……………..……………………………………101

Twelve: Folds and Folding………………………….……………………..............................................................113

Thirteen: River/Fluvial Processes and Landforms…………………….………………………………………….128

Fourteen: The Action of Running Water……………………………………….....................................................151

Fifteen: Oceans and Lakes of the World……………………………...…………………………...........................162

Sixteen: Coastal features and Sedimentation……………………………...……………………............................182

Seventeen: Underground Water and Karst Topography………………….……………………………………….193

Eighteen: Coastal Landforms, Management & Marine Resources…..………………...….………………………207

Nineteen: Environmental Hazards and Resources……………….……..…………................................................219

Twenty: Soils……………………………………………………………………………………………………...238

Twenty One: Desert/ Arid Landforms…………………………………..……………..........................................253

Twenty Two: Glacial landforms………………………………………………………….....................................261

References……………………………………………………………………………...........................................267

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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Meaning of Geography
The word geography was coined by the Ancient Greeks
from two words; Geo means earth and Graphos means
drawing or description of the Earth. Geography is the
branch of knowledge concerned with the study of
material and human phenomena, the spaces provided
and accessible to human beings and their instruments,
especially the patterns of the variation in their
distributions in the spaces of all scales in the past or
present events.
However, Geography is more than a description of the
earth. Hence, it is better defined as the study of people,
their activities, places, and physical things within the
earth's existence. Geography deals with the study of
different people in different locations of the earth,
including their activities like; agriculture, mining,
fishing, trading, manufacturing, and construction. It
also involves the study of places such as; USA, Ghana,
China, and Nigeria, etc. above all, Geography also
deals with the study of physical things within the earth
such as rocks, mountains, and plains, oceans, rivers,
climate, vegetation, soils, atmosphere, etc.
Scope of Geography
Geography is a social science subject that deals with
the study of man and his activities within his
environment. In other words, Geography ideas are real,
practical, and easy to understand because they are
relevant to our everyday life experiences. Geography
touches many other disciplines such as Agriculture
Science, Government, History, and Economics. It is a
subject that cuts across many other fields of human
study.
Physical Geography
It is simply a branch of geography that deals with the
study of the physical environment such as the earth’s
structure, its landforms, and the processes that trigger
and modify these landforms. Its disciplines can be
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geomorphology, climatology, and Biogeography.
Geomorphology is the scientific study of the earth and
its landforms. Climatology is the study of weather and
climate and the impacts that they impose on humans
and the natural environment. Biogeography is the
science of studying the present and past distribution of
plants and animals on the surface of the earth.
Pedology deals with the study of soils, including
biogeomorphology, etc.
Values/ importance of studying Geography
Geography is very important because of the following
reasons;
i.It enables us to study the way of life of other people in
other parts of the world. Without Geography, it would
have been difficult to know the experience and way of
life of the Nigerians, Americans, English, Britain, the
Brazilians, and within the Ghanaian communities, etc.
ii.It also enables us to understand certain areas of other
subjects like social studies, vegetation, and soils in
Agriculture, Ecology, and Food chain in Biology,
iii.Population, Industries, and Trade in Economics.
iv.It enables us to choose a career from which we can
earn a living and contribute to the economic
development of our country. Careers like Land
Surveying, Urban and Regional Planning, Estate
Management, Military studies, Aviation, Architecture
will not be possible to study in higher institutions of
learning without the knowledge of Geography.
v.It aids in internal and external trade: Geography has
helped us to know the resources of other regions or
countries, and this has assisted us to determine both
internal and external trade sections of each country
trading with.
Assignment 1
1. Define the term geography.
2. State any 5 benefits of studying geography
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CHAPTER TWO
THE SOLAR SYSTEM AND THE EARTH AS A PLANET
The Solar System
“A system is a set of interacting or interdependent Changing planetary composition
components forming an integrated whole” (Wikipedia). High melting point minerals Low melting point
The purpose of a system is to survive. Our solar system minerals
is a group of objects in space. These objects are kept in High-temperature Low temperature
place by the sun’s gravitation and are made up of the
sun, formerly the nine planets with their moons, and Formation of the earth-moon system
smaller bodies such as asteroids and comets. About 4.5 billion years ago, Mars-sized bolides
The solar system refers to the sun and the celestial impacted earth, ultimately resulting in the formation of
bodies that orbiting around it under the force of gravity. our moon. Ejected material coalesces to form the moon.
It consists of the sun and the planets together with The force of the impact causes an increase in rotation
satellites, comets, and meteoroids. According to the speed and a 23 tilt of our rotational axis. The material
Milky Way, Meteoroids are solid bodies orbiting the was ejected due to the collision.
sun, becoming meteors or “shooting stars” if they enter
the earth's atmosphere. Planets do not produce their The solar system has two types of planets, they are;
light. All the energy of the solar system is derived from ➢ Terrestrial (or “rocky”) planets and
the sun through reflection as they revolve around the ➢ Gas giant planet.
sun.
Table 1: Types and characteristics of terrestrial and gas giant planet
Terrestrial Planets Gas Giant Planets
Classification of a system
-Are made of solids -Are made primarily of gas, mostly
A system has been classified into three (3) forms. They
like rocks, metal. hydrogen.
are; - Have solid surfaces -Do not have solid surfaces
❖ Open system: With this, energy and matter move -A spaceship could -A spaceship cannot land on it (but
into and out of the system. land on it it can crash through its atmosphere)
❖ Closed system: This occurred when energy moved in -Are relatively small - Are relatively big/ large
but not mass because of mass castrate. -Are closer to the sun -Are farther from the sun
-Are relatively warmer -Are relatively cooler
❖ Isolated system: This happens when energy is
-Do not have rings -Have rings
removed at a time for a competition. Examples are; Examples are; Jupiter, Saturn,
Mercury, Venus, Uranus and Neptune
Nebular hypothesis Earth and Mars.
The solar nebula contracts and flattens into a spinning
disk region may become planets. Dust grains act as
condensation on nuclei, forming clumps of matter that
accrete and grow into moon-sized planetesimal. Strong
solar winds from proto-star expel the nebular gas while
planetesimals continue to collide and grow. Over a
hundred million years or so, planetesimals form a few
large planets that travel in roughly circular orbits.
Occasionally, objects in the solar system can collide. Fig. 1: The various planets in the solar system
The eight planets in order of their position include
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. The
large mass in the center will become the Sun. Smaller
masses in the outer, Uranus, and Neptune.
Terrestrial planets are build-up by successive collision
and accretion of planetesimals. Outer gas giants grow
by gas accretion. Fig. 2: Showing the various planets in the world
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Mercury is the smallest and the nearest to the sun,
Neptune is the farthest from the sun and Jupiter is the
largest of all the planets. Some of the planets also have
some other bodies that revolve around which are
called SATELLITES. The moon is the natural satellite
that revolves around the Earth.
Characteristics of the various planets (Mercury)
Mercury has 47 million kilometers (29 million miles)
and as far as 70 million kilometers (43 million miles)
from the Sun. If one could stand on the scorching
surface of Mercury when it is at its closest point to the
Sun, the Sun would appear more than three times as
large as it does when view from Earth. Temperatures on
Mercury’s surface can reach 430 degrees Celsius (800
degrees Fahrenheit). Because the planet has no
atmosphere to retain that heat, nighttime temperatures on
the surface can drop to –180 degrees Celsius (-290
degrees Fahrenheit).
Because Mercury is so close to the Sun, it is hard to
directly observe from Earth except during twilight.
Mercury makes an appearance indirectly, however, 13
times each century, Earth observers can watch Mercury
pass across the face of the Sun, an event called a transit.
These rare transits fall within several days of May 8th
and November 10th. The first two transits of Mercury in
the 21st century occurred on May 7th, 2003, and
November 8th, 2006. Mercury speeds around the Sun
every 88 days, traveling through space at nearly 50
kilometers (31 miles) per second faster than any other
planet. One Mercury solar day equals 175.97 Earth days.
The planet has the following features such as;
MERCURY
❖ Mercury is the smallest, the nearest, and the hottest
planet from the sun.
❖ It contains no living thing because it has the highest
surface temperature.
❖ It takes mercury 88 days to complete its orbit
❖ It has the shortest orbit around the sun.
❖ Its distance from the sun is 57,600,000km
❖ It has no satellite.
VENUS
❖ Venus is the second closest planet in the solar system
to the sun.
❖ It also contains no living thing
❖ It is often regarded as the “Earth Twin” because of
its proximity in size, mass, and density.
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❖ It takes Venus 225 days to complete its revolution.
❖ Its distance from the sun is 107,200,000km
❖ It has no satellite.
EARTH
❖ This is the only planet that supports the existence of
plants and animals.
❖ It has one natural satellite called the moon which
revolves eastward around the earth once every 27 days.
❖ It takes the Earth 365 ¼ days (a year) to complete its
orbit
❖ The distance between the earth and the moon is
384,629km.
MARS
❖ Mars is believed to be the next planet in the solar
system after earth to have the possibility of supporting
some plant's life.
❖ It has dark patches on its surfaces.
❖ It has two satellites
❖ Its distance from the sun is 227,200,00km (142
million miles) to complete its orbit.
❖ It takes Mars 687 days to make a revolution around
the sun.
JUPITER
❖ Jupiter is the largest of all the planets in the solar
system
❖ Their surfaces contain gases such as hydrogen and
methane with light and dark bands.
❖ It has 12 satellites
❖ Its distance from the sun is 772,800,000km
❖ It takes Jupiter about 11.9 years to complete its orbit
around the sun.
SATURN
❖ Saturn is the second-largest planet in the solar system
after Jupiter.
❖ It has 3 rings and 9 satellites.
❖ Its distance from the sun is 1,417,600,000km
❖ It takes Saturn 29.5years to complete its orbit.
URANUS
❖ Uranus orbit, unlike other planets around the sun, is
in a clockwise direction from east to the west.
❖ It has 5 satellites that revolve around it.
❖ Its distance from the sun is 2,854,400,000km
❖ It takes Uranus 88 years to complete its orbit.
NEPTUNE
❖ Neptune has its surface to be cold.
❖ Its distance from the sun is 4,468,800,000km.
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❖ It has 2 satellites. Characteristics
❖ It takes about 164.8years to complete its orbits once -Eris is the most massive and second largest
in a season and takes 292 days for one revolution around known dwarf planet in the Solar System.
the sun. -It is a trans-Neptunian object (TNO) in the scattered
disk and has a high eccentricity orbit.
Table 2: The positions and period of completion, distances, and number of -Eris was discovered in January 2005 by a Palomar
satellites of the various planets in the solar system
Planets Position Period of Period of No. of Observatory–based team led by Mike Brown and
Completion distance (Km) Satellites verified later that year.
Mercury 1st 88 days 56,600,000 0
Venus 2nd 225 days 107,200,000 0
-In September 2006, it was named after the Greco-
Earth 3rd 365 ¼ days 148,800,000 1 Roman goddess of strife and discord.
Mars 4th 687 days 227,200,000 2 -It is also the largest object that has not been visited by a
Jupiter 5th 11.9yrs 772,800,000 12
Saturn 6th 29.5yrs 1,417,600,000 9
spacecraft.
Uranus 7th 84 yrs. 2,854,400,000 5 -Eris has been measured at 2,326 ± 12 kilometers (1,445
Neptune 8th 2422.3 yrs. 4,468,800,000 2
± 7 mi) in diameter; its mass is 0.28% that of the Earth
Note: Pluto is not more function as a planet for it has and 27% greater than that of Pluto, although Pluto is
been classified as a “dwarf planet”. Therefore, this goes slightly larger by volume.
with some reasons for its disqualification.
2. Haumea: Is a dwarf planet located beyond Neptune's
Pluto- reasons for its elimination and disqualification orbit. It was discovered in 2004 by a team headed by
Pluto used to be the planet farthest away from the sun Mike Brown of Caltech at the Palomar Observatory in
(5850, 000,000km) and the coldest of all the planets in the United States and disputably also in 2005 by a team
the solar system. It takes 248 years to revolve around the headed by José Luis Ortiz Moreno at the Sierra Nevada
sun. In August 2006, Pluto was “demoted or disqualified Observatory in Spain, though the
as a planet and was classified as no more planet or dwarf latter claim has been contested.
planet. Its orbit was slightly different from other planets. Characteristics
Pluto was discovered in 1930 but the myth about it was -Haumea's mass is about one-third that of Pluto, and
not fully known. In August 2006, 3000 astronomers 1/1400 that of Earth.
forming the International Astronomical Union met in -It is shape has not been directly observed, calculations
Prague, Czech Republic, to deliberate. On August 26, from its light curve are consistent with it being a Jacobi
2006, they concluded that since Pluto was too small; it ellipsoid (the shape it would be if it were a dwarf
does not qualify as a planet. To qualify as a planet, Pluto planet), with its major axis twice as long as its minor.
should possess the following features; -In October 2017, astronomers announced the discovery
➢ Be in orbit around a star and not be in a star itself of a ring system around Haumea, representing the first
➢ Be massive enough to be a sphere by its gravitational ring system discovered for a trans-Neptunian object.
force. -Haumea's gravity was until recently thought to be
➢ Have cleared the neighborhood around its orbit. sufficient for it to have relaxed into hydrostatic
Pluto fails to meet all these features or characteristics or equilibrium, though that is now unclear.
criteria and is considered a Trans-Neptunian object or -Haumea's elongated shape together with its rapid
minor planet. rotation, rings, and high albedo (from a surface of
crystalline water ice), are thought to be the consequences
Types of Pluto as a dwarf planet of a giant collision, which left Haumea the largest
There are four (4) types of Pluto after its member of a collisional family that includes several
disqualification. They are; large trans-Neptunian objects and Haumea's two known
moons, Hiʻiaka and Namaka.
1. Eris: Eris is the ninth-most massive known object
orbiting the Sun and the sixteenth-most massive overall
3. Makemake: is a dwarf planet and the second-largest
in the Solar System (counting moons).
of what are known as the classical population of Kuiper

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belt objects, with a diameter approximately 60% that of
Pluto.
Characteristics
-It has one known satellite.
-It is extremely low average temperature, about 40K
(−230 °C), means its surface is covered with methane,
ethane, and possibly nitrogen ices.
4. Ceres (Characteristics): Is a dwarf planet in the
asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. It
was the first asteroid discovered, on 1 January 1801, by
Giuseppe Piazzi at Palermo Astronomical Observatory
in Sicily and announced as a new planet. Ceres was later
classified as an asteroid and then a dwarf planet the only
one always inside Neptune's orbit.
Classification of small planetary bodies
- Comet: Aggregates of ice and dust that condensed in
the outer, cooler regions of the solar nebula.
- Asteroid: A planetesimals (large rocky body) that
never accreted into a planet (e.g. the asteroid belt). --
Meteoroid: A much smaller rocky body or particle
orbiting the sun.
-Dwarf planet: Massive enough to be nearly spherical,
but not large enough to be considered a planet.
- Interactions: Gravity causes planets to orbit around the
sun. Zodiacal light = Dust in the plane of the solar
system.
The concept of satellites
Satellites are smaller heavenly bodies revolving around
the planets that could be man-made (artificial) and
natural such as the moon. The earth for instance has only heat energy.
one natural satellite being the moon which takes 27 days ➢ It has a strong gravitational pull that holds the earth
or roughly one month to revolve around the earth. Other
heavenly bodies which are either considered as planets
or associated with planets include;
1. Asteroids: they are chains of numerous small or
minor planets revolving around the sun between mercury
and Saturn. They are rocky and since the beginning of
th
the 19 century; astronomers have cataloged more than
8,000 asteroids while at least 10,000 more have been
observed (Philips World Reference Atlas 2000).
Examples of Asteroids are Icarus found between
Mercury and Mars and Hidalgo between Mars and
Saturn.
2. Comets: they are star-like nuclei with a luminous
(shiny) mass around them with a bright tail streaming
away from the sun. The best-known comet to appear was water from the oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers, etc. which
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Halley’s Comet, which was observed near the earth in
1910.
3. Meteors: these are also shiny star-like bodies that
may enter the earth’s atmosphere with great speed but
are changed into gas before reaching the ground. They
are sometimes referred to as fireballs or shooting stars
or may reach the ground as meteorites. Scientists
estimated that about 300,000 meteorites reach the
surface of the earth every year though many falls in the
oceans, remote forests, deserts, and mountains, or even
near towns and cities. These can remain undiscovered
since many look-like ordinary rocks to the untrained eye.
The Sun
It is a luminous celestial body around which the earth
and other planets revolve. It can also be defined as a
giant spinning ball of very hot gases fueled by nuclear
fusions in its central core. It comprises hydrogen gas
which is about 74% helium and other gases. The surface
temperature of the sun is about 6000°C. It has a radius of
695,508km (432,169miles). Its density is 1,409g/cumm.
Light from the sun takes eight minutes (8 minutes) to
reach the Earth’s surface. It is the closest star to any
other star and its light prevents another star from being
seen during the daytime.
Characteristics of the sun
➢ It has a low density even though its size is of a great
extent.
➢ It spins on a fixed axis.
➢ It produces two forms of energy which are light and
and other planets in the solar system in its orbit.
➢ It is in the center of the solar system and all other
bodies in the solar system revolve around it.
The importance of the sun to man
➢ It produces heat energy which warms the earth’s
surface for life to exist, without which life would not be
possible.
➢ Sunlight helps the green plant to photosynthesize and
bear foods which man lives on for livelihood.
➢ It also produces energy in the form of solar energy
which is used for fuel. E.g. solar energy for the solar
panel that is used for electricity or electrical purpose.
➢ The sun fuels the earth's water cycle, evaporation of
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forms clouds and later returns to the earth’s surface as
precipitation which aids the growth of crops and their
cultivations by man.
➢ It produces light energy which illuminates the earth
and this makes it possible for a man to see and carry out
his daily activities.
➢ Man uses the sun to dry wet clothes and dumps things
Fig. 3: The Earth (The overview of the Earth)
such as foodstuff in the sun due to the heat energy it
gives.
Topography of the Earth
The Shape of the Earth
Although the Earth is not flat or egg-shaped, as
When Galileo let his ball runs down an inclined plane
previously believed at various times, neither is it
with gravity, the Earth was perceived to be flat, is now
precisely a sphere or even an ellipsoid of revolution.
known to be round. It is slightly flat at the poles to give a
Although mountains, ocean basins, and variations in
nearly spherical shape called “geoids”, which means the
crustal thickness contribute to the irregular shape and
shape of the Earth or Earth’s shape. The study of the
gravity field of the Earth, geographers cannot explain the
shape and size of the earth is called “Geodesy”.
long-wavelength departures from a hydrostatic figure.
The idea of the spherical nature of the earth was a long-
The distribution of elevations on the Earth is distinctly
standing one. It was accepted among the Greek
bimodal, with a peak near + 0.1km representing the
philosophers as far back as 350BC. By 200BC,
means of elevation of continents and a peak near -4.7 km
Eratosthenes had accurately estimated the earth’s
corresponding to the mean depth of the oceans.
circumference to be approximately 40,000km within one
percent (1%) of its actual size. Terrestrial planets are
The evidence/ proofs of the Earth’s spherical shape
almost spherical because of gravity and the weakness of
the rock in large masses. The largest departures from To be able to imagine more clearly the nature of the
sphericity are due to rotation and variations in buoyancy Earth, whether it should have an extended or a flattened
of the surface and interior shells. Otherwise, the overall curvature, let us first think of it as perfectly round, and
shape of the Earth and its heat flow are manifestations of investigate the properties that the Earth would have in
this case.
convection in the interior and conductive cooling of the
The spherical nature of the earth is evidenced through
outer layers. The style of convection is uncertain. There
the following;
are various hypotheses in this field that parallel those in
1. Sunshine and sunset: The earth rotates from east to
petrology and geochemistry. The end-members are
west. Places in the east see the sun before places in the
whole-mantle convection in a chemically uniform
west. That is why the sun rises from the east to the west
mantle, layered convection with interchange and
and it is seen going back from the west to the east. This
overturns, and irreversible chemical stratification with
means the earth is round and as it rotates are side faces
little or no interchange of material between layers.
the sun at a time.
The size of the Earth
The Earth is the fifth largest planet in the solar system.
The surface area of the Earth is approximately
443million square kilometer (197miles). Other important
dimensions of the earth are; Fig. 4: Sunrise and sunset on a flat surface (earth surface). Experienced
✓ Equatorial Circumference = 40,085km sunrise and sunset at the same time
✓ Equatorial Diameter = 12,762km
✓ Polar Circumference = 39,955km
✓ Polar Diameter =12,722km

Fig. 5: Sunrise and sunset on a spherical surface

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2. Eclipse of the moon or lunar eclipse: During the
eclipse of the moon, the earth comes between the sun
and the moon. The earth cast its shadows at the moon
which is always rounded. This indicates that the earth is
round because only round objects cast round shadows.
Earth Moon Sun
Sun rays
Fig. 6: The moon comes between Earth and the sun to cause an eclipse of the
sun (Solar eclipse)
Fig. 7: The come earth between the sun and the moon to cause an eclipse of the sun
(solar eclipse)
3. Circumnavigation of the Earth: It is possible to
travel around the whole world by air, land, sea, or ocean
and in any direction and would never reach the end but
comes back to where he/she has started. This would not
be possible if the earth were not spherical but flat. For
example, in the 16th century, Ferdinand Magellan was
able to travel and go around the world without
necessarily going through the same route. He took this
event between 1519 and 1522. If the earth is flat one
would have fallen into depletion.
Fig. 8: Circumnavigation of the Earth
4. The Curve Horizon of the Earth: The horizon of the
earth, viewed from any direction or elevation, such as a
mountain or an airplane appears curved. This curved
horizon widens as the height of the observer increases
until it completely becomes circular. This curve horizon
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is proof that the earth is spherical. Moreover, aerial
photographs taken by artificial satellites at great
distances from the earth all show that the earth’s surface
is curved. Only spherical objects could give these curve
shapes. Some of the photographs were taken by Apollo
Spacecraft in 1968 (Apollo 8) and 1972 (Apollo 17).
5. Aerial Photography: Pictures of the earth taken from
high altitudes by rockets and satellites show the curve
edge of the earth.
6. The Shape of the Planetary Bodies: All the other
planets in space are round and earth be one of them must
also be round.
7. Visibility of ships: Two ships approaching the shore
from the sea are both visible at the same time. The ship
in front appears to be an observer before the one behind.
If the earth were not spherical but flat, both ships would
appear at the same time. Furthermore, the observer at the
shore watching the approaching ship would first see its
mast, then the deck, and finally the entire hall.
Fig. 9: a) Ship on round surface b) Ship on flat
surface
In conclusion, once the absurd beliefs of the Ancients
concerning the shape of the Earth had been sufficiently
disproved, not only by the philosophers but by actual
journeys, it appeared to be a settled matter that the Earth
must be perfectly round like a ball. This opinion was
supported not only by the various voyages which
completely encircled the Earth; but also the shape of the
Earth’s shadow, which was observed during lunar
eclipses, appeared to confirm it; not to mention other
grounds which besides these were cited to support the
same conclusion.
 Principlesam Series
Assignment 2 iv. Jupiter
1.What are the characteristics of terrestrial and gas giant 6. a) State the theories advanced for the origin of the
planets? Solar system.
2.Some planets are closer to the sun, than other. Name b) Describe the merits and demerits of the theories
advanced for the origin of the solar system.
them
3.Why did the number of planets change in 2006?
Scaled view of solar system sizes (distances NOT to
scale)
4.How did we find out the earth is round? (hint: explain
your answers in relation to the evidence or proofs of the
earth’s spherical)
5. a) Differentiate between a system and solar system
b) Describe the types of systems we have
c) Highlight two (2) characteristics each of the following
planets
i. Mercury
ii. Neptune
iii. Earth

8

CHAPTER THREE
MOVEMENT OF THE EARTH
(Rotation and Revolution of the Earth)
The movement of the earth is in two (2) folds. They
are;
a. Rotation of the Earth
b. Revolution of the Earth
Rotation of the Earth
This refers to the movement of the earth on its axis. An
axis is an imaginary line or a real line around which an
object rotates. The axis of the earth is the diameter
between the North Pole and the South Pole which is
permanently tilted at an angle of about 66° or 66 ½° to
the earth’s orbit. The earth rotates in an anti-clockwise
direction that is from west to east. The speed of
rotation is approximately 4.7km per second at the
equator and 2.3km/s at latitude 60° and zero at the
poles. The earth rotates once every day, that is, through
360° in 24 hours. This means that it rotates through 15°
in 1hour or 1° in 4minutes. The tilting or inclination of
the earth’s axis and its rotation result in its effects
Effects of Rotation of the Earth
The rotation of the earth has the following effects;
1. Rotation of day and night: As the earth rotates on
its axis from west to east, its parts that face the sun
receive the sun rays experiences day while the other
part that faces away the sun experiences darkness
(night).
Fig. 10: The western part of the earth is away from
the sun and therefore there is darkness (Night).
Fig. 11: The western part of the earth is facing the
sun hence there is light (Day)
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Principlesam Series
2. Time difference: The earth completes its rotation
360° in 24 hours and causes differences between the
meridians, 15° apart. Because of its movement from
west to east all places at the East are always ahead of
those in the West.
3. Deflection of winds and ocean currents: The
deflection of winds and ocean currents is due to the
force brought by the rotation of the earth. This force is
called Coriolis Force by the French Mathematician
and Scientist known as Gustave-Gaspard de Coriolis
who first discovered in 1835. It was further developed
into law by an American Scientist W. Ferrell as
Ferrell’s Law of Deflection in 1856, which states that
due to the force produced by the rotation of the earth, a
“body moving over its surface will be deflected to the
right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the
Southern Hemispheres. However, the deflection at the
equator is low (zero) and increases progressively
towards the poles”.
The Coriolis Effect
- The apparent (Coriolis) force is perpendicular to the
velocity of the object and the rotation axis.
- A balance of forces causes objects traveling in the
Northern Hemisphere to curve to the right.
- A balance of forces causes objects traveling in the
Southern Hemisphere to curve to the left.
4. Daily rising and falling of the tides: Tides are the
regular periodic alternating rising and falling which
shows the level of the water in the oceans caused
mainly by the gravitational attraction of the moon and
to some extent the sun and the earth. The rising of the
water is termed the Flood Tide and the falling is
termed the Ebb Tide. Tides occur twice a day due to
the gravitational attraction or pull of the sun and the
moon. When the Sun and Moon act together, a higher
tide results (Spring Tide), and when they do not
reinforce each other, there is a low tide or smaller tide
called Neap Tide. Again, when the moon pulls the
ocean water towards itself, the part of the earth under
the influence of the moon experiences a rise in water
levels.
5. Apparent sunshine and sunset: During rotation of
the earth, part of the earth that emerges from the
darkness into the rays of the sun experiences sunrise

while the part that is moving away from the sun’s rays
to darkness will experience the sunset.
Revolution of the Earth
It is the movement of the earth around the sun which
takes about 365¼ days. A year of 366 days is called
leap years. The path on which the earth and all other
planets revolve around the sun is called Orbit and is
oval. The leap year occurs because as the earth
revolves around the sun, every year ¼ (6hours) of a
day is added to the 365days
Effects of Revolution of the Earth
The revolution of the earth and the elliptical nature of
its orbit result in;
1. It determines a year: The earth takes about 365 ¼
days to complete its orbit around the sun which is
considered to be a calendar year.
2. Varying lengths of day and night: Because the
earth is inclined at an angle of 66½ °, the length of the
day varies based on the position of the earth about the
sun. In the southern, the period of daylight increases
towards the South Pole on December 22nd in winter,
the hours of darkness increases. At the Arctic Circle
(66½°N), they never rise and there is darkness for the
whole day.
a. Again, in summer on June 21st in the Northern
Hemisphere (NH), the hours of day increase as one
move northwards. The sun by June 21st never sets at
the Arctic Circle; hence there is a complete 24 hours
period of continuous daylight which referred to as the
Land of the Midnight sun.
b. However, in the Southern Hemisphere (SH), the
period of darkness increases toward the South Pole on
June 21st during the winter.
3. It causes the seasons: The four seasons are periods
of the year characterized by climatic conditions
resulting from the earth’s revolution. The four seasons
are summer, autumn, winter, and spring. These are the
rise and fall in temperature caused by the varying
altitude of the midday sun and the number of hours of
daylight. As the earth revolves around the sun, all parts
of the earth’s surface, except the equatorial latitudes,
experience a definite rise and corresponding fall in
temperatures during different times of the year. But
areas around the west, experience only two seasons
thus rainy and dry seasons. However, the revolution of
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Principlesam Series
the earth causes the four seasons. The four seasons
are;
a) Autumn: It comes the next three months after the
summer when there is overhead of the sun at the
equator. The temperature chills and deciduous plants
shed their leaves waiting for the approaching winter.
On 23rd September, there is equal days and night.
b) Summer: It is when the sun is overhead and it is
associated with heat and brightness. Temperatures
therefore rise and warm. There are long days than night
due to the great part covered by sun rays.
c) Winter: it is cold and dark because the sun shines
obliquely towards the land. The oblique sun rays pass
through thicker atmosphere impurities and water
vapour. The sun's rays fall faintly and spread over a
great area. There are little temperatures and shorter
days and longer nights.
d) Spring: It occurs when plants start to shed flower
sprouts due to the extended drought within the seasons.
It is also a season between winter and summer when
plants and trees begin to grow. The diagram below
shows the four seasons, their characteristics, and their
occurrence as a result of the revolution of the earth.
Fig.12: The four seasons and their occurrence at different times of the year
In the Northern Hemisphere, the highest temperatures
are experienced between June and September with the
lowest in December and March. The reverse is true in
the Southern Hemisphere. The period of maximum
temperature in summer, while the period of maximum
temperatures in winter. The Northern Hemisphere has
its summer between 21st March and 23rd September
with winter from September to March 21st. Spring and
autumn are two shorter or transitional seasons. Spring
occurs between 21st March and 21stJune that is in-
between winter and summer in the Northern
Hemisphere and autumn occurring between September
23rd and November 22nd that is between summer and
winter.

Note: Summer = high temperatures and warm
conditions
Autumn = fruits or crops ripe and leaves falls
Winter = low temperatures, cool and cold conditions
Spring = flowers and plant sprout.
4. Changes in the altitude of the midday sun: On 21st
January, the sun will overhead the sun midday along
the Tropic of Cancer (23 ½°N). This shows that all
places on that latitude get the sun directly while others
on different latitudes will see the sun obliquely. The
period when the sun is overhead the Tropic of Cancer
is known as Summer Solstice in the Northern
Hemisphere. However, on December 22nd, the sun is
overhead at midday along of the Tropic of Capricorn
will see the sun directly while other places will see it at
an incline angle, this is called Winter Solstice mean
that the period of day and night are not equal. On
March 21st and September 23rd Equinoxes occurs.
Equinoxes are the time when the midday sun is directly
overhead at the equator. This means that, there is equal
day and night. March 21st is also called Spring
Equinox while September 23rd is called Autumn
Equinox. The period when the earth is farthest away in
its orbits from the sun is Aphelion which happens on
4th July every year with 152million.km (152,
000,000km) the earth is nearest to its orbit to the sun is
called Perihelion, January 3rd with an average distance
of 147million.
N. B. The Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) and the Tropic of
Capricorn (23½°S) mark the limit of the overhead sun
because the sun is never overhead outside these lines at
any time of the year.
Further explanations of equinox and solstice
Equinox is the period when the mid-day sun is directly
overhead at the Equator. It occurs on March 21stand
September 23rd. It is the time when there is equal day
and equal night. That is, during these periods, we
experience twelve hours of daylight and twelve hours
of darkness. March 21 is called spring equinox or
vernal equinox while September 23rd is called autumn
equinox.
Solstice refers to the period when the sun is vertically
overhead at the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of
Capricorn. It occurs on June 21st and December 22nd, on
June 21 is called summer solstice, where the sun is
directly overhead at the Tropic of Cancer and the
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Principlesam Series
northern hemisphere has its longest day and shortest
night currently. December 22nd is called winter
solstice.
Differences between Equinox and Solstice
1. Equinox means equal day and night while solstice
means unequal length of day and night
2. Solstice takes place on June 21 occurs December 22
whilst equinox occurs the
Because of the Earth's revolution, altitude of the mid-
day sun changes and this causes equinoxes and
solstices.
3. Solstice can be summer or winter. On the contrary,
equinox can be spring or autumn.
4. During solstice, there are longer day in summer and
shorter days in winter but, all places have equal days
and equal nights during equinox.
5. During solstice, the sun is overhead at either the
Tropic of Cancer or the Tropic of Capricorn but during
equinox, the sun is always overhead at the Equator.
Differences between Rotation and Revolution
1.Earth rotate on its axis but it revolves round the sun
along its orbit.
2.Rotation takes one (1) day 24 hours while revolution
takes one year or (365¼ days)
3.Rotation causes day and night whereas revolution
causes seasons.
4.Rotation again causes the differences of 1 hour
between two longitudes which are 15⁰ apart whist
revolution causes changes in the altitude of the mid-
day sun.
5. During rotation, the Earth is tilted at an angle of
23½⁰ but the revolving Earth is tilted at an angle of
66½⁰ to the plane of ecliptic.
Equal day and night
Fig. 13: The four position of the Earth during the revolution changes in
Seasonal Temperature (in the Arctic Circle)

Reasons why summer is warm than winter in the tropics
Summers are warm while winters are cold within the
Arctic Circle. The causes or reasons are
1. During summer, the zenith angle of the Sun is
higher. This makes the place warmer.
2. The sun's rays concentrate over a small area in
summer and this causes high temperatures.
3. In winter, the sun's rays hit the ground in slanting
form and thus spread over a large area. This reduces
temperatures.
4. There are 24 hours of daylight in summer solstice
and 24 hours of darkness in winter solstice in Arctic
Circle. Thus, temperatures will be higher in summer
than in winter.
5. Longer days and shorter nights are recorded in
summer while winter has shorter days and longer
nights. Thus, summers will be warmer.
Reasons why North of Arctic Circle has 24 Hours of
Daylight on June 21
1. The sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer at noon
on June 21. This increases the length of the day.
2. On June 21, the sun is seen everywhere on the Arctic
Circle at the same time since that part is tilted to the
sun.
3. No part of the Arctic Circle is darkness on June 21.
This is due to the tilting or inclination of the earth's
orbit to the plane of ecliptic in at an angle of 66°.
4. On June 21, the length of day increases from the
Equator towards the North Pole.
Reasons why areas within the tropics have more sunshine
than areas outside the tropics
There is more sunshine in the tropics because:
1. Apparent movement of the sun is always from one
tropic to the other and back the sun is always overhead
within the tropics.
2. The sun is never overhead outside the tropics.
3. Within the tropics, the angle of incidence is vertical
while it is slanting poleward.
4. There is more insolation in the tropics than outside
the tropics.
5. Difference in length of day and night is hardly
noticeable within the tropics.
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Principlesam Series
Eclipse, Dawn and Twilight
Eclipse
Eclipse is formed when the three bodies’ sun, earth and
the moon are in straight line during the movement of
the earth. The moon revolves around the earth once in
every twenty-eight days (a month), the earth and the
moon travel together, making a complete movement
around the sun once in a year. During this movement,
there will be a time when these three bodies (Earth, sun
and moon) will be in straight line as shown in fig.14.
When this occurs, the light from the sun is obscured
from reaching either the earth or the moon. This
phenomenon is known as an eclipse.
Types of Eclipse
There are two types of eclipse. These are:
(1) Eclipse of the moon (lunar eclipse): This occurs
when the earth comes in-between the moon and the
sun. The earth, being larger than the moon and the suns
light completely obscure or cover the sun's light from
reaching the moon. This condition is known as eclipse
of the moon or lunar eclipse. This type of eclipse can
lead to full darkness of the moon described as Total or
annular type of eclipse.
Fig. 14: Eclipse of the Moon
(2) Eclipse of the Sun (Solar eclipse): This occurs
when the moon comes in-between the sun and the
earth, in a perfect straight line. The moon can block the
light from the sun. The moon then casts its shadow of
darkness on the earth. This condition is known as the
eclipse of the sun or Solar eclipse. This type of eclipse
can lead to partial darkness of the earth called partial
eclipse. Eclipse is described as total eclipse if the body,
e.g. moon is completely covered or shaded from the
sun by the earth. Eclipse is described as partial eclipse
if the body, e.g. earth is half covered or shaded from
the sun by the moon. Eclipse is also described as
annular eclipse if the body, e.g. earth is covered at the
center with darkness while the outer part is not, as
shown in fig. 14.
 Principlesam Series
Assignment 3
1.a) Define the following
i.rotation of the earth
ii.revolution the earth
b) Highlight four (4) effects of each in (a i and aii)
above
c) Describe the four (4) of the earth

2. a) Highlight three (3) reasons why North of Arctic

Circle has 24 Hours of Daylight on June 21
b) Highlight four (4) reasons why areas within the
Fig. 15: Types of Eclipse tropics have more sunshine than areas outside the
tropics
Dawn and Twilight
Dawn refers to the brief period between sunrise and 3. a) Differentiate between eclipse, twilight and dawn
full daylight. b) Describe the types of eclipse with well labeled
Twilight refers to the brief period between sunset and diagrams
complete darkness.
i) Dawn and twilight occur because the earth receives
diffused or reflected light from the sun while it is still
below the horizon.
(ii)The sun rises almost vertically from the horizon at
the equator.
(iii) Twilight occurs longer at higher latitudes because
the sun sets more slowly.
iv) The sun rises and sets at a low level.
v) In the case of twilight, there is little or no twilight at
the equator because the sun rises or sets rapidly.
(vi) Therefore, there are longer periods of twilight than
full days at the Arctic Circle.

13
 Principlesam Series
CHAPTER FOUR
THE EARTH’S GRID SYSTEM AND MEASUREMENT OF THE EARTH
LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE
Latitudes Calculation of distances using the line of latitudes;
Latitudes are imaginary lines drawn on the earth’s Procedures
surface from east to west at an angular distance from a) Locate the two places involved
the center of the earth. Latitudes are drawn from east b) Find the latitude differences between the two
to west. Latitudes are measured in degrees, ranging places involved in the question.
from 0° at the equator to 90° at the North and South Formula;
Poles. Between points lines of latitude are drawn The formula needed to be used is;
intervals of 1°. Each degree is subdivided into i. North- North = subtraction
60minutes and each minute is sub-divided into ii. South- South = subtraction
seconds. Latitudes are parallels to each other and are iii. North- South = Addition
therefore called parallels. They are called parallels iv. Equator (0°N/S and W/E) = Add or subtract
because they do not meet each other at 1°. Latitude v. Multiply the latitude differences by 111km. the
represents 111km approximately. formula is 1°= 111km
The coming into the existence of 111km of latitude is 1° of latitude is approximately 111km on land. 111km
a result of knowing the equatorial circumference of is derived by dividing the length of equatorial
the earth dimension. circumference of the Earth (40,085km) by 360° ×10 .
Note: The equatorial circumference of the earth = 𝟒𝟎,𝟎𝟖𝟓𝐤𝐦
Thus Latitude= ×1° = 111.3472222km
𝟑𝟔𝟎°
40,085km.
Approximately 111km
The total circumference of the earth = 360°
Given the number of degrees of latitude between two
For every 4minutes = 1°.
places, it is easy to calculate the distance between the
two places.
Calculations
𝐄𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐜𝐢𝐫𝐜𝐮𝐦𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐡
Calculations
Lat. = 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐜𝐢𝐫𝐜𝐮𝐦𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐡 × 𝟏° Then, Example 1: Calculate the distance between the
40,085km equators (Lat. 0°) and Egypt (30°N).
Latitude = × 1° = 111.3472222km
360°
Therefore Latitude= 111km.approximate
Solution
The most important lines of latitudes are;
a. Locate the two places involved in the question,
- Latitude 0°, which is called the equator. It divides
- Latitude of the equator = 0°
the earth into two halves or hemisphere (R). The
- Latitude of Egypt = 30°
Northern Hemisphere and Southern Hemisphere.
b. Find the latitude differences between the two
- Latitude 23 ½°N called the Arctic Circle and
places involved
- Latitude 66 ½° N is called the Antarctic Circle. The
- 30°N-0° = 30°
equator is the longest latitude. Latitudes become short
c. Since 1° =111km
as they get to the poles. 30°×111km
Then Latitude = = 3,330km. Therefore, the
1°
distance between the equator and Egypt is 3,330km

Example 2: Calculate the distance between South

Africa (30°S) and Spain (40°N).

Solution
a. Locate the two places involved in the question
- Latitude of south Africa = 30°S
- Latitude of Spain = 40°N.
b. The difference in latitude between the two places
involved in the question. Since the latitudes are
different, we must add, using formula (III)
Fig. 16: The important lines of latitude = 30°S+ 40°N = 70°
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 Principlesam Series
c. Since 1° = 111km they converge at the poles but are of the same length.
70°×111km Each longitude divides the earth into two halves.
Then Latitude = = 7,770km
1°
Longitude 0° is called Greenwich Meridian Time
Therefore, the distance between South Africa and
(GMT) and longitude 180°E or W is called the
Spain is 7,770km
International Date Line (IDL). Longitudes are also
Example 3: Calculate the distance between Lagos
called Meridians meaning midday. The Prime
(4°N) and Cairo (30°N)
Meridian is the starting point i.e. 0°. The location of a
place by whether it is east or west of the prime
Solution
meridian is called its longitude of 30°W. It would be
a. Locate the two places involved in the question
found on the meridian. Longitudes are commonly
- Latitude of Lagos = 4°N
written in the following forms. Longitude 79°03ʺ43ʹW
- Latitude of Cairo = 30°N
which may be read as longitude 79 degrees 3minutes
b. The difference in latitude between the two places
43 seconds west of Greenwich. The important lines of
involved. We must subtract because the latitudes are
longitudes are;
of the same using formulas I and II.
= 30°N- 4°N = 26°
c. Since 1° = 111km
26°×111km Long 180oW
Then Latitude = 1°
= 2,886km
Therefore, the distance between Lagos and Cairo is
2,886km
Fig. 17: The important lines of longitude
Example 4: If the distance between Accra (18°W) and
Prime Meridian
London is 6,500km, what latitude is London?
The prime meridian is defined as an imaginary line
that runs through the Royal Observatory in
Solution
Greenwich, England, the surrounding of London. The
a. Locate the two places involved in the question
prime meridian cuts across 00 longitudes and divides
- Latitude of Accra = 18°W
the earth into two hemispheres (the Eastern and
- Latitude of London =? =x
Western Hemispheres). The Eastern Hemisphere
- Distance of London = 6,500km.
includes the continents of Asia, Australia and Europe;
b. i. Difference in distance 6,500km
6,500km on the other hand, the Western Hemisphere includes
= × 1° = 59°, thus changing distance to a North and South America. All meridians (lines of
111km
degree. longitude) east of the prime meridian (0 and 180) are
ii. Difference in degree = 59°W graduated from 1 to 1800E; the lines west of the prime
c. Therefore, the distance between Accra and London meridian (0 and 180) are graduated from 1 to 1800W.
by changing the latitude direction, Accra and London There are no letters attached to the 0 and 180 lines as
are in the west. Since both towns are in the same in the case of latitude. The value of this line has been
latitude, we must subtract using formula I and II determined as 0. Other meridians of longitudes can be
x= 59°W- 18°W = 41°W drawn through the angular distance from the Prime
ː. The latitude of Tema is 41°W. Meridian. For example, the meridians that lie at
450 East of the prime meridian is known as 450 East
Longitude Longitude or east meridian and all the places lying on
Longitude is an imaginary line drawn on the globe this longitude has the same longitudinal value of
(earth) running from North to South Poles at the right 450 East Longitude. In this case, we can say that the
angle to the parallels. In order words, longitude is an longitude of any given point on the globe is measured
angular distance measured in degrees east and west of as an angular distance eastward or westward from the
the Greenwich Meridian. All the lines of longitude prime meridian. We also know that the longitude of
which run from North to South ate called Lines of the prime meridian is 00 . The value of the angles
Longitude. created by the circumference at Centre of the earth is
Longitude is measured in degrees and minutes of 0° - 3600. So, if 3600 meridians are drawn from one pole to
180°E and 0°-180°W OF Prime Meridian (Longitude another at equal interval of 10, then they will lie at
0°). Longitudes are not parallel to each other because
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 Principlesam Series
0
1 of longitude apart. Hence, the total numbers of 360 a) By the difference of local time: We understand
meridians are equally divided into two parts of that the earth is a sphere; it has been moving
1800 each in the western and the eastern side of the constantly round its own axis from west to east.
prime meridian. As the earth is a sphere, so the However, different places of the earth have been
1800 east and west longitude is virtually the same line. facing the sun at different times. Whenever, the
Like in the case of latitudes, the longitudes can also be meridian of any place comes in front of the sun i.e.
divided into minutes and seconds. One minute of when the sun appears just overhead, then it is
longitude is 1/60th part of a degree of longitude. The considered as noon and the local time is taken as 12
value of both the latitude and longitude will be 0° noon. Ultimately other times of the place are
when the prime meridian crosses the equator determined based on local time.
vertically. And this point has been recognised as a However, when calculating the local time of a place it
place located somewhere in the Gulf of Guinea. is important to have these in mind:
➢ That the earth rotates through an angle of 10 in
Table 3: Differences between latitudes and longitudes 4 minutes
Latitudes Longitudes ➢ That the earth rotates through an angle of 10 in
1. They run from west to 1. They run from North 1 hour
east to South poles ➢ That the earth makes one complete rotation
2. They are angular 2. They are angular through an angle of 3600 in 24 hours.
distance measured with distance with the For example: If the time of Yaound (Cameroon) 300E
the equator Greenwich Meridian is 3.00pm, what time will it be in London 00?
3. Only the equator is the 3. Two opposite To solve this, you must know that London is located
great circle meridians form a great west of Yaound by 300. Since the earth rotates through
4. Parallel to each other at circle an angle of 10 in 4 minutes,
latitude 0°-90°N 4. Meet each other at
Therefore: 10 = 4 minutes
5. They decrease in length 90°N/S
300 = 30 x1x4 minutes = 120 minutes
from the equator towards 5. They are equal in
If 60 minutes = 1hour
the poles length.
Then 120/60 x 1 hour = 2 hours
Table 4: Uses/ importance of lines of latitude and longitude
Lines of latitude (uses) Lines of longitude (uses) In this case, London is 2 hours behind Yaound (300E)
i. They are used to i. They are used to and so we must subtract the calculated hours from the
calculate the distance calculate the time initial time (GTM) that was given.
(1°) of lat.111km ii. The great circle Time in London = 3.00pm 2 hours
ii. They demarcate the routes are used for i.e. 15 hours -2 hours = 13 hours
earth into two climatic navigation by sea and The time in London will then be 1.00 pm.
zones by air
iii. They are used to iii.They are used to b) By Greenwich Mean Time: We have now
locate the position locate the position of understood that the longitude of Greenwich is 0. To
places on the earth’s places together with determine the longitude of a place by sextant, one will
surface the latitude lines. have to record the highest altitude that the sun reaches
at a location at noon and that position will have to be
Similarities between latitudes and longitudes regarded as 12.00 noon. To calculating the local time
1. Both are imaginary lines drawn on the globe (earth) of places east of the prime Meridian, a student should
or map understand that we are to add the initial time given
2. Both are measured in degrees (GTM) to the calculated hour obtained. As for all
3. Both are used to locate places on maps places existing west of prime meridian, we subtract
4. Both contain great circles the calculated hour from the initial time given (GTM).
The reason behind this is that the earth rotates from
How to determine the longitude of a place west to east thereby exposing places east of the
The longitude of a place is determined using these two Greenwich first to the sun’s rays before the places in
methods: the west. It therefore shows that when it is midday or
a. By the difference of local time noon in some places in the east, it might just be dawn
b. By Greenwich mean time in some other places in the west.
16
 Principlesam Series
If the GTM is 8:00a.m in London and it is noon in - X= 10:00am
Kinshasa. What is the longitude of Kinshasa? From east we must add
Solution: The difference in the time between GTM = 10:00am + 5hrs = 15:00GMT
London and Kinshasa is 12 noon 15:00GMT -12:00GMT = 3:00pm
Therefore: 12 noon 8.00am =4hours. Therefore, the local time on place Y is 3:00pm
Since 1 hour =150, 4 hours= 4/1x 150 = 600
From the question above, Kinshasa is ahead of GTM; Example 2: Calculate the time of Dododuo on
therefore, Kinshasa is East of the Greenwich Meridian longitude 58°W and Drobo on longitude 0° when it is
which means Kinshasa is located on longitude 600E 1:30pm.

Calculation of local time using the lines of longitudes Solution

The lines of longitude are used in geography to a. Locate the two places involved in the question
calculate the local time of places. It is mathematical - Longitude of Dododuo = 58°W
and it enables people to known the local time of a - Longitude of Drobo = 0° at 1:30pm
place given the longitudes regarding a particular time. b. Longitude differences
= 58°W- 0° = 58°
Procedures for calculating local time c. Time conversion
1. Locate the two places involved in the question For every 15°= 1hr
2. Find the longitude differences 58°
= × 1hr = 3hrs 13mins. But for every 1° = 4mins
15°
3. Convert the longitude difference differences to time
Therefore 4 ×13mins = 52mins
4. Adjust the time according to the direction of
Therefore, the time will be 3:52pm
movement (West or East)
d. Time differences
Formula: The formulas needed to be used are;
For every 1hr = 60mins
i. North- North = subtraction
=3:52 – 1:30 = 2:22pm
ii. South-South = subtraction
Now, the local time at Dododuo on longitude 58°W is
iii. North-South = Addition
2:22pm
iv. Equator (0°N/S and W/E) = Add or subtract
v. Multiply the longitude differences by 1hr. the
Example 3: If someone in Tokyo on longitude 135°E,
formula is 1°= 4minute
telephones a friend in Vancouver on (longitude
Note: 15° of latitude is 1hr or 60minutes. The result is
120°W) on 4th December at 10:00am, at what time
derived by dividing the longitude differences gotten
will his friend receive the call?
after adding or subtracting the longitude given in the
Solution
question.
a. The two places involved in question
- Longitude of Tokyo = 135°E
Example 1: The local time of a place X on longitude
- Longitude of Vancouver = 120°W, at time =
0° is 10:00am. Calculate the time at Y on longitude
10:00am on 4th December
75°E
b. Longitude differences
Solution
= 135°E+120°W = 255°, we added because the
a. The two places in questions
longitudes are of different direction by the used of
- Longitude on place X = 0° at 10:00am
procedure (ii)
- Longitude on place Y = 75°E 255°
b. Difference in longitude c. Time conversion=
15°
× 1hr = 17hrs =
= places involved in question = X+Y = 75°E+ 0° 17: 00GMT
=75°E d. Time difference in accordance of the direction
c. Time conversion =17: 00GMT – 12:00GMT = 5:00pm
For every 15° = 1hour Or
75°
So therefore = 15° × 1hr = 5hrs = 10:00am = 22:00GMT
= 22: 00GMT– 17:00pm = 5:00pm
d. Time adjustment
Therefore, the friend receives the telephone call on 3rd
- Time on place X = 10:00am
December at 5:00pm.
- Time on place Y =?
- 5hrs = Y
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 Principlesam Series
Example 4: A football match is schedule for 5:45pm Calculation of longitude from time
local time on Saturday in Onitsha, Nigeria (Long. Example1: The time in Nyamekyekrom on longitude
70E). Calculate the local time the football fans in 60°E is 11:00am if the time at Sikakrom is 8:00am.
Mambola, Sierra Leone (Long. 130W) can tune their On what longitude is Sikakrom?
radio sets for the commentary. Solution
a. Time differences with the longitude in question
Solution - Time at Nyamekyekrom =11:00am
i. Locate the two places involve - Time at Sikakrom = 8:00am
-Longitude of Onitsha, Nigeria =70E at 5:45pm 11:00am-8:00am= 3:00am
-Longitude of Mambola, Sierra Leone =130W at y=? b. Change the hours to degrees
ii. Find the longitude differences of the two places For every 1°= 4minutes
70E +130W= 200 c. Multiply the 3hours by 60minutes
iii. Converting the degree to time by dividing the 3×60minutes = 180 minutes, if 1°=4minutes
results in the longitude differences by 150 or 180minutes
Then=
4minutes
×10
20⁰
1hr=60mins=15⁰ × 1hr = d. The longitude differences between these towns
1hr5miresults by 15° and multiply by 1hr. - Longitude of Nyamekyekrom = 60°E
Since every 1° = 4mins, then multiply 4mins by 5mins, -Longitude of Sikakrom = x
thus 4×5=20mins X= 60°E - 45°E = 15°E
Therefore, the time conversion is 1hr20mins or 1:20pm ː. Now the longitude of Sikakrom is 15°E
iv. Time difference, from the west we must subtract Note: the longitude differences were subtracted
= 5:45pm -1: 20pm= 4:25pm because the time at Nyamekyekrom is greater than the
∴ The time the people in Mambola, Sierra Leone will time at Sikakrom
tune their radio set is 4:25pm Example 2: Find the longitude of Bolaga Nkwanta
whose time is 6:00am when it is 10:04pm in England
Example 5: If Jonathan in Vancouver (120°E) on longitude 45°E.
telephones a friend in Japan Embassy (45°W) on Solution
Monday morning on 11th August, 2010 at 5am, a. Find the time differences
calculate; - Time at Bolaga Nkwanta = 6:00am
a) The time, and - Time at England 10:04pm
b) The date that the friend will receive the call. = 10:04pm ̶- 6:00am= 4:04pm, 4hours4mins
b. Change the time hours to degree (hours to degree)
Solution But for every 1° = 4mins
i) Locate the two places involved in question So therefore, multiply the 4mins by 60mins =
-Longitude of Vancouver= 120°E 4×60mins = 240mins
-Longitude of Japan Embassy=45°W Thus 240mins + 4mins = 244mins
ii) Difference in longitude: We must add because the ː. 244mins
4mins
×1°=61°E

directions of the longitudes are different c. Now the longitude differences can be calculated
Therefore, 120°E + 45°W= 165° - Longitude of Bolaga Nkwanta = X = 61°E
iii) Time conversion; for every 15°=1hr=60mins -Longitude of England = 45°E
165°
× 1hr = 11hrs =61°E ̶ 45°E = 16°E
15°
Therefore, the longitude at England is 16°E
iv) Time difference
Note: the longitude differences were subtracted
5am- 11hrs= 6hrs
because the time at Bolaga Nkwanta is behind the time
Note: We must subtract because the Japan Embassy is
in England.
in the west.
a) Time= 5am+6hrs = 11pm, we added because
Example 3: The local time at PRASEC on longitude
Jonathan is in the east of Vancouver.
20°E is 4:00pm (16:00hrs GMT), if the time at
b) Date = Sunday, 10th August,2010
YESEC is 6:28pm. What is the longitude at YESEC?

18
 Principlesam Series
Solution 30°
Then= 15° × 1hr = 2hrs
a. Find the time difference
c. Find the time differences between the two places
-Time at PRASEC = 4:00Pm
involved in question.
-Time at YESEC= 6:28Pm
The time at town X = 4:00pm and the time
= 6:28pm ̶ 4:00pm = 2:28 = 2hrs28mins
conversion of the longitudes between the two places
b. Changing the time to degree by converting =
involved in question.
For every 1° = 4mins and 1hr = 60mins
= 4:00pm + 2hrs = 6:00pm, it is added because of the
= 2×60mins = 120mins
direction of the longitude of town X.
120mins + 28mins = 148mins
148mins
Therefore, the time on town Y = 6:00pm
Therefore
4mins
× 1° = 37°E
c. Now the longitude difference can be calculated Example 6: If the time at town P is 8:30pm when the
- Longitude of PRASEC = 20°E time at town Q is 5:00pm, what is the longitude of
- Longitude of YESEC = x town P, if the longitude of town Q is 80°W?
= 20°E + 37°E = 57°E Solution
Therefore, the longitude on YESEC at 6:28pm is 57°E a. The location of the two-place involved in question
Note: the longitude differences were added because - Longitude of town P = Y
the time at YESEC is greater than the time at - Longitude of town Q = 80°W
PRASEC. b. Find the time differences between the two places
involved
Example 4: A special announcement from the BBC - Time of town P= 8:30pm
London was heard in New York, longitude (75°W) at - Time of town Q= 5: 00pm
5am on Monday 7th October 1974. When was the = 8:30pm – 5:00pm = 3: 30pm
announcement made in London on longitude (0°)? c. Converting the time to degree
Solution For every 1° =4mins and for every 1hr= 60mins
a. longitude differences of the two places So therefore 3:30pm = 3×60mins = 180mins
-Longitude of New York = 75°W 180mins + 30mins = 210mins
210mins
-Longitude of London = 0° Then= × 1° = 52.5° or 53°W
4mins
= 75°W ̶ 0° = 75°
d. Now the longitude differences can be calculated
b. divide the result by 15° by converting the degree to
- Longitude of town P = y and Longitude of town Q
time in minutes or1 hour of the time
75°W
= 80°W
= × 1hr = 5hrs = 80°W ̶ 53°W = 27°0ʺ30ʹW
15°
c. find the time differences between the two places Therefore, the longitude of town P is 27°0ʺ30ʹW.
- the time at London = 5am and the time in
conversion is 5hrs The Great Circle
= 5am + 5hrs = 10am The great circle is a line that divides the globe into
Therefore, the announcement was made at 10am, two equal halves (Hemisphere). All longitude divides
Monday, 7th October 1974 in London. the earth into two equal parts.
The equator is the only latitude that divides the earth
Example 5: The time in town X on longitude 15°E is into two equal parts, so among the latitude only the
4:00pm what will be the time in town Y on longitude equator is a great circle.
15°W? Examples of Great Circles
➢ The equator (00 latitude)
Solution ➢ The Greenwich meridian (00 longitude)
a. the two places involved in question ➢ Longitude 1800 W and 1800 E
- longitude of town X = 15°E ➢ Longitude 900 E and 900 W
- longitude of town Y = 15°w ➢ Longitude 1500E and 300W
The longitude difference = 15°E + 15°w = 30°W
b. convert the degree to time by dividing the result by Uses of Great Circle
15° 1. Great Circles are used to locate places on the
For every 15° = 1hour Earth's surface.
19

2. Used in determining the directions of the Moon and
Earth
3. Great Circles are used in determining appropriate
points on the Earth's surface.
4. They serve as the shortest between two points on
the Earth's surface.
5. They are used by commercial ships and aircraft for
long-distance journeys. They thus save time in
navigation.
Local Time
Local time refers to the actual time of a particular
meridian (longitude). This implies that places on the
same meridian or different meridians (longitudes)
have different local time. The differences are due to
the rotation of the earth, which brings the sun across
each longitude (meridian) at a varying instance. The
differences in local time are there for every 15° of
longitude or 4minutes for every 1° of longitude. If
each town were to keep the time of its own meridian,
travelers going from one end of the country to the
other would have to keep changing their watches
(forward, movement is forwards east and backward if
movement is towards the east). This is impracticable
confusing and inconvenient.
To avoid these difficulties, a system of standard time
is observed all countries.
Standard Time
A standard time is the civil time accepted throughout a
zone of 15°Estretch called time zone. Time zone is
thus a geographical area of 15°E across which the
same standard time is used.
The world has been divided into 24 standard time
zones each of which differ from the next 15° in
longitude or 1 hour in time. The local time for the
central meridian called the standard time is applied to
the entire zone. Large countries that extend more than
15° have more than one standard time zone. Example,
Canada has seven (7) time zones stretching across
105° of longitude (45°W or 15°E). Ghana’s standard
time is calculated along longitude 0°, that of Nigeria,
along longitude 15°.
International Date Line (IDL)
This is an imaginary line at which a day is lost or
gained. This line follows or occurs approximately
180°. This imaginary line running from North to
South through the Pacific Ocean, the lines is zigzag in
some places; this is to avoid some island groups from
counting two different local times in two different
parts of the same island, thereby removing the
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Principlesam Series
confusion of dividing one island into different dates. It
is important to understand the International Date
Line and not to confuse it with the prime meridian
which is the 00 longitude. The actual International
Date Line does not follow the 1800 meridian exactly.
A number of changes have been made to the
International Date Line to accommodate political
agreements to include an island or country on one side
of the line or another. The International Date Line is
known to be 1800 east and west longitude. This line
crosses through the Aleutian on the north-eastern part
of Siberia, Fiji and Chatham islands. To prevent the
problems of adjusting local time, the International
Date Line has been set so that it will pass only over
the water bodies turning 120 towards east just near the
Bering Strait, 70 towards west near the Aleutian
Islands and 110 towards east near Fiji and Chatham
islands. If was not drawn in this way, a lot of people
would have to count two different local times in two
different parts of the same island.
A traveler going eastwards gains time from Greenwich
until he reaches the meridian 180°E when he will be
12hours ahead of Greenwich. Similarly, in going
westwards he losses 12hours when he reaches 180°W.
There is however a total of 24hours or whole day
between the two (2) sides of the 180° meridian. This
180° meridian is the International Date Line where the
days change by one when it is crossed. A traveler
crossing the International Date Line from east to west
losses a day and when crossing it from west to east he
gains a day. For example, when it is 12noon on
Monday, the time on 180°E is 12midnight
approaching Tuesday and 12midnight of 180°W but
starting on Monday.
This time is generally adopted by a country which is
usually taken from the Central Meridian (called
standard time) of that country. The importance of
standard time is to eliminate differences in local time
between one town and the others within the same
country.
Small Circles
A small circle is any line that does not divide the earth
into two equal halves or hemispheres. The centre of
the Small Circle is not the centre of the earth. All lines
of latitude except the Equator (0') are small circles, e
g. Tropic of Cancer (231\2°N), Tropic of Capricorn
(231\2°S), Arctic Circle (661\2°N), and Antarctic
Circle (661\2 ° S) of the North and South poles. Small
circle route is only used by aircraft on a short journey,
e.g. the air route between Argentina and South Africa.

World Time Zones
This is the division of the world into twenty-four (24)
time zones, each of which differs from the next zone
by 15° in longitude or 1 hour in time. The local time
of the central meridian for each zone is applied to that
zone which is called a time zone. All places located
on the same time zone have the same time. For every
Fig. 18: The World Time Zone
Assignment 4
1. a) The time in New Jalai, Ghana on longitude 80°E
is 11:00am, if the time at Sikakrom is 7:00am. On
what longitude is Prang?
b) If the time at town P is 10:30pm when the time at
town Q is 4:00pm, what is the longitude of town P, if
the longitude of town Q is 180°W?
2. a) Define the following terms
i. Latitude
ii) Longitude
b) State four (4) differences between latitudes and
longitudes
c)Give three (3) similarities between latitudes and
longitudes
3. a) What is meant by the great circle?
b) With the aid of a diagram, explain eclipse of the
moon.
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Principlesam Series
15° movement across the longitude West of the GMT
(Greenwich Mean Time), an hour is always lost,
while to some countries adhere to this division but
others cannot, due to their irregular size and location,
e.g. North America is very large. It has five standard
time zones (Fig.18) while former U.S.S.R. has eleven
standard time zones.
c) State three characteristics of Great Circles.
d) Outline three uses of Great Circles.
4. Calculate the distance between South Africa
(70°S) and Spain (40°N).
5. Calculate the distance between Lagos (54°N) and
Cairo (30°N)
6. If the distance between Accra (18°W) and London
is 6,500km, what latitude is London?
7. a) Describe the following terms
i. Standard time
ii. Local time
iii. World time zone
iv. Small cycle
v. International Date Line
b) State three (3) importance of the International Date
Line

CAPTER FIVE
THE STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
The Earth’s origin
The Earth is third planet from the sun. It is also the fifth The merit of this theory is that it overcame the problem
largest planet and is approximately 150millionkm
(93million miles) away from the sun. The Earth,
together with the other eight planets; Mercury, Venus,
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, Neptune and Pluto – and their moons form the
planetary system. Together with the Sun, they form the
solar system. Therefore, in order to understand the
origin of the Earth, we must first understand the origin
of the solar system. The earth also has other records as;
i. Total area = 509,450,000sq.km or
196,672,000sq.miles
ii. Land area = 149,450,000sq.km or
57,688,000sq.miles (representing 29.3%)
iii. Water = 360,000.000sq.km or 138,987,000sq.miles
(representing 70.7%)
iv. Average speed round the sun = 108,000km/h or
66,600miles/h
v. Age approximate = 4,500,000,000 years.
vi. Equatorial circumference = 40,085km or
24,902miles
Source: Philips World Reference Atlas, 2000.
The theories of Earth’s formation
- The Doctrine of Catastrophism/ Evolutional Theory
and
- The Doctrine of Uniformitarianism/ Nebular Theory
The Doctrine of Catastrophism\ Evolutional theory
The Earth was believed to have formed over 5 billion
years ago (b.y.a). Several attempts have been made to
explain the origin and age of the earth. There was a
belief that the earth landscape had been developed
primarily by great catastrophes? This appeared to be
known as the “Doctrine of Catastrophism”. This
theory suggests the close approach of another
condensed star to the Sun. The gravitational forces
involved would cause huge tides to be raised on the star
and the Sun until a cigar-shaped filament of stellar
material became torn away from one or both and
condensed between the two stars to form planets such as
the “Earth”.
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Principlesam Series
Significance of the Catastrophic-Event Theory
of the variation of the planetary spin rates. However, its
major demerits came about when
i. It was later realized through scientific studies that
stellar material at temperatures exceeding a million
degrees centigrade would rather disperse than condense
into planets.
ii. Statistical arguments advanced by astronomers
showed that the chances of a close encounter between
two stars are rather remote.
The Doctrine of Uniformitarianism /Nebular Theory
Others believed that the forces and processes that we
observe presently shaping the Earth have been at work
for a very long time. This was known as “The Doctrine
of Uniformitarianism”. It simply states that the
physical, chemical and biological processes and laws
that operate today have also operated in the past or in
the geologic past, (James Hutton, in His Book, “The
Theory of the Earth”). His idea was put up in the year
1700s by a Scottish Physician and Farmer. He reiterated
that “to understand ancient rocks we must first
understand present day processes and their results. The
present is the key to the past. Its essential idea is that of
a flat disc-shaped rotating cloud of gas and dust, which
referred to as Nebular that gradually contracted and
condensed under its own gravitational force to form the
Sun. The variants of this theory include the
development of several regularly spaced rings each of
which aggregated to form a planet. In its formation, the
earth went through a molten period as the material
contracted under its own gravitational force. Modern
methods of dating rock material have shown the oldest
fragments of meteorites and moon rocks to be close to
4.6 billion years old. The formation of the solar system
is thus believed to have been substantially complete
more than 4.5 billion years ago.
Significance of the Nebular Theory
The major merit of this theory is that it is widely
accepted in explaining the distribution of planets along
one plane through the Sun and the regular spacing
among planets. However, this theory came into some
problems in the 19th Century when more data about the
sizes, masses and spins of all the planets were

determined. The major problem was about the period of
spins. It is argued that if the Sun and its inner planets;
Mercury, Venus and, the Earth, which are relatively
small, dense and rocky, resulted from the contraction of
the rotating nebular, they should be spinning faster than
the outer planets; Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Pluto,
which are usually large, lighter and gaseous, and not the
other way around. This is not the case.
The Earth Structure (Layers)
The earth is composed of parts which has been
categorized into two (2);
1. Interior (Inner structure)
2. Exterior (Outer structure)
The interior/ inner structure
The inner structure of the earth comprises of the earth
origin such as;
- The Core
- The Mantle and
- The Crust (The Lithosphere)
The exterior/ outer structure
The outer/ exterior structure of the earth comprises of;
- Atmosphere = Air
- Lithosphere = Land/ earth crust
- Hydrosphere = Water (ocean/ sea)
- Biosphere = Life of plants and animals.
The earth does not consist of a single material but it is
made up of concentric layers having different
characteristics and mineral content which looks like
skin of an onion. Even after the boring up of
6,600meters (the deepest penetration so far), we still
know very little about the earth’s interior. However, it is
believed that the earth is made of concentric zones of
different composition and thickness.
Structure and Composition of the Earth; the Early
Earth
The Early Earth was very different from what it is
today. It lacked the modern oceans and atmosphere and
had a different surface from the present one. The
primitive Earth was heated by several processes.
Immediately after the Earth formed, the energy released
by the decay of radioactive elements coupled with the
heat from the colliding particles and the heat generated
by the compression of the interior due to gravity
produced some melting on the earth’s interior. Melting
23
Principlesam Series
allowed the heavier elements-Iron (Fe) and Nickel (Ni),
to sink while the lighter rocky fragments floated
upwards. This segregation of materials which began
early in the earth’s history is believed to be still
occurring but on a smaller scale. Hence the earth’s
interior is not homogenous but consists of shells or
spheres of materials having different properties. Using
the science of seismology, scientists have established
that the Earth consists of three basic layers, namely the
large iron rich core, the mantle, and a thin crust at the
surface each with its own characteristics.
The diagram shows a sketch of the structure of the
Earth
Fig. 19: The structure of the Earth
Fig. 20: Diagram showing the structural relationship of Lithosphere and
Asthenosphere; Materials of the Earth
The Core (Barysphere)
The Core is the inner layer of the earth. It is made of
two (2) parts, namely the inner and outer core.
The core is spherical in shape and has a diameter of
about 6,960km. The outer core is in a form of molten
state. (Liquid state and contains irons and nickels
(Nife). The inner core which is solid and made up of
iron and carbon. It is very hot with temperature of about
5,000°C. The density of the core varies from 9.5grams
to 13.0grams. The inner core and crust are solid, but the
outer core is liquid and the mantle layers are semi-
liquid. The core is made up of mostly iron and nickel,
and the upper mantle of minerals such as olivine and
pyroxene. The continental crust consists of granitic
rocks (enriched with silicon and Aluminum elements -
SIAL) and the oceanic crust consists mainly of basaltic
 Principlesam Series
rocks (enriched in Silicon and Magnesium elements – e. The line separating the mantle and the core is called
SIMA). Gutenberg Discontinuity whiles the line separating the
The characteristics of the Core mantle and the crust is called Mohorovicic
The core in general has some characteristics. They are Discontinuity
stated below; The Crust/ Lithosphere
1. It is the innermost part of the earth which contains the The crust or lithosphere is that part of the earth that lies
inner and outer core as well. beneath the atmosphere and the hydrosphere.
2. It contains nickels and irons called the Nife. It is a thin outer skin of about 80km. the crust or
3. The outer core is in a molten state/form, whiles the lithosphere is made up of two parts. These are upper
inner core is in a solid state. layer (continent) and lower layer (ocean floor).
4. It has a temperature of about 2,000°C. The Upper Layer (Continent)
5. The density is about 10grams ranging between 9.5 a.The upper part of the earth crust is made up of granite
grams to 13.0grams. rocks which form the continent.
The Mantle b. It is composed of minerals called silica and
The mantle is the middle part of the earth. It has hot aluminum collectively called Sial, means that there is
body and thick rocks. It is also the zone of dense rocky an average density of 27grams.
mantle of about 2,897km thick. The mantle or
mesosphere contains compounds like (iron, magnesium The Lower Layer (Ocean floor)
and silica). The mantle is in a molten state. The partly a. The lower layer part of the crust (earth) is made up
molted rocks are called the Asthenosphere. This is just of zone of dense basaltic rocks, which forms the ocean
below the lithosphere (the crust). It is sometimes termed floor.
the soft layer of mantle. This is where tectonic b. It consists of minerals such as silica and magnesium
activities take place and cause the motion of collectively called Sima, which has a density of
lithospheric plates. The mantle has a temperature of 2.7grams.
about 5,000°C so high enough to melt the rock sphere Note: The correct arrangement of the layers of the earth
but because of the very high-pressure in this zone, the crust from the surface to the interior is;
rocks are kept in a rapid staff such as; Sial Sima Mantle Core
Mohorovicic Discontinuity (MOHO)- It is the outer The factors that determine the earth’s temperature
layer that is found at about 32km to 48km deep from the are:
earth surface where changes of density marks the a) Amount of sun light received
boundary between the crust and the mantle, and in depth b) Amount of sun light reflected (albedo)
it varies from about 3miles (5km) beneath the ocean c) Retention of heat by atmosphere
floor to about 25miles (40km) beneath the continent. d) evaporation and condensation of water vapor.
Gutenberg Discontinuity – It is found at a depth of
2,880km where a change in density marks the boundary Table 5: The table gives a summary of the nature and composition of the
Earth. The nature and composition of the Earth’s interior
between the core and the mantle. This boundary was Nature Layers Thickness Composition
named after German Seismologist called Beno Solid Inner 1, 255 km 85% Iron (Fe) & some
Gutenberg. The boundaries were discovered with Core nickel (Ni)
Liquid Outer 2, 220 km Nickel-Iron
evidence from seismic records (sharp differences Core
between earthquake and seismic waves). Semi- Mantle 2, 895 km
Peridotite -Olivine,
liquid pyroxene
Solid
Inner 16-40 km Granitic rocks
The characteristics of the Mantle Core (SiAl)Basaltic rocks
a. The mantle is found between the core and the crust (SiMa)
Table 6: Average chemical composition of the Earth’s crust
b. Olivine is the main mineral found and forming the mantle Elements % by Weight
c. It is about 2,897km thick and has an average density of Potassium 2.58
about 3.3grams Sodium 2.50
d. The upper mantle is in a solid state whiles the lower Calcium 3.65
Silicon 27.69
mantle is in a liquid state/form.
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 Principlesam Series
Aluminum 8.07 5. It host the rocks and minerals in connection to man
Iron 5.05
6. It provides food and raw materials for man
Magnesium 2.74
Titanium 0.62
Hydrogen 0.14 b) Hydrosphere: Is that part/ portion of the earth which
Potassium 2.58 comprises of water and other liquids. Hydrosphere
includes all water bodies such as lakes, ponds, rivers,
streams, aquifers and ocean etc. water covers about 70-
71% of the total surface of the Earth. Hydrosphere
functions in a cyclic nature, which is termed as
hydrological cycle or water cycle.

Fig. 21: The components of the environment
Outer Envelops of the Earth
There are other parts outside the earth crust. They are;
- Lithosphere
- Atmosphere
- Hydrosphere and
- Biosphere and
- The anthroposphere (Technosphere)
a) Lithosphere: The mantle of rocks constituting the
earth’s crust- soil, earth rocks, mountains.
Crust (Oceanic crust and continental crust)-Outer layer
of the earth. Have an average depth of about 35-40km
in thickness
Lithosphere and Asthenosphere
Starting at a depth of about 100km below the earth’s
surface, rocks in the mantle usually reach high
temperatures and they lose much of their strength. This
region of the upper mantle where rocks become easily
deformed is called the Asthenosphere (or weak
sphere). In the approximate outer 100km of the earth, is
a region where rocks are harder and more rigid than
those in the Asthenosphere. This hard-outer layer is
called the Lithosphere (or rock sphere), which is rigid,
cool and brittle.
Importance
1. Soil for agriculture and the basis of human settlement
2. It is a source of stones, sand and gravel for
construction
3. Micronutrients for plants growth
4. Microscopic flora and fauna which breaks down
plants litter and animal waste
25
Importance
1. Water for washing and serves as tourist centre e.g.
rivers such as River Pra, in Ghana, Boti falls and
Kintampo Water Falls all in Ghana and other rivers and
falls across the world.
2. Water for agriculture and industry use
3. Food resources from sea and river such as fish,
prawns, etc. to man
4. Energy, thus hydrosphere helps in the generation of
electricity power from the Akosombo Dam.
5. Recreation
6. Clean water for drinking, bathing, cooking and
washing.
c) Atmosphere: A thin layer which contains gases likes
oxygen, carbon dioxide etc. and which protects the solid
earth and human beings from the harmful radiations of
the sun. It can also be described as a bag or sack of air
that surrounds the earth. It is about 600km thick. It
contains 78.5% of Nitrogen, 21% of Oxygen, 61% of
Carbon dioxide, and water vapour. The atmosphere can
be divided into troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere
Importance
➢ It contains Oxygen for human/wild fauna and
domestic animals
➢ It also provides Carbon dioxide for plants
➢ Layer of sulphates in the stratosphere helps in
formation of rainfall
➢ Ozone absorbs ultra-violet light energy known to
cause cancer
➢ Air flow and variation in climate, temperature and
rainfall
➢ It acts as a green house
d) Biosphere: Life layer, it refers to all organisms on
the earth’s surface and their interaction with water and

air. It consists of plants, animals and micro-organisms,
ranging from the tiniest microscopic organism to the
largest whales in the sea.
The Biosphere includes all life on earth and consists of
the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere in which
living organisms such as plants and animals’ lives. The
maximum thickness is only a few kilometers. It is made
up of a zone of complex biological and chemical
activities since it is the home of man, animals and
micro-organisms. The biosphere is a circular zone
around the earth hence the word “sphere”.
Importance
❖ Food for all forms of life
❖ Energy (fuel wood) through timber, minerals etc.
❖ Medicine from herbs are gotten through the
biosphere
❖ Timber for construction
❖ The plants provide employment for man e.g.
lumbering
❖ It serves as a home for man and other terrestrial
bodies.
Note: the next sphere is
the anthroposphere (sometimes also referred as
Technosphere) is that part of the environment (earth)
that is made or modified by humans for use in human
activities and human habitats. It is one of the Earth's
spheres.
Problems of interacting with living organisms in the
biosphere
1. Deforestation: Unfavourable farming practices, bush
burning mining and logging reduce the size of forests.
2. Depletion of forest resources: Lumbering reduces
economic trees like mahogany, odum, sapele and wawa.
3. Extinction of certain animals: Hunting and
poaching lead to the extinction of animals like
elephants, deer and antelopes.
4. Disturbances in the ecosystem: Man's activities like
bush fires, farming and logging disturb the functions of
the ecosystem.
5. Poor disposal of waste: Domestic and industrial
wastes dumped into water bodies destroy aquatic life.
Interactions within each of the four zones of the Earth
a) Within the Lithosphere
i) Rocks are broken down to form soils.
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Principlesam Series
ii) Some transformed with time to form minerals like
coal and crude oil.
iii) Molten magma solidifies to form rocks.
b) Within the Hydrosphere
i) Water from rivers, streams and rainfall form the
Oceans. ii) Sea and ocean water evaporate to form
clouds which fall as rain, snow etc.
iii) Rainfall and snow fill rivers, streams, lakes and
ponds.
c) Within the Biosphere
i) Micro-organisms in the soil promote plant growth.
ii) Some animals depend on plants for food. For
instance, goats, sheep and cow eat green grass.
iii) Some animals eat other animals. For example, lion
eats sheep.
iv) Animals decompose to provide manure for plants.
v) Animals and human beings depend on plants tor
oxygen.
vi) Plants depend on animals for carbon dioxide.
d) Within the Atmosphere
i) Water vapour accumulates to form clouds.
ii) Animals absorb oxygen and they release carbon
dioxide.
iii) Molecules of oxygen combine to form ozone.
iv) Animals absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen.
Interactions or relationships between and among the
four zones or spheres
i) Plants and animals live in the lithosphere and the
hydrosphere.
ii) Plants depend on soil (lithosphere) for their nutrients.
iii) Soil depends on plants for humus.
iv) Soils depend on plants for cover.
v) Soils depend on the atmosphere and the hydrosphere
for water.
vi) Plants depend on the atmosphere for sunlight which
they use photosynthesis.
vii) Oxygen and carbon dioxide are made constant in
the atmosphere through photosynthesis by plants and
respiration by animals.
Assignment 5
1.a) Distinguish between Lithosphere and
Asthenosphere.

b) Illustrate with well labeled diagrams the structure and
composition of the Earth
2.Tabulate the distribution of chemical elements in the
Earth’s crust.
3.a) How were the earth’s atmosphere and oceans
formed?
b) Draw and label the structure of the earth indicating
the internal and external layers. (Clarity of elaboration
attracts a mark).
4. How do geologists know what the Earth’s interior is
made of?
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Principlesam Series
5. a) Which layers/spheres of the Earth do you think
plate tectonics involve?
b) What do you associate with plate tectonics?
c) Which layers make up the lithosphere
6.a) Describe the spheres of the earth
b) Outline three (3) importance of each in (a) above.
c) State two (2) relationships between and among the
four zones or spheres

CHAPTER SIX
THE THEORY OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT AND PLATE TECTONICS
Continental drift was a theory that explained how
continents shift position on Earth's surface. Set forth in what known as the “SEA OF TETHYS”.
1912 by Alfred Wegener, a geophysicist and
meteorologist, continental drift also explained why
look-alike animal and plant fossils, and similar rock
formations, are found on different continents.
Alfred Wegener (1912) proposed that;
A large super-continent PANGEA split into smaller
fragments about 200-300 million years ago. These then
drifted apart to form the present arrangement of
continents. He had no satisfactory mechanism to offer,
but appealed to a less-dense continent “floating” and
“drifting” over a denser oceanic crust (like icebergs in
the ocean).
The theory of continental drift is defined as the
movement of the earth. Or the very slow movement of
the continent on the surface of the Earth is what is
called continental drift.
Therefore, by looking closely at the world map, one
will say that the different continents look as if they
could be fitted together. For example, the coastline of
the Americas would roughly fit into that of Europe and
Africa if shifted eastward. This was noticed by a
German scientist called Alfred Wegner who put
forward the theory of continental drift. His idea was
not back with enough and convincing evidence but
more significant when after two years, a German
Climatologist and Geophysicist publish a book titled
“The origin of continents and oceans”. Most
geologists were highly skeptical and the idea was NOT
widely accepted. In His book, the author Alfred
Wagner discovered that a vast supper continent which
consisted of today’s continents existed between 350
and 200 million years ago (m.y.a). Thus between (350
and 200 m.y.a), today’s continent was joined together
to form a single vast continent known as PANGAEA.
And about (200mya), the Pangaea began breaking up.
As the Pangaea continued to break up the north of the
Pangaea became what is known as LAURASIA and
formed the present-day North America, Europe and
parts of Asia. Again, the Pangaea also breaks up to
form what is called GONDWANALAND and formed
the present-day Southern continent like South America,
Africa Australia, and Antarctica. Wegner added that
the supercontinent Pangaea was surrounded by a single
great ocean called PANTHALASSA. The void that
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was left when the continents drifted was filled with
Again, Wegener thought all the continents were once
joined together in a "continent" before breaking up and
drifting to their current positions. But geologists
soundly denounced Wegener's theory of continental
drift after he published the details in 1915 book called
"The Origin of Continents and Oceans." Part of the
opposition was because Wegener did not have a good
model to explain how the continents moved apart.
Though most of Wegener's observations about fossils
and rocks were correct, he was outlandishly wrong on a
couple of key points. For instance, Wegener thought
the continents might have plowed through the ocean
crust like icebreakers smashing through ice.
"There is an irony that the key objection to continent
drift was that there is no mechanism, and plate
tectonics was accepted without a mechanism," to move
the continents, said Henry Frankel, an emeritus
professor at the University of Missouri-Kansas City
and author of the four volume "The Continental Drift
Controversy" (Cambridge University Press, 2012)
Although Wegener's "continental drift" theory was
discarded, it did introduce the idea of moving
continents to geosciences. And decades later, scientists
would confirm some of Wegener's ideas, such as the
past existence of a supercontinent joining all the
world's landmasses as one. Pangaea was a
supercontinent that formed roughly 200 to 250 million
years ago, according to the U.S. Geological Survey
(USGS) and was responsible for the fossil and rock
clues that led Wegener to his theory. [Have There
Always Been Continents?].
What are the steps of Continental Drift?
1. Continents were all connected into one (1)
continent called Pangaea
2. Panaceas broke up into a northern continent called
Laurasia and a southern continent called Gondwana
3. Gondwana broke up and formed Africa, South
America, Australia, and India. Laurasia broke up and
formed Europe, Asia and North America.
4. India continued to drift up and join Asia

Fig. 22: The continental drift theory (Laurasia and
Gondwanaland)
This is what Wegener thought Pangaea looked like
200-300 million years ago.
The Evidence of Continental Drift Theory
We will now review the evidence that led Wegener to
propose his theory of Continental Drift. The theory has
the following evidence such as;
1. Continent fit or jigsaw puzzle: Wegner argued that
the fit of one continental coastline with another is like a
jigsaw puzzle. In other words, he noticed a remarkable
similarity between the coastlines on
opposite sides and suggested that they might have been
joined together. The best example is South Atlantic
Coast, which is, the Eastern Coast of South America
and the South Western Coast of Africa. Also, mountain
ranges in Brazil would be continuous with those in
Nigeria if South America and Africa were brought
together. When we fit the continents of Africa and
South America “back together again”, we find that;
i. Similar rock types extend from one continent to the
other
ii. The rocks are also the same age.
2. Fossil similarities: Fossil of the same land, animals
and plants have been found in rocks of the same age on
different continents such as South America and Africa
as well as India and Australia. He further argued that
dead animal organisms have been found on different
landmasses which due to vast distance (between
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oceans), these animals could not have crossed the
oceans when they were alive. Example is the remains
of the mosasaurs, an aquatic reptile whose fossil
remains are limited to eastern South America and
southern Africa. If these reptiles had been able to swim
across the vast South Atlantic Ocean, its remains
should be widely distributed but this is not the case.
Wegner thus believed that South America and Africa
must have been somehow joined.
Rocks in the Appalachians of North America and the
Caledonides of Britain and Norway are very similar
and are also similar in age.
3. Geological similarities: The Mountains of south
eastern Canada, Greenland, Scotland and Norway are
of the same age and have the directional trend. Also, it
is possible to identify similar rock systems on either
sides of the Atlantic Ocean. The rocks of east coast of
South America and those of the West coast of Africa
are similar in age, characteristics and mineral
composition. It is therefore not surprising that both
regions produce almost the same minerals some of
which includes oil and gas. Again, Wegener’s best
evidence for continental drift came from the kinds of
rocks that make up the continents. He showed that the
type of rock found in Brazil matched the rock found in
western Africa. Also, limestone layers in the
Appalachian Mountains of North America were exactly
like the limestone in Scotland’s Highlands.
4. Evidence from climate: There is an evidence of ice
age (Pleistocene periods) between 300 and 280 million
years ago (m.y.a). During that period, parts of South
America, Southern Africa, Australia and Antarctica
were affected by the ice age when they were joined
together. The glacial deposits found in some tropical
regions suggest that those areas might have drifted
from cooler climatic regions such as Ahaggar
Mountains of Algeria. Again, Evidence of climate
change also supported Wegener’s hypothesis. For
example, Greenland today lies near the Arctic Circle
and is mostly covered in ice. Yet fossils of tropical
plants can be found on its shores. In contrast, South
Africa today has a warm climate. Yet its rocks were
deeply scratched by ice sheets that once covered the
area. Wegener suggested that these continents had
moved, carrying their fossils and rocks with them.
Greenland, for example, had once been near the

equator and had slowly moved to the Arctic Circle.
South Africa, once closer to the South Pole, had moved
slowly north to a warmer region.
5. Earth magnetic trend: Rocks of the same age
record the same magnetic trend. Now in different
countries these rocks show different magnetic trends
because the continents they are now part of drifted in
different directions. If we look at the distribution of
280–350-million-year-old rocks containing corals and
coal (both formed in warm tropical conditions), we find
that they are about 300 in latitude too far to the North.
Paleomagnetism fossil magnetic properties frozen in
rocks Earth’s magnetic field is like a simple bar magnet
as it has a north and south pole, but temperatures in the
core and mantle are too hot for permanent magnetism.
Earth’s magnetism must be generated
electromagnetically. Magnetic particles in lava align
according to the magnetic field as lava cools. In fact,
plates moving together create the highest mountains in
the world, the Himalayans, and the mountains are still
growing due to the plates pushing together, even now,
according to National Geographic.
6. Map fit: A map of the continents inspired Wegener's
quest to explain Earth's geologic history. Trained as a
meteorologist, he was intrigued by the interlocking fit
of Africa's and South America's shorelines. Wegener
then assembled an impressive amount of evidence to
show that Earth's continents were once connected in a
single supercontinent.
7. Evidence from glaciations: The white areas were
covered by ice and tundra about 300 million years ago.
Wegener took the areas that had been covered by ice
sheets and fitted them together around the South Pole.
Problem
If the earth’s orientation, relative to the sun, has
remained constant - then these cold glaciated areas are
in the wrong latitudes. They should be further south,
where Antarctica is today!
His Conclusion (Alfred Wegner)
The continents were once part of a single larger
continent that then split apart, drifting to their present
positions over the last 300 million years. Despite his
incredible evidence for continental drift, Wegener
never lived to see his theory gain wider acceptance. He
died in 1930 at age 50 just two days after his birthday
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while on a scientific expedition in Greenland,
according to the University of Berkley.
Table 7: Types of Continents and their landmasses and sizes
Continent Area sq. km Square miles Percent (%)
Asia 44,500,000 17,179,000 29.9
Africa 30,302,000 11,697,000 20.3
North America 24,454,000 9,442,000 16.2
South America 17,793,000 6,868,000 11.9
Antarctica 14,100,000 5,443,000 9.4
Europe 9,957,000 3,843,000 6.7
Australia/Oceania 8,945,000 3,454,000 5.7
Source: (Philips World Reference Atlas 2000. Pg. 55)
The Theory of Plate Tectonics
Plate tectonics (from Greek τέκτων, tektōn "builder"
or "mason") describes the large-scale motions of
Earth's lithosphere. This refers to the movement of
large piece of the earth’s crust called Tectonic Plates.
Plate tectonics is the fundamental mechanism that
drives geological processes in the geosphere. Plate
tectonic theory is based on an understanding of the
Earth's internal structure, the different types of tectonic
plates and plate boundaries, and the driving forces of
plate movements. The occurrence of earthquakes and
volcanoes, the distribution of different rock types, and
the Rock Cycle, as well as the processes of mountain
building, continental rifting and seafloor spreading, can
be concisely explained by plate tectonic processes. The
outermost part of the Earth's interior is made up of two
layers: above is the lithosphere, comprising the crust
and the rigid uppermost part of the mantle. Below the
lithosphere lies the Asthenosphere. Although solid,
the Asthenosphere has a relatively low viscosity and
shears strength and can flow like a liquid on geological
time scales. The deeper mantle below the
Asthenosphere is more rigid again due to the higher
pressure. Plate tectonic theory states that the
lithosphere is broken into numerous pieces called
plates. Asthenosphere the mantle and Asthenosphere
have convection currents, (circular movements of
magma). Magma is heated, becomes less dense and
raises then cools, becomes denser and falls. Plates that
are made of the upper mantle and continental crust are
thicker than those made of the upper mantle and
oceanic crust. Upper mantle and continental crust: up
to 250km thick (155 miles). Upper mantle and oceanic
crust: up to 100km thick (62 miles). Transform
(conservative) boundaries divergent (constructive)
boundaries convergent (destructive) boundaries. Plate

tectonics states that the Earth's crust and upper mantle
are broken into sections, called plates. These plates
move around the mantle. Plates are composed of the
crust and a part of the upper mantle; these two parts
together are called the lithosphere.
Three ways the plates can move
1. Move apart
2. Move together
3. Move past each other
Types of Plate Boundaries
The actions of earthquakes, volcanic activity,
mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation occur
among them, hence create these plate boundaries. The
lateral movement of the plates is typically at speeds of
50-100 mm/a. There are three types of boundaries
between the plates;
1) Divergent or spreading boundary
2) Convergent or collision boundary
3) Transform or changing boundary
1. Divergent boundary: Plates that are spreading apart
and new oceanic lithospheres are forming
(constructive). Divergent boundaries occur where two
plates slide apart from each other. Mid-ocean ridges
(e.g. Mid-Atlantic Ridge) and active zones of rifting
(such as Africa's Great Rift Valley) are both Bridge
across the Álfagjá rift valley in southwest Iceland, the
boundary between the Eurasian and North American
continental tectonic plates is example of divergent
boundaries. The origin of new divergent boundaries at
triple junctions is sometimes thought to be associated
with the phenomenon known as hotspots. Divergent
boundaries create rifts and cause seafloor spreading.
Magma comes up through underground rifts, cools to
form new rock, and is pushed outward by magma
below. Examples of divergent boundaries are;
a. North American plate moving away from the
Eurasian and the African plates causing the Mid
Atlantic ridge
b. Great Rift Valley in eastern Africa
2. Convergent boundary: Plates that are coming
together and old lithosphere is destroyed or recycled
(destructive). One plate is shoved underneath another
creating a trench the edges are eventually melted and
combined into the Asthenosphere. Deep marine
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trenches are typically associated with subduction
zones. The subducting slab contains many hydrous
minerals, which release their water on heating; this
water then causes the mantle to melt, producing
volcanism. Examples of this are the Andes Mountain
range in South America and the Japanese island arc.
Examples are;
1. Andes Mountains of South America formed at the
convergent boundary of the Nazca and the South
American plates.
2. Himalayan Mountains in Asia were formed when the
Indo-Australian Plate collided with the Eurasian Plate.
There are three (3) types of convergent boundaries as
follows;
a. Oceanic - Continental: an oceanic and continental
plate colliding
b. Oceanic – Oceanic: oceanic plates colliding
c. Continental - Continental: continental plates
colliding
3. Transform boundary: Plates that are sliding past
each other is called transform boundary. Transform
boundaries occur where plates slide or, perhaps more
accurately, grind past each other along transform faults.
The relative motion of the two plates is either sinisterly
(left side toward the observer) or dextral (right side
toward the observer). 1. The San Andreas Fault in
California is one example. The San Andreas Fault is a
transform fault boundary and has been the site of many
earthquakes.
Effects of each type of boundary on the earth's
surface
1. Seafloor spreading - when magma from the Earth's
mantle rises to the surface at mid-ocean ridges and
cools to form new seafloor, which new magma slowly
pushes away from the ridge?
2a. subduction zone- forms when ocean floor plate
collides with a less dense continental plate, the ocean
plate sinks under the less dense continental plate. This
is where volcanoes tend to occur.
2b. subduction zone- forms when two ocean plates
collide, one plate bends and slides under the other.
Volcanic arcs forms at this type of boundary.
2c. mountain ranges- When two continental plates
collide, they crumple up and form Mountain ranges.
Earthquakes are common at these boundaries.
3. When two plates slide past each other, either in
opposite directions or in the same direction at different
 Principlesam Series
speeds. Earthquakes occur at transform fault
boundaries.

The driving forces of plate motion

❖ Friction
❖ Gravitation
❖ External forces
❖ Relative significance of each mechanism

Sea-Floor Spreading
During World War II, geologists employed by the
military carried out studies of the sea floor, a part of
the Earth that had received little scientific study. The
purpose of these studies was to understand the
topography of the sea floor to find hiding places for
both Allied and enemy submarines. The topographic
studies involved measuring the depth to the sea floor.
These studies revealed the presence of two important
topographic features of the ocean floor:
Oceanic Ridges - long sinuous ridges that occupy the
middle of the Atlantic Ocean and the eastern part of the
Pacific Ocean Fig. 23: The types of plate boundary
Oceanic Trenches - deep trenches along the margins
of continents, particularly surrounding the Pacific Assignment 7
Ocean. 1. a) What is a plate tectonic?
b) Which evidence for continental drift do you think is
the most convincing? Explain your answer
c) Describe the types (boundaries) of the plates in the
world and indicates the driving effects of each on the
environment

2. a) What are the steps of continental drift?

b) Group the continents under the two major divisions
according to Alfred Wegner theory
c) Mention the continents of the world

32

CHAPTER SEVEN
THE ROCKS OF THE EARTH
Rocks: This may be any naturally formed, firm and
coherent aggregate or mass of minerals matter that
consists or constitutes part of the earth’s surface (the
crust). The crust of the earth consists of a great variety
of rocks which differ in hardness, colour, weakness,
texture and permeability.
Rocks are made from a mixture of different minerals;
these are solid chemical compounds that occur
naturally on Earth. Some rocks are made from
interlocking mineral crystals that fit tightly together
whereas others are made up from broken fragments, or
grains, of older rocks and minerals which have been
cemented together. A rock can be composed of one or
many different minerals, but there are only three (3)
primary classes of rocks.
In addition to chemical formation, we can also classify
rocks based on their textural attributes. Small crystals
indicate faster cooling, large crystals indicate slower
cooling. Glassy Texture such as obsidian indicates very
rapid cooling (often referred to as ‘quenched’).
Table 8: Differences between aphanitic texture and phaneritic texture
Aphanitic Texture Phaneritic Texture
-Fine-grained -Coarse-grained
-Few crystals seen in hand -Interlocking crystals
specimen relatively slow
- Relatively quick cooling cooling
- Gases in magma can lead to -crystallized at depth
vesicles
These types of rocks are interrelated series of natural
process, hence classified based on their origin or mode
of formation as well.
Types of Rocks
Rocks are made of three (3) main types. They are;
a) Igneous rocks
b) Sedimentary rocks and
c) Metamorphic rocks
The Major Rock Groups (their formation)
• Igneous
–Formed from a melt (molten rock)
–Plutonic (intrusive): slow cooling and crystallization
–Volcanic (extrusion): quick cooling at the surface
• Sedimentary
–Formed at the Earth’s surface
–Clastic (Mineral Fragments or grains, clays)
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–Chemical (crystalline chemical/biochemical
precipitates)
• Metamorphic
–Changed by pressure, temperature and fluids.
1) Igneous rocks: Are formed by cooling of magma
that has flowed onto the surface as (lava), or by cooling
of magma in the interior of a planetary body.
Igneous rocks are usually classified as the primary
rocks of the earth. This is because; to a certain extent
all other rocks are derived from igneous rocks. They
are characterized by cooling, crystallization and
solidification of molten rocks or magma. They are
massive rocks and have no layers. Igneous are
crystallized because they are composed of irons which
are orderly arranged and well joined. Igneous rocks are
classified based on their chemistry/ mineralogy and
texture. Rocks formed by lava that has extruded onto
the surface and cooled are called extrusive. Rocks
formed by magma that has cooled in the interior or
intruded into the crust are called intrusive. Intrusive
and extrusive rocks are classified based on their silica
(SiO2) content.
In contrast, other planets such as Mars are dominated
by basalt and have little evidence for more ‘evolved’
magmas.
Igneous rocks-physical forms
• Felsic: light colored rocks that are rich in elements
such as aluminum, potassium, silicon, and sodium
• Mafic: dark colored rocks that are rich in calcium,
iron, and magnesium, poor in silicon
• Coarse-grained: takes longer to cool, giving mineral
crystals more time to grow
• Fine-grained: cools quickly with little to no crystals
Igneous Rocks
Classification of igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are classified into two (2) main bases;
❖ Mode of formation
❖ Chemical composition
Classification on the mode of formation
Igneous rocks are formed from cooling and the
solidification of molten magma either in the surface or
beneath the earth crust. Compression and tensional

forces may cause the crust to crack from top to bottom
causing a release of pressure on the magma. This
magma at consideration depths beneath the earth
surface is formed by great internal pressure to erupt
through the cracks created by the compressional and
tensional forces. When this magma cools and solidifies
they then formed either the surfaces or beneath (within)
the earth crust hence form extrusive or intrusive
igneous rocks respectively. The modes of formation,
igneous rocks are classified into two (2) which are;
i. Intrusive igneous rocks
ii. Extrusive igneous rocks
i. Intrusive Igneous Rocks: They are formed from
cooling and solidification of magma within the earth’s
crust. When the magma is upwelling, some cools and
solidify within the earth crust at a great depth which
some cools and solidify within the earth crust but heat
the surface. An intrusive igneous rock cools very
slowly and as a result development of large minerals
crystals. They are two (2) types of intrusive igneous
rocks which are;
a. Hypabyssal intrusive igneous rocks
b. Plutonic intrusive igneous rocks.
a. Hypabyssal intrusive igneous rocks: This is
formed from the upwelling of magma that cools and
solidifies below the earth’s surface. Hypabyssal rocks
are compact and have variable textures. They have
medium size crystals. Examples are granophyres,
dolerite, and porphyry.
b. Plutonic intrusive igneous rocks: Are formed from
the solidification of molten rocks deep down the crust.
The cooling and solidification of the magma at a great
depth forms compactible rock. They are large masses
of compacts and coarse textured with large crystals
because of the slow of cooling. Examples are granite,
gabbro, and peridots.
ii. Extrusive Igneous Rocks: These are rocks formed
when magma cools and solidifies on the earth surface.
They characteristically appear to be glassy and fined
grained with small crystals because the cooling
processes are quick common.
Magma reaches the surface as lava cools quickly and
solidifies to form extrusive or volcanic igneous rocks.
Crystallization is very fast hence the rocks have glassy
or shiny fine textured and very small crystals such as
basalt andesite and rhyolite.
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Principlesam Series
Base on chemical composition
Igneous rocks are acidic or basic, intermediate or ultra-
basic rocks.
1. Acidic igneous rocks have 65% or more of silica
but less percentage of basic oxide such as magnesium,
aluminum and iron. Examples are granite, and rhyolite,
obsidian, and feldspar
2. Basic igneous rocks have less silica content of
about 45-55% and more of basic oxides such as
magnesium and iron with examples as basalt and
gabbro.
3. Intermediate: They are less dense and height
coloured. They contain 55-65% of silica and less than
45- 55% of magnesium. E.g. andesite, diorite
4. Ultra-Basic: They contain more magnesium, 55%.
They contain less than 45% silica e.g. peridotite.
(Periodic- acid- any of the general strong oxidizing
acids (H5 IO6 or HIO4) that are most highly oxidize
acids of iodine.
Characteristics of igneous rocks
i. Igneous rocks are crystalline in nature
ii. They are compact and massive
iii. They have no bedding plane (no flat surface)
iv. They are non-stratified
v. They are hard as compare to sedimentary rocks
vi. They are non-fossilised
Examples of common igneous rocks are;
a. Intrusive (Granite, Diorite, Gabbro)
b. Extrusive (Rhyolite, Andesite, basalt).
2) Sedimentary Rocks: The word sedimentary is
derived from a Latin word called sedimentum
meaning “setting”. They are soft and less resistant
rocks. They are stratified and have bedding planes.
They also contain plants and animals remain. They
may be formed mechanically, organically or
chemically. They are composed of fragments of other
rocks, chemical precipitates, organic matter, or
biochemically produced materials.
Sedimentary rocks represent deposits, depths
accumulated in water or on the land surface. They are
derived from the remains of previously existing rocks
remains of plants and animals and precipitates of main
chemical in solution.
Sedimentary rocks are formed in a process called
Lithification. This is a process by which sediments are
transformed into solid sedimentary rocks. It involves

the compaction of sediments when the weight of the
overlying material compresses the deeper or underlying
sediments. This reduces the space between the
sediments. Sedimentary rocks cover 75% of the
continents and most of the ocean floor. Sedimentary
rocks are easy to erode relative to igneous and
metamorphic rocks. They commonly exhibit layering,
which we refer to as stratification. There are two (2)
major divisions of sedimentary rocks. They are;
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
The characteristics of sedimentary rocks based on their
mode of formation and composition. Sedimentary
rocks are classified into three (3) main groups. They
are called the MOC;
a. Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks
b. Organically formed sedimentary rocks and
c. Chemically formed sedimentary rocks
a) Mechanically formed Sedimentary Rocks: These
rocks are formed through the deposition and the
Lithification of sand silt, gravel etc. derived from the
previously existing rocks. Also, when there is a
formation through deposition and consolidation of
rocks fragments brought by ice, wind, rivers and
waves. These materials are produced through
weathering and are later transported by wind, ice waves
and rivers. They are deposited layers upon layers either
on dry land or in water. They are consolidated or
cemented to form sedimentary rocks. These rocks have
bedding planes which separate one layer from the
other. Examples are;
i.Rudaceous rocks, which have large and angular
shaped particles or layers such as clay and breccia.
ii.Arenaceous, made up of coarse-grained materials
such as sand and sandstone.
iii.Argillaceous rocks, made up of fine-grained
materials including clay and shale.
b) Organically formed Sedimentary Rocks: They are
formed from the accumulation and Lithification of
remain of living organisms such as plants and animals.
They thus contain fossils. These materials are also
compacted and cemented to form sedimentary rocks.
Examples include;
i. Calcareous rocks formed from the shells and
skeleton of dead animals such as limestone and chalk.
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Principlesam Series
ii. Carbonaceous rocks consist of dead vegetation;
thus, they contain carbons and examples include peat,
lignite and coal.
iii. Siliceous rocks formed from the remains of animals
such as sponges and radio-laria, which are minute
organisms whose hard shells or parts contain silica
such as Diatomaceous earth. Oil and gas are mainly
derived from organically formed sedimentary rocks.
c) Chemically formed Sedimentary Rocks: These are
rocks formed from the evaporation or precipitation of
chemicals in a solution form. The surface of the ground
waters may dissolve so many materials that they
become saturated. They may precipitate part of their
load and deposit it as chemicals. The main forms of
chemically formed sedimentary rocks are carbonates,
sulphates, and chlorides. Others cab be silicate and
ironstone.
i.Silicate, formed from deposition of silica around a
geyser or hot spring forming chalk.
ii.Carbonates rocks, are formed from dolomite and
travertine.
iii.Chlorides rocks are formed from rock salt.
iv.Sulphates are forming gypsum and anhydrite
v. Ironstone, are formed from hematite, limonite and
siderite.
Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks
➢ Sedimentary rocks are fossilised that is, they contain
the remains of plants and animals.
➢ They are non-crystallised
➢ They are stratified (contain layers)
➢ They are less compact, quite soft as compared to
other rocks type
Examples of sedimentary common rocks are;
➢ Mechanically formed (sandstone, mudstone,
conglomerate, clay stone and shale)
➢ Chemically formed (limestone, dolomite, chert,
and evaporation)
➢ Organically formed (coal, petroleum, and natural
gas)
3) Metamorphic Rocks: Are rocks formed by
recrystallization of other rocks as they experience new
pressure, temperature, and fluid conditions? New
minerals are formed from old ones. They are those
rocks from either sedimentary or igneous rocks that
have been physically or chemically changed usually by

application of heat and pressure during mountain
building activities. They are the types; those original
appearance composition and character have been
changed because of subjection under pressure, high
temperature or both. It is also formed because of heat
that accompanies mountain building movements of the
earth’s crust. If the mineral structure demonstrates an
alignment after metamorphism, the rock is called
foliated rocks and some minerals may appear as heavy
striations. On the other hand, parent rock with a more
homogeneous (evenly mixed) make up may produce
non-foliated rocks such as marble and quartzite.
Metamorphic rocks represent recrystallization in the
solid state (not melting and recrystallization). This is
caused by changes in temperature, pressure, or fluids in
pore spaces. The rocks are subjected to new conditions/
environments, thus new minerals become stable and
new textures develop in the rocks. Diagnostic features
of the original rock are masked or destroyed.
Metamorphism typically begins when temperatures
greater than 200°C and/or Pressure >300 MPa (10,000
ft. depth on Earth). Metamorphism ends when melting
begins and its sources of heat are nearby igneous
intrusions and increasing temperature by burial. Burial
can often be regional in scale, related to mountain
building events. The geothermal gradient on Earth
ranges from 15-30°C per kilometer (25°C is a good
average).
Examples of Metamorphic Rocks
There are hundreds of metamorphic rocks across the
face of the earth with different compositions and
textures. The best way of learning their various types is
by handling and seeing them in reality. Here is a list of
the most known types of metamorphic rocks.
1. Hornfels: Hornfels is a fine-grained metamorphic
rock formed by the action of heat on clay rocks, known
as contact metamorphism. It has a non-foliated
metamorphic rock that has no specific composition.
Hornfels are heated when near a heat source such as a
sill, dike, or magma chamber.
2. Amphibolite: Amphibolite is non-foliated
metamorphic rock that is composed chiefly of
plagioclase and amphibole (hornblende), frequently
with very little quartz. Amphibolite forms under
conditions of directed pressure and high viscosity
through the process of recrystallization.
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Principlesam Series
3. Gneiss: Gneiss is a foliated metamorphic rock made
up of granular mineral grains. It contains a lot of
feldspar minerals and bands of quartz and sometimes
mica. It normally has a banded appearance and is sort
of laminated. It appears similar to granite.
4. Novaculite: Novaculite is a hard, fine-grained,
dense, siliceous rock. It is non-foliated metamorphic
rocks known to break with a conchoidal fracture. It
forms in marine environments from sediment deposits
where organisms like diatoms plentiful in water – the
single-celled algae that secret hard shells made up of
silicon dioxide.
5. Marble: Marble is among the non-foliated
metamorphic rocks produced from the metamorphism
of dolostone or limestone. It takes high polish and is
often used for sculpture and as building material.
Marble is mainly composed of calcium carbonate.
6. Phyllite: Phylite is mostly made up of very fine-
grained mica and sometimes chlorite. It is a foliated
metamorphic rock and its surface is generally lustrous
and in certain cases wrinkled. Geologists say it
represents the intermediate state between slate and
schist.
7. Lapis Lazuli: Lapis Lazuli is one of the rarest
metamorphic rocks, especially because of its blue
color. Thus, Lapis Lazuli is famously known for its
blue gem material and they are used for decoration and
to make beads in the form of round small stones.
8. Quartzite: Quartzite is a hard-metamorphic rock
consisting essentially of interlocking quartz crystals. It
is a non-foliated metamorphic rock formed during the
metamorphism of sandstone.
9. Slate: Slate is a low-grade and fine-grained
metamorphic rock that can be separated into thin
pieces. It is a type of foliated metamorphic rock that is
produced by the metamorphism of shale. Slates are
predominantly realigned clay minerals.
10. Schist: Schist is a foliated metamorphic rock that is
well developed and contains substantial amounts of
mica. Because of the high concentrations of mica,
schist can readily split into thin layers. Geologists say
it represents the intermediate metamorphic grade
between gneiss and phyllite. Sometimes schist might
contain high amounts of chlorite.
11. Soapstone: Soapstone is a metamorphic rock
primarily made up of talc with a soapy feel and varying
amounts of other minerals such as chlorite, pyroxenes,
micas, carbonates, and amphiboles. It is also a highly

dense, soft, and heat resistant rock with high heat
capacity. Because of its properties after metamorphism,
it is considered highly used in a wide range of artistic
and architectural works
Basic Geologic Principles of minerals and rocks
Minerals and rocks are the essential building blocks of
the geosphere. Although there are over 3,000 species of
minerals, only a few of them, such as quartz, feldspar,
mica, amphibole, pyroxene, olivine and calcite, occur
commonly as rock-forming minerals. Rocks are
classified into three main types, igneous, sedimentary,
and metamorphic, depending upon their mode of
formation. Over geological time, rocks gradually are
transformed from one type to another in what is termed
the Rock Cycle. The origin of any rock can be
determined by careful examination of its texture,
composition, and internal structure, features that form
the basis of rock identification and classification
Mineral: A naturally occurring inorganic solid that has
an exact chemical composition with an orderly internal
arrangement of atoms.
- formed primarily by inorganic processes
- Stable or unstable depending on environmental
conditions (pressure, temperature, humidity, fluid
chemistry, etc.)
- vary in physical properties (color, crystal shape,
hardness, etc.)
- Some minerals form by alteration of other minerals
Minerals have internal structure, meaning that the
atoms have a repeating geometric pattern. Atoms are
the building blocks of minerals. Minerals are the
building blocks of rocks.
Fig.24: The rocks of metamorphism (Minerals of the earth)
The Geologic Time Scales
The geological time scale is based on the geological
rock record, which includes erosion, mountain building
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and other geological events. Over hundreds to
thousands of millions of years, continents, oceans and
mountain ranges have moved vast distances both
vertically and horizontally. For example, areas that
were once deep oceans hundreds of millions of years
ago are now mountainous desert regions.
Geologic time, the extensive interval of time occupied
by the geologic history of Earth. Formal geologic time
begins at the start of the Archean Eon (4.0 billion to 2.5
billion years ago) and continues to the present day.
Modern geologic time scales additionally often include
the Hadean Eon, which is an informal interval that
extends from about 4.6 billion years ago
(corresponding to Earth’s initial formation) to 4.0
billion years ago. Geologic time is, in effect, that
segment of Earth history that is represented by and
recorded in the planet’s rock strata.
How is geological time measured?
The earliest geological time scales simply used the
order of rocks laid down in a sedimentary rock
sequence (stratum) with the oldest at the bottom.
However, a more powerful tool was the fossilised
remains of ancient animals and plants within the rock
strata. After Charles Darwin's publication Origin of
Species (Darwin himself was also a geologist) in 1859,
geologists realised that particular fossils were restricted
to particular layers of rock. This built up the first
generalised geological time scale. Once formations and
stratigraphic sequences were mapped around the world,
sequences could be matched from the faunal
successions. These sequences apply from the beginning
of the Cambrian period, which contains the first
evidence of macro-fossils. Fossil assemblages
'fingerprint' formations, even though some species may
range through several different formations.
Divisions of geologic time
An eon is the largest (formal) geochronologic time unit
and is the equivalent of a chronostratigraphic stage
eonothem. As of April 2022 there are three formally
defined eons/eonothems: the Archean, Proterozoic,
and Phanerozoic.[2] The Hadean is an informal
eon/eonothem, but is commonly used.[12]
An era is the second largest geochronologic time unit
and is the equivalent of a chronostratigraphic
erathem. As of April 2022, there are currently ten
defined eras/erathems.

A period is a major rank below an era and above
an epoch. It is the geochronologic equivalent of a
chronostratigraphic system. As of April 2022 there are
currently 22 defined periods/systems.[2] As an
exception two subperiods/subsystems are used for
the Carboniferous Period/System.
An epoch is the second smallest geochronologic unit,
between a period and an age. It is the equivalent of a
chronostratigraphic series. As of April 2022 there are
currently 37 defined and one informal epochs/series.
There are also 11 subepochs/subseries which are all
within the Neogene and Quaternary.[2] The use of
subseries/subepochs as formal ranks/units in
international chronostratigraphy was ratified in 2022.
An age is the smallest hierarchical geochronologic unit
and is the equivalent of a chronostratigraphic stage
As of April 2022, there are currently 96 formal and five
informal ages/stages.
A chron is a non-hierarchical formal geochronology
unit of unspecified rank and is the equivalent of a
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Principlesam Series
chronostratigraphic chronozone. These correlate
with magnetostratigraphic, lithostratigraphic,
or biostratigraphic units as they are based on
previously defined stratigraphic units or geologic
features.
The Early and Late subdivisions are used as the
geochronologic equivalents of the
chronostratigraphic Lower and Upper, e.g.,
Early Triassic Period (geochronologic unit) is used in
place of Lower Triassic Series (chronostratigraphic
unit). In essence, it is true to say that rocks representing
a given chronostratigraphic unit are that
chronostratigraphic unit, and the time they were laid
down in is the geochronologic unit, i.e., the rocks that
represent the Silurian Series are the Silurian Series and
they were deposited during the Silurian Period.

Types of Metamorphic Rocks
There are two main types of metamorphic rocks. These
are Foliated metamorphic rocks and Non-foliated
metamorphic rocks.
1. Foliated metamorphic rocks: Foliated
metamorphic rocks are formed from direct exposure to
pressure and heat. They are the most vital and largest
groupings of metamorphic rocks. Foliated
metamorphic rocks have four distinguishable types of
aligned textures and they normally have a banded or
layered appearance. Examples include slate, gneiss,
phyllite, and schist. Non-foliated are formed as a
result of tectonic movements or direct pressure which
makes their formation highly dependent on their pre-
existing conditions.
2. Non-foliated metamorphic rocks: Non-foliated
metamorphic rocks do not have a banded or layered
appearance. The extensively known example of non-
foliated metamorphic rock is a marble. Other
examples include quartzite, hornfels, and novaculite.
Characteristics of metamorphic rocks
❖ They are harder as compared to sedimentary rocks
❖ Metamorphic rocks are more compact than their
original rocks.
❖ They are non-fossilised (absence of fossils)
❖ They are resistant to erosion.
❖ Examples of common metamorphic rocks types;
shale, marble, and gneiss, etc.
The factors that bring about change in rocks/
parameters that brings metamorphism
The process of metamorphism takes place in three (3)
ways. These are;
i. High temperature (heat) or (thermal or contact
metamorphism): This is caused by great heat or force
associated with magma intrusion into the rock. Rocks
may undergo heating if it has contact with a hot magma
reservoir or because it is buried deep down the earth’s
crust where temperature is very high. This result in the
breaking of rocks and changes it from one stage to
either igneous or sedimentary to metamorphic rocks.
Heat that accompanies mountain building may also
bake a rock to change to different rocks. Examples are
limestone, a sedimentary rock changes to marble, shale
also transform to schist.
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Principlesam Series
ii. Pressure increase/ release (Dynamic or regional
metamorphism): This is caused by great pressure
associated with earth movements and mountain
building such as folding and faulting. The weight of
over lying layer may result in pressing former rocks
together. The pressing may change the rock to become
more compact than the original rock. Example is
granite, which transforms to gneiss. Rocks are
subjected to stress during the process mountain
building which may change the rocks.
iii. Time and chemically active fluid
(Metasomation): This is caused by chemically active
fluids (hot liquids and gases which react on rocks. This
usually affects the existing or available minerals.
Through these processes, the below rocks are altered to
form metamorphic rocks
Table 9: The process of metamorphism
Original rock Metamorphic rocks
Granite Gneiss
Limestone Marble
Sandstone Quartzite
Shale Schist
Clay Slate
Coal Graphite
When rocks are subjected to a stress for a long period
of time in collaboration with the chemically fluid they
metamorphosed. It occurs when it develops different
minerals assemblage from those under stress for a
shorter period. Example, basalt (igneous rocks)
changes to Hornblende schist, gabbros (igneous rocks)
changes to biotite schist or Epidiorite with chemically
active fluid.
Uses of metamorphic rocks
❖ Marble is a beautiful coloured stone used for wall
decoration.
❖ Slate may be used as roofing material.
❖ Metamorphic rock like marble is carved into statues.
❖ Quartz is used for road construction as road
chipping and for building harbours.
Economic importance of rocks
❖ Sources of soil: Parent material for soil formation.
Thus, when weathered soil is left behind for farming.
Basalt which is an example of igneous rock weathered
relatively quickly into deep fertile soils.
❖ Sources of water: man gets water from percolation
water and is retained by permeable rock called aquifer

❖ Sources of food: rock salt serves as an important
source of food. This is chemically derived from
sedimentary rocks.
❖ Sources of mineral: As ornaments and jewelry e.g.
gold, silver, Bronze. Some minerals are associated with
rocks, examples are gold diamond etc.
❖ Tourism: Some rocks, because of their size or
nature may attract tourists. Tars such as Houna Tars on
Dortmoor may become tourist attractions.
❖ Industrial raw material: Limestone serves as a raw
material to cement factories. E.g. glass, alumina from
bauxite, limestone for cement, industrial diamond, etc.
The Rock Cycle
This refers to the interrelationship among the three
rock groups and the various geological processes which
act to transform one rock type to another. No rock
stays the same forever. Over thousands and millions of
years rocks are broken down, moved around and
deposited in different places. Rocks can be compacted
together and pushed deep into the Earth where they are
melted or deformed by intense heat and pressure
only to be uplifted again to the surface. All of these
processes combine to make the rock cycle. The
gradually broken down into smaller pieces by water,
ice, wind, plants and animals (known as weathering).
These broken up pieces are called sediment and are
transported away, or eroded, by rivers, glaciers and
wind. Sediments often collect at the bottom of lakes
and oceans. Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have
been changed over time. When rocks are pushed deep
down into the Earth, grains and minerals can become
stretched, squashed and slightly melted from the
extreme pressure and heat. This is called
metamorphism and it causes new fast cooling, small
crystals, and slow cooling e.g., Basalt and Granite.
The amount of Ammonite fossil in beds of sandstone,
mudstone and limestone in the Grand Canyon Porous
and permeable non-porous and impermeable forms
rocks. For example, metamorphism can occur with
different textures and/or minerals to form.
The concept of rock cycle
The rock cycle is a concept used to explain how the
three basic rock types are related and how Earth
processes, over geologic time, change a rock from one
type into another. Plate tectonic activity, along with
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Principlesam Series
weathering and erosional processes, are responsible for
the continued recycling of rocks.
The processes of the rock cycle
The three processes that change one rock to another
are;
➢ Crystallization
➢ Metamorphism
➢ Erosion
➢ Sedimentation.
Any rock can transform into any other rock by passing
through one or more of these processes. This creates
the rock cycle.
Fig. 25: The Rock Cycle (Summary)
Note: W.E.D = Weathering, Erosion and Deposition.
The steps in rock cycle processes
a) Weathering: Simply put, weathering is a process of
breaking down rocks into smaller and smaller particles
without any transporting agents at play. Factors like
temperature extremities, biological involvement of
nature and water plays the main role. It can be broken
down into chemical, physical and biological
influencing agents.
➢ Physical: Mainly change of temperature rapidly or
at extreme levels causes weathering. IT happens when
rocks freeze and thaw. Another scenario is when
tectonic plates pressure changes suddenly causing
fissures. Usually occurs in rocky or mountainous
places.
➢ Chemical: Usually occurs with rainwater trying to
react with the rock minerals and create other minerals
or chemical compounds. Usually happens in damp and
warm places since reactions take place at higher
temperatures. Three major reactions are-
• Hydrolysis- Acidic reaction, soluble salt, and clay
formation.

• Oxidation- Formation of rocks rich in iron in the
presence of oxygen.
• Solution- CO2 in the presence of rainwater can
dissolve limestones to give new stones.
➢ Biological: The living world contributes to rock
breakdown by-
• Boring through rocks for protection
• Cracking rocks under pressure while growing.
• Breaking down rocks o build houses.
• Releasing acid in order to extract nutrients from rocks
for survival.
b) Erosion and transport: Erosion too is the natural
process of breaking down rocks into sand-like
particles. The only difference between weathering to
erosion is the presence of agents like water and wind.
In the previous one, water was only present as a factor
for reactions to take place while in erosion; it acts as a
transporting agent too. Various events like attrition,
abrasion and solution, wind transportation give rise to
caves, new tributaries, and cracks in big rocks while
wind transportation gives rise to thin down rocks.
c) Deposition of sediment: Sediment is the constant
deposition or settling down of small particles of sand,
pebbles, etc. that is broken down from rocks. It is
usually done by-
• Wind and water- Water in the rivers and glaciers
from mountains slowly erode sand particles and create
layers of sediments.
• Biological influence- Living organisms die and get
sedimented under great pressure to form rocks.
• Evaporation- Chemicals like CaCO3 and NaCl are
sedimented in troughs and seashores to create
limestones and rock salts respectively.
d) Burial and compaction: The next step to the
process of sedimentation is burial and Compaction.
The process is very simple. Once the sand particles are
sedimented, they create layers which are soon covered
by another layer of new sediments and the process goes
on. This gives rise to pressure on the sedimented layers
below. Meanwhile, the minerals in the water act as a
slow cohesive agent between the particles. Thus, soft
layers turn into solid rocks with minerals inside.
e) Crystallization of magma: Magma is basically
lava that remains dormant inside the volcanoes.
Magma is the liquid form of rocks under great pressure
and temperature due to heat from the earth core.
Magma can be either sticky or less viscous. It depends
on factors like temperature and amount of dissolved
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Principlesam Series
gas. The less viscous erupt and form porous rocks with
fine grains while the more viscous ones form solid
rocks with distorted grains.
f) Melting: The reverse of the previous process is
melting. As soon as the rocks reach the bottom of the
earth, the more the temperature rises and so does the
pressure. Soon, they melt and give rise to melted rocks
called lava. This, in turn, is erupted only to cool down
at the surface to form rocks. Some rocks do not erupt
and are forced to change characteristics to give rise to
new forms of rock.
g) Uplift: The process of forming a crust of earth
upwards due to natural forces causing movements in
the tectonic plates is called uplifting. This is how
mountains rise higher while new islands come up in the
middle of the oceans.
h) Deformation and Metamorphism: The constant
pressure and sudden movements put some sedimentary
and igneous rocks under great pressure. Such forces
can create folds or fissures among the rocks and among
all these events, rocks deform to create metamorphic
rocks. Deformation basically means folding and
faulting of rocks. This is caused by compression and
tension.
Important information
• All rocks have passed through the cycle many times
in history.
• Not all rocks pass through each stage of the complete
cycle.
How the cycle works
• Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic rocks
undergo weathering, erosion, deposition, compaction
and cementation to form sedimentary rock.
• Igneous and sedimentary rocks are transformed by
heat, pressure and chemical reactions to form
metamorphic rock.
• Metamorphic rocks can be re-melted and become
igneous which may weather to form sedimentary rock.
Assignment 7
1. a) What is meant by rock?
(b) According to their composition (siliceous,
argillaceous, calcareous, carbonaceous). Describe their
mode of formation
c) Explain the major types of rocks
d) State three (3) characteristics each type.

2. a) In what five (5) ways are rocks important to the
economic development of Ghana?
b) Discuss four (4) problems in construction in rocky
areas say Osudoku high hills in Ghana.
3. a) What processes must take place to transform
rocks into sediment?
b) Describe the factors that brings about change in
rocks/ parameters that brings about rock
metamorphism
4. a) Define the term rock cycle
b) Describe how the three rock types go under the
influence of the cycle?
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b) State four (4) types of metamorphic rocks and
indicate their uses
6. a) Name the three (3) classes of sedimentary rocks
b) Explain with examples, the processes of formation
of the three classes of sedimentary rocks mentioned in
(6a) above
7. a) Distinguish between metallic and non-metallic
minerals
b) Distinguish between biogas and natural gas.

5.a) Describe the mode of formation of metamorphic

rocks

42

CHAPTER EIGHT
ROCK WEATHERING AND WEATHERING PROFILE
Rock weathering: This may be defined as the physical
disintegration and the chemical decay of solid rocks in
situ (where they lie) by atmospheric constituents such as
rainfall, sunshine; temperature etc. weathering is always
taken to mean the breakdown of rocks in the place
where they are located. The disintegration and
decomposition of rock at or near the surface of the earth
or simply the breaking of rocks is called weathering. It
affects the rocks in place and no transport is involved.
The process of weathering begins in microscopic
spaces, joints, faults and lava vesicles. There is a
difference between a joint and fault, as faults show
relative displacement. Whiles joints are more common.
This is illustrated by figure 23. The final product of rock
weathering through denudation is the formation of soil.
Position of
Fault landmass in part
(a)
Fault
Fig.26: Difference between joint and fault
Products of weathering in the Tropics
The products in weathering processes in the tropics has
trigger into the following; they can be features such as:
i. Weathering pits: Are depressions created where
water ponds in irregularities on rocks surfaces. The
trapped water localizes chemical weathering and
granular disintegration. Wind and water remove the
loosened grains and the depressions enlarge trapping
more water in a positive feedback cycle.
ii. Karst weathering forms: Karst is a term used to
describe landscapes that are formed by chemical
weathering process controlled by groundwater
activity. Karst landscapes are predominantly composed
of limestone rock that contains greater than 70 percent
calcium carbonate. Landform formed by chemical
solution in carbonate limestone rocks.
43
Principlesam Series
iii. Residual landforms: Residual landform, also
called Relict Landform, landform that was produced as
the remains of an ancient landscape, escaping burial or
destruction to remain as part of the present landscape.
Residual landforms are often the result of
changed climatic conditions, but they may be due
to volcanism or to crustal uplift and downwarping.
Examples of residual landforms are extinct volcanic
cones, inactive stone rivers from climates on the fringe
of glaciers, disconnected and abandoned parts of
drainage systems, abandoned strandlines from more
humid climates, fixed sand dunes from drier climates,
marine terraces from high sea levels, and plunging sea
cliffs from lower sea levels. The percentage of residual
landforms in a given landscape and the importance
placed on relict landforms by different
geomorphologists may vary tremendously.
iv. Inverted topography: Inverted topography occurs
when a feature is lowered in elevation than the
surrounding terrain is instead higher in elevation. This is
forms when low-lying features are filled with erosion-
resistant materials (like lava, large rocks or cemented
sediments). The softer surrounding material is more
easily eroded, which results in the filled-in feature
becoming a high spot instead of a dip.
Types of Weathering
There are two (2) types of weathering; these are
physical and chemical weathering
a. Physical/Mechanical Weathering: This involves the
breaking down or disintegration of rock into small units
of the materials without change in the chemical
composition of the rock. The physical disintegration of a
rock into smaller fragments each with the same
properties as the original. This occurs mainly by or
through temperature and pressure changes.
Processes of physical weathering
The physical aspect of weathering involves the
following processes.
1. Temperature increase (Exfoliation): In the areas
like arid or semi-arid regions because of cloudiness
skies during the days temperatures are very high which
leads to the expansion of rocks. During the night
temperature falls drastically and contract since rocks are

poor conductor of heat, continual expansion and
contraction of rocks because of changes in temperature,
produce strains and stress only the outer layer.
This further causes the outer layers of rocks to break
loose from the relatively cooler interior and peel off in
chips sheets, etc. leaving behind a move resistance
home shaped rock. These residual rocks are called
exfoliation domes. A fragment falls to the base of
slopes and cliffs to form talus or screes.
Fig.27: Exfoliation action through temperature
increase
2. Frost Action: In the middle of latitude and
mountainous areas when water with cracks, pores or
other opening freezes in winter, it increases in volume
and expand about 10% thereby exerting a tremendous
outward force. When the ice thaws or melts in summer,
more rain water added in the expanded cracks. In winter
freezing further expands the cracks eventually leading
breaking down of rocks. These processes are
approximately called frost wedging.
Frost wedging (or ice wedging) happens when water
seeps into cracks, and then expands upon freezing. The
expansion enlarges the cracks. The effectiveness of frost
wedging depends on how often freezing and thawing
occurs. Frost wedging will not be as important in warm
areas where freezing is infrequent, in very cold areas
where thawing is infrequent, or in very dry areas, where
there is little water to seep into cracks. Frost wedging
is most effective in Canada's climate, where for at least
part of the year temperatures oscillate between warm
and freezing. In many parts of Canada, the temperature
swings between freezing at night and thawing in days of
tens to hundreds of times a year. Even in warm coastal
areas of southern British Columbia, freezing and
thawing transitions are common at higher elevations. A
common feature in areas of effective frost wedging is a
talus slope; a fan-shaped deposit of fragments removed
by frost wedging from the steep rocky slopes below
(Fig.28).
44
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Fig. 28: Frost action through freeze and thaw
process
3. Uploading or Pressure Release: This takes place
when a large igneous rocks underground is released or
expose through erosion. When the overlying layer is
removed through erosion the exposed rocks starts to
expand and develops concentric slabs continual
expansion eventually because slabs produced by
sheeting peel off causing exfoliation dome.
Furthermore, when the rocks are exposed to the surface,
temperature and other climatic elements act upon them
to break into smaller units.
4. Alternating wetting and drying: Some rocks are
also broken down through alternating wetting and
drying. When rocks absorb water, they swell but when
they dry out, they shrink. The alternating wetting and
drying weaken the rocks and they begin to crack. This is
very common in coastal rocks and especially in tropical
regions.
5. Plant Root Action: When a smaller tree grows on
rocks it wedges its hairs like roots into cracks on the
surface of the rock. As the tree grows its roots also grow
to widen cracks. Continual growth leads to breaking
down of the rock along cracks
Fig. 29: Plant root action
6. Disintegration by Animals: Burrowing animals such
as rodents, rats, warms and ants help in the
disintegration of rocks while making or building their
homes. Man, on the other hand contributes to the
disintegration of rocks or physical weathering through
quarrying, mining, farming and excavation. Through
farming, man clears the forest and this cause rapid
erosion which leads to the exposure of rocks to the
weathering process.
7. Block Disintegration: The weathering process
whereby rock surfaces are broken down in layers or
rectangular-shaped blocks known as block
disintegration. It is caused by alternating heating and
cooling with moisture. Wide variation between day time
and night time temperatures cause expansion of rocks
during the day and contraction at night. Cracks develop
 Principlesam Series
in the grains which make up the rock. The grains are b. Chemical Weathering: It is the composition of the
loosened and if moisture gets into these cracks, it further part or all the mineral components of a rock as it meets
speeds up the rate of decomposition. It is effective in atmospheric gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) and
rocks made of a mixture of dark minerals and is very water. Chemical weathering transforms the original
common in arid and semi-arid regions. rocks. Chemical weathering is more marked in wet
8. Salt Wedging: Salt wedging happens when saltwater regions. Chemical weathering is the process by which
seeps into rocks and then evaporates on a hot sunny day. the internal structure of a mineral is altered by the
Salt crystals grow within cracks and pores in the rock, addition or removal of elements. Changes in phase
and the growth of these crystals can push grains apart, (mineral type) and composition is due to the action of
causing the rock to weaken and break. There are many chemical agents. Chemical weathering is dependent on
examples of this on the rocky shorelines of Vancouver the available surface for reaction temperature and the
Island and the Gulf Islands, where sandstone outcrops presence of chemically active fluids. There are several
are common and salty seawater is readily available. The processes of chemical weathering including; hydration,
honeycomb structure of rounded holes, called Tafoni, is oxidation, hydrolysis, carbonation, and solution.
related to the original roughness of the surface. Low Salt crystallization: salt crystals (from rain or capillary
spots collect salt water, causing the effect to be action) produced from evaporation grow or expand to
accentuated around existing holes. Fig. 30: Tafoni fracture the rocks
(Honeycomb weathering) in sandstone in Gabriola ➢ Chemical weathering is low due to the absence of
Island, British Columbia. The holes are caused by precipitation
crystallization of salt within rock pores. ➢ It still occurs daily due to a high level of moisture at
night
Processes of chemical weathering
The chemical aspect of weathering processes or operates
in the following ways;
1. Hydration: It occurs when different mineral rocks
absorbed water into their molecular structure, hence
these minerals absorbed water, and their sizes expand.
Fig. 30: Salt wedging; Source: Tafoni (Honeycomb weathering);
Repeated absorption of water leads to the crumbling of
Steven Earle (2015) the rock into powdery clay of the rock. For instance,
haematite is converted to limonite when it swells by
Differences between Block Disintegration and Exfoliation
absorption. Another example is gypsum which is
Block Disintegration Exfoliation
formed because of water having been added to
-The sudden rise and -Sudden temperature changes
anhydrite. Also, when a calcium sulphate absorbs water
fall of temperature may cause fissures into
it gives rise to gypsum. Hydration produces a
cause expansion and which water penetrates which
mechanical effect but it often combines effectively with
contraction of rocks. in turn stimulates chemical
hydrolysis
-The repeated action weathering. Most rocks are
Thus: Haematite + water limonite
leads to tension and not good conductors of heat.
CaSO4 + 5H2O gypsum, that is, calcium
splitting of rocks -The sudden contraction and
sulphate (anhydrite) combines with water (hydrated
known as block expansion peels off the outer
calcium sulfate) to give gypsum.
disintegration. layer known as exfoliation.
2. Oxidation: Oxidation comes about when rain water
Factors that affect mechanical weathering
combines with oxygen and meets iron-bearing rocks.
- Pressure
When this happens yellow to reddish-brown colour
- Warm temperature
appears on the surface of the rock. This is due to the
- Water
rusting of the decay of iron-bearing minerals hence
- Ice
oxidation is said to have taken place. Iron-bearing rocks,
when combined with oxygen, charge from ferrous to
45

ferric oxide, which causes rocks to crumble more easily.
For example, when an iron nail is found in the soil it
will have a coating of rust (iron oxide) and if the time of
exposure has been long, the nail will be so weak that it
can easily be broken. Again, when clays are exposed to
the weather and become oxidized i.e. into contact with
oxygen, it becomes yellowish, brownish, or reddish in
color due to the presence of a ferric compound that is,
4FeO + O2 (soluble ferrous oxide) 2Fe2O3 (insoluble
ferric oxide). Oxidation is responsible for the formation
and accumulation of oxidized iron lateritic soils in the
tropics.
3. Carbonation: When it rains, the rain water combines
with the atmospheric carbon dioxide to form weak
carbonate acid. When these carbonic acids encountered
rocks, which contain the oxides of certain basic metals
such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, etc. they are often
decomposed to form carbonate. These carbonates are
soluble and can be carried away in solution.
Carbonation is a process by which carbon dioxide and
water chemically react to produce carbonic acid, a weak
acid, which reacts with carbonate minerals in the rock.
This process simultaneously weakens the rock and
removes the chemically weathered materials.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
Air + water carbonic acid
CaCO3 + H2CO3Ca + 2HCO-3
++
Calcium carbonate + carbonic acid + calcium ion =
bicarbonate ion.
This is influenced by
- Carbon dioxide
- Living organisms
- The action of water
- PH of the rock
- Ion concentration
- Acid rains
Carbonation together with other chemical processes is
important in the breaking of the feldspar and carbonate,
especially, limestone. For example, when carbon
dioxide (CO2) in soils combines with rain water, it acts
as a weak acid and changes the calcium carbonate (Ca3)
into calcium bicarbonate (CaHCO3)2. This becomes a
soluble product which is eventually taken away in
solution.
Thus;
CO2 + H2O CaCO3 (CaHSO3)2
46
Principlesam Series
In the weathering process, the carbonic acid can attract
potassium hydroxide (KOH) to give soluble potassium
carbonate (K2CO3) which is taken away in solution.
In Karst regions, the most important weathering process
is carbonation.
- Carbonation primarily occurs in wet, moist climates
and affects rocks both on and beneath the surface.
- Carbonation occurs with limestone or dolomite rocks
and usually produces very fine clayey particles.
Carbonation processes
- Limestone (bedrock) is permeable
- Rain takes in carbon dioxide as it passes through the
atmosphere
- Carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolves in rainwater (H2O)
- Forms weak carbonic acid (H2CO3)
- The carbonic acid reacts with the carbonate in the
limestone (bedrock)
- This forms calcium (Magnesium etc.) bicarbonate,
which is soluble in water
- This solution percolates through rock
- It removes the calcium carbonate
- Fissures in rock become enlarged
- Underground drainage system develops.
4. Hydrolysis: This involves the breaking away or
dissolution of minerals when encountering water.
Hydrolysis is, the chemical union of water with the
rocks to produce new substances which are always
weaker than the original Feldspar, which is made of soft
clay, which combines with water, weakens its rock
structure, and breaks away. Thus, when water comes
into contact with felds phatic rocks, the hydrogen or
hydroxyl irons of water and irons of minerals get into a
series of complex chemical reactions. This results in the
removal of collided silica and the formation of a new
clay mineral, potash feldspar, which changes to kaolin.
Thus; Feldspar + Hydrogen clay
CO2 + H2O CaCO3
Fig. 31: Basalt pillows in Andalusia, Spain, with reddish weathered surfaces.
Where parts of the pillows have broken away, darker unweathered basalt is
visible. Source: Ignacio Benvenuty Cabral (2011)
5. Solution: This involves the dissolution of minerals
with water. For example, when quartz is obtained
combined with water, silica in solution is obtained. In

this case, water acts as a solvent, which breaks and
dissolves the minerals into solution. For example,
limestone, chalk, and rock salt are easily dissolved in
water. With this, a lot of water would be mixing against
dissolved sand to form soils.
6. Chelation: A biological process where organisms
produce organic substances known as chelates that can
decompose minerals and rocks by the removal of
metallic cations. Thus, when organic acids dissolve in
water, they weaken rocks, especially, those which
contain iron. Plants such as mosses and lichens also
produce organic acids thus becoming agents of both
physical and chemical weathering.
c. Biological Weathering: This is carried by biological
organisms such as plants, animals, and humans. The
roots of plants especially trees can penetrate cracks and
joints of rocks to break up. Human activities such as
mining, quarrying, and construction could lead to the
breakdown of rocks. Biological weathering is not very
effective unless other processes of weathering combine
with it. Some authors and writers considered it as a
physical or mechanical weathering process since the
rocks are integrated physically without any chemicals
involved.
Fig. 32: The roots of plants contribute to the breakage of rocks
Processes of biological weathering
Unlike physical and chemical weathering, the biological
or living agents are responsible for both decomposition
and disintegration of rocks and minerals. Biological life
is mainly controlled by the prevailing environment with
its biotic and abiotic factors. Three aspects are to be
understood in this as:
a) Man, and animals
b) Higher plants and roots
c) Micro-organisms
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Principlesam Series
a. Man and Animals
1. The action of man in the disintegration of rocks is
well known as he cuts rocks to build dams, channels and
construct roads and buildings. All these activities result
in increasing the surface area of the rocks for the attack
of chemical agents and accelerate the process of
decomposition.
2. Many animals, birds, insects, and worms, by their
activities make holes in them and thus aid for
weathering.
3. In tropical and sub-tropical regions, ants and termites
build galleries and passages and carry materials from
lower to the upper surface and excrete acids.
4. Rabbits, by burrowing into the ground, destroy soft
rocks. Moles, ants, and bodies of the dead animals,
provide substances that react with minerals and aid in
the decaying process.
5. The earthworms pass the soil, through the alimentary
canal and thus bring about physical and chemical
changes in soil material.
b. Higher plants and roots: The roots of trees and
other plants penetrate the joints and crevices of the
rocks. As they grew, they exert a great disruptive force
and the hard rock may break apart. An example is pipal
trees growing on walls or rocks. Some roots penetrate
deep into the soil and may open some sort of drainage
channel. The roots running in crevices in lime stone and
marble produces acids. These acids have a solvent
action on carbonates. The dead roots and plant residues
decompose and produce carbon dioxide which is of
great importance in weathering.
c. Micro -organisms: In early stages of mineral
decomposition and soil formation, the lower forms of
plants and animals like, mosses, bacteria and fungi, and
actinomycetes play an important role. They extract
nutrients from the rock and nitrogen from the air and
live with a small quantity of water. In due course of
time, the soil develops under the cluster of these micro-
organisms. This organism is closely associated with the
decay of plant and animal remains and thus liberates
nutrients for the use of next-generation plants and
produces CO2 and organic compounds that aid in
mineral decomposition. Organisms can assist in
breaking down the rocks into sediments or soils.
Lichens, fungi, and other micro-organisms are typical
examples.
The uplift weathering hypothesis

➢ The global rate of chemical weathering dependent on
availability of fresh rock.
➢ Atmospheric carbon dioxide decreases as new
silicate-rich crust is exposed to hydrolysis during
orogenesis (i.e., raising the Himalayas).
Weathering profiles
A weathering profile refers to a top to the bottom cross-
section of vertical changes in the characteristics of
weathered rocks from the topmost surface to the
bedrock or unaltered rocks. The divisions of the
weathered surfaces into zones that differ physically and
chemically from the unaltered bedrock can therefore be
differing in appearance. An assemblage of loose
weathered materials differentiated into identifiable
horizons. It is a vertical section through a weathered
rock showing distinct layers which differ in physical
and chemical characteristics like the soil profile.
Typologies: Weathering profiles differ from one rock to
another, e.g. granite, quartzite, schist, limestone, shale,
etc. Weathering profiles equally differ from one climatic
zone to another, e.g. weathering is more intense and
occurs to greater depths in the tropics than elsewhere,
(komoo, 1995).
The Weathered Regolith
The boundary between weathered and unweathered
parent rock is called the weathering front or basal
surface of weathering which is irregular. Weathering
depth is a function of the rate of weathering and the rate
of removal of weathered materials. Depth of weathering
may exceed 100m and exceptionally reach 300m.
Physical characteristics of weathering profile are
determined by rock types, mineralogy, and intensity of
chemical weathering.
48
Principlesam Series
Fig.33: The Weathering Profile
Mineralogical layers in the tropics
The three (3) distinct mineralogical layers are the
indurated, mottled, and pallid zone.
❖ The indurated zone is rich in iron, red in colour, and
concretionary.
❖ The mottled zone is made of clay, hydrated oxides
of iron, and aluminium.
❖ The pallid zone is bleached and leached of ferric
iron. It has whitish clay.
Zone of weathering
This is the portion of the lithosphere that has undergone
exposure to weathering. Mabbut (1961) calls the
interface between weathered and unweathered rocks the
weathering front. The zone of weathering varies in
thickness between tropical and sub-tropical regions.
❖ Duricrusts-Lampush (1902) introduced the terms
calcrete, silcrete, and ferricrete to designate materials
in the upper part of the zone of weathering which have
become indurated through the concentration of calcium
carbonate, silica, and iron oxides.
Table 10: Laterite Profile in Shale
Depth in meters Description of Profile
0.6 (profile I) Pisolitic (brown- posolic) soil,
presumably derived from
dehydrating middle or low
indurated zone laterite
0.6 to 2.0 (profile II) Lower-indurated- zone laterite
composed essentially of large and
small lumps but rather soft and
variably weathered laterites. They
crumble under slight pressure.
Materials are mostly fined grained
and earthy.
 Principlesam Series
2.0 to 6.0 (profile III) Mottled zone or red clay (red
earth). It is hardened. It hardens on
exposure. It contains no
concretionary textures. It is
underlain by the pallid zone.
0.6-14 (Profile IV) Pallid zone contains essentially of
white clay with bleached shale
fragments occurring along the
exposed section.
Fig. 34: Bauxite smelting in Ghana
Terminologies of Laterites
i.Ghana: Laterite/Mantle rock Conclusion
ii. India: Iron clay/ Laterite ❖ Some generalisations can be made regarding
iii.South Africa: Ferricrete weathering in the tropics
iv.France: Cuirass ❖ Given the ambient conditions of high temperature
v.Nigeria: Laterite/ Iron stone and rainfall, chemical weathering is accelerated.
vi.U.S.A: Plinthite ❖ Slopes of the humid tropics are underlain by regoliths
vii.Australia: Pisolite that are several meters thick.
viii.Source: Goudie, 1973 ❖ The weathered rock is normally rich in clay and
kaolinite is the common clay mineral.
Physical characteristics of laterites ❖ The weathered rock is not normally homogeneous
❖ Appearance: Colour (red, dark, maroon, etc. even and duricrust layers are common.
black, brown, and yellow shades).
❖ Texture: Grain size (granular structure) coarse,
smooth, angular block, clayey, friable, hard, etc. Factors that influence/affects the rate of weathering
❖ Structure: Plasticity, density, aggregate, stability, 1. The nature or structure of the rocks: The rate at
porosity, organic matter content, moisture content, which rock weathering occurs usually depends on the
pH, shear shrinkage limit, stress, consistency, etc. nature of the physical and chemical characteristics of
❖ Mineralogy: Laboratory determined; level of the rock. Their physical characteristics depend on the
secondary oxides of iron and aluminum. individual grains or the texture of the rock while the
chemical characteristics involve all the minerals in the
Utilitarian Value of Laterites (Uses/Importance) rock. Some minerals resist weathering. Quartz is a
❖ Road construction mineral that weathers slowly. Rocks made up of
❖ Building industry, bricks, foundations, etc. minerals such as feldspar, calcite, and iron, weather
❖ Coastal protection, e.g. the sea defense wall in Shama more quickly.
❖ Industrial uses– paint, catalysts, glass, ceramics, 2. Pollution: Speeds up weathering. Factories and cars
alloys, aerospace industry release carbon dioxide and other gases into the air.
❖ Engineering studies-fossil change These gases dissolve in the rainwater, causing acid rain
❖ Agriculture (cashew, rubber, oil palm, coffee, tapioca to form. Acid rain contains nitric and sulfuric acid,
etc.) causing rocks and minerals to dissolve faster.
❖ As mineral for export (bauxite and aluminum 3. Climate: Climate, which is usually measured in
smelting). terms of temperature and moisture, can drastically affect
Ghana bauxite refinery at: the rate of weathering. High amounts of water and
❖ Awaso higher temperatures generally cause chemical reactions
❖ Kibi to run faster. Thus, warm humid climates generally have
❖ Nyinahin more highly weathered rock, and rates of weathering are
❖ Ejuamena. higher than in cold dry climates. Example; limestones
in a dry desert climate are very resistant to weathering,
while limestones in tropical climate weather vary
rapidly. A high temperature and high amounts of water
also controls vegetation which indirectly affects the rate.
49

Seasonality of precipitation affects the rate of
weathering as well.
4. Slope or topography: Topography determines the
amount of rocks exposure on steep slopes when a
mineral grain is weathered. It is easily carried down
slope and flesh bedrock is exposed to weathering.
Generally, higher, or tectonically active areas which
steeper slopes have more dynamic weathering systems,
whereas flat plains have slower weathering systems.
5. Vegetation: Vegetation promotes weathering when
there are more trees. The roots of trees may go into
cracks of rocks and force them apart to cause physical
weathering. Trees break out oxygen. This gas combines
with rainwater to produce weak carbonic acid, which
influence or affects the rate of chemical weathering.
5. Time: The length of time that takes to operate in
weathering process determines the rate of weathering. It
may be short or long. The time to weather rocks is short
I rock that have developed cracks, faults, joints etc. and
is longer in massive or compact rocks such as granite.
7. Erosion: The dynamism and efficiency of erosion
determines how rapidly any weathered material is
removed, how frequent fresh rock is exposed to
weathering, and if deeply weathered profiles are
preserved.
8. Man influence: Man can easily disturb the nature
rate of weathering through the extraction of resources.
Examples are the open cast mining and quarrying in
surfaces are left bare to the climatic elements such as
water (rainfall), temperature and precipitation.
9. Physical Characteristics also influence the process
of weathering.
The characteristics are:
i) Differential composition
ii) Particle size
iii) Hardness and degree of cementation
Importance of weathering
a. Weathering produces loose materials for soil
formation which helps in crop production
b. Weaken rocks in readiness for mass wasting.
c. Produces new secondary materials. E.g. bauxite
d. Weathering determines the angularity of slopes. E.g.
talus slopes, break up slopes
e. Weathering can lead to the formation of lakes. This
could occur when rocks are broken down on a large
scale across a river valley through earthquake. For
example, the rocks which were broken down through an
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Principlesam Series
earthquake in china in May, 2008 formed over a dozen
lakes including Lake Tangjiashan, the largest of all the
indispensable component of the rock cycle.
f. Weathering can mold rocks into relief features which
would attract tourists. E.g. the rock pedestrian in
Mampong escarp in Ghana.
Weathering in Deserts: A good number of landforms
in tropical deserts are created by weathering
➢ Physical weathering dominates though there is
chemical weathering
➢ Due to daily heating and cooling, rocks break down
in differential weathering
➢ High daily diurnal range of temperature (500C by day
and 00C in the night), also aid weathering.
Mass Wasting or Movement
Mass wasting or mass movement is the movement of
weathered materials usually rock or soil on slopes under
the influenckae of gravity either with or without the help
of water. The movement is classified according to its
speed. Based on this, two main types; that is, slow and
rapid movements are identified.
Types of mass movement
1. Slow movement 2. Rapid movement
1. Slow movement: This is where materials are moved
slowly along a slope. In some cases, the movements are
unobservable and may continue for a longer period.
Others act suddenly and sometimes very dangerous or
catastrophic in nature. The slow movement is mostly the
creep type. In order word, creep is the best example of
slow movement.
Creep: This is a very slow movement of materials and
is almost unnoticeable. It only becomes visible when
posts and fence are tilted and then displaced down the
hill. Even trees may be moved. There are three
processes or types of creep i.e. soil, talus and rock
creep. There are generally three types of creep:
1. Seasonal, this is where movement within the depth of
soil affected by seasonal changes in soil moisture and
soil temperature
2. Continuous, this is where shear stress continuously
exceeds the strength of the material
3. Progressive, this is where slopes are reaching the
point of failure as other types of mass movements.
Creep is indicated by curved tree trunks, bent fences or
 Principlesam Series
retaining walls, tilted poles or fences, and small soil Mountains of Morocco in 1963 after prolonged heavy
ripples or ridges. Curves in tree trunks indicate creep rains. Mudflows normally leave mudflow levees behind.
because the base of the tree is moving downslope while ii. Earthflow: This happens because of loses rock when
the top is trying to grow straight up (figure 36). Tilted debris fully filled with water which helps to move down
telephone or power company poles are also signs of the slope. This movement is not restricted to channels. It
creep. is very common in humid regions. The movement is fast
but not continuous or repeated regularly. When earth
flow occurs, mudflow scars are often left behind the
scene as a lot of sand and debris (the loose particles with
rocks of sand or soil) would be deposited at a grand.
iii. Solifluction: This occurs in temperate and sub-polar
regions where soil is usually saturated. The soil rock
fragments move down slope, freezing and thawing
alternately to supply the kinetic energy required for the
debris transfer. It is frozen soil creeping and the
Fig. 36: Effects of creep (process of mass movement: soil movement is not restricted to definite channels.
creep type)
Other rapid movements are as follows;
i. Soil creep: It is the movement of soil down the slope.
➢ Slump: It occurs when loose wet rocks slip (slump)
The soil may be dry or contain some amount of water.
down under the pull of gravity along a steep curved
It is very slow and indiscernible. It is only noticed when
slope. It is very common on slope made of clay. The
trees and fences are bend or tilted. It may intermittent
materials move with a backward rotation along a curved
but sometimes continuous and may cover a wide area.
plane.
ii. Talus creep: It is the movement of angular rock
➢ Debris slide: This involves large quantities of rocks
debris down the slope. These are mostly shaped-edge
moving at a great speed and mostly catastrophic. It is
rock or cone-shaped and are of large sizes.
also called rockslide. It is the movement of massive
iii. Rock creep: It is the movement of individual rock
materials down a steep slope.
blocks or boulders. These rocks usually move slowly
➢ Rock fall: This occurs when a large mass of rock fall
with the rock close to the ground or the slope.
from a very steep cliff. This is the most rapid of all type
Sometimes the rocks move slowly and quickly in order
of mass movements. It is mostly made of individual
not to be noticed easily.
rocks and boulders. It may be caused by freeze and
2. Rapid movement
thaw, under cutting by rivers, ice, or waves, earthquakes
This is where materials are rapidly moved down the
and activities of humans. It is very catastrophic in nature
slope. It is made up of flow and landslide.
when it continues for a longer period of time the rocks
a. Flow: It is generally considered both slow and rapid
pile at the bottom of the cliff to form talus and screes.
movement but more rapid than creep. The materials may
The materials may be wet or dry up.
contain a lot of water and is divided into mudflow,
➢ Debris fall: It is a rapid fall of material from vertical
earthflow, and solifluction.
slope down slope.
i. Mudflow: It occurs when there is a repeated heavy
rain which then turns the soil into a semi-liquid (muddy)
state. The soil then flows downward the slope as mud or
soil flow. It is more noticeable in the rainy season and is
restricted to channels. It is faster than earthflow. The
movement is faster at first but slows when approaching
down the slope. Mudflow can occur on the desert slopes
where there is a little or no vegetation cover. It can also
occur on the slope of an erupting volcano. An example
of mudflow is the one which occurred in the Atlas
Fig. 33: Some types and forms of mass wasting or movement

51

b. Landslide
This is the movement of large rock debris over
underlying weak rocks. Movement is in succession with
small rocks debris moving down the slope at a time
resulting in a number of step-like terracette, e.g.
MISSISSIPI valley.
Some case study of landslides in Ghana in terms of time
events is. In Ghana landslides have been occurring in
the;
✓ The Akwapim ridge
✓ The Kwahu and Mampong Scarps and other
mountainous areas. But the most recent and severed one
occurred at Yensi, a farming community near Adukrom
in the Eastern Region of Ghana. This occurred in one
afternoon of Tuesday, October, 7th 2008. Three persons
have been confirmed dead and other properties
including farmlands, etc. were destroyed.
✓ Yensi is situated at the foot of the Akwapim Ridge
where active farming and lumbering activities have been
taking place. These activities resulted in the cause of the
landslides.
✓ Yensi recorded landslides in 1942 and 1987 but there
was no life lost even though some farmlands and
properties were destroyed.
Rain
Percolating water
Land slumps
down in section
Fig. 34: Landslide
Causes of Landslides
Landslide are caused by continuous under cutting of the
base of a steep slope by a river or wave action. Human
activities, such as mining, quarrying, clearing of
vegetation from steep slope and the construction of
buildings, bridges etc. can also trigger landslides.
Again, landslides can also be caused by the following;
1. Lubricating action of water down the steep slope
2. When a steep slope is under-cut by a river.
3. The pull of the gravity
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4. Earthquakes or volcanism. They can sometimes be
caused by earthquakes or by prolong rainfall or even
thawing (melting) of frozen soil which becomes so
unstable. Volcanic eruption can also cause landslides.
5. The activities of man such as mining, quarrying,
clearing of vegetation from steep slope and the
construction of buildings, bridges etc. on steep slope can
cause landslide.
Effects of landslide or landslip
1. Landslides may cause destruction to houses, roads,
rail-lines, human lives and destruction of vegetation.
2. They can also create temporary lakes such as Lake
Tangjiashan in China. This occurs when screes fall
across a river. In 1968, heavy rains in Ghana caused a
large landslide along the Mampong scarp which
completely blocked the road near Jamasi.
3. It can also produce terraces on slopes
4. Displacement of people, during landsliding many
houses and homes are affected hence many people
affected become homeless and the affected areas will be
ghosted.
5. Soil fertility lost, the top soil, which is fertile, is
removed and this adversely affects plants growth.
6. Silting of rivers and lakes: This reduces the depth
of water body and thus hampers and affects navigation
routes, HEP generation, etc.
7. Destruction of transportation: The fallen materials
can block road, footpaths or pathways and railway
routes, etc. hence hinder movement of people and
goods.
Factors that influence (affect) mass movement
The rate and extent of movements is affected or
influence by the following;
1. Nature and weight of the materials: The loose rock
materials tend to move faster than tightly held materials.
On the other hand, the heavier the weight of materials,
the slower the movement of materials and vice versa.
2. Gradient of the slope: The gradient of the slope
affects the movement of rock materials. Rock materials;
move faster in steep slopes than in gentle slopes
3. Presence of vegetation: The presence of thick
vegetation tends to reduce or decrease the rate of rock
materials down the slope and vice versa.
4. Human activities: The activities of man on the slope
of mountains or highlands could promote or reduce the
rate of rock materials movement.
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5. Climate: Climate also influences mass movements. c) What four (4) effects of mass wasting to the
Water and temperature may influence the rate of environment?
movements. Freezing, thawing and excessive rainfall d) Outline four (4) effects of landslide activities on the
encourage flow especially solifluction. environment
6. Earth movement: Again, triggers landslide, such as
faulting, folding and volcanic action can cause 4. a) Explain four (4) factor that influence the
widespread movement. carbonation processes of rocks
b) Discuss any four (4) physical weathering process
Effects of mass wasting or movement c) List the four (4) weathering products in the tropics
i. Siting of rivers and lakes: This occurs to reduce the
depth or deepest portion of the affected rivers or lakes, 5. a) State the two (2) major types of mass wasting or
thus, the water body is hampered and hence hinders movements
navigation etc. b) Discuss three (3) processes each under the major
ii. It destroys farmlands and crops: This led to low types mentioned in (5a) above
crop yield and associated famine and poverty. ci) What is zone of weathering?
iii. Tilting and falling of walls and trees, electricity and ii. Outline the three (3) mineralogical layers in the
telephone poles. tropics
iv. Causes soil infertility: When mass wasting occurs,
it washes away the top soil, hence leave the land bared
for bigger erosional activities to be performed which
brings about infertility in soil.
v. Displacement of people: It destroys settlements and
displaces people from their origin of settlement.
vi. Loss of life and properties: This may cause deaths
to lives and destruction of properties of the affected
people in that area of its operation.
vii. Destruction of transport facilities: The falling of
materials can block roads, railways and footpaths to
hinder movement of people and kill them.

Assignment 8
1. a) Define rock weathering
b) Outline the three (3) processes (types) of weathering
c) State three (3) factors that affect mechanical
weathering

2. a) Discuss the processes involve in each of the types

(at least four processes of each type)
b) Outline five (5) factors that influence the rate of
weathering
c) List the agents of erosion or weathering and state
three (3) effects of them
3. a) Define the following associated with landforms
i. Mass wasting or movement
ii. Landslide
iii. Rockfall
b) Highlight three (3) factors affecting mass wasting

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 Principlesam Series
CHAPTER NINE
THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE
The earth’s atmosphere is made up of various gases and Oxygen 209,400
particles. For e.g. Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), Argon 9,300
Carbon dioxide (0.03%) and rare gases including water Carbon dioxide 315
Neon 18
vapour in insignificant proportions. Ironically, it is the
Helium 5.2
view of Earth from the airless vacuum of space that
Methane 1.0-1.2
provides us with a view of just how thin is the veil of Krypton 1
atmosphere around the planet. Earth has a radius of over Nitrous oxide 0.5
6,370 km (3,981 miles) but the narrow skin of the Hydrogen 0.5
atmosphere stretches upward to a maximum thickness Xenon 0.08
of approximately 500 km (321 miles). Ninety-nine Nitrogen oxide 0.02
percent of the gases that compose the atmosphere are Ozone 0.001-0.04
located below a height of 32km (20 miles). The thin air
of the atmosphere’s outermost fringes contains a few Major composition of gases of the atmosphere
stray gas molecules before it passes into the emptiness The Atmosphere has two main components: nitrogen
of space. The Earth's atmosphere protects us from (78%) and oxygen (21%). These make up 99% of the
incoming space projectiles (comets, asteroids) that burn volume of "dry air". In this context "dry air" refers to all
up before reaching the planet's surface, and blocks gases, except water vapor. Remember that even under
harmful short-wave length radiation from the Sun. The the most humid conditions on Earth, water vapor is at
lower boundary of the atmosphere is considered to lie most 2% of the atmosphere. Thus, if you were an alien
on Earth's surface; the upper boundary is the studying the planet earth, you would report that Earth's
gradational transition into space. The atmosphere can be atmosphere is mostly nitrogen and oxygen. The text
divided into four layers based on their thermal below mentions the main ways that nitrogen and
characteristics. The structure of the atmosphere is oxygen gas are removed from the atmosphere and enter
described in the next section. The weather we the atmosphere as part of chemical cycles.
experience at the land surface is largely determined by Nitrogen: Removed from atmosphere by biological
the interaction of different wavelengths of incoming processes that involve soil bacteria.
solar radiation with the atmosphere. Solar radiation Oxygen: Removed from atmosphere by when organic
supplies the energy necessary for cloud formation, matter decays, combines with other substances, or is
precipitation, and local weather conditions. The taken in during breathing. This is an added to the
relatively pleasant average global temperature of 15o C atmosphere through photosynthesis by plants.
is a direct result of two factors. First, visible light is
converted to heat when solar radiation strikes Earth's Some important trace components of the atmosphere
surface. Second, the heat is trapped close to the Trace gases by definition are scarce in Earth's
planet's surface by greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, atmosphere. Yet several of these trace gases are
methane, nitrous oxide, water vapor) that make up just a essential for the life that has developed on Earth.
fraction of the atmosphere. Nitrogen and oxygen are
two gases which make up the bulk of the atmosphere. Water Vapor:
Carbon dioxide, helium, ozone, argon and hydrogen are ▪ The gas phase of water. Water vapor is literally

found in lesser quantities. Apart from these gases, tiny individual molecules of H2O that are part of the
dust particles are also present in the air. The pie chart collection of gases in the atmosphere.
gives you the percentage of different constituents of air ▪ Varies greatly from place to place, and from time to

(Fig.35). Nitrogen is the most plentiful gas in the air. time. It averages only about 0.4% of the atmosphere,
but varies from as much as 4% in the humid tropics to
Tables 11: Concentration of gases in normal day air near 0% in cold Polar Regions.
Gas Concentration (ppM) ▪ Enters the atmosphere through evaporation of liquid
Nitrogen 980,900 water.
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▪ Water vapor condenses into liquid and solid cloud
particles that grow in size and fall to earth as
precipitation
▪ Redistributes heat energy on earth and is important
to the formation of storms. This is because large
quantities of energy are involved in phase changes:
▪ Evaporation (liquid to gas) energy is absorbed from
environment
▪ Condensation (gas to liquid) energy is released to the
environment
▪ Is a strong greenhouse gas that warms the earth's
surface and its atmosphere? In fact water vapor is the
most important greenhouse gas on Earth in that it
contributes most to the atmospheric greenhouse effect.
Carbon Dioxide:
▪ Second most important greenhouse gas on Earth.
▪ Enters the atmosphere through the decay of
vegetation, volcanic eruptions, respiration, burning of
fossil fuels, and from deforestation. It is removed from
the atmosphere by photosynthesis, and the oceans.
▪ Concentration has been increasing due to human
activities, mainly burning fossil fuels and deforestation.
The amount of carbon dioxide has increased over 42%
since 1750, from 280 ppm to 400 ppm.
▪ There is concern that this will strengthen the natural
greenhouse effect leading to global warming, sea level
rise, and other potentially harmful climate changes.
Methane:
▪ Another greenhouse gas that is increasing due to
human activity. There is concern that the increasing
amount of methane will also contribute to human
caused global warming.
▪ Since 1750, methane concentrations have increased
by more than 150% mainly due to human activity.
▪ The main sources are the breakdown of plant material
in rice paddies, domestic grazing animals (biological
reactions in their stomach), biological activities of
termites.
Nitrous Oxide:
▪ Another important greenhouse gas. that is increasing
due to human activity. There is concern that the
increasing amount of nitrous oxide will also contribute
to human caused global warming.
▪ Since 1750, nitrous oxide contraptions have increased
by more than 20% mainly due to human activity.
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Principlesam Series
▪ Forms in the soil by bacterial processes and is destroy
by ultraviolet light from the sun.
Ozone:
▪ Most ozone is found in the stratosphere where it
forms the ozone layer (~20 - 30 km above the ground
surface). The ozone layer protects plants, animals, and
humans from the sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation by
absorbing the radiation.
▪ Very little is found naturally near the ground where it
is a toxic pollutant. Sometimes dangerously high
concentrations develop near large cities in a process
called photochemical smog
Aerosols:
Aerosols are tiny solid or liquid particles that are
suspended in the air. Most aerosols are microscopic and
too small to see individually without a microscope.
Aerosols include things like dust, pollen, smoke, and
even cloud droplets. When there are high concentrations
of aerosols in the air, they do affect the propagation of
light, and thus affect visibility. Examples are the visible
thick smoke that comes off fires and normal clouds.
▪ Important for climate naturally and through human
activities that release aerosols into the atmosphere
▪ Affect passage of solar radiation through the
atmosphere
▪ Influence cloud formation
▪ Natural and manmade aerosols can affect human
health
▪ "Particulate" air pollution
Fig. 35: Composition of gases of the atmosphere
Components or layers of the atmosphere
The height and structure of the atmosphere has two
broad layers, hence is identified as Homosphere and
Heterosphere but based on temperature, more detailed
sub-divisions of the vertical structure of the atmosphere
may be identified. The atmosphere comprises of four
main layers. They are;
❖ Troposphere
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❖ Stratosphere overlying mesosphere. The warm cap of the
❖ Mesosphere stratosphere overlying the relatively cool troposphere
❖ Thermosphere; including the exosphere. results in a stable atmospheric configuration as the cool
air cannot rise into the warm layer.
TROPOSPHERE
It is the layer lower or smaller (bottom) layer of the MESOSPHERE
atmosphere. This is the layer that support live hence Air temperatures in the mesosphere decrease upward to
where we live. The troposphere contains our weather a minimum of -90o C at the mesopause, the boundary
systems, air pollution, and the bulk of volcanic gases. with the overlying thermosphere. The upper
The layer is characterized by air temperatures that mesosphere is the second temperature minima in the
decrease upward as distance increases from the warm atmosphere. The mesosphere, which is the third layer of
Earth's surface. It extends from the earth surface the atmosphere, is found between 50 and about 80km
(ground) to about 12km but varies between the equator from the ground. Temperatures decreases with height
(about 16km) and the poles (8km). On the troposphere, until the next boundary mesopause (80km), which is the
temperature decreases with altitude. Temperature falls coldest point in the atmosphere. Temperatures
at an average of 6.5 ﾟ C for every 1km or 1000m ascent. decreases until it reaches -90o C. This is because there is
little air in the mesosphere. Above all the mesopause
The decrease in temperature with increase in height is
(boundary) there is next layer called the thermosphere.
called Environmental or Normal Lapse Rate, that is,
‘the higher you go the cooler it becomes’. Anyone who
THERMOSPHERE
has ever found himself or herself at high elevations
The outermost layer of the atmosphere, the
knows that temperature decreases with altitude (that is
thermosphere, blocks a variety of harmful cosmic
why we go to the mountains to ski). Air temperature
radiation including X- rays, gamma rays, and some
declines at a rate of 6.5oC/km (known as the normal
ultraviolet radiation. Temperatures in the upper
lapse rate) through the troposphere, beginning at an
thermosphere may reach 1,500oC but the number of
average of 15℃ at sea level. As the layer is defined by
atoms is so small at this altitude that heat energy is
its thermal character, we would expect it to be thicker
actually very low. Isolated gas molecules in the
above warm regions and thinner over cold areas.
thermosphere are broken into ions as solar radiation
Consequently, it comes as little surprise that the
strips electrons from oxygen and nitrogen molecules.
thickness of the troposphere increases from 8 km (5
These ionized gases make up the ionosphere, from 80
miles) over the poles to as much as 16km (10 miles) at
to 400km (50-250 miles). Spectacular visual effects
the equator. The boundary between the 56 troposphere
called Auroras occur when electrons and protons from
and the overlying stratosphere is known as the
the sun interact in the ionosphere. This layer contains
tropopause and temperatures at this altitude typically
only a minute fraction of gases in the atmosphere.
approach -50o C. This is the first of two temperature
These lightest gases help to send back radio waves from
minima in the atmosphere.
satellites to earth, receiving stations e.g. (hydrogen). In
Thermosphere, temperatures increase again with
STRATOSPHERE
altitude due to absorption of strong UV solar radiation
The stratosphere is over 40 km (25 miles) thick and
by N2 and O2. The troposphere and stratosphere account
contains the infamous ozone layer. Temperature
together for 99.9% of total atmospheric mass. The
increases upward in the stratosphere as ozone molecules
fraction of total atmospheric weight located above
concentrated in the upper two-thirds of the layer absorb
altitude z is P (z)/P (0). At 80 km altitude the
ultraviolet solar radiation and decreasing air density
atmospheric pressure is down to 0.01 hPa, meaning that
results in greater agitation (more kinetic energy) of
99.999% of the atmosphere is below that altitude.
atoms. Extends from the tropopause to the stratopause
Beyond the thermosphere is the next and final layer
(From 45 to 55 km altitude); temperature increases with
called Exosphere, which extends up to about
altitude. Maximum temperatures approach 0o C at the
80,000km. Beyond this layer, the earth’s atmosphere
stratopause that separates the stratosphere and the
merges with sun. Air is absence in the Exosphere.
56

Exosphere: The upper most layer of the atmosphere is
known as exosphere. This layer has very thin air. Light
gases like helium and hydrogen float into the space.
The Structure of the Atmosphere
❖ Heat and temperature are different methods of
measuring kinetic energy.
❖ The atmosphere can be divided into four thermal
layers: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and
thermosphere.
❖ The boundary with space is at an altitude of
approximately 500 km.
❖ Air temperatures decrease upward in the troposphere
which contains our weather systems.
❖ Temperatures increase with altitude in the
stratosphere as ozone absorbs incoming solar radiation.
❖ Temperatures decline again in the mesosphere but
increase in the thermosphere.
Temperature (0C)
Figure 36: Structure of the Atmosphere
Importance of the atmosphere
❖ Support plant and animal life through
photosynthesis, breathing etc.
❖ Support combustion
❖ Aid formation of precipitation (rain, dew, snow, etc.)
❖ Supports decomposition and disintegration of
materials (plant and animal decay, weathering of rocks
etc.)
❖ Oxygen is very important for the living beings.
❖ Carbon dioxide is very useful for the plants.
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Principlesam Series
❖ Dust particles present in the atmosphere create
suitable conditions for the precipitation.
❖ The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere goes
on changing and directly affects the plants and living
beings.
❖ Ozone protects all kinds of life on the earth from the
harmful ultra violet rays of the sun.
The human activities that affect the structure of the
atmosphere
The earth’s atmosphere is indirectly warmed by long
wave ground radiation. Various conditions of the
atmosphere are maintained by radiation, convection,
conduction and evapotranspiration. Human activities
that negatively affect the atmosphere include:
❖ bush burning
❖ Release of exhaust fumes from automobiles and
industries forming smog in the sky.
❖ Discharge of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) from old
refrigerators leading to Greenhouse effect and depletion
of the ozone layer.
❖ Release of various chemicals from aero sprays such
as deodorants, hair sprays, insect sprays.
Atmospheric scales of motion
The Four (4) rough categories of atmospheric scales of
motion are;
1. Microscale: Phenomena occurring on scales of the
order of 0-100m, such as the meandering and dispersion
of a chimney plume
2. Mesoscale: Phenomena occurring on scales of tens to
hundreds of kilometers, such as land-sea breezes, and
fronts.
3. Synoptic Scale: Motions of whole weather systems,
on the scales of hundreds to thousands of kilometers.
4. Global Scale: Phenomena occurring on scales
exceeding 5000km.
Ozone
❖ Presence of O3 in the upper atmosphere 20-40 km
and up provides a barrier to ultraviolent (UV) radiation.
❖ Small amount that does seep through provide you
with your summer tan.
❖ Too much ultraviolent (UV) will cause skin cancer.
❖ O2 also serves as barrier to ultraviolent (UV)
radiation, it absorbs only over a narrow band centered at
a wave length of 0.2m.

Global Warming: Global warming is the slow increase
in the average temperature of the earth’s
atmosphere because an increased amount of the energy
(heat) striking the earth from the sun is being trapped in
the atmosphere and not radiated out into space. The
earth’s atmosphere has always acted like a greenhouse
to capture the sun’s heat, ensuring that the earth has
enjoyed temperatures that permitted the emergence of
life forms as we know them, including humans.
Without our atmospheric greenhouse earth would be
very cold. Global warming, however, is the equivalent
of a greenhouse with high efficiency reflective glass
installed the wrong way around. Ironically, the best
evidence of this may come from a terrible cooling event
that took place some 1,500 years ago. Temperatures
plummeted, crops failed, etc. People died of starvation
and the Black Death started its march. As the dust
slowly fell to earth, the sun was again able to warn the
world and life returned to normal.
Causes of global warming
There are three positions on global warming:
(1) That global warming is not occurring and so neither
is climate change.
(2) That global warming and climate change are
occurring, but these are natural, cyclic events unrelated
to human activity.
(3) That global warming is occurring as a result
primarily of human activity and so climate change is
also the result of human activity. The most common and
most talked about greenhouse gases is CO2 or carbon
dioxide. In fact, because it is so common, scientists use
it as the benchmark or measure of things that warm the
atmosphere.
The most commonly discussed GHGs are:
• CO2 or carbon dioxide is produced any time
something is burned. It is the most common GHG,
constituting by some measures almost 55% of total
long-term GHGs. It is used as a marker by the United
States Environmental Protection Agency, for example,
because of its ubiquity. Carbon dioxide is assigned a
GWP or Global Warming Potential of 1.
• Methane or CH4 is produced in many combustion
processes and by anaerobic decomposition, for
example, in flooded rice paddies, pig and cow
stomachs, and pig manure ponds. Methane breaks down
in approximately 10 years, but is a precursor of ozone,
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Principlesam Series
itself an important Greenhouse Gases (GHG). CH4 has
a GWP of 28-36.
• Nitrous oxide in parean (laughing gas), NO/N2O or
simply NOx is a by-product of fertilizer production and
use, other industrial processes and the combustion of
certain materials. Nitrous oxide lasts a very long time in
the atmosphere, but at the 100year point of comparison
to CO2; its GWP is 265-298.
o Fluorinated gases were created as replacements for
ozone depleting refrigerants, but have proved to be both
extremely long lasting and extremely warming
Greenhouse Gases (GHGs). They have no natural
sources, but are entirely man-made. At the 100year
point of comparison, their GWPs range from 1,800 to
8,000 and some variants top 10,000.
• Sulphur hexafluoride or SF6 is used for specialized
medical procedures, but primarily in what are called
dielectric materials, especially dielectric liquids. These
are used as insulators in high voltage applications such
as transformers and grid switching gear. SF6 will last
thousands of years in the upper atmosphere and has a
GWP of 22,800.
What is black carbon and how does it cause global
warming?
Black carbon (BC) is tiny particles of carbon released
as a result of the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels,
biofuels and biomass. These particles are extremely
small, ranging from 10 µm (micrometers), the size of a
single bacterium to less than 2.5 µm, one thirtieth the
width of a human hair and small enough to pass through
the walls of the human lung and into the bloodstream.
Although BC, think of the plume of smoke from a
chimney or a fire, falls out of the lower atmosphere in
days, while it is suspended in the air, it absorbs the
sun’s heat millions of times more effectively than CO2.
Atmospheric instability
Atmospheric instability occurs when air moves upward
away from its original position. It is characteristic of
warm moist air in which there is a rapid vertical
decrease in temperature and humidity. When the
environmental lapse rate exceeds the adiabatic rate,
instability suddenly occurs. Adiabatic lapse rate is about
10°C/km (5.5°F/1000ft). When air rises due to
convectional, orographic and cyclonic activity,
instability occurs.

What evidence do we have of climate change?
The most compelling climate change evidence scientists
have of climate change is long term data relating
- atmospheric CO2 levels and global temperature
- sea level changes
- The expanse of ice
- The fossil record and the distribution of species.
Heat Transfer
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that
concerns the generation, use, conversion, and exchange
of thermal energy (heat) between physical systems.
Mechanisms/methods of heat transfer
Heat is the energy that flows in an object because of
differences in temperature. Heat is transferred from
warmer to cooler objects in three ways namely
conduction, convection and radiation. Heat transfer is
classified into various mechanisms, such as thermal
conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and
transfer of energy by phase changes. The recall of the
first law of thermodynamics. The rate that heat will
transfer in a closed system which can be presented in
the following form.
Q = W+……………….………………….Eqn (1)
Where Q is the heat transfer rate, W is the work transfer
rate and dU/dt is the net change in the total energy of
the system. Usually, heat transfer can be analyzed
without work being included. However, real systems
can include work in their analysis. In the case of only
work occurring, Eq. (1) becomes
Q = P … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ..Eqn (2)
Fig. 37: Methods of Heat Transfer
a) Conduction: This is a heat transfer method or
process where two bodies of unequal temperatures are
in contact. The energy of molecules is transferred
through collisions from one molecule to another. Heat
moves from the object/body with higher temperature
59
Principlesam Series
(warmer) to the body with the lower temperature.
Conduction always takes place on solid objects. Again,
conduction is the transfer of thermal energy through the
interaction of particles. Small particles transfer kinetic
and potential energy as they collide and vibrate with
other particles. Two materials can only share energy by
conduction if they are in direct or indirect contact with
each other. The flow rate of this heat energy is known
as heat flux. Heat flux, or thermal flux, is defined as a
measurement of the heat rate transfer per unit of area,
expressed in watts per square meter. Heat flux from
thermal conduction is also proportional to the
temperature gradient across an object and opposite in
polarity. It varies by a constant k, the thermal
conductivity of a material. The thermal conductivity
has units of watts per meter Kelvin. It depends on the
material and can only be found experimentally. This
relationship is known as Fourier's law of heat transfer.
b) Convection: The second heat transfer process is
convection, or heat transfer due to a flowing fluid.
Convection occurs when a fluid or gas flows around an
object. A small layer of fluid forms around the body,
called the boundary layer, where heat diffuses from
the object to the fluid. The thermal energy is then
carried away from the object by the fluid. The fluid can
be a gas or a liquid; both have applications in aerospace
technology. In convection heat transfer, the heat is
moved through bulk transfer of a non-uniform
temperature fluid.
Newton's law of cooling states that the temperature
difference between the oncoming fluid and the body is
proportional to the heat flow from the body. The steady
state equation of the law of cooling is written as q = h.
(TBodyￚTFluid). Where q is the heat flow rate, TBody is the
temperature of the body and TFluid is the constant
temperature of the oncoming fluid, and the h is the film
coefficient or heat transfer coefficient.
c) Radiation: Radiation heat transfer involves the
transfer of heat by electromagnetic radiation that arises
due to the temperature of the body. Radiation does not
need matter. The third process is radiation or
transmission of energy through space without the
necessary presence of matter. Radiation is the only
method for heat transfer in space. Radiation can be
important even in situations in which there is an
 Principlesam Series
intervening medium; a familiar example is the heat Method of conversion
transfer from a glowing piece of metal or from a fire. The range of conversion for degree Fahrenheit (0 F) is
All bodies constantly emit some thermal energy by 1800Fwhile that of degree Celsius or centigrade (0C) is
radiating heat, and energy can travel between bodies in 1000C. Sometimes, a recipe might provide cooking
the form of radiation. Thermal energy can radiate across temperatures in Celsius, but the dial on your range
a range of wavelengths but typically it is close to that of displays Fahrenheit, and vice versa. If you know the
infrared. Often, the energy emitted by radiation can be formula to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit you can easily
neglected in the presence of conduction and convection figure out what to set your dial to. The formula is F =
at low temperatures. However, at high temperatures, ((9 ÷ 5) x C) + 32. For example, if the Celsius
radiation must be considered because the energy temperature is 200, you convert it to Fahrenheit by
emission from a body varies as the fourth degree of the working out ((9 ÷ 5) x 200) + 32, i.e. 360 + 32, which is
absolute temperature. As radiation strikes an object, 392 degrees Fahrenheit. To convert a temperature of
some energy may be absorbed, pass through or reflect 392 degrees Fahrenheit to Celsius, the calculation is
off of the surface. A black body is an ideal object that (392 - 32) ÷ (9 ÷ 5).
does not reflect radiation or let energy pass through. It Thus;
absorbs all incident radiation and re-emits thermal 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝟗
is equal to either 1.8 or
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟓
energy at a rate dependent on the black body, not the
incident radiation that heats it.
Thus, to convert from oC to oF is as follows;
q = ε∙σ∙A∙ (Ts4 – Tsur4) 9
o
F = (oC×1.8) + 32 OR o
F= (5 ×oC) + 32.
Difference between heat and temperature
In heat transfer problems, we often interchangeably use Example 1: Convert 400C to oF
the terms heat and temperature. Actually, there is a Solution
o
distinct difference between the two. Temperature is a F = ( C×1.8) + 32 thus 400C will be (400C×1.8) + 32
o

measure of the amount of energy possessed by the the answer is 1040F

molecules of a substance. It manifests itself as a degree OR
𝟗
of hotness, and can be used to predict the direction of ( 𝟓
× 40⁰𝐂)+ 32 the answer is 104oF
heat transfer. The usual symbol for temperature is T. To convert from 0F to 0C
The scales for measuring temperature in SI units are the
Celsius and Kelvin temperature scales. Heat, on the Example 2: Convert 900F to 0C
other hand, is energy in transit. Spontaneously, heat Solution
flows from a hotter body to a colder one. The usual o
F = ( C× 1.8) + 32
o

symbol for heat is Q. In the SI system, common units 0F−32

0
C=( )
for measuring heat are the Joule and calorie. 1.8
90−32
0
C=( 1.8
) = 350C
Calculation of temperature There the answer is 350C
Thermometers usually bear two measurements (scales) The centigrade scale is most preferred in scientific
such as Fahrenheit and Centigrade measurement or analysis. There is another scale called Kelvin which
scales. The fixed points of those scales are the melting together with Fahrenheit was very common or power in
point of ice and boiling point of water. the olden days.
The Fahrenheit scale has its melting point of water at
32o F and boiling point of water at 2120 F. Terms associated with temperature and how they are use
The Centigrade, also called Celsius, has its melting a) Mean Daily Temperature: It refers to the average
point of ice at 0◦F and boiling point of water at 100oC. temperature for each day. It is calculated by
𝐌𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐓𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 +𝐌𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐓𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞
These two scales could be converted. MDT= 𝟐

60

b) Diurnal Range of Temperature: It is the difference
between the maximum and minimum temperatures.
Thus
Maximum temperature－Minimum temperature for a
day and is calculated for that day
c) Monthly Range of Temperature: This is the
differences between the highest and the lowest daily
temperature for the month. That is:
MRT= The highest temperature for the month minus
the lowest temperature for the month. Mathematically,
it is derived by
MRT= (Highest Temperature－Lowest
temperature)
d) Annual Temperature: It is the Summation or
addition of all mean daily temperatures for all months
(January to December).
e) Annual Range of Temperature: It is the difference
between temperature of the hottest month and
temperature of the coolest month. That is:
ART= Temperature of the hottest month minus
temperature of the coldest month.
f) Mean annual temperature: It is the average (total)
temperature for the year and divides it by (12months)
which is obtained thus:
𝐉𝐚𝐧𝐮𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝐭𝐨 𝐃𝐞𝐜𝐞𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫
MAT=
𝟏𝟐
Uses of weather and climate through data collection devices
Meteorologists use all kinds of equipment to measure
the weather. These include thermometers, radar systems,
barometers, rain gauges, wind vanes, anemometers,
transmissometers, and hygrometers. Let us go through
them one at a time and talk about what they do. Again,
Dew point, the temperature at which the atmosphere is
saturated with water vapour, when it is cooled without
changing its pressure or vapour content. A given
volume of air containing much water vapour has a
higher dew point than the same volume of drier air; thus
the dew point gives an indication of the humidity.
In meteorology the dew point is applied, for example, in
predicting the height of the base of certain types
of clouds
a. Thermometers are probably the most well-known
weather data device. They measure the temperature by
allowing a liquid inside the thermometer to expand as it
gets hotter and contract as it gets cooler. There are also
digital thermometers in wide use.
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Principlesam Series
b. Radar systems are used to create maps of rain and
snow and measure the motion of rain clouds. This
works by bouncing radio waves off the clouds and
measuring how long it takes for them to return.
c. Barometers are devices that measure the pressure in
the atmosphere. Pressure is how thick the air is: how
much air can be found in a particular volume. For
example, the higher up a mountain you go, the less air
there is. These devices can be quite simple and
generally involve a liquid which gets pushed up or
down an inverted tube depending on how strong the
atmospheric pressure is.
d. Rain gauges are also very simple, and measure how
much rain falls into a container.
Wind vanes are simple sails that get pushed by the wind
to show the wind speed. These work
alongside anemometers, which measure wind speed by
catching the wind in a cup-shaped container causing a
dial to turn.
e. Transmissometers measure visibility by shining a
laser through the air and detecting how much light is
lost. For example, if there is thick fog the visibility will
be particularly low.
f. Hygrometers measure the humidity (how much
water the air contains) at a particular location. They
work in lots of different ways, but one way is by
measuring how easily the air conducts electricity, since
water conducts electricity better than air itself
Factors that influence temperatures
The temperature of a place, object or body is dependent
on some or all of the following;
1. Latitude: The location of a body of temperature can
be influence by latitude. Thus, the duration of day light
and the distant at which the sun’s rays travel in the
atmosphere. At the Equator, the sun at midday is always
high in the sky. Therefore, its heating power is
concentrated on a relatively small area, and so each part
of that area gets a lot of heat. At the Equator, the sun’s
rays have a shorter distance of atmosphere to travel
through before reaching the earth’s surface. Therefore,
less heat is lost during the journey.
2. Altitude: Altitude refers to the height of the land or
slope. Since the atmosphere is mostly heated by
conduction from the earth, it can be expected that places
near the earth’s surface are warmer than those higher. If
the temperature at sea level at the foot of a mountain
were 26°C, what would you expect the temperature to

be near the top of the mountain at a height of 1000
meters? What are the main reason places in the Blue
Mountains are cooler than places near to sea level?
3.Seasons and length of day: The time of the year, in
relation to the seasons of is important as more radiation
is received in summer than in winter. Temperatures are
thus higher summer than in winters. In summer solstice,
more radiation is received as the duration of day light is
longer than in winter solstice (Longer day and shorter
nights).It should be noted that temperatures are higher
in the day than in the night and even during the day,
temperatures are higher in the afternoons than in the
mornings and the evenings.
4.Winds and ocean currents: The influence of wind s
and ocean currents has an effect on the climate of
adjacent coastlands. These are surface movements of
sea water. The currents which flow towards the Equator
bring relatively cool water, while those which flow
away from the Equator bring relatively warm water.
Example, the Gulf Stream Drift or North Atlantic Drift.
5. Distance from the Sea: In places that are far away
from the Equator and therefore, have well developed
summer and winter seasons, this is important. During
the summer the sea warms up less quickly than the land,
and places near to the sea tend to be cooled by it.
However, during the winter, the sea cools down less
quickly than the land, and so places near to the sea tend
to be warmed by it. As a result, places which are far
inland usually have greater extremes temperature than
do places which are near the coast/sea.
6. Cloud cover: The amount of cloud cover has an
important effect upon the daily range of temperature.
Cloudless skies allow quick loss of heat during the day.
But, it also allows quick loss of heat at night. Dense
cloud protects the earth’s surface from the full force of
the sun’s rays during the day. But, it also prevents the
quick loss of heat at night.
Solar Radiation and the Atmosphere
❖ Solar radiation occurs in a range of wavelengths
represented by the electromagnetic spectrum.
❖ Incoming short- and intermediate-wavelength
radiation may be absorbed by gases in the atmosphere,
reflected back into space from the atmosphere or Earth's
surface, or absorbed by Earth's surface.
❖ Incoming and outgoing long-wavelength radiation is
absorbed by water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other
gases in the atmosphere.
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Principlesam Series
❖ The greenhouse effect occurs when long wavelength
radiation is absorbed in the troposphere.
❖ The interaction of solar radiation and the atmosphere
provides the habitable planet we live on and contributes
to the future potential for global warming. In addition,
solar radiation supplies the energy necessary for cloud
formation, precipitation, and local weather conditions.
❖ Solar Radiation and the Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic radiation may be measured by
wavelength or frequency. Wavelength is the distance
between two adjacent.
Radiation pollution of the atmosphere
➢ Radioactive Pollution is defined as the increase in the
natural radiation levels in the environment that pose a serious
threat to humans and other life forms.
➢ Radioactive contamination is the deposition of or presence
of radioactive substances on surfaces or within solids, liquids
or gases (including the human body), where their presence is
unintended or undesirable (International Atomic Energy
Agency definition).
➢ The use of nuclear energy has two very serious inherent
problems:
1. Accidental leakage, as occurred in the Three Mile
Island, Chernobyl and Fukushima incidents and
2. Safe disposal of radioactive wastes.
➢ At high doses, nuclear radiation is lethal, but at
lower doses, it creates various disorders, the most
frequent of all being cancer.
➢ Continued small dose exposure to nuclear radiation
can cause childhood leukemia, miscarriage,
underweight babies, infant deaths, increased
susceptibility to AIDS and other immune disorders.
Artificial sources of radioactive pollution
➢ Accidents in nuclear power plants and nuclear waste.
➢ Nuclear weapon testing and explosion (Nuclear
fallout). The fall Out contains radioactive substances
such as strontium-90, caesium-137, iodine-131, etc.
➢ Uranium mining and mining of other radioactive
material like thorium (monazite is the ore of
thorium).
➢ Radiation therapy and direct exposures to radiation
for diagnostic purposes (e.g., X-rays), chemotherapy
etc.
➢ The slow nuclear radiations can emanate from a
variety of sources viz. nuclear reactors, laboratories,
etc.
 Principlesam Series
➢ They injure the cells of skin and blood capillaries
producing blisters and reddening called sunburns.
In a microwave oven, the radiation causes water
molecules in the cooking medium to vibrate faster and
thus raising its temperature.

Radiation dose
➢ A traditional unit of human-equivalent dose is
the rem, which stands for radiation equivalent in man.
➢ At low doses, such as what we receive every day
from background radiation (<1 m rem), the cells repair
the damage rapidly.
➢ At higher doses (up to 100 rem), the cells might not
Fig. 38: Ionizing and non-ionizing radiation
be able to repair the damage, and the cells may either be
changed permanently or die. E.g. radiation sickness.
Ionizing radiation
➢ Cells changed permanently may go on to produce
Ionising radiations cause ionisation (one or more
abnormal cells when they divide and may become
electrons are pealed out from the outer shells of an
cancerous.
atom) of atoms and molecules of the medium through
which they pass. Radiation damage can be divided into
The damage potential of radiation particles
two types: (a) somatic damage (also called radiation
➢ Alpha particles can be blocked by a piece of paper
sickness) and (b) genetic damage.
and human skin.
a) Somatic damage refers to damage to cells that
➢ Beta particles can penetrate through the skin, while
are not associated with reproduction.
they can be blocked by some pieces of glass and metal.
➢ Effects of somatic radiation damage include loss of
➢ Gamma rays can penetrate easily to human skin
hair, fibrosis of the lungs, a reduction of white blood
and damage cells on its way through, reaching far, and
cells, and the induction of cataract in the eyes. This
can only be blocked by a very thick, strong, massive
damage can also result in cancer and death.
piece of concrete.
b) Genetic damage refers to damage to cells associated
with reproduction.
Half-Life-Period of Radiation
➢ This damage can subsequently cause genetic damage
➢ Each radioactive material has a constant decay rate.
from gene mutation resulting in abnormalities.
➢ Half-life is the time needed for half of its atoms to
➢ Genetic damages are passed on to the next
decay.
generation.
➢ The half-life may vary from a fraction of a second to
thousands of years.
Effects of non-ionizing radiations
➢ The radionuclides with long half-time are the chief
➢ Non-ionizing radiations are constituted by the
source of environmental radioactive pollution.
electromagnetic waves at the longer wavelength of the
spectrum ranging from near infrared rays to radio
Accident at nuclear power plants
waves (includes higher wavelength ultraviolet rays,
➢ Nuclear fission in the reactor core produces a lot of
microwaves).
heat which if not controlled can lead to a meltdown of
➢ These waves have energies enough to excite the
fuel rods in the reactor core.
atoms and molecules of the medium through which they
➢ If a meltdown happens by accident, it will release
pass, causing them to vibrate faster but not strong
large quantities of highly dangerous radioactive
enough to ionize them.
materials in the environment with disastrous
➢ They may damage eyes which may be caused
consequences to the humans, animals and plants.
by reflections from coastal sand, snow (snow blindness)
directly looking towards the sun during an eclipse.
63

➢ To prevent this type of accidents and reactor blow
up, the reactors are designed to have a number of safety
features.
Safe disposal of nuclear waste
➢ Radioactive wastes are of two types
➢ Low-level radioactive wastes (LLW) which include
civilian applications of radionuclides in medicine,
research and industry, materials from decommissioned
reactors, protection clothing worn by persons working
with radioactive materials or working in nuclear
establishments.
➢ High-level radioactive wastes (HLW) results from
spent nuclear fuel rods and obsolete nuclear weapons.
Some proposed methods of disposing nuclear waste are
➢ Bury it deep underground in insulated containers.
This is a strategy being pursued in the United States.
➢ Shoot it into space or the sun. The cost would be
very high, and a launch accident should be disastrous.
➢ Bury it under the ice sheet of Antarctica or
Greenland ice cap. The ice could be destabilized by heat
from the waste. The method has been prohibited by
international law.
➢ Dump it into deep oceans by keeping the waste into
glass and steel cases. But the containers might leak and
contaminate the ocean.
➢ Change it into harmless or less harmful isotopes.
Currently, no method is known to do that, and the
method would be too costly.
➢ Presently waste fuel rods are being stored in special
storage ponds at reactor sites or sent to reprocessing
plants. Even though reprocessing is more expensive, but
some countries use reprocessing as an alternative to
waste storage.
Impact of radiation from mobile phone towers
➢ The radiation that comes from mobile tower
radiation is non-ionizing radiation.
a) Health Impact
➢ Every antenna on cell phone tower radiates
electromagnetic radiation (power).
➢ One cell phone tower is being used by a number of
operators, more the number of antennas more is the
power intensity in the nearby area.
➢ The power level near towers is higher and reduces as
we move away.
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Principlesam Series
➢ EMR may cause cellular and psychological changes
in human beings due to thermal effects that are
generated due to the absorption of microwave radiation.
➢ The exposure can lead to genetic defects, effects on
reproduction and development, Central Nervous System
behaviour etc.
➢ EMR can also cause non-thermal effects which are
caused by radio frequency fields at levels too low to
produce significant heating and are due to movement of
calcium and other ions across cell membranes.
➢ Such exposure is known to be responsible for
fatigue, nausea, irritability, headaches, loss of appetite
and other psychological disorders.
➢ The current exposure safety standards are purely
based on the thermal effects considering few pieces of
evidence from exposure to non-thermal effects.
b) Impact on birds
➢ The surface area of a bird is relatively larger than
their body weight in comparison to the human body, so
they absorb more radiation. Also, the fluid contained in
the body of the bird is less due to its small body weight,
so it gets heated up very fast.
➢ The magnetic field from the towers disturbs birds’
navigation skills; hence when birds are exposed to EMR
they disorient and begin to fly in all directions.
➢ A large number of birds die each year from
collisions with telecommunication masts.
Adiabatic lapse rate and atmospheric stability
The Lapse Rate is the rate at which temperature
changes with height in the Atmosphere. Lapse rate
nomenclature is inversely related to the change itself: if
the lapse rate is positive, the temperature decreases with
height; conversely if negative, the temperature increases
with height.
Description: When air is forced to rise up in the
atmosphere, the pressure reduces with height. For a
given volume of gas, the pressure divided by the
temperature remains constant (Boyle's Law). Therefore,
as the air pressure reduces, so does the temperature. If
no heat is exchanged with the surrounding air during
this process, which is called “adiabatic cooling”, the
rate at which the air cools, the Adiabatic Lapse Rate
(ALR) is a constant. For unsaturated air, the lapse rate
is 3°C per 1000 feet; this is called the Dry Adiabatic
Lapse Rate (DALR). However, when the parcel of air
reaches the Dew Point and becomes saturated, water
 Principlesam Series
vapour condenses, latent heat is released during the Now that the temperature at the foot of the mountain is
condensation process, which warms the air, and the known to be 290C, the temperature at the top of the
lapse rate reduces. The Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate mountain will be = 290C−26℃ = 3℃
(SALR) is therefore the rate at which saturated air cools Therefore, the temperature at the top of the mountain is
with height and is, at low levels and latitudes, 1.5°C per 3℃
1000 feet. At higher altitudes and latitudes, where there Example 2: If the temperature at the foot of a mountain
is generally less water content in the air, and therefore is 420C, what will be the temperature at its summit (top)
less latent heat to release, the SALR is closer to 3°C per if the mountain is 8000m high?
thousand feet. The ELR (Environmental Lapse Rate) is
the actual rate at which the ambient temperature Solution
changes with height. Considering the parcel of air as 0
- Lapse rate= 6.5 C per 1000m of ascent
before and utilizing the DALR and SALR for that - Temp. of mountain foot = 420C
parcel of air in contrast to the surrounding air. - Height of mountain top = 8000m
Since every lapse rate measures with 6.50C per 1000m
Adiabatic lapse rate of ascent.
The adiabatic lapse rate is the rate at which the Then 4000m of ascent will be
temperature of an air parcel changes in response to the 6.5℃×8000m 6.5℃×8
= = 520C
1000m 1
compression or expansion associated with elevation
Now that the temperature at the foot of the mountain is
change, under the assumption that the process is
known to be 420C, the temperature at the top of the
adiabatic, i.e., no heat exchange occurs between the
mountain = 420C−52℃ = −10℃
given air parcel and its surroundings.
Therefore, the temperature at the top of the mountain is
−10℃
Conditions of various atmospheric stability and air
pollution
Example 3: If the temperature at the foot of a mountain
Lapse rate: Change of temperature with altitude or
is 350C, what will be the temperature at its summit (top)
decrease in air temperature as one ascends into the
if the mountain is 5000m high?
atmosphere.
A regular air temperature decreases with an average rate
Solution
of 0.650C for every 100m of ascent. This is equal to 0
- Lapse rate= 6.5 C per 1000m of ascent
the Lapse rate.
- Temp. of mountain foot = 350C
Lapse rate is described as 0.650C per 100m of ascent
- Height of mountain top = 5000m
of 6.50C per 1000m of ascent.
Since every lapse rate measure with 6.50C per 1000m of
Formula = ΔT/ΔH (Fig. 39).
ascent.
Then 4000m of ascent will be
Example 1: If the temperature at the foot of a mountain 6.5℃×5000m 6.5℃×5
is 290C, what will be the temperature at its summit (top) = = 32.50C
1000m 1
if the mountain is 4000m high? Now that the temperature at the foot of the mountain is
Solution known to be 420C, the temperature at the top of the
0
- Lapse rate= 6.5 C per 1000m of ascent mountain = 350C−32.5℃ = 2.5℃
- Temp. of mountain foot = 290C Therefore, the temperature at the top of the mountain is
- Height of mountain top = 4000m 2.5℃
Since every lapse rate measures with 6.50C per 1000m
of ascent. Example 4: The temperatures on top of a mountain are
Then 4000m of ascent will be 170C. What will be the height of the mountain if
6.5℃×4000m 6.5℃×4 temperature at the foot of the mountain is 36.50C?
= = 260C
1000m 1
Solution
0
- Lapse rate= 6.5 C per 1000m of ascent
- Temp. of mountain foot = 36.50C
65
 Principlesam Series
- Let the height of mountain be = h a) Adiabatic lapse rate: Change of temperature with a
- Temp. of mountain top = 170C change in altitude of an air parcel without gaining or
Since every lapse rate measures with 6.50C per 1000m losing any heat to the environment surrounding the
of ascent parcel.
Then, 36.50C of ascent will be b) Dry adiabatic lapse rate: It assumes a dry parcel of
6.5℃×h air. Air cools 3°C/100m rise in altitude (5.4°F/1000 ft).
36.50C − 1000m = 170C
c) Wet adiabatic lapse rate: As parcel rises, H2O
36.50C× 1000m − (6.5℃ × h) = 17℃ × 1000m
condenses and gives off heat, and warms air around it.
36500m − 6.5h = 17000m
Parcel cools more slowly as it rises in altitude,
36500m−17000m = 6.5h
6°C/1000 m (3°F/1000 ft.).
19500m= 6.5h
d) Ambient or prevailing lapse rate: The actual
Divide both sides by the coefficient of h
19500m 19500
atmospheric temperature change with altitude; not only
,h= = 3000m does water content modify lapse rates, but wind,
6.5 6.5
Since the temperature at the top of the mountain is sunlight on the Earth’s surface, and geographical
3000m, then, for every 1000m = 1km features change actual lapse rates. A comparison of dry
3000m
Now, × 1km = 3km or wet adiabatic lapse rates to prevailing lapse rates
1000m
Therefore, the height of the mountain is 3km gives a sense of the stability and mixing conditions of
the atmosphere (see Fig. 40)
Similarly, the temperature on the ground can be
calculated if the temperature is known. Consider the
example below.
Example 5: If the temperature at the height is 2000m is
180C. What will be the temperature on the ground?
Fig. 40: Summary of various adiabatic conditions
Solution
Let the sea level be represented by S
- Lapse rate= 6.50C per 1000m of ascent e) Super-adiabatic: Ambient lapse rate greater
- The height of mountain= 2000m than adiabatic indicates unstable atmosphere. Vertical
- Temp. of mountain top = 180C motion and mixing processes are enhanced. Dispersion
Since every lapse rate measures with 6.50C per 1000m of pollution plume is enhanced high-density ambient
of ascent. lapse rate less than adiabatic. It indicates stable
Then, 2000m of ascent will be atmosphere, vertical motion, and mixing are
6.5℃×2000m suppressed. Dispersion is suppressed, and
S = −( ) = −130C
1000m contamination is trapped.
f) Temperature Inversion: An extreme case of sub-
Now that the temperature at the foot of the mountain is adiabatic, where temperature actually increases with
known to be 180C, the temperature at the top (height) of altitude near the ground before it begins to decrease
the mountain = 180C− − 13℃ =180C+13℃ = 𝟑𝟏℃ with altitude. This results in warm, low-density air
riding on top of cool high-density air; a very stable air
column that traps pollution near the ground, like that
which occurs during the winter in the Platte Valley of
Denver.
Pressure System
Pressure Systems
➢ Air expands when heated and gets compressed when
cooled. This results in variations in the atmospheric
pressure.
➢ The differences in atmospheric pressure causes the
Fig. 39: Lapse rate
movement of air from high pressure to low pressure,
66

setting the air in motion. Atmospheric pressure also
determines when the air will rise or sink.
➢ Air in horizontal motion is wind. The wind
redistributes the heat and moisture across latitudes,
thereby, maintaining a constant temperature for the
planet as a whole.
➢ The vertical rising of moist air forms clouds and bring
precipitation.
Pressure and Wind Belts
Pressure: Pressure is defined as the force exerted on
the earth’s surface and other objects by air, because air
has weight.
On maps, places having equal atmospheric pressure are
joined together by lines called Isobars.
Atmospheric pressure is the weight exerted on the
earth's surface by air. It is measured by using a
barometer and expressed in Milibars. Pressure is
affected by such factors as altitude, earth rotation, Wind
and temperature. These have been explained below:
Factors affecting pressure
i. Altitude: When air descends, its pressure and
temperature rise but when it ascends, it becomes less
dense and its pressure and temperature falls. In other
words, and pressure decreases as altitude increases.
Again, pressure is higher near the ground and decreases
with increasing height. As wind ascends, it becomes
lighter and its pressure falls but as it descends, its
pressure increases.
ii. Temperature: When the Temperature of the air
increases, its pressure decreases and when the
Temperature decreases, its pressure Increases.
iii. Wind: It is known that wind blows from a high-
pressure belt to a low-Pressure belt.
iv. Rotation of the earth: Owing to rotation of the
earth, differences in Pressure result in the deflection of
the wind to the right in the hemisphere and to the belt a
southern hemisphere.
Air Pressure
• Since air has mass, it also has weight. The pressure
of air at a given place is defined as a force exerted in
all directions by virtue of the weight of all the air
above it.
• The weight of a column of air contained in a unit area
from the mean sea level to the top of the atmosphere is
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Principlesam Series
called the atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric
pressure is expressed in various units.
Measurement of Air Pressure
• Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the column of
air at any given place and time. It is measured by means
of an instrument called barometer.
• The units used by meteorologists for this purpose are
called millibars (mb).
• One millibar is equal to the force of one gram on a
square centimeter. A pressure of 1000 millibars is
equal to the weight of 1.053 kilograms per square
centimeter.
• In other words, it will be equal to the weight of a
column of mercury 75 cm high.
• The normal pressure at sea level is taken to be
about 76 centimeters (1013.25 millibars).
Vertical Variation of Pressure
• In the lower atmosphere the pressure decreases
rapidly with height.
• At the height of Mt. Everest, the air pressure is about
two-thirds less than what it is at the sea level.
• The decrease in pressure with altitude, however, is not
constant. Since the factors controlling air density –
temperature, amount of water vapour and gravity are
variable, there is no simple relationship between
altitude and pressure.
• In general, the atmospheric pressure decreases on an
average at the rate of about 34 millibars every 300
metres of height.
• The vertical pressure gradient force is much larger
than that of the horizontal pressure gradient. But, it is
generally balanced by a nearly equal but
opposite gravitational force. Hence, we do not
experience strong upward winds.
• Due to gravity the air at the surface is denser and
hence has higher pressure. Since air pressure is
proportional to density as well as temperature, it
follows that a change in either temperature or density
will cause a corresponding change in the pressure.
• The pressure decreases with height. At any elevation
it varies from place to place and its variation is the
primary cause of air motion, i.e. wind which moves
from high pressure areas to low pressure areas.
• A rising pressure indicates fine, settled weather,
while a falling pressure indicates unstable and
cloudy weather.

Horizontal Distribution of Pressure
• Small differences in pressure are highly significant in
terms of the wind direction and velocity. Horizontal
distribution of pressure is studied by drawing isobars at
constant levels.
• Isobars are lines connecting places having equal
pressure. In order to eliminate the effect of altitude on
pressure, it is measured at any station after being
reduced to sea level for purposes of comparison.
• The spacing of isobars expresses the rate and
direction of pressure changes and is referred to
as pressure gradient.
• Close spacing of isobars indicates a steep or strong
pressure gradient, while wide spacing suggests weak
gradient. The pressure gradient may thus be defined as
the decrease in pressure per unit distance in the
direction in which the pressure decreases most rapidly.
• There are distinctly identifiable zones of
homogeneous horizontal pressure regimes or ‘pressure
belts’. On the earth’s surface, there are in all seven
pressure belts.
Pressure belts
There are four world pressure belts. These are:
(i) Doldrum or Equatorial i.e., pressure belt,
(ii)Horse latitudes or Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belt
(iii) Temperate low-pressure belt
(iv) Polar high-pressure belt.
• Except the equatorial low, all others form matching
pairs in the northern and southern hemispheres.
Distribution of Pressure Belts
(1) Doldrum or Equatorial Pressure Belt: This belt is
found around the Equator between 5° north and south of
the equator. Owing to intense heat, the pressure is low
and all winds blow to converge in this belt (Fig. 41).
Lies between 10°N and 10°S latitudes. Width may vary
between 5°N and 5°S and 20°N and 20°S. This belt
happens to be the zone of convergence of trade
winds from two hemispheres from sub-tropical high-
pressure belts. This belt is also called the Doldrums,
because of the extremely calm air movements. The
position of the belt varies with the apparent movement
of the Sun.
Formation
➢ As this region lies along the equator, it receives
highest amount of insolation.
➢ Due to intense heating, air gets warmed up and rises
over the equatorial region (convection).
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Principlesam Series
➢ Whenever there is vertically upward movement of
air, the region at the surface will be at low pressure.
Thus, the belt along the equator is called equatorial low-
pressure belt.
Climate
➢ This belt is characterized by extremely low-
pressure with calm conditions.
➢ This is because of the absence of surface
winds since winds approaching this belt begin to rise
near its margin. Thus, only vertical currents are
found.
➢ As the larger part of the low-pressure belt passes
along the oceans, the winds obtain huge amount of
moisture.
➢ Vertical winds (convection) carrying moisture
form cumulonimbus clouds and lead to thunderstorms
(convectional rainfall).
➢ In spite of high temperatures, cyclones are not
formed at the equator because of ‘zero’ Coriolis
force. (We will see more later)
(2) Horse Latitudes or Sub-tropical (High-pressure
Belt): This is found in sub-tropical latitudes 20°-30°
north and south of the equator. The pressure in this belt
is possess with high winds tend to diverge and
anticyclone is formed.
Formation
➢ After saturation (complete loss of moisture) at the
ITCZ, the air moving away from equatorial low-
pressure belt in the upper troposphere becomes dry and
cold.
➢ This dry and cold wind subsides at 30°N and S. So,
the high-pressure along this belt is due to subsidence of
air coming from the equatorial region which
descends after becoming heavy.
➢ The high-pressure is also due to the blocking effect
of air at upper levels because of the Coriolis force.
Climate
➢ The subsiding air is warm and dry; therefore, most
of the deserts are present along this belt, in both
hemispheres.
➢ A calm condition (anticyclonic) with feeble winds is
created in this high-pressure belt.
➢ The descending air currents feed the winds blowing
towards adjoining low-pressure belts.
➢ This belt is frequently invaded by tropical and extra-
tropical disturbances.
 Principlesam Series
4) Polar High (High-pressure Belts): These are found
around the Polar Regions and planetary winds shift with
seasons.
Formation
➢ The air from sub-polar low-pressure belts after
saturation becomes dry. This dry air becomes cold
while moving towards poles through upper troposphere.
➢ The cold air (heavy) on reaching poles subsides
creating a high-pressure belt at the surface of earth.

Climate
The lowest temperatures are found over the poles.

(5) Humidity: Humidity is defined as a measure

Fig. 41: Horse Latitudes
dampness of the atmosphere due to the presence of
water vapour in the air. 'The actual amount of water
(3) Low-pressure Belt or Mid-Latitude Low-
vapour present in the air is called absolute humidity. It
pressure Belt: These belts are found between 30° and
is expressed in g/m. Relative humidity therefore is the
60° north and south of the equator and are zones of
ratio between the actual amount of water vapour and the
convergence with cyclonic activities.
total amount the air can hold at an even temperature.
Relative humidity is expressed as a percentage. If air
Formation
contains only half of the amount. It can hold the relative
➢ These are dynamically produced due to
humidity of 50%. When the relative humidity reaches
➢ Coriolis Force produced by rotation of the earth on
100%, the air is said to be saturated. At this stage, the
its axis, and.
air temperature is said to be at dewpoint. Further
➢ Ascent of air as a result of convergence of westerlies
cooling will condense the water vapour into clouds or
and polar easterlies (we will more about these in next
rain.
topic – wind systems).
Effects of relative humidity
➢ Sub polar low-pressure belts are mainly encountered
1. High relative humidity reduces threat of evapo-
above
transpiration and vice versa.
Seasonal behaviour
2. High relative humidity promotes germination of
➢ During winter, because of a high contrast between
seeds and plants.
land and sea, this belt is broken into two distinct low
3. High relative humidity promotes the growth of fungi
centers, one in the vicinity of the Aleutian Islands and
and thus encourages diseases, e.g., the black pod
the other between Iceland and Greenland.
disease in cocoa.
➢ During summer, a lesser contrast results in a more
4. High relative humidity increases the rate of
developed and regular belt.
decomposition of organic matter hence release of
Climate
mineral salts into the soil for plants to absorb.
➢ The area of contrast between cold and warm air
5. High relative humidity reduces temperature intensity
masses produces polar jet streams which encircles the
and this in turn reduces the rate of photosynthesis in
earth at 60 degrees latitudes and is focused in these low-
plants.
pressure areas.
6. Small streams dry up where humidity is low. This
➢ Due to a great contrast between the temperatures of
destroys aquatic life.
the winds from sub-tropical and polar source regions,
7. Low relative humidity induces high water loss in
extra tropical cyclonic storms or lows’ (temperate
plants leading to the death of seedlings and shortage of
cyclones or frontal cyclones) are produced in this
food crops.
region.

69

8. Some animals in the environment like wood louse
and maggot die when relative humidity is low. Thus,
those animals thrive when relative humidity is high.
Fig. 45: Major Pressure Belts and Wind System
World Distribution of Sea level Pressure
The atmosphere exerts a pressure of 1034gm per
square cm at sea level. This amount of pressure is
exerted by the atmosphere at sea level on all animals,
plants, rocks, etc. Near the equator the sea level
pressure is low and the area is known as equatorial
low. Along 30° N and S are found the high-pressure
areas known as the subtropical highs. Further pole
wards along 60° N and S, the low-pressure belts are
termed as the sub polar lows. Near the poles
the pressure is high and it is known as the polar
high. These pressure belts are not permanent in nature.
They oscillate with the apparent movement of the sun.
In the northern hemisphere in winter, they move
southwards and in the summer northwards.
Fig.43: World Distribution of Sea level Pressure
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Principlesam Series
Fig. 44: Distribution of pressure (in Milibars) in July
The factors that necessitated the process
a) Thermal Factors
➢ When air is heated, it expands and, hence, its density
decreases. This naturally leads to low pressure. On the
contrary, cooling results in contraction. This increases
the density and thus leads to high pressure.
➢ Formation of equatorial low and polar highs is
examples of thermal lows and thermal highs,
respectively.
b) Dynamic Factors
➢ Apart from variations of temperature, the formation
of pressure belts may be explained by dynamic controls
arising out of pressure gradient forces and rotation of
the earth (Coriolis force).
Example
➢ After saturation (complete loss of moisture) at the
ITCZ, the air moving away from equatorial low-
pressure belt in the upper troposphere becomes dry and
cold. This dry and cold wind subsides at 30°N and S.
➢ So, the high-pressure along this belt is due
to subsidence of air coming from the equatorial
region which descends after becoming heavy.
➢ The rate of deflection increases with the distance
from the equator (Coriolis force). As a result, by the
time the poleward directed winds reach 25° latitude,
they are deflected into a nearly west-to-east flow. It
produces a blocking effect and the air piles up. This
causes a general subsidence in the areas between the
tropics and 35°N and S, and they develop into high-
pressure belts.
➢ The location of pressure belts is further affected by
differences in net radiation resulting from apparent
movement of the sun and from variations in heating of
land and water surfaces.
➢ Thus, formation of sub-tropical high and sub-polar
low-pressure belts are due to dynamic
factors like pressure gradient forces, apparent

movement of sun and rotation of the earth (Coriolis
force)
Wind
Wind is air in motion which has speed and direction. It
normally blows from high-pressure zone to low-
pressure belt and ranges from light to destructive
hurricane.
Distribution of Planetary Winds
It is an established fact that wind blows from area of
high-pressure to the areas of low pressures and this
forms the basis of wind movement.
i)The North East Trade and South East Trade
winds: Blow from the Sub-tropical high-pressure belts
to the equatorial low-pressure belts.
ii) Converging on the temperate low-Pressure belts are,
the South Westerlies from the horse latitudes of the
north to the temperate low in the north.
(ii) There is also the meeting with the polar easterlies
which originate from the polar high.
(iv) Similar pattern also occurs in the southern
hemisphere where the South-cast trade winds and the
polar easterlies also meet.
(v) North Westerlies: They blows from the sub-
tropical high, in latitude 300S, towards temperate low
pressure.
(vi) South East Polar Winds: They blows from the
polar high-pressure towards the temperate low-pressure
in latitude 600S.
Factors affecting movement of wind
a. Pressure: Winds tend to blow from high-pressure
zone to low-pressure area. For example, North East
Trade Winds and South West Trade Winds blow from
the high-pressure belts in the north and south
respectively to the low-pressure zone around the
equator.
b. Temperature: High temperature creates low-
pressure and vice versa and this affects air movement.
Thus, winds blow from low temperature areas to high
temperature areas. For example, during the day, the sea
becomes cooler than the land high-temperatures from
the sea to the land. This is called sea breeze. The
explanation of this Situation is that with high when air
passes over an area with high temperature, it gets heated
and expands. It then becomes lighter so it rises. The
surrounding air, which is cooler and heavier, moves to
take the place of the ascending warm air)
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Principlesam Series
c. Earth's Rotation: Due to the rotation of the earth.
Winds in the Northern Hemisphere are deflected to the
right and those in the Southern Hemisphere are
deflected to the left. This principle is called Ferrell’s
Law of Deflection. The force that causes the deflection
is called Coriolis force. This force is almost zero at the
equator but it increases progressively towards the poles.
Local Winds
Local winds are winds that blow over limited area for a
short period of time. Popular examples of local winds
are:
(1) Monsoon Winds: These are seasonal winds whose
directions change in relation to summer and winter due
to unequal heating the land and sea surfaces. During
summer, the land becomes relatively warmer than the
sea so high-pressure is formed on the sea. Cool winds
then blow from the sea to the land. The winds contain
moisture so when they are heated by the warm land,
they rise vigorously to form clouds and cause rainfall.
During winter, the land becomes cool and the sea
remains warmer. High-pressure is then formed on the
land and cool winds blow from the land to the sea.
These winds are dry so they do not cause cloud
formation and hence they do not bring any rainfall.
(2) Fohn Wind or Chinook Wind
i) Both winds are dry winds associated with leeward
side of mountains.
(ii)Fohn wind is experienced in the valleys of Northern
Alps in Switzerland in spring.
(iii) Chinook winds are experienced on the eastern
slopes of the Rockies in U.S.A. and Canada in winter.
(iv) Fohn wind is known to increase the temperature by
8°C to 17°C within an hour. It melts snow and causes
avalanches.
(v)Chinook is also known to raise temperature by 19°C
within 15°C minutes and favours crops and pasture
growth.
(3) Sirocco
(i) Sirocco is a warm, dry and dusty wind.
(ii) It is associated with the Mediterranean regions of
North Africa, especially in summer season.
iii) It originates from the Sahara Desert and blows
towards the Mediterranean regions.
(iv) It only becomes moist after crossing the
Mediterranean Sea and brings little rain.

(4) Mistral
(i)Mistral is a cold wind from the north and blows from
the Rhine valley towards the Mediterranean region.
(ii) It is also associated with the Mediterranean region
of North Africa in winter season.
(iii) The speed ranges from 64 to 130km/hour.
(iv)Temperature of the wind may be below freezing
point though the sky may be clear and cloudless.
(5) Typhoons
(i) Typhoons occur mainly in regions between 6° and
20°N and S of the equator and are very frequent for July
to October, & in the tropics such as in China
(ii)They are small with a diameter of 80-300km
(iii) They have speed or velocity of I60km/hour
(iv)They are associated with torrential downpour
accompanied by thunder and lightning
(v) It can cause lots of damage to crops and properties
(6) Hurricanes
(i) Hurricanes are found in the West Indian Islands and
the Caribbean
(ii) They have calm centres where the pressure s lowest.
(iii) They have great speed of about and rainless
120km/hour
(iv) Dense dark clouds gather and violent stormy
weather lasts for several hours. Hurricanes are
destructive to life and property
(7) Tornadoes
(i) Tornadoes are found in Guinea lands of West Africa
southern USA, where they are called whirlwind and in
NW Australia where they are called willy-willies.
(ii) They are small, but very violent tropical and sub-
tropical cyclones with a speed of 800km/hour.
(iii) They are mostly frequent in spring but can also
occur at almost any time
(iv) They have a dark funnel cloud 80-400 metres in
diameter and are very destructive.
(8) Cyclones: A cyclone is a storm system
characterized by high wind speed and heavy rain.
Winds in the system can reach over 120km per hour. It
has a low-pressure at the centre. Cyclones are formed
under the following conditions:
(i) The air mass must be warm and capable of absorbing
more moisture
(ii) There should be a large warm tropical sea over
which the air mass passes
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Principlesam Series
(iii) A local low-pressure centre like an island to initiate
the motion. Under these conditions, the tropical air
mass picks large amount of moisture and the warming
of the lower parts of the air sets up rising currents,
resulting in very low pressure. This low-pressure
system draws in violent winds and a vortex or a mass of
whirling wind is formed, with air rising and descending
all the time. The rising moist air from cumulonimbus
clouds arid heavy rain falls. Great swells form on the
surface of the sea to create tidal waves. The violent
winds. cause heavy immense rain and tidal waves can
cause destruction to the areas where the wind passes
(9) Anticyclones: They are opposite to cyclones cause
the highest pressure is at the centre winds blow
outwards. They are large scale circulation of winds
around a central region of high atmospheric pressure. It
blows in clockwise direction in the Northern
Hemisphere and anticlockwise the Southern
Hemisphere. The pressure gradient is gentle and the
wind is light. Effects of anticyclones include clear skies
as well as cooler, drier air. Fog can also form overnight.
Anticyclones may last for days or weeks before fading
out. They raise temperatures in summer and make
winter cold.
(10) Harmattan Winds: They are cold, dry and dusty
winds blown mainly in West Africa. They are also
called north-east trade winds. They originate from
north-east and blow across the Sahara Desert. They do
not bring rain. Rather, they create hazy conditions
which reduce visibility. They also reduce cloud cover
and relative humidity. They are experienced during dry
season, that is, from November to March. That is, most
places in West Africa are covered by the harmattan
winds from November to March. Temperatures are high
during the day but they reduce at night. This is due low
cloud cover. Diurnal range is, therefore, large.
(11) Land and Sea Breezes: These are local winds
which blow alternatively between the land and the sea
on daily basis. They are restricted to areas close to the
sea. They result from differential heating and cooling of
land and sea.
a) Sea Breeze: It blows from the sea to the land. It is
experienced during the day. During the day, the land is
heated faster than the sea and low-pressure is formed on
the land while high-pressure is formed on the sea.

Warm air rises from the land and cool air blows from
the sea to take the place of the rising air. This cool air is
called sea breeze. It lowers temperature of the land.
Fig. 45: a) Sea Breeze
b) Land Breeze: It blows from the land to the sea. It is
experienced at night. At night, the land becomes cooler
than the sea because it loses its temperature much laster.
High-pressure then forms on the land and low-pressure
is formed on the sea. Land breeze blows from the land
to the sea. It is cool so it lowers temperature of the Sea.
Fig. 45: b) Land Breeze
Assignments 9
1.a) What are local winds?
b) How do local winds affect daily activities of man?
c) Explain five local winds with characteristics.
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Principlesam Series
2. Major hot deserts in northern hemisphere are located
between 20-30 degree north and on the western side of
the continents. Why?
3. a) What are planetary winds?
b) Describe four factors affecting planetary winds
c) Highlight the four pressure belts of the world and
indicate their formation and climatic factors each.
4. a) What is meant by pressure belt?
b) Account for the occurrence of
i. low pressure belt along the equator
ii. sub-tropical high-pressure belts
c) Draw a suitable diagram to show the various pressure
belt and the planetary winds of the world
5. If the temperature at the foot of a mountain is 350C,
what will be the temperature at its summit (top) if the
mountain is 5000m high?
6. If the temperature at the foot of a mountain is 250C,
what will be the temperature at its summit (top) if the
mountain is 8000m high?
7. The temperatures on top of a mountain are 270C.
What will be the height of the mountain if temperature
at the foot of the mountain is 36.50C?
 Principlesam Series
CHAPETER TEN
WEATHER, CLIMATE, CLOUDS AND PRECIPITATION
Weather is the study of the atmosphere at a given time water vapour present in the air and also the rate of
and place. In order words, it is short-term (day-day) evaporation and condensation. In the period of lower
changes in atmospheric activities. The weather of a atmosphere, temperature decreases with heights.
place is always brief and changes regularly. E.g. the Measurement of Temperature
weather of today could be sunny and rainy or cloudy, Temperature is measured with thermometer.
etc. while Climate is defined as the average weather
conditions of a place over a long time period. The Description of Thermometer
weather of any given place changes from day to day They are narrow graduated glass tubes filled with either
while climate is comparatively constant over a long mercury or alcohol. We have minimum thermometer
time period. In fact, some geographers believed that the and maximum thermometer. The minimum
study of the average weather condition over a long time thermometer records the lowest temperature for the day
period is done with between 25-35 years. while the maximum thermometer records the highest
Elements of weather and climate temperature for the day. These are placed in the
These are factors which determine the weather and Stevenson's Screen. The screen protects the instrument
climate of a place. It can be including with its elements and also controls the amount of temperature from the
such as; temperature, atmosphere pressure, wind, environment. The mercury or alcohol in the
clouds, precipitation or rainfall, visibility, humidity, thermometer expands when heated and contracts when
radiation and sunshine. Each of these weather and cooled. The unit of measurement is degree Celsius (° C)
climatic elements or activities has its own instrument or degree Fahrenheit (°E).
and unites of measurement respectively.
Table 12: Elements of weather and climate How Thermometer is used
Elements Instrument Unite of measurement 2.Temperature is measured by using maximum and
i. Temperature Thermometer Degrees-centigrade (oC) and
minimum thermometers.
Fahrenheit (oF)
ii. Wind speed Anemometer Knot or anemograph 3.The Stevenson's screen is opened.
iii. Wind direction Wind vane Compass direction 3.The maximum thermometer records the highest
iii. Sunshine Sunshine Hours and minutes temperature for the day while the minimum
recorder
thermometer measures the lowest temperature.
v. Cloud type and Eye observation Oktas
cover 4.The mercury in the thermometer pushes its metal
vi. Atmospheric Barometer Milibars (mb) or Barograph index towards highest degree of temperature, but the
pressure mercury in the minimum thermometer leaves its metal
vii. Relative Hygrometer Percent (%) or Hygrograph behind.
humidity
viii. Precipitation Rain gauge Millimeters and Inches
5.When temperature rises, the mercury expands.
or rainfall 6.When temperature falls, the mercury contracts.
x. Evaporation Evaporimeter or Gallons or litters of water lost 7.Readings are taken at 9 am and 3pm every day.
Lysimeter or
8.Readings are taken at eye level.
Piche/ Class A
Pan 9.The components are fixed back immediately after
xi. Radiation BellaniPyrano- Micrometer (microns) reading.
meter 10. The reading is recorded and kept properly for future
xii. Visibility Eye visibility Kilometers and meters
use.
xiii. Earthquake Seismograph Seismometer

Terms of Temperature and how they are calculated

Measuring Weathering Elements
a) Mean daily temperature: It refers to the average
i. Temperature: Heat within the air indicates how hot
temperature for each day. The formula is:
or cold a place is and varies from latitude to latitude.
Maxi. temp. + min. temp./2
The sun is the source of all heat, measured with the aid
b) Diurnal range of temperature: It is the difference
of thermometer. It influences the actual amount of
between the maximum (max) and minimum (min).
74

c) Mean monthly rainfall: This is the average rainfall
for each month obtained by using the following
formula:
Total rainfall for the month/No. of days in the month
d) Mean annual rain fall: It is the average is amount
of rainfall for the year. It is calculated thus: Total
rainfall (from Jan to Dec)/12
e) Annual range rainfall: It is the difference between
the highest and the lowest rainfall figures for the year. It
is obtained by using the formula: Month with highest
rainfall minus month with the least/lowest rainfall.
Fig. 46: a) Minimum and Maximum Thermometer
ii. Cloud: These particles of water droplets in the
upper atmosphere suspended in the air. Due to
condensations of water vapour carried by rising air,
clouds may give precipitation. Cloud reduces visibility
and depletes solar insulation. Types of clouds include
cirrus, cumulus and stratus
iii. Atmospheric pressure: This consists of a number
of mixed gases and has weight and which it exerts on
the earth’s surface. It varies from place to place and
from time to time. The higher one goes, the lower the
temperature and pressure. Pressure is measured with a
barometer and unite of measurement is barograph or
Milibars.
Measurement of Pressure
The instrument used for measuring atmospheric
pressure Is called barometer. Pressure 1s measured in a
Unit of fore known as millibars Atmospheric pressure
may be low or high. There are about three types of
barometers and these barometer, aneroid barometer and
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Principlesam Series
altimeter. Altimeter is a modified is mercury barometer
used in aircrafts
Fig 45: A Mercury Barometer
vi. Sunshine: This is the visible part of the solar
energy. It is useful for plants and other living
organisms. It can determine how dry the wind is and
aids the process of cloud formation and rainfall. The
amount of sunshine depends on the latitude of a place,
and the slope of the land. Sunshine varies according to
season.
Measurement of Sunshine
The number of hours and minutes that a place receives
each day is measured by a Sunshine recorder.
Fig. 46: c) Sunshine Recorder (Campbell-Stokes Sunshine Recorder)
Description of Sunshine Recorder
This is a glass sphere which is partially surrounded by a
metal frame with a sensitized card inside it. The card is
graduated in hours and minutes. When the sun shines,
the glass sphere focuses the sun's rays on to the card
and the rays burn a trace or track on the card.
How to use the sunshine recorder or how to measure
duration of sunshine for the day
i) Take out the sensitized card from the frame.
ii) Then note the length of the burned track on the card.
iii) Read off from the graduated card the total number
of hours of sunshine for the day.
iv) Keep the record very well
vii. Relative humidity: This is a measure of the
dampness of the atmosphere due to water in the

gaseous state and it varies from place to place at
different times of the day. Two types exist: absolute
and relative humidity and it is measured with
hygrometer.
Measurement of relative humidity
Hygrometer is the instrument used for measuring
relative humidity (Fig 15). Relative humidity is
measured in percentages
Principlesam Series
with wind vane while the speed is measured with
anemometer.
Measurement of Wind
Wind speed is measured by anemometer while wind
direction is measured by wind vane.
a) Description and use of Anemometer: It consists of
3 or 4 semi-circular metal cups fixed to metal arms
mounted on a vertical shalt. As the wind blows, the
cups rotate. The higher the wind speed, the greater the
speed of the cups and vice versa.

Fig 47: Anemometer

b) Description and use of Wind Vane: It is made up

of a horizontal rotating arm placed on a shaft. The
rotating arm has a tail at one end and a head or arrow at
the other end. The arrow points to where the wind is
blowing from. In this way, wind is named from the
direction it blows, using compass or cardinal points.
Fig 47: Hygrometer
For instance, North East Wind blows from the north-
east direction, South Wind blows from the south and so
Description of Hygrometer
on. Wind direction may also be read in degrees.
Hygrometer is made up of wet and dry bulb
thermometers placed side by side in the Stevenson's
Screen. The dry bulb is an ordinary thermometer that
measures the shade temperature. The wet bulb
thermometer is kept wet by a wick which is dropped in
a container of distilled water. When the air is not
saturated, evaporation takes place from the moist wick.
The wet bulb always shows a lower reading than the
Fig 48: Wind Vane
dry bulb. If the difference between the two readings is
large, then it indicates low humidity. On the other hand,
vii. Rainfall: Rainfall refers to water droplets from the
if it is low, then it indicates high humidity. If there is no
atmosphere. It occurs as a result of evaporation from
difference in their readings, then it means that the air is
water bodies. E.g., rivers, lakes, ocean and
saturated so the relative humidity is 100%.
transpiration from plants and condensation reaches
saturation point; dew point is finally reached. The
vi. Wind: This is the direction of air in motion, from
amount of rainfall is measured with the aid of rain
high-pressure to low-pressure belts. It has special mode
gauge. The different types of rainfall are convectional,
of direction and is made up of series of dust, and
orographic and cyclonic.
eddies, capable of carrying moisture, dust and other
pollutants. Wind adapts to the characteristics of its
immediate environment. The direction is measured

76

Measuring of Rainfalls
Rainfall and other forms of precipitation are measured
by using a rain gauge.
Description of Rain Gauge
It is a cylindrical metal instrument. It consists of a metal
funnel leading to a glass bottle. The glass bottle is
placed inside a copper cylinder. The stem of the funnel
is long. The hole in the funnel is very small. The copper
container is fixed to the ground Water passes through
the funnel to the glass bottle. There is also a graduated
measuring jar which is used to measure the rainwater.
How Rain Gauge is used
i) The rain gauge is mounted 30cm above the ground
level to prevent water splash from entering the funnel.
ii) Rainwater passes through the funnel into the glass jar
or bottle.
iii)The funnel is removed every day.
iv) The water in the bottle is poured into the graduated
measuring jar.
v) The reading of the amount of rainfall is taken at eye
level.
vi) The instrument is fixed back immediately after
reading.
vii) The reading is recorded and kept properly.
viii) The readings are added up for each month.
ix) The total rainfall for the twelve months of the year is
added up to give the total annual rainfall
x) The reading is done once every day at a fixed time,
usually at 0900GMT.
Fig. 49: Rain Gauge
How the instrument is used to obtain total annual rainfall
a) The funnel is removed every day preferably at a fixed
time.
b) The water in the glass bottle is poured into a
calibrated/graduated measuring can.
c) The reading is taken at eye level
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d) Components are fixed back immediately after
reading
e) The reading is recorded.
f) The readings are added up for each month.
g) The total rainfall for the twelve
h) Months of the year are added up to give the total
annual rainfall.
Precautions to be taken when using Rain Gauge
1. It has to be erected high above the ground to avoid
water splash,
2. It should be fitted about 30 cm above the ground.
3. It must be placed in an open space.
4. It must be fitted firmly to the ground.
5. Reading must be taken daily at a fixed time.
6. Records must be updated daily immediately after
reading.
7. The instrument (and other ones at the weather
station) must be protected by fence
8. The reading must be done carefully with a steady
hand.
Uses of weather and climatic data
1. They are helpful in fishing: Weather forecasts
based on climatic data enable fishermen to avoid
fishing on stormy days.
2. They are useful in farming: Weather records,
especially rainfall data, enable farmers to know when
farming a particular crop should be grown and
harvested.
3. Helping market women and many workers:
Accurate forecasting based on weather records enable
traders and workers to know rainy days so that they can
take umbrellas when going out.
4. They help drivers and other road users: Weather
records help in the prediction of foggy weather so that
drivers can use fog light and also drive with care.
5. for drawing climatic maps: Temperature and
rainfall data are used to draw maps.
6. For studying relationship between weather
elements: Temperature records, for example provide
information on rainfall and wind.
7. They facilitate air and sea travels: Forecasts based
on accurate weather records enable pilots and sailors to
avoid cloudy and stormy weather respectively.
8. Planning school and other social programmes:
Weather data facilitate planning of sports, excursions
and tourism.

9. To prepare for natural hazards: Weather records
are used to predict when flooding, hurricanes or
destructive waves would take place so that people can
prepare for them.
10. They facilitate military operations: The records
enable soldiers to know when to go for effective
military operations.
Effects of weather and climate on man
1. Type of clothes/Dressing: People in cool climate
wear heavy clothes while those in hot climates use light
dresses.
2. Agricultural practices: People in the savannah
climate engage in growing of cereals like maize, and
millet. This is due to light rains. But crops such as
cocoa, oil palm and plantain are cultivated in forest
climates due to regular and heavy rainfall.
3. Choice of area for settlements or Population
distribution: Hot dry climatic zones like deserts are
sparsely populated while temperate and humid zones
are densely populated.
4 Building types: Houses in northern Ghana and
Nigeria, for instance are roofed with leaves because of
hot conditions. Others are however, is roofed with iron
or aluminum sheets.
5. Transport and communication: Fog formation and
harmattan disrupt air travels. Also in humid areas,
heavy rains destroy roads fast. Transport deteriorates
fast.
6. Environmental hazards: Natural hazards like soil
erosion, drought and floods are caused by change in
weather and climate.
7. People's health: Heat and dampness associated with
sub-tropical climate cause diseases such as malaria and
skin rashes.
8. Occupation of people: People in temperate involved
in secondary and tertiary activities. On the other hand,
those in regions are mostly the tropics are engaged in
primary economic activities such as farming, quarrying,
lumbering and hunting.
The different types of climates
▪Equatorial Climate
▪ Tropical Desert Climate
▪ Tropical Continental Climate
▪ Tropical Monsoon Climate
▪ Mediterranean Climate
▪ Steppe Climate
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▪ Tundra Climate
Characteristics of each climatic type should be
discussed in relation to:
▪ Temperature
▪ Precipitation
▪ Winds
The human activity that is influenced by weather
and climate includes:
▪ Farming
▪ Construction of airport
▪ Construction of buildings
Factors affecting weather and climate
Climate varies from one part of the world to another
due to the effects of the following factors;
i. Latitude: Latitude refers to the location of a place on
the earth’s surface in relation to the equator. Tropical
latitudes, where the sun’s altitude is always high have
hotter temperature than lower latitudes where the sun’s
altitude is generally low. These differences in
temperature in relation to different latitudes affects
climate.
ii. Ocean currents: Ocean currents can affect the
climate of adjacent coast land. For instance, cold
currents lower the temperature of cold currents lower
the temperature of adjacent coast lands, e.g., the
Benguela current. Cold currents help in the formation
of fogs along the coast, e.g., cold Benguela and
Canaries currents. Warm currents raise temperature of
the adjacent coast lands, e.g., warm Guinea and warm
Mozambiquan currents. Cold currents result in the
formation of coastal deserts, e.g., Kalahari Desert,
because of cold Benguela current, Sahara Desert
because of cold canaries current.
iii. Slope and aspect: Steep slope experiences more
rapid change in temperature than a gentle slope.
iv. Cloud cover: Cloud cover reduces the amount of
solar radiation reaching the earth’s surface and the
amount of solar radiation escaping the earth surface
into space. Day temperature in the equatorial region is
always high because of the heavy cloud cover.
Classification of climate of the world
The Greek word that we trace climate from klima,
which means “inclination,” “slope,” or “latitude”
and klima can be traced further still, to the

Greek klinein, “to lean”. There was a theory in
antiquity that the world could be divided into seven
distinct zones called climates, which were designated
based on the slope or inclination of the northern
celestial pole changing as one moved north from the
equator. Climate was in use in English for well over a
hundred years before we began to use the word in the
16th century to refer to weather conditions.
The types of climates, they are:
➢ Tropical
➢ Desert/dry
➢ Temperate
➢ Polar
➢ Mediterranean
• Polar climate (also called boreal climate), has
long, usually very cold winters, and short summers.
• Temperate climates have four seasons. Some of the
countries which have a temperate climate are: Turkey,
and most of the European countries.
• Deserts. They just have one or two seasons such
as: Saudi Arabia and most of the African countries.
• Tropical climates have warm temperature and only
two seasons; wet and dry. An example of a place with a
tropical climate is the Amazon Rainforest in Brazil.
• The Mediterranean climate is usually hot and dry
in summer, and is cool and wet in winter. An example
of a country with a Mediterranean climate is Spain.
The latitude, ground, and height can change the climate
of a location. It is also important to note if oceans or
other large bodies of water are nearby. Climates are
most commonly classified by temperature and
precipitation. The most commonly used classification
was the Köppen climate classification, first made by
Wladimir Köppen. The Thorn Thwaite system, which
was used from 1948, not only uses temperature and
precipitation information, but evapotranspiration too.
This makes it useful for studying how many
different kinds of animal species there are, and about
the things that could happen when climates change.
The Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification
systems focus more on where the air masses which
help make climates come from. Climates occur after a
long time. Nowadays people are making the world
warmer.
Climatic elements: They are the features one
considers when describing the climate of a place. These
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include temperature, sunlight, precipitation (rainfall),
humidity, clouds, pressure and wind.
Climatic factors: These are factors which control the
climate of a place. They include latitude,
Continentality, ocean current, water bodies and the
soil.
Factors that climate can be affected with
Acronym: LOWER is an acronym for 5 factors that
affect climate.
➢ Latitude. It depends on how close or how far it is to
the equator.
➢ Ocean currents. Certain ocean currents have
different temperatures.
➢ Wind and air masses. Heated ground causes air to
rise, which results in lower air pressure.
➢ Elevation.
➢ Relief.
There are many different factors that affect climate
around the world. It is the varying influence of these
factors that lead to different parts of the Earth
experiencing differing climates. The most important
natural factors are;
1. Distance from the sea (Continentality): The Sea
affects the climate of a place. Coastal areas are cooler
and wetter than inland areas. Clouds form when warm
air from inland areas meets cool air from the sea. The
centers of continents are subject to a large range of
temperatures. In the summer, temperatures can be very
hot and dry as moisture from the sea evaporates before
it reaches the centre of the land mass.
2. Ocean currents: Ocean currents can increase or
reduce temperatures. The diagram below shows the
ocean currents of the world. The main ocean current
that affects the UK is the Gulf Stream. The Gulf
Stream is a warm ocean current in the North Atlantic
flowing from the Gulf of Mexico, northeast along the
U.S coast, and from there to the British Isles. The Gulf
of Mexico has higher air temperatures than Britain as it
is closer to the equator. This means that the air coming
from the Gulf of Mexico to Britain is also warm.
However, the air is also quite moist as it travels over
the Atlantic Ocean. This is one reason Britain often
receives wet weather. The Gulf Stream keeps the west
coast of Europe free from ice in the winter and, in the
summer, warmer than other places of similar latitude.
3. Direction of prevailing winds: Winds that blow
from the sea often bring rain to the coast and dry

weather to inland areas. Winds that blow to Britain
from warm inland areas such as Africa will be warm
and dry. Winds that blow to Britain from inland areas
such as central Europe will be cold and dry in
winter. Britain's prevailing (i.e. most frequently
experienced) winds come from a south westerly
direction over the Atlantic. These winds are cool in the
summer, mild in the winter and tend to bring wet
weather.
4. The shape of the land (relief): Climate can be
affected by mountains. Mountains receive more rainfall
than low lying areas because as air is forced over the
higher ground it cools, causing moist air to condense
and fall out as rainfall. The higher the place is above
sea level the colder it will be. This happens because as
altitude increases, air becomes thinner and is less able
to absorb and retain heat. That is why you may see
snow on the top of mountains all year round.
5. Distance from the equator: The distance from the
equator affects the climate of a place. At the poles,
energy from the sun reaches the Earth's surface at
lower angles and passes through a thicker layer of
atmosphere than at the equator. This means the climate
is cooler further from the Equator. The poles also
experience the greatest difference between summer and
winter day lengths: in the summer there is a period
when the sun does not set at the poles; conversely the
poles also experience a period of total darkness during
winter. In contrast, day length varies little at the
equator.
6. El Niño: El Niño, which affects wind and rainfall
patterns, has been blamed for droughts and floods in
countries around the Pacific Rim. El Niño refers to the
irregular warming of surface water in the Pacific. The
warmer water pumps energy and moisture into the
atmosphere, altering global wind and rainfall patterns.
The phenomenon has caused tornadoes in Florida,
smog in Indonesia, and forest fires in Brazil.
El Niño is Spanish for 'the Boy Child' because it comes
about the time of the celebration of the birth of the
Christ Child. The cold counterpart to El Niño is known
as La Niña, Spanish for 'the girl child', and it also
brings with it weather extremes.
7. Human influence: The factors above affect the
climate naturally. However, we cannot forget the
influence of humans on our climate. Early on in
human history our effect on the climate would have
been quite small. However, as populations increased
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and trees were cut down in large numbers, so our
influence on the climate increased. Trees take in
carbon dioxide and produce oxygen. A reduction in
trees will therefore have increased the amount of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
The Industrial Revolution, starting at the end of the
19th Century, has had a huge effect on climate. The
invention of the motor engine and the increased
burning of fossil fuels have increased the amount of
carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas - more on that later)
in the atmosphere. The number of trees being cut
down has also increased, reducing the amount of
carbon dioxide that is taken up by forests.
Insolation and the earth’s surface
Insolation: This is derived from the words "incoming
solar radiation". Insolation is specifically applied to
radiation which is arriving at earth’s atmosphere first
and then earth's surface. The heat is derived from solar
energy, normally called solar radiation. It is the
incoming solar radiation or the amount of solar
radiation received at the Earth’s surface. The sun emits
all wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum, called
solar radiation. Approximately 50% of the solar
radiation received at the Earth’s surface is in the visible
light portion of the electromagnetic spectrum (E.M
spectrum).
Fig.45: Insolation transmissions
Factors Affecting Insolation
There are six main factors that affect the intensity of
radiation received at the Earth’s surface.
a) Angle of insolation
1. The intensity of insolation increases, as the angle of
insolation gets closer to 90 degrees.
2. The intensity of insolation decreases with an
increase in latitude.

3. The angle of insolation varies throughout the day.
b) Duration of insolation: The length of time that
Earth’s surface receives insolation.
i. The surface temperature at a particular location on
the Earth is directly related to the duration of
insolation.
ii. The duration of insolation varies with latitude and
the season of the year. Maximum insolation occurs in
the Northern Hemisphere around June 21st (Summer
Solstice)
iii. Maximum Surface temperature occurs at the Earth’s
surface after the maximum duration of insolation.
iv. Average annual surface temperature on the Earth is
inversely related to latitude location.
c) Absorption of insolation: Approximately 19% of
incoming solar radiation is absorbed by the
atmosphere.
1. Approximately 47% of insolation is absorbed by the
Earth’s surface.
d) Reflection of insolation: Approximately 34% of
insolation received by the Earth is reflected back into
space by clouds (25%), snow, ice caps, and water.
e) Scattering of insolation: Insolation can be scattered
by molecules of gas, water, or dust in the Earth’s
Atmosphere. This is why the sky is blue.
f) Energy conversion: Insolation can be transferred to
stored potential energy (Latent Heat) by evaporation of
water, or sublimation of ice.
g) Transparency of the atmosphere: Atmosphere is
not transparent for all the radiation coming from the
sun because of different composition and layers. It is
also one of the controlling factors of insolation to reach
earth surface. The atmosphere is composed of gases,
water vapour and particulate matters. The atmosphere
is a mixture of gases, such as nitrogen (N), oxygen (02),
Argon, carbon dioxide, Neon etc.
Applications of insolations on our daily lives
a) Buildings: In construction, insolation is an
important consideration when designing a building for
a particular site. The projection effect can be used to
design buildings that are cool in summer and warm in
winter, by providing vertical windows on the equator-
facing side of the building (the south face in the
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northern hemisphere, or the north face in the southern
hemisphere); this maximizes insolation in the winter
months when the Sun is low in the sky and minimizes
it in the summer when the Sun is high. (The Sun's
north/south path through the sky spans 47° throughout
the year).
b) Civil engineering: In civil engineering and
hydrology, numerical models of snowmelt runoff use
observations of insolation. This permits estimation of
the rate at which water is released from a melting
snowpack. Field measurement is accomplished using a
pyranometer.
c) Climate research: Irradiance plays a part in climate
modeling and weather forecasting. A non-zero average
global net radiation at the top of the atmosphere is
indicative of Earth's thermal disequilibrium as imposed
by climate forcing.
d) Space: Insolation is the primary variable affecting
equilibrium temperature in spacecraft design and
planetology. Solar activity and irradiance measurement
is a concern for space travel. For example, the
American space agency, NASA, launched its Solar
Radiation and Climate Experiment (SORCE) satellite
with Solar Irradiance Monitors.
Terrestrial Radiation
Once insolation is absorbed by the Earth’s surface, it
eventually gets re-radiated back into the atmosphere or
into space. Through the radiant, it focuses on the
a) The Earth’s surface radiates energy mainly in the
infrared range of the E.M spectrum.
b) Some of this infrared radiation is trapped by gases
in the atmosphere. This helps to heat the atmosphere
and the planet (the Earth). This effect is called the
greenhouse effect
c) Gases in the atmosphere that trap this heat are called
greenhouse gases and include water vapour, carbon
dioxide, methane, and chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s).
d) Humans and Climate Change; burning fossils fuels
has increased the amount of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere.
Importance of weather and climate to man
1. Self-protection: They study of the weather and
climate enables us to prepare ourselves from the
dangerous passed by weather elements like tornadoes,
torrential rainfall, hurricanes etc.

2. Farming: We are able to know the correct time to
clear the land, to plough the land, and to saw seeds etc.
3. Construction: It assists in the constructions of
buildings and brings at a particular place.
4. Sea and air transportation: Information about
weather, the weather is dear or bad is needed by the sea
or air transportation in particular to avoid accident.
5. Recording: To enable people to record in their
attempt to study the changes in the climate. These
provides job for people.
Solar Irradiance
Due to the angle of insolation at specific locations on
Earth, distinct zones of difference in average temperate
exist to create a defined type of climate. There are three
climatic regions created by the Earth's angle of
insolation relative to the sun. These include:
a) Tropical: Climates surrounding the Equator of the
Earth, most often within 20 degrees of the central
latitude. Tropical climates are hot and humid year-
round and receive precipitation almost daily.
b) Temperate: Climates located between tropical and
polar regions, neither close to the Equator or the poles
of the Earth. Temperate zones usually experience warm
summers with occasional storms and cool to mild
winters with occasional snow.
c) Polar: Climates that surround the poles of the Earth,
usually greater than 80 degrees north or south of the
Equator. Polar climates are extremely cold but are less
prone to heavy precipitation.
Types of solar irradiance
There are several measurable types of solar irradiance
used by scientists, including:
a) Total solar irradiance: The main contributor to
Earth's reception of energy, total solar irradiance is the
measure of all energy wavelengths in the upper
atmosphere of the Earth per unit. It is measured
perpendicular to incoming energy (sunlight).
b) Direct normal irradiance: Also known as beam
radiation, direct normal irradiance is measured
perpendicular to sunlight at a specific location. Results
are based on the absorption or scattering of energy.
Factors such as the time of day, moisture in the air, and
cloud cover all factor into the final measurement.
c) Diffuse horizontal irradiance: This type of
measurement is taken on a horizontal surface at a
specific location and based on the scattering of energy.
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Measurements are taken from all angles of the sky
except directly from the source (sun).
d) Global horizontal irradiance: This type of
measurement is taken on a horizontal surface and
accounts for all energy (sunlight). Its formula is the
sum of direct normal radiance and diffuse horizontal
irradiance.
e) Global tilted irradiance: A measurement taken
relative to the angle of the sun, meaning that the sun is
tracked and measured to determine total incoming
radiation.
f) Global normal irradiance: A measurement used to
describe the total irradiance from the sun at a specific
location on Earth's surface. Measurements are taken
perpendicular to the source.
Greek system of classification
The Greek system of classifying climates was mainly
based on temperature characteristics. Based on that,
they came out with the following;
1. Torrid Zone: The Torrid is also known as
the Tropics. This zone is bounded on the north by
the Tropic of Cancer and on the south by the Tropic of
Capricorn; these latitudes mark the northern and
southern extremes in which the sun passes directly
overhead. This happens once annually on these cusps,
but in Tropics proper, the sun passes overhead twice a
year. Within the Northern Tropics, the sun passes
overhead its first time for that year before the June
solstice, at which time it does so as to the Tropic of
Cancer. It passes over these latitudes in turn again, on
its apparent southward journey, to and before the
September Equinox. After then, the center of the sun at
the high point, the zenith, of the sky (which makes for
the sub-solar point beneath) aligns with successive
latitudes in the Southern Tropics. The sun passes
overhead of these then does so once per year for
the Tropic of Capricorn at the December solstice, then
passes back again over those latitudes to return to
the Equator for the March Equinox.
2. Temperate zones: In the two temperate zones,
consisting of the tepid latitudes, the Sun is never
directly overhead, and the climate is mild, generally
ranging from warm to cool. The four annual seasons,
spring, summer, autumn and winter, occur in these
areas. The North Temperate Zone
includes Europe, Northern Asia, and North and Central

America. The South Temperate Zone includes
Southern Australasia, southern South America,
and Southern Africa.
3. Frigid zones: The two frigid zones, or polar regions,
experience the midnight sun and the polar night for part
of the year ,at the edge of the zone there remains one
day, the winter solstice, when the Sun is too low to
rise, and one day at the summer solstice when the sun
remains above the horizon for 24 hours. In the center of
the zone (the pole) the day is one year long with six
months of daylight and six months of night. The frigid
zones are the coldest regions of Earth and are generally
covered in ice and snow. It receives slanting rays of the
sun as this region lies farthest from the equator.
Summer season in this region lasts for about 2 to 3
months and there is almost 24-hour sunlight during
summer. The sun's rays are always slanting so provide
less heat per horizontal surface area.
Examine the Greek system of classifying climate
The division of the earth's climates into a worldwide
system of contiguous regions, each one of which is
defined by relatively, homogeneity of the climatic
elements is observed. The earliest known classification
of climate, devised by the Greeks, simply divided each
hemisphere into a mathematical climate of three zones,
the "summerless, “intermediate," and "winterless,"
thus accounting only for the latitudinal differences in
solar effect (the Greek word klima means
"inclination"). More recently, these zones have been
labeled as the Torrid, Temperate, and Frigid Zones.
Apparently, the first major improvement over this
classification was introduced by Alexander Supan in
the nineteenth century. He based his zones on actual
rather than theoretical temperatures, and named
one hot belt, two temperate belts, and two cold caps.
Supan also divided the world into 34 climatic
provinces, with no attempt to relate similar climates of
different locations. Another basic and much used
approach recognizes other climatic controls as well as
the sun. The resulting climates are called (with
variations) polar, temperate, tropical,
marine, mountain, and probably others. Of the major
climatic classifications in use today, those of W.
Köppen (1918) and C. W. Thornthwaite (1931) are
referred to most often. Köppen's elaborate
"geographical system of climates" is based upon annual
and seasonal temperature and precipitation values.
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His climatic regions are given a letter code designation.
The major categories are tropical rainy climate, dry
climate, temperate rainy climate, snow forest
climate, tundra climate, and perpetual frost climate.
Advantages of Greek Classification of Climate
1. It is simple to understand.
2. It is one of the early attempts at classifying climates.
3. Most of the later classifications were based on the
Greek's classification.
4. It can be taught at all levels of education.
5. It is good for the study of climates.
6. It does not involve any difficult mathematical
calculation so its use will be popular among those who
are afraid of mathematics.
Disadvantages of Greek Classification of Climate
1. It is not scientific: The classification does not use
recorded values or figures of temperature, rainfall etc.
It is purely descriptive and cannot be scientific.
2. It is too simple: Its simplistic nature makes it
irrelevant and false. It is therefore not wholly
acceptable.
3. It does not consider other climatic types: It
ignores climatic types like Mediterranean, desert and
mountain. This factor makes the classification
incomplete.
4. It does not consider other climatic elements: The
classification was based on temperature alone. It
excludes the other elements such as rainfall and
humidity.
5. It eliminates other factors of climate such as latitude
and relief and many others like the altitude, land and
water or the oceans.
Köppen’s System of Classifying Climate
Köppen presented five major climatic types which
coincided with the five vegetation types of the world.
These are shown by the capital letters A, B, C, D and
E.
A Type -Tropical Rainy Climates
This is wet and hot climate. Rainfall is heavy and
distributed throughout the year. Temperatures are high
throughout the year. Monthly temperature does not fall
below 18°C.

B Type - Dry Climates: It is characterized by aridity.
It lacks surplus water. Evaporation is very high
exceeding rainfall. No river flows permanently in this
climatic zone.
C Type - Warm Temperate Rainy Climates: This
climate is also called humid mesothermal climate. It
experiences both summer and winter. The warmest
month records the temperature of about 10°C while the
coldest month is above - 3° but below 18°C.
D Type -Snowy and Cold Climates: It is also called
cold snow forest climate. The coldest month records an
average temperature of below -3°C while the warmest
month records an average of over 10°C.
E Types- Polar Climates: They are also known as ice
climates. Temperature of the warmest month is less
than 10°C. They do not experience warm season.
Precipitation occurs in the form of snow so there are
more ice caps.
Köppen classification (sub-classification)
The Köppen climate classification scheme divides
climates into five main climate groups:
A (tropical)
B (dry)
C (temperate)
D (continental), and
E (polar)
The second letter indicates the seasonal precipitation
type, while the third letter indicates the level of
heat. Summers are defined as the 6-month period that
is warmer either from April–September and or
October–March while winter is the 6-month period that
is cooler.
Group A ((Tropical Rainy Climates): This type of
climate has every month of the year with an average
temperature of 18 °C (64.4 °F) or higher, with
significant precipitation. These climatic types have
three sub-divisions. They are Af, Am and Aw. Each of
them has been explained below:
Note: f=generally, no dry season,
m=moderate dry season in winter and Summer
W= no dry season in winter.
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Principlesam Series
a. Af = Tropical Rain Forest Climate: Tropical
rainforest climate; average precipitation of at least
60mm (2.4 in) in every month.
Location: It is located within 5°N and 5° of the
Equator. Areas covered include Zaire basin (central
Africa), Amazon basin (Brazil) as well as Cote
D’lvoire, south-west Ghana and Nigeria (West Africa).
Climatic Characteristics
i) Heavy rainfall and is distributed throughout the year.
ii) Annual rainfall is 1,500mm to 2,000mm.
iii) There is no month without rain.
iv) Rainfall is double maxima.
v) It is convectional.
vi) It is warm throughout the year.
vii) Mean monthly temperature is about 27°C.
viii) Annual mean temperature is 30°C.
ix) Diurnal range of temperature is small, about 6-8°C.
x) There is high cloud cover.
xi) Humidity is high throughout the year, about 70 to
80%.
b. Am = Tropical Monsoon Climate: Tropical
monsoon climate; driest month (which nearly always
occurs at or soon after the "winter" solstice for that side
of the equator) with precipitation less than 60 mm
(2.4 in), but at least.
Location: It is found within Latitudes 10°and 35°N
and S of the Equator. The areas covered include
Northern Australia, parts of West Africa and Fast
African coasts. The rest are the monsoon Asia like
India, Pakistan, Burma etc. the coast of Brazil and
Central America like West Indies.
Climatic Characteristics
i) The areas experience heavy rainfall
ii) Annual rainfall is about 1,500mm
ii) Rainfall is mainly convectional.
iv) The areas experience wet season followed by dry
season.
v) Temperatures are high, about 27°C.
vi) Range of temperature is 6°C.
vii) There is high cloud cover especially during the
rainy season.
vii) Humidity is also high in wet season.
c. Aw or As =Tropical Grassland (Savannah)
Climate: Tropical wet and dry or savanna climate;

with the driest month having precipitation less than
60 mm (2.4 inches) and less than.
Location: This climate lies within 5°-25°N and 5°-20°
S of the Equator. Areas covered include Central
America, West Africa, Northern Australia, West
Malaysia, eastern Africa and northwest South America.
Climatic Features
i) Rainfall is between 250mm to 1,500mm and it is
seasonal. That is, it rains mainly in summer.
ii) Rainfall is convectional.
iii) It is single maximum.
iv) Temperature is very high. It is about 21°C to 30°C.
v) Temperature range is about 9°C
Group B (Dry climates): This type of climate is
defined by little precipitation. Dry climates have two
sub-groups. These are BS and BW.
Note: S = steppe or semi-desert
W= desert
a) BS steppe (semi-arid) climate
Location: It is found within 30° and 40°N and S of the
Equator. Areas covered include Italy, Argentina, South
Africa and Australia.
Climatic Characteristics
Temperatures are extreme. That is, there is very cold
winter and hot summer. Annual rainfall is 508mm in
summer.
b) BW desert (arid) climate
Location: It can be found at the west coasts of
continents and within 15° and 30° N and S of the
Equator. Areas covered include parts of West Africa,
South Africa, Namibia, Australia and Saudi Arabia.
Climatic Characteristics
Temperature is high during the day and low in the
night. This is due to the absence of cloud cover.
Temperature range is therefore large, about 11°C.
Note:
➢ BWh = Hot desert climate
➢ BWk = Cold desert climate
➢ BSh = Hot semi-arid climate
➢ BSk = Cold semi-arid climate
Group C (Warm Temperate Rainy Climates): This
type of climate has the coldest month averaging
between 0°C (32°F), (or −3°C (27°F)) and 18°C
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Principlesam Series
(64.4 °F) and at least one month averaging above 10°C
(50°F). The C-climates have three sub-groups namely
Cf, Cw and Cs. For example, the distribution of
precipitation in locations that both satisfy a dry
summer (CS) and a dry winter (CW), a location is
considered to have a wet summer (CW) when more
precipitation falls within the summer months than the
winter months while a location is considered to have a
dry summer (CS) when more precipitation falls within
the winter months. This additional criterion applies to a
location that satisfies both DS and DW as well.
a) Cf= mild Humid Climate: There is no dry season.
b) Cw humid climate: Much rainfall occurs in
summer and Winter is dry.
c) Cs = mild humid climate: More rains occur in
winter and summer is dry.
Climatic Features
i) Rainfall is between 250mm to 1,500mm and it is
seasonal. That is, it rains mainly in summer.
ii) Rainfall is convectional.
iii) It is single maximum.
iv) Temperature is very high. It is about 21°C to 30°C.
v) Temperature range is about 9°C
Group D (Continental climates): This type of climate
has at least one month averaging below 0°C (32°F) (or
−3°C (27°F)) and at least one month averaging above
10°C (50°F)
There are two groups in D-climates. These are snowy
forest climate (Df) and cold forest climate (Dw).
Precipitation in winter is in the form of snow. This is
due mainly to the low temperature.
a) Df= snowy forest climate: Much precipitation falls
in winter. It is characterised by cold climate.
b) Dw = Snowy Forest Climate: Winters are dry with
cold climate. Much precipitation falls in summer.
Group E (Polar and alpine climates): This type of
climate has every month of the year with an average
temperature below 10°C (50°F). There are two sub-
groups in the E-climates. They are ET and EF
a) ET = Tundra Climate: Tundra climate; average
temperature of warmest month between 0 °C (32°F) and
10°C (50°F). It records very low temperature. The
warmest month has temperature less than 10°C but
greater than 0°C.

b) EF = Continuous Ice Cap Climate: Ice cap climate;
eternal winter, with all 12 months of the year with
average temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F). It occurs at
extreme north and south poles. Temperatures are low
and no month records above 0°C. There are ice caps.
Advantages of Köppen’s Classification
1. It is simple to understand.
2. It is objective.
3. It can be taught at all levels of education.
4. It is scientific or quantitative because it uses figures.
5. Based on temperature and rainfall.
6. It considers the effects of latitude and altitude.
7. It breaks the classification into smaller units.
8. It is ideal for climatic study.
9 It is based on empirical evidence. This is because it is
based on facts and observation.
10. It uses the Greek early classification/it is a polished
form of the Greeks'.
11. It uses symbols with precise meanings.
Disadvantages of Köppen’s Classification
1. It does not consider the climate of highlands.
2 Köppen’s classification uses too many letters and
these tend to confuse the reader.
3 The system does not give clear distinction between
climatic regions.
4. It considers only two of the factors of climate
(latitude and altitude). Other factors were not
considered. The system considers only two climatic
elements, rainfall and temperature. It did not consider
other elements such as winds, clouds etc.
5. The letter symbols used by Köppen in his climatic
classification are international shorthand. They are
rather difficult to characterize in words.
Differences between Köppen’s and Greek's Systems
of Climate sub-groups of classification
1. Köppen recognises climates but Greeks'
classification does not. It identifies only the main ones.
2. Köppen’s classification uses quantitative or figures
to describe boundaries of climatic groups but the
Greeks' system uses words.
3. Köppen’s system is scientific because it is based on
figures and facts whereas Greeks descriptive method
hence not scientific.
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Principlesam Series
4. Greeks classification is based on temperature alone
while Köppen’s classification employs.
5. Köppen’s classification has five major belts while
Greeks has three major climatic belts.
6. Greeks' classification is older than that of Köppen’s.
7. Greeks' system uses only latitude as a climatic
factor. On the other hand, Köppen’s system uses
latitude and altitude.
World climatic types of today
Today, climate scientists split the Earth into
approximately five main types of climates. They are:
A: Tropical: In this hot and humid zone, the average
temperatures are greater than 64°F (18°C) year-round
and there is more than 59 inches of precipitation each
year.
B: Dry: These climate zones are so dry because
moisture is rapidly evaporated from the air and there is
very little precipitation.
C: Temperate: In this zone, there are typically warm
and humid summers with thunderstorms and mild
winters.
D. Continental: These regions have warm to cool
summers and very cold winters. In the winter, this zone
can experience snowstorms, strong winds, and very
cold temperatures—sometimes falling below -22°F (-
30°C)!
E: Polar: In the polar climate zones, it’s extremely
cold. Even in summer, the temperatures here never go
Fig. 45: World climate today
higher than 50°F (10°C)!
Equatorial or tropical rainforests are found near
the equator. Places which experience an equatorial
climate include parts of:
• Central America, e.g. Costa Rica
• South America, e.g. Brazil
• Central Africa, e.g. Kenya
• South-East Asia, e.g. Borneo

Clouds and precipitation
Clouds: They are visible mass of condensed watery
vapour floating in the atmosphere, typically high above
the general level of the ground. A cloud is a mass of
water drops or ice crystals suspended in the
atmosphere. Clouds form when water condenses in the
sky. The condensation lets us see the water vapour.
There are many different types of clouds. Clouds are an
important part of Earth's weather and climate.
Formation: Clouds form from water in the sky. The
water may evaporate from the ground or move from
other areas. Water vapor is always in the sky in some
amount but is invisible. Clouds form when an area of
air becomes cooler until the water vapor
there condenses to liquid form. At that point, the air is
said to be "saturated" with water vapor. The air where
the cloud forms must be cool enough for the water
vapor to condense. The water will condense around
things like dust, ice or sea salt, this is known as
condensation nuclei. The temperature, wind and other
conditions where a cloud form determine what type of
cloud it will be.
The characteristics of Equatorial climate with Tundra climate
a. Equatorial climate is located near the Equator while
the Tundra climate is located near the poles
b.Tundra climate is located around latitudes 60o-90o
north and south of the Equator while the Equatorial
climate is located around latitudes 5o north and south of
the Equator
c. Equatorial climates can be found in the Amazon Basin
of South America, Zaire of Central Africa and the Coasts
of West Africa while the Tundra climate can be found in
the coastal strip of Greenland, Eurasia and Antarctica,
northern Canada and Alaska
d.Equatorial climate has high temperatures all year round
while Tundra has low temperatures all year round.
e. Equatorial mean temperatures are as high as 27oC while
Tundra temperature is as low as -29oC
f. 6. Equatorial climate has higher precipitation of
2000mm and above while the Tundra has low
precipitation of 250mm and below
g. Rainfall occurs throughout the year in Equatorial
climate (no marked dry season) while in Tundra climate
rainfall occurs only in summer
h.Equatorial climatic areas are usually hot and wet
(moist) while Tundra climatic areas are cold and moist
with snow and frost (winter)
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Principlesam Series
i. Equatorial climate experience small annual range of
temperature of about 1o to 3oC while the Tundra has high
annual temperature range of 40oC – 50oC
j. Equatorial climate experiences very little differences
between length of day and night while Tundra
experiences several weeks of continuous night in winter
and several weeks of continuous day in summer
k.Equatorial climate has high humidity throughout the
year while Tundra has low humidity throughout the year
l. Rainfall occurs in Equatorial climatic areas while snow
occurs in the Tundra climatic areas
m. There is high incidence of frost in Tundra while there
is none in Equatorial areas
n.Thunderstorms are experienced in the Equatorial
climatic areas while blizzards are experienced in the
Tundra climatic areas
o. Trade winds are found in the Equatorial climatic areas
while Polar Easterlies are found in Tundra climatic areas
p. Equatorial climatic areas experience unstable
convective clouds while the Tundra climatic areas
experience stable Stratiform clouds
q.Equatorial climate has double maximum rainfall while
Tundra has single maximum rainfall.
r. The rays of the sun are vertical in the Equatorial areas
while they are incline in Tundra regions
Types and Cloud Classification
Understanding the two major varieties of rain cloud
means knowing the basics of how meteorologists
classify clouds. Besides, it been identified as
precipitating nimbus or not, clouds are classified by
their appearance, layered (“stratus”), heaped
(“cumulus”) or a combination thereof and by their
altitude. Low-altitude clouds include stratus,
cumulus, and stratocumulus clouds. Mid-level
clouds are designated with a prefix of “alto-” and
include altocumulus and altostratus clouds. The
highest altitude clouds, which appear wispy and
feathery, are called Cirrus Clouds and include
Cirrocumulus, Cirrostratus and Cirrus Clouds.
Naming Clouds
Cloud types receive names based on their position in
the atmosphere, their overall shape and the weather
with which they are associated. Nimbus, for example,
means "rain-bearing" in Latin, and is added to cloud
names as a prefix or suffix when they produce
precipitation of any kind. Nimbostratus clouds, for

example, are typically thick, low clouds that form a
dense bank and yield steady snow or rain.
1. High Clouds
High clouds form several kilometers up in the sky, with
the exact height depending on the temperatures where
they form. Some of this are explain below;
a. Cirrus clouds: Cirrus clouds are thin and wispy
and often curve with the wind. Cumulus clouds tend to
be big and fluffy. These clouds look kind of like giant
cotton balls or other shapes in the sky. As a middle-
level cloud, this type also can form parallel stripes of
clouds. Stratus clouds form sheets of clouds that cover
the sky.
b. Cirrus: Wispy clouds located high in the
atmosphere are likely cirrus clouds. They are thin and
white with lots of blue sky visible. They can occur in
fair weather or when a warm front or large storm is
approaching.
Features
➢ Height: High
➢ Color: White
➢ Shape: Wispy or feathery
➢ Weather: May mean a warm front is approaching
c. Cirrocumulus: Cirrocumulus clouds are much
smaller than most other types of clouds, and they are
sometimes called cloudlets. They are found at high
altitudes and are made of ice crystals. They are often
arranged in parallel rows. They are one of the rarer
types of clouds and usually do not last long.
Features
➢ Height: High
➢ Color: White or gray
➢ Shape: Rows of small patchy clouds
➢ Weather: Typically, sunny and cold
c. Cirrostratus: These are transparent, wispy clouds
that cover most or all of the sky. The best identifier for
cirrostratus clouds is a halo or ring of light surrounding
the sun or moon.
Features
➢ Height: High
➢ Color: Transparent/white
➢ Shape: Wispy, but thicker than cirrus clouds
➢ Weather: Varies
2. Middle Clouds
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Principlesam Series
Middle-level clouds form between low and high clouds.
a. Altocumulus: Altocumulus clouds are fairly
common clouds that look like round white or gray
patches in the sky. They are sometimes grouped in
parallel lines and have been described as looking
similar to tufts of wool or fish scales.
Features
➢ Height: Mid
➢ Color: White
➢ Shape: Heap-like and often grouped together
➢ Weather: Varies
3. Low Clouds
Low clouds generally form within a kilometer or two
of Earth's surface. In fact, low clouds can even form
touching the ground, when they are called fog.
a) Stratus clouds: Stratus clouds are low to mid-level
clouds that develop into horizontal, flat formations.
Stratus is from the Latin meaning "layer," and stratus
clouds can appear dark and dense or white and puffy.
Storm fronts are often preceded or followed by
stratus cloud formations carrying precipitation as rain
or snow. Because temperatures are warmer closer to
Earth and cooler higher up in the atmosphere, low-
hanging stratus clouds generally bring rain while
higher stratus clouds are associated with snow.
b) Nimbostratus Clouds: Nimbostratus clouds are
low-level, rain clouds that form a uniform layer.
These layers cover the sky, producing overcast
conditions, and uniformly extend in all directions.
They are dark in color and produce steady, prolonged
precipitation. They represent a strengthening and
thickening of a stratus cloud layer. While stratus
clouds are renamed nimbostratus when precipitation
becomes significant, stratus clouds themselves can
produce occasional, light precipitation.
c) Nimbus Clouds: Nimbus is an ancient Latin word
meaning “rain storm.” Rain or nimbus clouds tend to
appear dark gray because their depth and/or density of
large water droplets obscure sunlight. Depending on
temperature, nimbus clouds may precipitate hail or
snow instead of liquid rain.
d) Altostratus clouds: These clouds form a white or
gray layer that blankets the sky at mid-level. There are
usually no patches of blue sky when these clouds
appear, but the sun is often visible as a dimly lit disk
behind the clouds (although no shadows appear on the
ground).

Features
➢ Height: Mid
➢ Color: White or light gray
➢ Shape: Thick and flat
➢ Weather: Usually indicate warmer weather is
approaching; can cause light precipitation.
4. Low clouds with vertical extent
a. Cumulus clouds: Are dense and puffy vertical
cloud formations that extend as high as 15,000 meters
(50,000ft) into the atmosphere. Although cumulus
clouds are common on sunny, fair-weather days, they
earn the moniker of thunderheads because of their
tendency to produce thunderstorms. A cumulus cloud
becomes a cumulonimbus cloud capable of severe
thunderstorms when sufficient heat, updraft and
moisture combine in the cloud to produce lightning,
thunder and heavy rains.
b. Cumulonimbus clouds: Are large, puffy clouds
with strong vertical development. They are formed by
the upward movement of warm, moist air. In their
mature stage, they also produce strong downdrafts of
cold air. Cumulonimbus clouds are considered low-
level clouds, even though their vertical development
may extend high into the atmosphere. Cumulonimbus
clouds carry a mass of unstable air and often produce
unpredictable high winds and downdrafts. These
clouds are capable of generating violent super cell
storms, tornadoes and dangerous wind-shear
conditions
Fig. 46: a) Types of Clouds
Precipitation
This is water released from clouds in the form of rain,
freezing rain, sleet, snow, or hail. It is the primary
connection in the water cycle that provides for the
delivery of atmospheric water to the Earth.
Most precipitation falls as rain. The process of
continuous condensation in free air helps the
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Principlesam Series
condensed particles to grow in size. When the
resistance of the air fails to hold them against the force
of gravity, they fall on to the earth’s surface. So, after
the condensation of water vapour, the release of
moisture is known as precipitation. This may take place
in liquid or solid form. Precipitation in the form of
drops of water is called rainfall, when the drop size is
more than 5mm. It is called Virage when raindrops
evaporate before reaching the earth while passing
through dry air. All clouds are made of moisture, and
regardless of the type of cloud, thousands of tiny
water droplets must condense around microscopic
particles of dust or smoke in order to gain enough
density and fall as precipitation. If atmospheric
temperatures near the Earth's surface are at or below
freezing, this precipitation falls as snow.
Alternatively, a phenomenon known as the Bergeron-
Findeisen process causes ice crystals to actually form
within the cloud itself, which then melt and fall as
rain the closer they get to the Earth's surface.
Types and classifications of precipitation
a) Rain: Rain is the type of precipitation we see most
of the time in the UK; it is water in its liquid state. Rain
can come in lots of sizes, from big, heavy drops to
light, little specs.
b) Drizzle: Drizzle is also water that falls out of the
sky. The difference between rain and drizzle can be
quite tricky to spot, but if you can feel drops, even little
and light ones, this is rain, if you are getting wet, but
cannot feel the drops then that will be drizzle. You
often get rain and drizzle mixed together and the best
way to tell if drizzle is mixed in with the rain is by how
far you can see; if it is not very far, and the rain is not
very heavy, then there will likely be drizzle mixed in
with the rain.
c) Snow: Snow is one of the solid types of
precipitation; this means that it is made of water that
has been frozen. Snow occurs every winter in the UK,
but some parts may not see snow every year.
d) Sleet: Sleet is quite common in winter in the UK; it
is a mix of rain and snow and occurs when it is too
warm for just snow to fall.
e) Hail: Hail is another type of frozen precipitation, but
unlike snow, which is quite soft, hail is hard and icy.

Other types of precipitation
There are other types of precipitation, but these are
quite rare and some need very special conditions to
occur. One of these is diamond dust, which is when
tiny ice crystals form in the sky somewhere very cold;
the name comes from its sparkly appearance.
Monsoonal Rainfall
This type of precipitation is characterized by seasonal
reversal of winds which carry oceanic moisture
(especially the south-west monsoon) with them and
cause extensive rainfall in south and Southeast Asia.
Fig. 46: b) Formation of Monsoon Rainfall
World Distribution of Rainfall
➢ Different places on the earth’s surface receive
different amounts of rainfall in a year and that too in
different seasons. In general, as we proceed from the
equator towards the poles, rainfall goes on decreasing
steadily.
➢ The coastal areas of the world receive greater
amounts of rainfall than the interior of the continents.
The rainfall is more over the oceans than on the
landmasses of the world because of being great sources
of water.
➢ Between the latitudes 35° and 40° N and S of the
equator, the rain is heavier on the eastern coasts and
goes on decreasing towards the west. But, between 45°
and 65° N and S of equator, due to the westerlies, the
rainfall is first received on the western margins of the
continents and it goes on decreasing towards the east.
➢ Wherever mountains run parallel to the coast, the
rain is greater on the coastal plain, on the windward
side and it decreases towards the leeward side.
➢ On the basis of the total amount of annual
precipitation, major precipitation regimes of the world
are identified as follows.
➢ The equatorial belt, the windward slopes of the
mountains along the western coasts in the cool
temperate zone and the coastal areas of the monsoon
land receive heavy rainfall of over 200 cm per annum.
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Principlesam Series
➢ Interior continental areas receive moderate rainfall
varying from 100 – 200 cm per annum. The coastal
areas of the continents receive moderate amount of
rainfall.
➢ The central parts of the tropical land and the eastern
and interior parts of the temperate lands receive rainfall
varying between 50 – 100 cm per annum
➢ Areas lying in the rain shadow zone of the interior
of the continents and high latitudes receive very low
rainfall – less than 50 cm per annum.
➢ Seasonal distribution of rainfall provides an
important aspect to judge its effectiveness. In some
regions rainfall is distributed evenly throughout the
year such as in the equatorial belt and in the western
parts of cool temperate regions.
Fig. 47: World Distribution of Rainfall
Types of Rainfall
On the basis of origin, rainfall may be classified into
three main types; the convectional, orographic or
relief and the cyclonic or frontal.
a) Conventional Rainfall
➢ The, air on being heated, becomes light and rises up
in convection currents. As it rises, it expands and loses
heat and consequently, condensation takes place and
cumulus clouds are formed. This process releases latent
heat of condensation which further heats the air and
forces the air to go further up.
➢ Convectional precipitation is heavy but of short
duration, highly localised and is associated with
minimum amount of cloudiness. It occurs mainly
during summer and is common over equatorial
doldrums in the Congo basin, the Amazon basin and
the islands of south-east Asia.
➢ Adiabatic Lapse Rate – Latent Heat of
Condensation
 Principlesam Series
c) Frontal or Cyclonic Rainfall/ Precipitation
When two air masses with different temperatures meet,
turbulent conditions are produced. Along the front
convection occurs and causes precipitation (we studied
this in Fronts). For instance, in north-west Europe, cold
continental air and warm oceanic air converge to
produce heavy rainfall in adjacent areas. Fronts –
Frontogenesis – Stationary Front, Cold Front, Warm
Front, Occluded Front
Fig. 48: Formation of Convectional Rainfall or Precipitation

b) Orographic or Relief Rainfall

➢ When the saturated air mass comes across a
mountain, it is forced to ascend and as it rises, it
expands (because of fall in pressure); the temperature
falls, and the moisture is condensed.
➢ This type of precipitation occurs when warm, humid
air strikes an orographic barrier (a mountain range) Fig. 50: formation of Frontal or Cyclonic Rainfall/ Precipitation
head on. Because of the initial momentum, the air is
forced to rise. As the moisture laden air gains height, Cyclonic Rain
condensation sets in, and soon saturation is reached. ➢ Cyclonic Rainfall is convectional rainfall on a large
The surplus moisture falls down as orographic scale.
precipitation along the windward slopes. ➢ The precipitation in a tropical cyclone is of
➢ The chief characteristic of this sort of rain is that convectional type while that in a temperate cyclone is
the windward slopes receive greater rainfall. After because of frontal activity.
giving rain on the windward side, when these winds
reach the other slope, they descend, and their
temperature rises. Then their capacity to take in
moisture increases and hence, these leeward
slopes remain rainless and dry. The area situated on the
leeward side, which gets less rainfall is known as
the rain-shadow area (Some arid and semi-arid regions
are a direct consequence of rain-shadow effect.
Example, Patagonian Desert in Argentina, Eastern
slopes of Western Ghats). It is also known as the relief
rain. Fig. 51: Formation of Cyclonic Rain
➢ Example: Mahabaleshwar, situated on the Western
Ghats, receives more than 600 cm of rainfall, whereas Air masses
Pune, lying in the rain shadow area, has only about 70 Are huge body of air that has similar temperature,
cm. The Wind Descending on the Leeward Side is humidity, and air pressure throughout? A single air
heated idiomatically and is called Katabatic mass may spread over an area of millions of square
kilometers and be up to 10 kilometers high.

Classification of air masses

Scientists classify air masses according to two
characteristics:
i. Temperature
ii. humidity
Fig. 49: Formation of Orographic or Relief Rainfall/ Precipitation
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 Principlesam Series
i. Temperature: Whether an air mass is warm or cold
depends on the temperature of the region over which
the air mass forms.

Classification based on temperature

a) Tropical Air Mass: Tropical, or warm air masses
form in the tropics. They have low air pressure.
The tropical areas are; Regions of the Earth that lie
roughly in the middle of the globe. The tropics are
Fig. 53: The Northern America Air Mass
between the latitude lines of the Tropic of Cancer and
the Tropic of Capricorn. The tropics are warm all year,
i. Maritime Tropical
averaging 77-82 degrees Fahrenheit. ➢ They form over the ocean.
b) Polar Air Mass: Polar, or cold, air masses form ➢ They are warm and wet.
near the poles. They have high air pressure.
➢ They influence weather in the central and eastern
The Polar Regions are; the ice-covered areas around United States and also along the West Coast.
the far south and north ends of the globe, the North and ➢ In the summer they bring hot, humid weather. In
South Pole. The continental regions of Arctic and winter, a humid air mass can bring heavy rain or snow.
Antarctica settle in these two polar coordinates
ii. Maritime Polar
respectively. The weather is very cold, far below
➢ They form over the ocean.
freezing temperatures, all year around. ➢ They are cool and wet.
➢ Affect the West Coast more than the East Coast.
ii. Humidity: Whether an air mass is humid or dry ➢ In the summer these masses bring fog, rain, and cool
depends on whether it forms over water or land.
temperatures to the west coast.
Classification based on humidity
iii. Continental Tropical
➢ They form over land.
➢ They are hot and dry.
➢ Form only in summer over dry areas of the
Fig. 52: Classification based on humidity Southwest and Northern Mexico.
➢ Cover a smaller area.
Humidity classification ➢ Occasionally they move North East bringing hot,
a) Maritime Air Mass: Maritime air masses form over dry weather to the Southern Great Plains.
oceans. Water evaporates from the oceans which iv. Continental Polar
causes the air to become very humid. ➢ They form over land, central and northern Canada
b) Continental Air Mass: Continental air masses form and Alaska.
over land, in the middle of continents. They are very ➢ They bring cool or cold air.
dry. ➢ In winter, they bring clear, cold, dry air to much of
North America.
The major types of air masses of the Northern America
Four major types of air masses influence the weather in Fronts: Fronts are the area where air masses meet and
North America: do not mix. When air masses of different temperatures
i. Maritime Tropical (mT) and densities collide, the collision causes storms and
ii. Maritime Polar (mP) changeable weather.
iii. Continental Tropical (cT) Fronts are boundaries between unlike air boundaries
iv. Continental Polar (cP) between unlike air masses.

92

General characteristics of Fronts
➢ The temperature contrast influences the thickness of
frontal zone in an inversely proportional manner, i.e.,
two air masses with higher temperature difference do
not merge readily. So, the front formed is less thick.
➢ With a sudden change in temperature through a
front, there is a change in pressure also.
➢ Front experiences wind shift, since the wind motion
is a function of pressure gradient and Coriolis force.
➢ Wind Shift: A change in wind direction of 45
degrees or more in less than 15 minutes with sustained
wind speeds of 10 knots or more throughout the wind
shift.
➢ 1 knot = 1.852 kmph
➢ 1 Nautical Mile = 1.852 km
➢ The frontal activity is invariably associated
with cloudiness and precipitation because of ascent of
warm air which cools down adiabatically, condenses
and causes rainfall. Adiabatic Lapse Rate – Latent Heat
of Condensation
➢ The intensity of precipitation depends on the slope
of ascent and amount of water vapour present in
ascending air.
Types of fronts
There are 4 types of fronts. They are;
i. Cold fronts
ii. Warm fronts
iii. Stationary fronts
iv. Occluded fronts
The kind of front that develops depends on the
characteristics of the air masses and how they are
moving.
i. Cold Fronts: A cold front form when cold air moves
underneath warm air, forcing the warm air to rise.
Cold fronts move quickly, so they can cause abrupt
weather changes, including violent thunderstorms.
Fig. 54: Cold Fronts
Weather along a cold front
➢ The weather along such a front depends on a narrow
band of cloudiness and precipitation.
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➢ Severe storms can occur. During the summer
months thunderstorms are common in warm sector.
➢ In some regions like USA tornadoes occur in warm
sector.
➢ Produce sharper changes in weather. Temperatures
can drop more than 15 degrees within the first hour.
ii. Warm Fronts: A warm front forms when warm
air moves over cold air. The warm air mass is moving
faster than the cold air mass. Clouds, storms, and rain
accompany warm fronts.
Fig. 55: Warm Fronts
Weather along a warm front
➢ As the warm air moves up the slope, it condenses
and causes precipitation but, unlike a cold front, the
temperature and wind direction changes are gradual.
➢ Such fronts cause moderate to gentle
precipitation over a large area, over several hours.
➢ The passage of warm front is marked by rise in
temperature, pressure and change in weather.
Clouds along a warm front
➢ With the approach, the hierarchy of clouds is cirrus,
stratus and nimbus. [No cumulonimbus clouds as the
gradient is gentle]
➢ Cirrostratus clouds ahead of the warm front create a
halo around sun and moon.
iii. Stationary Fronts: When two air masses meet but
neither one has enough force to move the other, could
bring many days of clouds and precipitation.
Fig. 56: Stationary front
iv. Occluded Fronts: When a cold air mass and a cool
air mass come together, the warm air caught between
them is forced upward. The two cooler air masses may
mix while the warm air mass is cut off, or occluded,
from the ground.

Fig. 57: Occluded Front
Weather along an occluded front
➢ Weather along an occluded front is complex-
a mixture of cold front type and warm front type
weather. Such fronts are common in west Europe.
➢ The formation Mid-latitude cyclones (temperate
cyclones or extra-tropical cyclones) involve the
formation of occluded front.
Clouds along an occluded front
➢ A combination of clouds formed at cold front and
warm front.
➢ Warm front clouds and cold front clouds are on
opposite side of the occlusion.
Cyclones and Anticyclones
Cyclones: A swirling center of low air pressure is
called a cyclone. On a weather map they are marked
with an L, for low pressure. Winds spiral inward
toward the center of the system (earth). Cyclones
impact weather in the United States. Cyclones and
decreasing air pressure are associated with storms and
precipitation.
Fig. 58: Cyclones
Anticyclones: High-pressure centers of dry air. On a
weather map they are marked with an H, for high
pressure. Winds spin clockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere which causes dry, clear weather.
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Fig. 59: Anticyclones
Effects of tropical cyclones
i. The effects on land: The effects of tropical cyclones
on the land include heavy rain, strong wind, large
storm surges near landfall, and tornadoes. The
destruction from a tropical cyclone, such as a hurricane
or tropical storm, depends mainly on its intensity, its
size, and its location. Tropical cyclones remove forest
canopy as well as change the landscape near coastal
areas, by moving and reshaping sand dunes and
causing extensive erosion along the coast. Even well
inland, heavy rainfall can lead to landslides in
mountainous areas. Their effects can be sensed over
time by studying the concentration of the Oxygen-18
isotope within caves.
ii. Environment: After the cyclone has passed,
devastation often continues. Fallen trees can block
roads and delay rescues, with medical supplies, or slow
the repairs to electrical lines, telephone towers or water
pipes, which could put other lives at risk for days or
months. Stagnant water can cause the spread of
disease, and transportation or communication
infrastructure may have been destroyed, hampering
clean-up and rescue efforts.
iii. On the Sea: Out at sea, ships take advantage of
their known characteristics by navigating through their
weaker, western half. Hazards are often characterized
as primary, secondary or tertiary. A primary hazard
involves destructive winds, debris and storm surge.
Secondary hazards include flooding and fires. Tertiary
hazards include spikes in prices of food and other
necessities, as well as long term hazards like water-
borne diseases.
iv. Tornadoes: The broad rotation of a land-falling
tropical cyclone often spawns tornadoes, particularly in
their right front quadrant. While these tornadoes are
normally not as strong as their non-tropical
counterparts, heavy damage or loss of life can still
occur. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of
eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.

Acid Rains
Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that
includes any form of precipitation with acidic
components, such as sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to
the ground from the atmosphere in wet or dry forms.
This can include rain, snow, fog, hail or even dust that
is acidic. Examples of man-made sources are bush fires
and burning of fossil fuels, especially vehicles, power
by manufacturing industries. These pollutants dissolve
in clouds and come down as acid stations and rain.
Strong winds can transport the pollutants for
considerable distances and the acid rain may occur
100s of kilometres from the source.
Causes acid rain
The major sources of SO2 and NOX in the atmosphere
which causes acid rains are:
➢ Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity. Two
thirds of SO2 and one fourth of NOX in the atmosphere
come from electric power generators.
➢ Vehicles and heavy equipment.
➢ Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.
Forms of acid deposition
a) Wet deposition: Wet deposition is what we most
commonly think of as acid rain. The sulfuric and nitric
acids formed in the atmosphere fall to the ground
mixed with rain, snow, fog, or hail.
b) Dry deposition: Acidic particles and gases can also
deposit from the atmosphere in the absence of moisture
as dry deposition. The acidic particles and gases may
deposit to surfaces (water bodies, vegetation,
buildings) quickly or may react during atmospheric
transport to form larger particles that can be harmful to
human health.
Effects of acid rain
1. Deforestation and low crop yield: Acid rain makes
the soil acidic and thus changes the soil chemistry. This
causes plants to die and can lead to shortage of food
crops.
2. Diseases: It can cause bronchitis and lung cancer in
human beings. These result from the concentration of
aluminums in drinking water.
3. Destroying monuments: It defaces buildings and
statues. It also corrodes metals buildings and shapes.
4. Water pollution: When acid rain is washed into
streams and lakes, it increases the level of water
acidity. This destroys aquatic life.
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Principlesam Series
5. Stunted growth in plants: The pollutants may
accumulate on plant leaves and inhibit photosynthesis.
This will not allow plants to grow.
World vegetation types
Vegetation may be defined as the patchwork of plant
species arrayed across the landscape. It includes a
variety of life forms such as trees, shrubs, grasses,
forbs, and non-vascular plants like mosses. Thus,
vegetation consists of physical life forms and the
species of plants that make up those life forms.
Factors that affect natural vegetation of a place are;
1. Land or topography: Land affects the growth of
natural vegetation as different kinds of vegetation grow
on mountains, plateaus, plains and in deserts. For
example, a variety of grasslands and woodlands
develop on mountains and uneven terrains.
2. Soil or Edaphic factor: Soil determines the growth
of different types of vegetation. While mangrove
forests grow on wet and marshy deltaic soils, cactus
and thorny bushes grow on sandy soils.
3. Temperature: Temperature affects the growth of
natural vegetation. Temperature affects humidity,
precipitation and the type of soil. We find the growth
of conical-shaped trees at higher altitudes. At much
higher altitudes, the vegetation becomes scarce because
of extremely cold conditions.
4. Photoperiod or climatic factor: Photoperiod refers
to the period of sunlight which an object or a tree
receives. Sunlight varies at different places at different
latitudes, different altitudes and in different seasons.
Trees grow faster in summer because of the longer
duration of sunlight.
5. Precipitation: Precipitation affects the growth of
natural vegetation. Areas receiving high rainfall, such
as the equatorial regions, experience rich growth of
vegetation. Vegetation cover is sparse in regions such
as hot and cold deserts which receive less than 25 cm
of rainfall.
Vegetation classification
This is the process of classifying and mapping the
vegetation over an area of the earth's surface.
Vegetation classification is often performed by state-
based agencies as part of land use, resource and
environmental management. Many different methods
of vegetation classification have been used. In general,
there has been a shift from structural classification used

by forestry for the mapping of timber resources, to
floristic community mapping for biodiversity
management. Whereas older forestry-based schemes
considered factors such as height, species and density
of the woody canopy, floristic community mapping
shifts the emphasis onto ecological factors such as
climate, soil type and floristic associations.
Classification mapping is usually now done using
Geographic Information System (GIS).
Types of world vegetation
1. Forest vegetation types
Forests include the rainforest, mangrove forest,
monsoon forest, Mediterranean forest and coniferous or
temperate forest.
a) Tropical Rainforest (climatic factors favouring
its Growth)
i) The vegetation is favoured by the equatorial climate.
ii) high temperature of about 27° C with low annual
range of 2°-3°C. This ensures fast growing of plants.
iii) Rainfall is double maxima type. The first one falls
from March to July with a little break in August and
the second one falls from September to November.
iv) High rainfall of about 1,50Omm to 2,000mm a
year. This is Convectional which is associated with
thunder and lightning.
v) Rainfall is distributed throughout the year. That is,
there is no month without rains, even though there is a
short break in August.
vi) The heavy rainfall and high temperature make trees
evergreen
vii) High relative humidity. It is above 80% in most of
the months.
viii) Abundant sunshine. This promotes continuous
flowering of plants. High sunshine also causes trees to
be straight as they struggle for it.
x) High temperature and constant rainfall encourage
the growth of saprophytes, ferns and herbaceous plants.
Xi) Heavy rainfall and high temperature promote the
growth of trees with rainfall and high buttress roots.
xiii) Availability of water in the soil makes most trees
develop shallow roots.
Types of plants or biome plants groups
The rainforest contains a wide variety of tropical trees.
These include iroko (odum), obeche (wawa),
mahogany, emire, sapele and limba. The trees are not
in pure stands. This means it is difficult to find a type
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of tree, say odum, growing together. There are also
parasites as well as creeping and climbing plants.
Economic Importance of the Rainforest Vegetation
i) Promotion of tourism: The plant and animal species
attract many tourists. Parks have been reserved in some
places as tourist sites. Examples are Bobiri Forest and
Bunsu Forest Reserves in Ghana.
ii) Hunting: The wildlife such as tiger lions, deer etc.
are hunted for their meat and skin.
iii) Supply of hardwood: The odum, mahogany and
wawa are used for building and construction. Some are
exported to earn foreign exchange.
4. Source of fuel: Some of the trees are cut as
firewood or for charcoal. The by-products of timber are
also used for the same purpose
5. Cultivation of food and cash crops: Food crops
like plantain and cocoyam as well as cash crop such as
cocoa and cattle are cultivated in the rainforest zones.
6. Provision of jobs: Forest guards farmers and
hunters earn revenue from the forest
7. Habitat for animals: The rainforest is the home of
lions, tigers elephants, monkeys etc.
b) Temperate deciduous forests are home to trees
such as oak, birch, beech, aspen, elm and maple.
These tall trees form the forest canopy. Taller trees that
stick up above the canopy are part of the emergent
layer. Temperate deciduous or temperate broad-leaf
forests are a variety of temperate forest 'dominated' by
trees that lose their leaves each year. They are found in
areas with warm moist summers and cool winters.
Examples of typical trees in the Northern
Hemisphere's deciduous forests include oak, maple,
basswood, beech and elm, while in the Southern
Hemisphere; trees of the genus Nothofagus dominate
this type of forest.
Characteristics of the temperate deciduous forest
Temperate forests are characterized as regions
with high levels of precipitation, humidity, and a
variety of deciduous trees. Deciduous trees are trees
that lose their leaves in winter. Decreasing
temperatures and shortened daylight hours in fall mean
decreased photosynthesis for plants.
c) Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub are
a biome defined by the World-Wide Fund for
Nature. The biome is generally characterized by dry

summers and rainy winters, although in some areas
rainfall may be uniform. Summers are typically hot in
low-lying inland locations but can be cool near colder
seas. Winters are typically mild to cool in low-lying
locations but can be cold in inland and higher
locations. All these ecoregions are highly distinctive,
collectively harbour ing 10% of the Earth's plant
species.
Characteristics of Mediterranean forests
➢ The forest consists of many species of pine, oak and
cedar.
➢ Contain both thick shrubs and long grasses.
➢ Trees are fully grown with broad leaves.
➢ Forest ecosystem is specific and defined by
Mediterranean climate which is sometimes hot and dry,
cold and wet and sometimes brutal rainfall.
d) Cool Temperate Forests: Cool temperate forests
are of two major types. These are
(i) Mediterranean forest and
(ii) Temperate coniferous forest
(i)Mediterranean Forest (Climatic conditions
favouring Mediterranean forest)
i) Hot Summer with temperature ranging from 21°C to
27°C
ii) Dry summers.
iii) Presence of mild winters of 10°C
iv) Abundant rainfall in winter with mean annual of
600mm to 800mm.
v) Abundant sunshine in summer. This ensures flowing
and drying of seeds.
vi) Prevalence of cool mistral wind
Vii) Occurrence of dry, dusty warm Wind blowing
over the area in Summer which brings little rain after
crossing the Mediterranean
Plant Communities or Biome plants groups
1. There is evergreen woodland or plants like redwood,
wild olive and oak.
2. There are also evergreen coniferous trees (Softwood)
like lir, pines and cedars.
3. Presence of Mediterranean bushes and shrubs. These
include laurel, acacia, rosemary and marquis.
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Economic importance of the vegetation
1. Orchard farming: Fruits like lemon, grapes and
apricots are cultivated in the Mediterranean region.
2. Production of wine: High quality wine is made
from grapes.
3. Production of cork: Cork which is used in corking
wines is made from oak cork.
4. Wood for building and construction:
Mediterranean woodland is cut for building and
construction purposes.
5. Hunting: The wildlife types of the Mediterranean
forest are hunted for their meat and skin.
(ii) Temperate Coniferous Forest (climatic factors
favouring its growth)
1. Cool short summer with moderate rainfall
2. Presence of cold winter with precipitation in the
form of snow.
3. High annual range of temperature, about 10°C--
20°C.
4. Annual rainfalls of about 500mm, which is the
convectional type. This is accompanied by thunder and
lightning.
Plant Communities or Biome plants groups
There are coniferous softwoods such as for, larch.
spruce, pine and cedars. There are also hardwoods like
birch and beech. Most trees are conical in shape with
flexible trunks and branches.
Importance of the Coniferous Forest
1. Hunting: Animals in the forest such as beaver,
muskrat, mint. ermine and silver fox are hunted or
trapped for their meat or fur.
2. Source of fuel: The trees are cut as fuel wood.
3 Source of timber: The hardwoods like birch and
beech are cut as timber. Excellent plywood and veneer
are made from coniferous trees
4. Paper and pulp industry: The softwood like fir and
pine are used for making paper.
5. Raw material for industries: Coniferous Forest
provides wood for making matches, furniture etc.
6. Making of other products: Rayon turpentine,
varnishes, dyes, paints cosmetics and disinfectants are
obtained from the by-product of the soft and the
hardwoods of the area.
7. Tourism: The forest and the wildlife provide
impressive scenery which attracts many tourists
 Principlesam Series
3. Savannah or Grassland Vegetation 5. Tourist site: Many game reserves are found in
Grassland vegetation is of two major types. These are; Savannah and which attract tourists.
(a) Tropical continental or savanna and b) Temperate Grassland (Climatic Factors that
(b) Temperate grassland. Promote the Growth of Temperate Grassland)
i) The vegetation is associated with temperate
a) Tropical Grassland or Savanna (Climatic factors continental climate.
of the Vegetation) ii) Presence of hot Summer with temperature of 21°C
i) Extremes of temperature, ranging from 21°C to 27°C or more.
ii) Large annual temperature range of about 1 1°C. iii) Presence of cold winter temperature below 0°C
iii) Presence of high monthly temperature of 27° C iv) Annual rainfall of about 508mm, falling mainly in
iv) Annual rainfall of 600mm to 1,500mnm. summer.
v) Presence of seasonal rainfall which is single v) Single maximum type of rainfall.
maximum. vi) Convectional type of rainfall which is light or falls
vi) Convectional type of rainfall. in showers but can last for hours. It is associated with
vii) High humidity during rainy season (above 60%) thunder and lightning.
which reduces (to 40%) during dry season.
Plant Communities or Biome plant groups
Plant Communities or Biome plants groups The major plants are grasses. These are given different
The dominant vegetation is grass. This is given names in different areas where they are found. Some of
different names in different locations or instance, it is them are:
called savannah in Africa and Australia, campos in i) the steppe in central Europe and Russia,
Brazil and llanos in Orinoco valley. There are also ii) the prairies in North America,
trees and these include acacia, baobab, shea butter and iii) the downs of Australia,
silk cotton. These are scattered in the grass and most of iv) the pampas of Argentina, and
them are short. v) the veldt of South Africa.
Economic importance
1. Local craft making: The grass is used for making Economic importance
bags, hats and mats. 1. Pastoral farming: Presence of luxuriant grasses
2. Livestock rearing: Presence of grass and low tsetse encourages rearing of cattle, sheep and goats.
fly infestation encourage rearing of cattle, sheep and 2. Nomadic herding: The local people take their
goats. They practice nomadic and transhumance animals from place to place in search of pasture and
methods of farming. transhumance water.
3. Crop farming: The savannah zones encourage 3. Modern farming: The people use mechanized
cultivation of cereals such as maize. millet and farming, irrigation and fertilizers to produce cereals
sorghum. The farmers also grow cash crops like like wheat, oats and barley.
groundnuts and cotton. Shea butter and dawadawa trees 4. Tourism: The grassland is an important tourist
also grow wild in savanna areas. attraction.
4. Hunting: The local people are involved in the 5. Game reserves: The savannah is used for wildlife
hunting of wildlife for their meat and skin. reserves which also attract tourists.
Table 16: World climate and vegetation zones
Zone Climate Location Description Natural Vegetation Major Climatic Some Places it
Type Usage Occurs
Tropical Rainy 0º to 8º latitudes; Always hot and Rain forest or selva; Rubber, bananas, Amazon Basin;
Tropical or also up to 25º rainy; some months some jungle growth in cacao, rice, Congo Basin;
Tropical latitude on less rainy than others; clearings. tropical woods. Indonesia
Rain Forest windward sides of humidity great.
(AF) mountains (Trade
Winds)
Tropical Monsoon 8º to 12º latitudes; Always warm to hot; Tropical savanna (tall Millet (dry season Llanos of
Tropical also, along tropical longer rainy season; grass, up to 15 ft.); trees crop); Rice (rainy Venezuela; Pacific
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(Am) coasts. shorter dry season. along rivers. season crop) coast of southern
Mexico
Tropical Semiarid 12º to 18º latitudes; Longer dry season; Tropical steppe (or Millet; sorghum; Yucatan peninsula
Tropical mostly in the Trade shorter wet season; short grass savannas, 1 grazing and of Mexico; Deccan
(Aw) Wind Belt. days warm to hot; to 2 ft. high); few trees. nomadic herding of south-central
dry-season nights India
cooler.
Tropical Arid 18º to 30º latitudes; Dry: Rainfall light, Desert scrub Grazing; nomadic Atacama Desert,
Tropical Trade Wind and but sporadic; hot heading; Peru; Sahara
(Bwh) Horse Latitudes days, cooler nights. irrigation, date Desert
Belts. palms
Subtropical Mediterrane 30º to 36º latitudes; Mild, moist winters; Sclerophyl; Vegetation Olives, grapes, Los Angeles
an west continental hot, dry summers. with deep roots, heavy figs, barley & Basin, CA; Middle
Subtropical margins. Winter rainfall, light; bark, leathery leaves. wheat as winter Chile;
(Cs) summer nights cool. crops. Summer Mediterranean
with irrigation. Europe
Subtropical Humid 30º to 36º latitudes; Mild winters & hot Live oak, gum, Cotton & Cotton Belt of the
Subtropical east sides of summers; rainfall magnolia, yellow pine, tobacco; some US; South Korea;
(Cfa-Cwa) continents. well-distributed cypress, holly rice and sugar Central China
throughout the year. cane.
Subtropical Dry 30º to 35º latitudes; Mild winters and hot Desert scrub Grazing & Plateaus of SW
Subtropica continental interiors summers; rainfall nomadic herding US; Veldt, South
(Bwh)l light, but sporadic. & irrigated Africa
agriculture
Cyclonic Humid 36º to 45º latitudes; 4 seasons; rainfall Hardwood (oak, ash, Grain (wheat & US central
Continental east sides of well-distributed; long maple, hickory); some corn) & livestock lowland; north
– long continents summers & short, prairie China; the Ukraine
summer mild winters
(Dfa)
Zone Climate Location Description Natural Vegetation Major Climatic Some places it
Type Usage occurs
Cyclonic Humid 45º to 55º latitudes; 4 seasons; rainfall Hardwood & evergreen Dairying; hay & St. Lawrence
Continental east sides of and snowfall well- (pine, fir, spruce). small grains; Valley; Baltic
– short continents. distributed. Medium lumbering Plain; Manchuria
summer summers; colder
(Dfb-Dwb) winters.
Cyclonic Dry 36º to 53º latitudes; Hot summers; COLD Short grasses; dwarfed Grazing; irrigated Great Basin of US;
Continental continental interiors winters; rainfall light trees; desert scrub agriculture Mongolia;
(Bwk) and sporadic Argentine
Patagonia
Cyclonic Temperate 36º to 65º latitudes; Always mild & Forest (mixed); heather, Dairying; US Northwest
Marine western margins of moist; exposed to shrubs, grasses lumbering coast; British Isles;
(Marine continents westerly winds New Zealand
West Coast)
(Cfb)
Polar Polar 55º to 65º latitudes; Generally, 2 seasons Taiga (evergreen forest) Lumbering;
Continental East margins & (change is rapid); – spruce, larch, fir, trapping; & fur-
(Dc, Dd) continental interiors long cold winters; tamarack, farming (raising)
short, warm summers “whitewoods”
Polar Polar Above 65º latitude; Long, cold winters Tundra – scrub, mosses, Hunting; Aleutian chain and
Marine (ET) on Arctic & (not as cold as Polar lichens. trapping; fishing. Arctic lowlands of
Antarctic shores Continental) with Alaska; Russian
exposed to the much darkness. Siberian tundra
Polar Easterlies Short, chilly
summers (caused by
the winds)
Polar Polar (Ice- In the interiors of Always cold; no NONE NONE Greenland &
Cap) (EF) polar lands summers; Antarctica
precipitation light as
snow or sleet

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Mountains Unclassified High mountains Altitudinal zonation Varies with altitude Varies with Andes
(H) altitude
Assignment 12 b) The temperatures on top of mountain are 200C.
1.a) Contrast the characteristics of Equatorial climate What will be the height of the mountain if
with Tundra climate. temperatures are the foot of the mountain is 40.80C?
b) State the vegetation type of the climate types in (a) 7. a) With the aid of a well label diagram, describe the
above. rain gauge as an instrument of weather
b) Describe how rain gauge is used to obtain total
2. a) Define the following
annual rainfall
i.acid rain
c) State four precautions when using the rain gauge
ii.acid deposition
iii.precipitation
8. a) With the aid of diagram, describe the three main
iv.clouds
types rainfalls
b) Discuss the major types of acid deposition
c) Describe the types of clouds of the world realm
b) Describe the three Greek climate classification
d) State three (3) factors that affects cloud and c) Highlight three advantage and disadvantages of the
precipitation distribution Greek climate classification
e) In what three ways can acid rain be destructive to the
environment under the following headings; 9. a) What is air mass?
i. causes b) Classify and describe the world air masses
ii. effects according to the following
iii. solution i. temperature
ii. humidity
3. a) Outline four factors that affects climate of a place
b) State how each of the following the climate of a place 10. a) What is heat transfer?
i. ocean current b) What are three modes of heat transfer?
ii. wind; and c) Explain how each of the modes work in our daily
iii. distance from the sea lives.

4. a) Mention four elements of weather and state the 11. a) Write an explanatory note on the causes, effects
instrument and unit of measurement used to measure and solutions of global warming or greenhouse effects.
each of them.
b) Define the term atmosphere and write the
b) Explain how two of the instruments listed in (4a)
composition of the atmosphere
above are used to collect climatic data.

5. a) Differentiate between weather and climate

b) What factors affects the insolation of a place
c) Highlight five effects of climate on the lives and
activities of people at different places
d) Outline four areas where insolation is applicable

6. a) If the temperature at the foot of a mountain is

790C, what will be the temperature at its summit
(top) if the mountain is 5000m high?

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 Principlesam Series
CHAPTER ELEVEN
EARTH INTERNAL (ENDOGENIC) AND EXTERNAL (EXOGENIC) PROCESSES AND LANDFORMS
Earthquakes and Volcanic Activities Types of Earthquakes
Earthquake: An earthquake is the shaking of the 1. Primary waves: This involves back and forth
surface of the ground that is caused by the passage of vibrations in the rock. They travel faster than the other
energy in the form of waves through the rocks of the waves. It travels through solid, liquid and gas.
earth’s outer shell. Earthquake is measured with an 2. Secondary waves: They result from up and down
instrument called Seismograph or Seismometer. motions of the rock. They pass through solids but not
The size of an earthquake is indicated by a number through liquid and gas.
called magnitude whiles the Richter scale is used to 3. Love or surface waves: It causes the surface of the
measure the magnitude of the earthquake. land to move in much, the same way as ripples move
The magnitude is determined from the measurement on water.
made from the seismograph. This instrument is used to Types of shockwaves
measure the intensity of the vibration of the There are two (2) types of shockwaves or earthquakes.
earthquake. These are;
The intensity of an earthquake is termed as a measure 1. Body waves
of the amount of ground shaking at a particular site and 2. Surface waves
reports of human reaction to shaking, damage is done 1. Body Waves: These waves travel through the crust
to structures, and other effects. An earthquake with and are of two types:
very low intensity is called “Tremor or Earth i. Primary waves: These cause the crustal rocks to
Tremors”. move backward and forward in the direction of the
Again, lines drawn on maps through places suffering wave movement.
from equal degrees of damage to depict the successive ii. Secondary waves: These cause the crustal rocks to
degrees of intensity are called an “Isoseimal”. move from side to side, that is, at right angles to the
The point at which the shock originates is called the direction of wave movement.
origin or focus and the point on the earth’s surface
directly above the focus or where the shock waves first 2. Surface Waves
hit the surface is known epicenter (fig. 35). These travel through the surface rocks. They are of two
Earthquakes could be disastrous, especially in densely types;
populated areas. For instance, tsunamis which are i. Love waves: These cause the surface rocks to move
gigantic tidal waves caused by earthquake have from side to side, at right angles to the direction of
drowned thousands of people, ignited uncontrollable wave movement.
fire from gas mains and made several buildings to ii. Rayleigh waves: These cause the surface rocks to
collapse. In severe earthquakes, fissure gape opens; have a vertical circular movement.
the ground writhes and undulate the passage of the
surface waves. Table 13: The frequency of occurrence of Earthquakes
Descriptor Magnitude Annual
Average
Great 8 and higher 11
Major 7- 7.9 172
Strong 6- 6.9 1342
Moderate 5-5.9 13192
Light 4- 4.9 13,000
Minor 3- 3.9 130,000
Very Minor 2- 2.9 1,300,000

Fig. 60: Passage of Earthquake waves through the Earth crust

101

The United States Geological Survey (USGS)
estimates that several million earthquakes occur in the
world each year.
Causes of Earthquakes
1. Faulting: When tension and compressional forces
act or work within the earth’s crust, they may cause
fault planes. Thus, when the crust fault it sets
vibrations, which run from the origin to the surface
hence causes an earthquake.
2. Plate collision: Again, an earthquake can occur
when two tectonic plates move or comes against or
towards each other since they have jagged rock face,
they may lock up temporary. The separation of these
two rocks or plates produces shocks waves during their
collision hence causes an earthquake. Earthquakes
come about when two tectonic plates move towards
each other. During their colliding, one subduct into the
mantle while the other plates override the subducting
one. As it tries to advance across the subducting plate,
the overriding plate faults as a result of friction. This
causes vibrations within the earth as earthquake.
Earthquakes are most common along the margins of
tectonic plates where compression and tension in the
crust are very greater.
3. The action of volcanicity: Explosive volcanic
activity may also trigger shock waves, which cause
earthquake.
Most recent earthquakes are in;
1. The Mediterranean region stretching through Asiatic
belt. This includes Spain, Greece and Italy.
2. The earthquake around Northwest India and the
Himalayas.
3. West Indies
4. Ciream Pacific Belt also called the Pacific Ring of
Fire (Pacific Ocean). The great earthquake regions
within these areas are Peru, Chile Alaska, Japan,
California and the Philippines. Earthquakes also occur
on the floor of the ocean. These earthquakes often
produce giant Sea wave called tsunamis.
Factors that account for structural damage by
earthquakes
Earthquakes may cause widespread destruction to life,
building structures, topography, environment and its
surroundings. The amount of structural damage
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Principlesam Series
attributable to the vibration depends on several factors
such as the following;
1. The intensity and duration of the vibration
2. The nature of the material upon which the structure
rests.
3. The design of the structure.
Effects of Earthquakes at its distribution
1. Destruction of infrastructural facilities: During
earthquakes infrastructural facilities such as bridges,
railway lines collapses and destruction to port facilities
also can cause tsunamis. Example in January, 2001 the
Earthquake that rocked Guatemala had TV, radio,
electrical and mobile phone services across the country
knocked down.
2. Effects on topography: Earthquakes can displace
parts of the earth’s crust vertically or horizontally,
again it may cause landslides. The landslides and
ground subsidence triggered by the vibration cause
great damage to structures. Example in 1964, the
Alaskan earthquake was not ground vibration directly,
but the landslides and ground subsidence triggered by
the vibration caused damage to structures.
3. It cause deltaic materials to liquefy: For example,
in 1986, San Francisco’s district of marina, foundations
failed and geysers of sand water snot from the ground
indicating that liquefaction occurred during the Toma
Priesta earthquakes.
4. Earthquakes can raise and lower coastal rocks:
For instance, when an earthquake rocked Alaska, in
1989, there was 16meters raised of coastal rocks.
5. Earthquake causes vertical displacement of the
sea floor: During the period of tsunamis, the process
rocks Southeast Asia in December, 2005 was caused by
earthquakes.
6. Earthquakes affect life and properties: The
greatest destruction by earthquakes is cause by fire that
starts when gas and electrical lines are damaged. For
example, an earthquake that rocked Japan in 1923
triggered and estimated 250 fires, which destroyed the
City of Yokohama and half of homes of Tokyo.
7. Earthquakes cause great damage to buildings and
life. In 1983, more than 500,000 houses collapsed and
killed thousands of people in densely populated areas
in Tokyo and Yokohama, Japan.

Foreshocks and Aftershocks
Foreshocks: Foreshocks are minor earthquakes or
tremors that precede a major earthquake. These minor
earthquakes or tremors are indicator of a major
earthquake which is likely to occur. They serve as
warning signals for an impending major earthquakes or
tremors.
Aftershocks: Aftershocks are minor earthquakes or
tremors that occur after a major earthquake has taken
place. They occur intermittently within short intervals.
They could be very devastating since after a major
earthquake, most of the structures might have become
very weak. For example, an aftershock occurred on
28/09/ 2013 measuring 7.2 on the Richter scale after
the major one on 24/9/2013 which killed more than 400
people in Pakistan and even early July, 2020 in Accra,
Ghana.
Volcanic activities
Volcanicity: Is the process by which molten rock or
magma is forced into the earth’s crust or on to the
earth’s surface.
A volcano is a place on the earth’s surface (or any
other planet) where molten rock and gases are erupted.
A hill or mountain built up by the eruption of molten
rock. A volcano is an opening, or rupture in the earth's
surface that allows hot magma, volcanic ash and gases
to escape.
There are, however, many kinds of volcanoes. A
volcano does not have to be a beautiful snowcapped
conical peak. It can be a hole in the ground, or a crack
in the earth’s surface.
Volcanic eruptions
A volcanic eruption is marked by the discharge
(aerially explosive) of fragmentary ejecta, lava and
gases from a volcanic vent. They are generally found
where tectonic plates come together or separate,
although some occur in the middle of plates due to
volcanic hotspots activity. The Hawaiian volcanic
islands are one such example. Volcanoes provide a
number of environmental benefits, for example, fertile
soils, hydrothermal energy, precious minerals and
tourism. Depending on the composition of the magma
eruptions can be explosive and effusive and result in
variations of rock fall, ash fall, lava streams,
pyroclastic flows, emission of gases etc.
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Features of explosions through volcanoes
The features of explosion from volcanoes are identified
below;
➢ Ash fall: Volcanic ash is a fine component of
tephra, comprised of particles more than 2 millimeters
in diameter that spread over broad areas during an
eruption. Ash particles can be hard, abrasive and
mildly corrosive; they may conduct electricity when
wet and do not dissolve in water. Ash can generate
thunder and lightning due to friction in the eruption
column. Freshly fallen ash can have an acidic coating
that irritates eyes and lungs, may pollute local water
supplies and damage vegetation. It can quickly build up
on roofs causing them to collapse and can damage
critical lifelines such as power cables. Ash fall can
reduce visibility, and make roads very slippery and
impassable. Depending on the thickness of the deposit,
over time ash is incorporated into fertile topsoils in
volcanic regions.
➢ Lahars (mud or debris flows): These are hot or
cold mixture of water and volcanic debris flowing down
the slopes of a volcano, often in a river valley. When
moving, they act like a mass of wet concrete carrying
rock debris and even boulders up to 10 meters in
diameter. Lahars vary in size and speed. These may be a
few meters wide and several centimeters deep or
hundreds of meters wide and tens of meters deep.
Depending on water and sediment concentration and
slope, they may flow a few meters per second or several
tens of meters per second – much too fast for people to
outrun. By eroding rock debris and absorbing additional
water, lahars can easily grow to more than ten times
their initial size. Lahars almost always occur on or near
stratovolcanoes since these tend to have explosive
eruptions that produce loose material.
➢ Lava flows: Lava flows are streams of molten rock
that pour or ooze from an erupting vent. Lava flows
knock over, bury or burn everything in their path. Most
extend less than 8 kilometers from their source and
travel slowly. As a result, people have enough time to
move out of its path. Fluid basalt flows can extend tens
of kilometers and travel 1 kilometer per hour on gentle
slopes and up to 10 kilometers per hour on steep slopes.
➢ Pyroclastic flows and surges: These are high-
density mixtures of hot, dry rock fragments, and gases
that move away from the vent at high speeds.
Pyroclastic flows consist of a basal layer of coarse
fragments that moves along the ground and a more

buoyant in the upper layer. They generally follow
valleys or other low-lying areas and can deposit layers
ranging from less than one meter to more than 200
meters. A pyroclastic flow will destroy nearly
everything in its path. The extreme temperatures of the
gases within the pyroclastic flow (200 degrees Celsius
to 700 degrees Celsius) can cause combustion:
especially of petroleum products, buildings, forest and
farmland. On the margins of pyroclastic flows, death
and serious injury to people and animals may result
from burns and inhalation of hot ash and gases.
➢ Tephra: Fragments of volcanic rock, less than two
(2) millimeters to more than 1 meter in diameter, that
blast into the air during an explosive eruption.
➢ Volcanic gases: Gases released from a volcano
include steam, carbon dioxide, Sulphur dioxide,
hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride. These are
emitted during an eruption but may also escape
continuously from soil, volcanic vents, fumaroles, and
hydrothermal systems. Sulphur dioxide can lead to acid
rain locally, and air pollution downwind. Gases released
into the stratosphere can lower surface temperatures and
contribute to depletion of the earth's ozone layer.
Carbon dioxide, heavier than air, can flow into low-
lying areas and collect in soil, becoming lethal for
people, animals and the vegetation. Fluorine particles
concentrated in fine-grainash can is harmful when
ingested by animals.
Fig. 61: The repose periods
How volcanic action is formed or caused
Volcanicity is formed when molten rock or magma
forces its way into the planes of weakness or vent of
the earth’s crust to escape quietly or explosively to the
surface. The ancient Greek believed volcanoes were
caused by their god Vulcan, the god of Fire.
Geologists and Volcanists have now made as
understand that volcanic eruption occurs as a result of
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intense heat in the earth’s crust which is caused by
increase in temperature. It is observed that for every
1°C, there is a 20meters away increment in temperature
within the earth’s crust. When temperature increase,
the rocks in the earth’s crust become over heated and
begins to melt into liquid and semi-liquid state. The
molten rock which is known as the magma comes
under pressure. The pressure builds up due to volatile
nature of the molten substance that is a gas such as
carbon dioxide, hydrogen, nitrogen and chlorine.
Examples of extrusive volcanic landforms are lava
cone, composite volcano, and ash and cinder cone.
Examples of intrusive volcanic landforms are sills,
dykes, batholiths, and laccoliths.
Fig. 62: Volcanic features
Types of Volcanic Eruptions
i. Icelandic: The Icelandic type is characterized by
effusions of molten basaltic lava that flow from long,
parallel fissures. Such outpourings often build lava
plateaus.
ii. Hawaiian: The Hawaiian type is similar to the
Icelandic variety. In this case, however, fluid lava
flows from a volcano’s summit and radial fissures to
form shield volcanoes, which are quite large and have
gentle slopes.
iii. Strombolian eruptions involve moderate bursts of
expanding gases that eject clots of incandescent lava in
cyclical or nearly continuous small eruptions. Because
of such small frequent outbursts, Stromboli volcano,
located on Stromboli Island off the northeast coast of
Italy, has been called the “lighthouse of the
Mediterranean.”
iv. The Vulcanian type, named for Volcano
Island near Stromboli, generally involves moderate
explosions of gas laden with volcanic ash. This mixture

forms dark, turbulent eruption clouds that rapidly
ascend and expand in convoluted shapes.
v. A Pelean eruption is associated with explosive
outbursts that generate pyroclastic flows, dense
mixtures of hot volcanic fragments and gas described
in the section Lava, gas, and other hazards. Pelean
eruptions are named for the destructive eruption
of Mount Pelée on the Caribbean Island of Martinique
in 1902. The fluidized slurries produced by these
eruptions are heavier than air but are of low viscosity
and pour down valleys and slopes at great velocities.
As a result, they are extremely destructive.
vi. Plinian: In this type of eruption, gases boiling out
of gas-rich magma generate enormous and nearly
continuous jetting blasts that core out the
magma conduit and rip it apart.
vii. Krakatoan types of eruption: In this type, there is
an exceptional violent eruption that may remove much
of the origin cone.
viii. Vesuavian type, it occurs with violent explosion
after a long period of inactivity.
Types of volcanic landforms
There are two main types of volcanic landforms. These
are;
a. intrusive or internal volcano or landforms
b. Extrusive or external volcano or landforms
a) Intrusive volcanic landforms/ features
Intrusive volcano occurs when magma does not reach
the earth’s surface but cools and solidifies within the
earth’s crust. This builds different volcano features or
landforms called intrusive volcanic features or
landforms. Examples of intrusive volcanic landforms
are sills, dykes, batholiths, and laccoliths, Lopoliths
and Phacoliths.
Fig.63: Intrusive volcanic features or landforms
a. Sills: These are tabular masses of horizontal rocks
between bedding plane of a sedimentary rocks or
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Principlesam Series
country rocks. Sills are solidified magma which lies
concordantly between country rocks. They are formed
through rising magma which cools and solidifies
concordantly or horizontally between bedding planes
of rocks in the earth’s crust. Example is Great Whin
Sill in Great Britain. When sills form shallow basins,
they are called Lopoliths.
Characteristics of Sill
➢ They are horizontal rocks between bedding plane of
country rocks that is they lie concordantly between
country rocks.
➢ They are formed through rising magma which cools
and solidifies concordantly or horizontally between
bedding planes of rocks in the earth’s crust.
➢ An example is the Great Whin Sill in Great Britain
b. Dykes (Formation of Dykes): Dyke, results when
an intrusion of magma is made vertically or lateral
within the sedimentary rocks (layers) or country rocks.
Dykes lies discordantly to the surrounding rocks. They
can be exposed by denudation and when they lie across
a river, it can lead to the formation of waterfalls. They
occur when magma rises through lines of weakness in
the earth’s crust, cools and solidifies vertically or
discordantly across the country rocks. For example,
Ship Rock Peak in Mexico and that of Kintampo
waterfall in Bono East region, Ghana.
Characteristics of the Dyke
1. A dyke is a rock form from lying vertical or inclined
across the bedding planes (discordant).
2. It is a narrow wall-like feature that is rarely
prominent in the landscape.
3. At times, when dyke exposes it forms a shallow
trench.
4. Dyke is a resistant rock.
5. It may be circular in shape, e.g., Ring dyke in Jos,
and very extensive in length.
6. In some cases, a dyke gives rise to waterfalls or
rapids and hosts oil trap or water trap, e.g., Clevel and
Dyke of York-shire, Ring dyke in Jos.
Example is Ship Rock Peak in Mexico.
c. Laccoliths: A laccolith is a large mass of igneous
mound with a dome-shaped upper surface and a level
base. They are similar to sills but they are from viscous
magma. It is mushroom-like in shape. It is lens-shaped
 Principlesam Series
mass of solidified magma which arcs overlying rocks e. Phacoliths: It can extend as a sill on the crest of an
in a dome-shaped manner. anticline and descend along a syncline in S-shape. This
It forms when magma forces it way through the lines of is a lens-shaped mass of igneous rock which occupies
weakness, arcs, cools and solidifies around an the crest of an anticline or the bottom of a syncline. An
overlying rock in a dome-shaped structure. Example is example is the Corndon Hill in England.
Mt. Henry in USA.
Characteristics of Laccoliths Phacoliths (Characteristics)
➢ They are similar to Sills but they are from viscous ➢ Phacoliths are lens-shaped masses of igneous rock
magma which occupy the crest of an anticline or the bottom of
➢ It is mushroom-like in shape. a syncline.
➢ It is a lens-shaped mass of solidified magma which ➢ It can extend as a Sill on the crest of an Anticline
arcs overlying rocks in a dome-shaped manner. and descend along a Syncline in S-shape.
➢ It is developed when magma rises through lines of ➢ An example is the Corndon Hill in England
weakness, arcs, and cools and solidifies around an
overlying rock in a dome-shaped structure. Mountain
Henry in the USA is an example.
d. Batholith (Formation)
Fig. 64: Phacolith
i. Batholith owes its formation from the levels volcanic
origin
f. Lopolith: Lopoliths occur when magma rises
ii. They are usually formed at the foot of mountains
through pipes or vents below the crust and gets
with massive and resistant upland.
intruded along the parent rock or bedding planes. These
iii. Its formation is as a result of large mass of magma
happens when there is an increase in weight of the
rising upwards which accumulates in the crust.
overlying rock layer (strata) on the magma, it causes
iv. They formed from hot magma which melts the
sinking of the intruded rocks to form a shallow basin in
surrounding rocks and through the process of
the midst of the sedimentary rocks or the country
metamorphism; the magma later cools and solidify
rocks. An example is the Bushveld Lopolith of South
underground to form a batholiths. It is the largest of all
Africa.
intrusive volcanic landforms. It is massive and can
cover several kilometers beneath the earth. It is formed
Lopoliths on the other hand are shallow basins of sills
in the crust. They form the core of several volcanic
➢ They occur when magma rises through pipes below
mountains. Examples are Mt. Whitney in Sierra
the crust as they intrude along bedding planes.
Nevada, USA. The Cape Coast Batholith of Ghana is
The weight of the overlying strata on the magma
another good example.
causes it to sink to form a shallow basin in the midst of
the country rocks
Characteristics of Batholiths
➢ An example is the Bushveld Lopolith of South
1. Batholith is the most spear feldiar of the igneous
Africa.
rocks
2. It has a large mass ranging from hundreds of
Extrusive volcanic landforms/ features
kilometers in extent.
It occurred when magma emerge at the surface of the
3. It forms longitudinal ridges in the core of Fold
earth, it is called lava. It really forms when the lava or
Mountains.
magma is heat (melted), hence cools and solidifies on
4. Batholiths may become exposed as a result of
the earth’s surface. If lava emerges through a vent, it
denudation. Thus, the surface rocks are exposed
usually builds up a volcano and if through fissure, it
through denudation.
may build up lava plain or a lava plateau. Extrusive
5. Batholiths can be found in Wicklow Mountains in
volcanic landforms are the result of magma coming
Ireland, Upland Britanny in France and along the
from deep within the earth to the surface, where it
Rockies in USA.
cools as lava. This can happen explosively or slowly,
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 Principlesam Series
depending on the chemical composition of the lava and - It has steep convex slopes.
whether there is an easy path for it to take to the
surface. If there is not a pathway, pressure builds up
over time (like a shaken soda) until the magma forcibly
explodes outward. Volcanic processes are constantly
changing the Earth. Eruptions can create new islands,
build and destroy mountains, and alter landscapes. Fig. 66: Acid or Viscous Lava Cone
Active, dormant, and ancient remnants of eruptions are
all happening during this actions or process. Examples b. Basic Lava Cone/Shield Volcano: It is also called
are basic lava cones, acid lava cones, ash and cinder shield volcano. It has high amount of magnesium and
cone, composite volcano caldera and crater, geysers iron. It spreads for a long distance before solidifying.
and hot springs. This is because it is more fluid and mobile. It has low
cones and gentle slopes. The base is very broad. It
happens when magma gets into the surface through
cracks and other lines of weakness as lava. It takes a
long time before it cools. This is because it is more
fluid and as a result will spread several areas before
cooling and solidifying to form a huge volcanic
mountain with low cones and gentle slope called shield
Fig. 65: A typical volcano volcano. A typical example is Mauna Loa. This is the
largest volcano on earth which makes up the island of
i. Lava cones: Magma on the surface of the earth is Hawaii. Its base is about 5000 meters below Sea level
referred to as lava. Lava solidifies and forms either and the summit is about 4170meters above sea level.
acid lava cone or basic lava cone. It is found when
magma through lines of weakness and passes through
cracks or vents beneath the earth surface as magma
(lava). When it comes into contact with air it cools Fig. 67: Hot lava cools and hardens into rock
quickly and builds cones with steep convex slopes. In
Some cases, the lava is too viscous in such a way that it
solidifies around the vent or cracks and the volcano
becomes too steep. Hence this is called volcanic plug.
Volcanoes range in size from small to truly massive,
created by steady, non-violent outpouring of lava.
Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea in Hawaii are shield
volcanoes rising nearly 9km (5.6 miles) from the
Fig.68: Basic Lava Cone or Shield Volcano (Mauna Loa)
seafloor.
ii. Stratovolcanoes: Also known as composite
➢ Ash and Cinder cone: Cinder cones are formed
volcanoes, stratovolcanoes erupt both as flows and
from less fluid acid lava, containing cinder, ash, rock
violently. Mount St. Helens and Mount Rainier are
fragments and lava bombs. The lava flows are viscous
stratovolcanoes.
and they solidify after a short distance. At times, the
Examples include, Mountain Pelee in West Indies and
lava closes the vent and this result in an explosion
Tororo plug in Uganda. There are two types: acid lava
which bellows the vent open. After the explosion, a
cones and basic lava cones.
crater which is a depression on the top of the cone is
a. Acid lava cones
formed. If water occupies the crater, it becomes a
-It is highly viscous as though, it cools and solidifies
crater lake. When the crater becomes an enlarged
quickly.
depression, it is caldera. Examples include Mt. Kenya,
- It has high amount of silica.
Mt. Kilimanjaro in East Africa.
107

Fig. 69: Ash and Cinder Cone
iii. Composite or stratovolcanoes: It is large, massive
and the most impressive of all volcanic mountains.
They are built due many or series of eruption over a
longer period of time. It has layers of ash and lava. It
has a huge crater and parasitic cones or conelet.
Composite cones are called strato- volcano.
Lava Domes are form where thick (viscous) magma
erupts to the surface forming a steep dome-shaped
landform. Lava domes can form within a crater of large
composite volcano.
Fig. 70: Composite Volcano
Formation
It is formed through series of violent eruptions. When
eruption occurs, ash is poured out and settles down in
the first place. Hence is followed by lava. Its
reoperation for a longer period of time until large and
very high peak with steep slopes is formed or
established. This process features a composite cone or
volcano. In some cases, the lava does not pave way to
the main vents or holes to collect the lava, hence
causing lava to develop along the flanks of the volcano.
This is called conelet. The solidified lava also prevents
subsequent eruption causing pressure to build behind
the blocked lava. This causes violent explosion which
create larger crater. Examples include, Mount
Cameroon, Mount Fujiyama in Japan, Ethna and
Stromboly in Italy, Kilimanjaro in Tanzania and
Meyon in Philippines.
Characteristics of composite cones
i. It is the most common type of volcano.
ii. Composite cone is the highest form of volcanoes.
iii. It is conical in shape.
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Principlesam Series
iv. It is made of alternative layers of ash and lava that
build up conelet around the major cone.
iv. Examples of composite cones are Ethna in Sicily,
mountain Chimborazo, while a larger crater called
caldera may finally emerge at the point of volcano.
iv. Caldera and crater: Crater and caldera are large
depressions or hollows created when violent eruption
blows of the top of a volcanic cone. They have steep
walls, flat floor, circular and large. A crater is called a
caldera when it is exceeds 1km in diameter. Short,
steep volcanoes associated with limited eruptive
events. Sunset Crater Volcano and Capulin Volcano
are cinder cones.
Calderas are large-scale landforms that develop after
enormous eruptions of magma empty underground
magma chambers. The volcanic landscape above the
voids collapses downward and forms the caldera.
Formation
It is a form of violent eruption due to the heavy
explosions and heat pressure involves in the process.
The eruption blows off the top of the former cone. A
large holes or depression is created. These sometimes
forms crater or caldera. Crater and caldera may also be
formed through cauldron subsidence i.e. when part of
the earth crust (land) sinks (synclines) into the
underlying magma. This creates a crater or caldera
(large depression). When water is collected in it, forms
a crater lake. Examples are Lake Toba in Indonesia,
Lake Bosomtwi in Ghana and Lake Oregon, a crater
lake which occupies caldera of over 10km wide and is
about 1,175 meters deep.
Fig. 71: a) Caldera Fig. 71 b) A Crater Lake

Craters and Calderas (characteristics)
➢ Craters are circular depressions, usually less than
1km in diameter, that form as a result of explosions
that emit gases and tephra.
➢ Calderas are much larger depressions, circular to
elliptical in shape, with diameters ranging from 1 km to
50 km. Calderas form as a result of collapse of a
volcanic structure. The collapse results from
evacuation of the underlying magma chamber.
➢ In shield volcanoes, like in Hawaii, the evacuation
of the magma chamber is a slow drawn-out process,
wherein magma is withdrawn to erupt on from the rift
zones on the flanks.
➢ In stratovolcanoes the collapse and formation of a
caldera results from rapid evacuation of the underlying
magma chamber by voluminous explosive eruptions
that form extensive fall deposits and pyroclastic flows.
➢ Calderas are often enclosed depressions that collect
rain water and snow melt, and thus lakes often form
within a caldera.
➢ Crater Lake Caldera in southern Oregon is an 8 km
diameter caldera containing a lake. The caldera formed
about 6,800 years ago as a result of the eruption of
about 75km3 of rhyolite magma in the form of tephra,
found as far away as Canada, accompanied by
pyroclastic flows that left thick deposits of tuff on the
flanks of the volcano. Subsequent eruptions have built
a cinder cone on the floor of the caldera, which now
forms an island called Wizard Island.
➢ Larger calderas have formed within the past million
years in the western United States. These include
Yellowstone Caldera in Wyoming, Long Valley
Caldera in eastern California, and Valleys Caldera in
New Mexico.
➢ The Yellowstone caldera is an important example,
as it illustrates the amount of repose time that might be
expected from large rhyolitic systems, and the
devastating effect caldera forming eruptions can have
on widespread areas.
➢ Yellowstone Caldera which occupies most of
Yellowstone National Park is actually the third caldera
to form in the area within the past 2 million years. The
three calderas formed at 2.0 million years ago, 1.3
million years ago, and the latest at 600,000 years ago.
Thus, the repose time is on the average about 650,000
years.
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❖ Tephra fall deposits from the latest eruption are
found in Louisiana and into the Gulf of Mexico, and
covered much of the Western part of the United States.
❖ The eruption 600,000 years ago produced about
1000 km3 of rhyolite (in comparison, the eruption of
Mt. St. Helens in May of 1980 produced only 0.75km3.
❖ Magma still underlies Yellowstone caldera, as
evidenced by the large number of hot springs and
geysers in the area.
Resurgent Domes
➢ After the formation of a caldera by collapse, magma
is sometimes re-injected into the area below the
caldera. This can result in uplift of one or more areas
within the caldera to form a resurgent dome.
➢ If magma leaks back to the surface during this
resurgent doming, then eruptions of small volcanic
domes can occur in the area of the resurgent domes.
Lava Plateau
➢ Sometimes plate tectonics results in the formation of
a long, narrow crack or fissure in Earth’s surface.
Basaltic lava pouring from the fissure spreads across
the land, forming a lava plateau. The basaltic lava that
formed the Columbia Plateau in the northwestern
United States is over one kilometer thick in some
places and covers an area of about 164,000 square
kilometers.
Global Distribution of Volcanoes
The discussion about how magmas form, we pointed
out that since the upper parts of the Earth are solid,
special conditions are necessary to form magmas.
These special conditions do not exist everywhere
beneath the surface, and thus volcanism does not occur
everywhere. If we look at the global distribution of
volcanoes, we see that volcanism occurs in four
principal settings.
a. Along divergent plate boundaries, such as Oceanic
Ridges or spreading centers.
b. In areas of continental extension (that may become
divergent plate boundaries in the future).
c. Along converging plate boundaries where
subduction is occurring.
d. And, in areas called "hot spots" that are usually
located in the interior of plates, away from the plate
margins.
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vi. Hot springs and geysers: Hot springs and other 3. Extinct: volcanoes that are unlikely to erupt again
surface features are evidence that groundwater is even though they bound to happen again in the next
sometimes heated beneath Earth’s surface. One way future. E.g. Kilimanjaro and Jos Plateau. The most
that groundwater can become heated is if it comes from popular disastrous volcanic eruptions were those of Mt.
a great depth. Because subsurface temperatures Vesuvius, Mt. Krakatoa and Mt. Pelee.
increase with depth, water from deep artesian wells or Again, Accra- Winneba spells out to be
springs may be much warmer than water from ordinary metamorphosed schist.
wells or springs. At Hot Springs National Park in ➢ About 500 volcanoes are currently active. Typically,
Arkansas, groundwater collects at depths of 1800 to there are about5-10
2400 meters. The water heats up and rises quickly to ➢ Volcanoes erupting every month (about 50 per
the surface through cracks and fissures. The year).
groundwater may come to the surface as boiling hot ➢ About 262,000 people have been killed by
springs. Sometimes volcanic gases make hot volcanoes since 1600A.D. (this averages out at one
groundwater acidic. The acidic water reacts with person per year per volcano).
minerals from surrounding rocks, forming sticky clay
minerals. As a result, sputtering springs called mud Why Volcanoes Vary in Shape
pots and mud volcanoes may appear at the surface. 1. Nature of the material ejected
Some mud pots form when steam rises through silt. 2. Nature and frequency of eruption
A geyser (GY-zuhr in Greek meaning) is a hot spring 3. Conduit to the surface
that intermittently shoots columns of hot water and 4. Rate of cooling and solidification of materials
steam into the air. It consists of a long, vertical, (magma or lava) due to its coolings be it faster or
irregularly shaped tube that may extend hundreds of slower. Example is dominant volcanoes.
meters into the ground. When the tube is full of water,
the water at the bottom is under so much pressure that Processes involved in volcanic eruption
its boiling point rises far above the boiling point at 1. The buoyancy of the magma
Earth’s surface. The pressure prevents the water at the 2. The pressure from the exsolved gases in the magma
bottom of the tube from turning into steam, even 3. The injection of a new batch of magma into an
though nearby igneous rocks have heated it to already filled magma chamber.
extremely high temperatures.
Positive/ beneficial effects of volcanism
✓ Soils/ash deposits for crop production
✓ Tourist attraction to many people from all walks of
life
Fig. 72: The Old Faithful in Yellowstone National Park, a geyser that ✓ Therapeutic effects i.e. bathing purpose, and central
shoots hot water high into the air every 30 to about 90 minutes heating systems
Classification of volcanoes ✓ Quarrying and construction industries such as
Volcanoes have been classified into three (3) classes. granite and gneiss are used for building houses, roads,
These are; and bridges.
1. Active: volcanoes known to have erupted during ✓ Volcanic mountains influence climate, hence they
historical times. Example is Mt. Cameroon which has induce the development and fall of orographic or relief
erupted four times within a period of 50 years. The rainfall.
Total Number of its actions = 529 ✓ Source of water
2. Dormant: volcanoes that have not erupted during ✓ Source of minerals.
historical times, but will probably erupt again for some
years to come as a result of the frequently unregular Negative effects of volcanoes
signs. Example is Mt. Pele in West Indies. The Total ✓ Atmospheric pollution
Number of its action = 1,340.

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✓ Loss of human lives especially those that trigger
earthquakes. For example, in 1980, Mt. St. Helens in
USA erupted and killed nearly 60 people
✓ Destruction of infrastructure
✓ Destruction of vegetation through fire produced by
volcanism
✓ Advert health implication.
Impact of internal geomorphic processes
➢ Faulting, earthquakes, sea floor spreading, tsunamis,
etc.
➢ Volcanicity: ash, lava, pyroclastic materials,
geysers, hot springs, etc.
➢ Folding and warping, unfolds and down folds,
depressions and valleys
➢ Earthquakes can cause rock falls, landslides and
damage to trees. Soils may erode. Earthquakes in the
oceans can generate huge waves called tsunamis,
which flood coastal areas.
➢ Earthquakes can also result in extensive changes of
landforms, including sagging and severe fissuring of
the ground surface.
➢ Earthquakes also cause new mud volcanoes to
appear where none had previously been. Water and
sand gush up from the ground and spread over large
areas
➢ Ash and smoke from volcanoes can cause breathing
problems to people living near the volcano.
➢ Pyroclastic flows of volcanoes are very dangerous.
The reason is, it is a mixture of ash and hot gases.
Watching volcano from near, when it is not erupting
and releasing ash, it can cause damage to people with
respiratory problems.
➢ When Lava comes out from the volcano, that will
flow down the stream and burn living and non-living
things those come in the way.
➢ It may or may not kill people because the flow of
lava is very slow and it would not run over people. But
definitely, there will be loss and damage.
➢ Agricultural lands near Volcanic Mountains may be
destroyed in the short run but may become a fertile
land in the long-term period.
➢ The ash and gases mix with rainwater or melting
snow. As a result, fast-moving mudflows are created
External/Exogenic Processes and Landforms Denudation
This is a collective name given to the process of
weathering, erosion, and transportation, all of which
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lay the land bare. In order words, it is the breaking
down of rocks into smaller units and removal of these
weathering materials from one place to another by the
agents of erosion such as glacier, water, wind, etc.
The agents or faces which promote these breaking and
wearing of the earth’s surface are called agents of
denudation. Examples of agents of denudation are;
The major agents of denudation
1. Weathering of rocks
2. Mass wasting
3. Wind
4. Running water
5. Ice and waves
Process of denudation
1. Weathering: It is the breaking down or
disintegration of rocks by either physical (mechanical)
or chemical processes.
2. Erosion or mass wasting: This is defined as the
removal and transport of the weathering materials or
rocks by moving forces of glacier, rivers, sea, waves
and wind. This is a major cause of denudation of
which makes the land bare. Again, mass wasting plays
a major role in making the land bare through the
movement of rock debris by the influence of water or
without the help of water through gravitational force.
3. Transportation: Is the movement of weathered
materials from one place to another place of which
make the land bare.
4. Deposition: This is the dumping and leaving behind
residues or sediments in other places, through the
agents of denudation such as wind, running water, ice
and waves etc.
Factors affecting denudation
i. Nature of relief: The higher the relief the higher the
rate of denudation and vice versa.
ii. The nature of the earth: The softer the structure of
the earth, the greater the rate of denudation and vice
versa.
iii. The local climate of the area: Wet climate tends to
increase the rate of denudation more than dry climate.
iv. Influence of man: The higher the rate of man’s
activities, the greater the rate of denudation and vice
versa. For instance, mining in Dunkwa is one major
influence of man’s activities which can cause
denudation.
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• The type of rocks: Rocks are made up of minerals 4. Explain the roles that temperature and pressure play
of different types also influence of denudation in such in the eruption of a geyser.
earth’s surface.
5. a) Define the following and state what kind of
Impact of external/exogenic geomorphic processes magma characteristically erupts from each:
➢ Erosion, transportation and deposition by wind, (i) Shield volcano,
water, glacier, etc. are affected (ii) stratovolcanoes,
➢ Weathering and mass wasting are prevailing (iii) cinder cone,
(iv) lava dome.
Effects of exogenic processes b) What is a caldera and how do calderas form? Give
➢ layers of soil will be moved away by erosion several examples.
➢ The landscape and the features of the environment
will be changed. 6. a) What is the difference between a lava dome and a
➢ Erosion can degrade soil profiles and embankments, resurgent dome?
which are then less able to support native vegetation. b) Why are volcanic domes considered to be extremely
➢ Dust from wind erosion can impact on human dangerous?
respiratory health and cause nuisance and amenity c) Compare and contrast geysers, hot springs, and
issues. fumaroles.
➢ landslides, rock fall, soil creep, mud flow can lead
to both soil and water contamination 7. a) What kind of volcanic landforms would you
➢ Creation of gullies , trenches and badland expect to find in each of the following tectonic settings
topography. (i) diverging plate boundary,
Assignment 11 (ii) converging plate boundary,
1. a) What is the differences between earthquake and (iii) hot spot?
shockwaves b) Give examples of volcanoes that occur at
b) Discuss earthquake under the following headings; (i) hot spots,
i. 3 causes (ii) diverging plate boundaries, and
ii. 2 effects
(iii) converging plate boundaries.
iii. 3 precautions in solving the problems of structure
destruction by earthquake
8. a) Explain the three classifications of volcanoes

2. a) Define the following terms b) With the aid of a well label diagram, state three
i. Volcanicity characteristics each of the following
ii. foreshock i. dyke
iii. aftershock ii. sill
b) Explain five reasons why volcanoes vary in shapes iii. batholith
c) Outline four negative effects of volcanoes iv. phaccolith
v. laccolith
3. a) .Compare and contrast the ways in which shield c) Mention three positive impacts of volcanoes to man
volcanoes and cinder cones are formed.
b) Describe the formation of a composite volcano. 9. a) What is denudation?

c) The eruption of Mount Rainier, a composite b) Explain the agents of denudation

c) What are processes of denudation?
volcano, could pose a serious threat to local residents.
d) Outline three factors affecting denudation
Write a description of the potential hazards that people
living near Mount Rainier might face.
10. With the aid diagram, describe the formation and
characteristics of composite, lava cone, resurgent
dome, caldera and crater lakes.

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CHAPTER TWELVE
FOLDS AND FOLDING
Folding: A fold is a stack of originally planar surfaces,
such as sedimentary strata, that are bent or curved
during permanent deformation. Folds in rocks vary in
size from microscopic crinkles to mountain-sized folds.
They occur as single isolated folds or in periodic sets
(known as fold trains). Synsedimentary folds are
those formed during sedimentary deposition.
Folds are of alternate layers of limestone and chert
occurs in Greece. The limestone and chert were
originally deposited as flat layers on the floor of a
deep-sea basin. These folds were created by Alpine
deformation.
Fig. 73: The Himalayas an example of Fold
Mountains, types of folding
Folds form under varied conditions of stress, pore
pressure, and temperature gradient, as evidenced by
their presence in soft sediments, the full spectrum of
metamorphic rocks, and even as primary flow
structures in some igneous rocks. A set of folds
distributed on a regional scale constitutes a fold belt, a the closures of the major folds lie, and their cleavage
common feature of orogenic zones. Folds are
commonly formed by shortening of existing layers, but
may also be formed as a result of displacement on a
non-planar fault (fault bend fold), at the tip of a
propagating fault (fault propagation fold), by
differential compaction or due to the effects of a high-
level igneous intrusion e.g. above a laccolith.
Examples, Kink band folds in the Permian of New
Mexico, USA. Rainbow Basin syncline in the Barstow
Formation near Barstow, California
Fold terminologies
i. The fold hinge is the line joining points of maximum
curvature on a folded surface. This line may be either
straight or curved. The term hinge line has also been
used for this feature. A fold surface seen perpendicular
to its shortening direction can be divided into hinge and
limb portions, the limbs are the flanks of the fold and
the hinge zone is where the limbs converge. Within the
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hinge zone lays the hinge point, which is the point of
minimum radius of curvature (maximum curvature) of
the fold. The crest of the fold represents the highest
point of the fold surface whereas the trough is the
lowest point. The inflection point of a fold is the point
on a limb at which the concavity reverses; on regular
folds, this is the midpoint of the limb.
ii. Flank and hinge: The axial surface is defined as a
plane connecting all the hinge lines of stacked folded
surfaces. If the axial surface is planar then it is called
an axial plane and can be described in terms of strike
and dip. Folds can have a fold axis. A fold axis “is the
closest approximation to a straight line that when
moved parallel to itself, it generates the form of the
fold”, (Davis and Reynolds, 1996 after Donath &
Parker, 1964; Ramsay 1967). A fold that can be
generated by a fold axis is called a cylindrical fold.
This term has been broadened to include near-
cylindrical folds. Often, the fold axis is the same as the
hinge line.
ii. Fold size: Minor folds are quite frequently seen in
outcrop; major folds seldom are accepted in the more
arid countries. Minor folds can, however, often provide
the key to the major folds they are related to. They
reflect the same shape and style, the direction in which
indicates the attitude of the axial planes of the major
folds and their direction of overturning.
iii. Chevron folds, Ireland: A fold can be shaped like
a chevron, with planar limbs meeting at an angular
axis, as cuspate with curved limbs, as circular with a
curved axis, or as elliptical with unequal wavelength.
iv. Interlimb angles: Fold tightness is defined by the
size of the angle between the fold's limbs (as measured
tangential to the folded surface at the inflection line of
each limb), called the interlimb angle. Gentle folds
have an interlimb angle of between 180° and 120°,
open folds range from 120° to 70°, close folds from
70° to 30°, and tight folds from 30° to 0°. Isoclines, or
isoclinal folds, have an interlimb angle of between 10°
and zero, with essentially parallel limbs.
v. Fold symmetry: Not all folds are equal on both
sides of the axis of the fold. Those with limbs of
relatively equal length are termed symmetrical, and
those with highly unequal limbs are asymmetrical.
 Principlesam Series
Asymmetrical folds generally have an axis at an angle A Crest Limb of fold Syncline B
to the original unfolded surface they formed on.
Rock strata

Anticline
Fig. 78: a, and b: Simple and Asymmetrical folds
Fig. 74: Fold Symmetry

Deformation style classes

Folds that maintain uniform layer thickness are classed
as concentric folds. Those that do not are called
similar folds. Similar folds tend to display thinning of Fig.79: Anticlinorium and synclinorium
the limbs and thickening of the hinge zone. Concentric
a) Anticline: fold that is convex
folds are caused by warping from active buckling of
in the direction of the youngest
the layers, whereas similar folds usually form by some
beds
form of shear flow where the layers are not
b) Syncline: Fold that is convex
mechanically active. Ramsay has proposed a
in the direction of the oldest beds.
classification scheme for folds that often is used to
*requires that you know facing
describe folds in profile based upon the curvature of
direction (direction of youngest
the inner and outer lines of a fold and the behavior of
beds); know stratigraphy
dip isogons. That is, lines connecting points of equal
c) Antiform: convex up
dip on adjacent folded surfaces.
d) Synform: convex down
*simply describes geometry
Types of folding
Fig. 80: Main types of folds
i. An anticline in New Jersey
a) Dome: nonlinear, strata dip away from center in all
ii. Syncline
directions, oldest strata in the center.
iii. A monocline at Colorado National Monument
b) Basin: nonlinear, strata dip toward center in all
• Recumbent fold, King Oscar Fjord
directions, youngest strata in center.
• Thrust fold or Nape
c) Monocline: linear, strata dip in one direction
• Simple fold
between horizontal layers on each side.
d) Chevron: angular fold with straight limbs and small
hinges
e) Slump: typically, monoclinal, the result of
differential compaction or dissolution during
sedimentation and lithification.
Fig. 75: Overthrust Fold or Nappe f) Ptygmatic: Folds are chaotic, random and
connected. The typical of sedimentary slumps folding,
migmatites and decollement detachment zones.
g) Parasitic: short-wavelength folds formed within a
larger wavelength fold structure - normally associated
with differences in bed thickness
h) Disharmonic: Folds in adjacent layers with
Fig.76: a) Overthrust folds Fig.77: b) Recumbent folds
different wavelengths and shapes. (A homocline
involves strata dipping in the same direction, though
Recumbent: linear, fold axial plane oriented at a low
not necessarily any folding).
angle resulting in overturned strata in one limb of the
fold.
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Geometric analysis
i. Inflection point: point of opposing convexity
ii. Median surface: imaginary surface connecting
inflection points fold width, fold height and
Symmetrical vs. asymmetrical concept of vergence
iii. Hinge zone – hinge line: zone of maximum
curvature
iv. Fold axis: imaginary line, which when moved
parallel to it can define the form of a fold.
Fig.81: Geometric analysis
Causes of folding
Folds appear on all scales, in all rock types, at all levels
in the crust. They arise from a variety of causes.
i. Layer-parallel shortening: Box fold in La
Herradura Formation, Morro Solar, Peru, it occurs
when a sequence of layered rocks is shortened parallel
to its layering, this deformation may be accommodated
in a number of ways, homogeneous shortening, reverse
faulting or folding. The response depends on the
thickness of the mechanical layering and the contrast in
properties between the layers. If the layering does
begin to fold, the fold style is also dependent on these
properties. Isolated thick competent layers in a less
competent matrix control the folding and typically
generate classic rounded buckle folds accommodated
by deformation in the matrix. In the case of regular
alternations of layers of contrasting properties, such as
sandstone-shale sequences, kink-bands, box-folds and
chevron folds are normally produced the following
types of folds such as;
a. Rollover anticline
b. Ramp anticline
c. Fault-propagation folds
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Principlesam Series
ii. Fault-related folding: Many folds are directly
related to faults, associated with their propagation,
displacement and the accommodation of strains
between neighboring faults.
iii. Fault bends folding: Fault-bend folds are caused
by displacement along a non-planar fault. In non-
vertical faults, the hanging-wall deforms to
accommodate the mismatch across the fault as
displacement progresses. Fault bend folds occur in both
extensional and thrust faulting. In extension, listric
faults form rollover anticlines in their hanging walls. In
thrusting, ramp anticlines form whenever a thrust fault
cuts up section from one detachment level to another.
Displacement over this higher-angle ramp generates
the folding.
iv. Fault propagation folding: Fault propagation folds
or tip-line folds are caused when displacement occurs
on an existing fault without further propagation. In
both reverse and normal faults this leads to folding of
the overlying sequence, often in the form of a
monocline.
v. Detachment folding: When a thrust fault continues
to displace above a planar detachment without further
fault propagation, detachment folds may form,
typically of box-fold style. These generally occur
above a good detachment such as in the Jura
Mountains, where the detachment occurs on middle
Triassic evaporites.
vi. Folding in shear zones: Dextral sense shear folds
in mylonites within a shear zone, Cap de Creus. Shear
zones that approximate to simple shear typically
contain minor asymmetric folds, with the direction of
overturning consistent with the overall shear sense.
Some of these folds have highly curved hinge-lines and
are referred to as sheath folds. Folds in shear zones can
be inherited, formed due to the orientation of pre-
shearing layering or formed due to instability within
the shear flow.
vii. Folding in sediments: Recently-deposited
sediments are normally mechanically weak and prone
to remobilization before they become lithified, leading
to folding. To distinguish them from folds of tectonic
origin, such structures are called Synsedimentary
(formed during sedimentation). The folds in sediments
results to;
a. Slump folding: When slumps form in poorly
consolidated sediments, they commonly undergo
folding, particularly at their leading edges, during their

emplacement. The asymmetry of the slump folds can
be used to determine paleo-slope directions in
sequences of sedimentary rocks.
b. Dewatering: Rapid dewatering of sandy sediments,
possibly triggered by seismic activity, can cause
convolute bedding.
c. Compaction: Folds can be generated in a younger
sequence by differential compaction over older
structures such as fault blocks and reefs.
viii. Igneous intrusion: The emplacement of igneous
intrusions tends to deform the surrounding country
rock. In the case of high-level intrusions, near the
Earth's surface, this deformation is concentrated above
the intrusion and often takes the form of folding, as
with the upper surface of a laccolith.
x. Flow folding: depiction of the effect of an
advancing ramp of rigid rock into compliant layers.
Top: low drag by a ramp: layers are not altered in
thickness; Bottom: high drag: lowest layers tend to
crumple.
When rock behaves as a fluid, as in the case of very
weak rock such as rock salt, or any rock that is buried
deeply enough, it typically shows flow folding (also
called passive folding, because little resistance is
offered); the strata appear shifted undistorted, assuming
any shape impressed upon them by surrounding more
rigid rocks. The strata simply serve as markers of the
folding. Such folding is also a feature of many igneous
intrusions and glacier ice.
Folding mechanisms
Folds in the rock are formed about the stress field in
which the rocks are located and the archeology, or
method of response to stress, of the rock at the time at
which the stress is applied. The rheology of the layers
being folded determines characteristic features of the
folds that are measured in the field. Rocks that deform
more easily form many short-wavelength, high-
amplitude folds. Rocks that do not deform as easily
form long-wavelength, low-amplitude folds. Folding of
rocks must balance the deformation of layers with the
conservation of volume in a rock mass. This occurs by
several mechanisms such as;
i. Flexural slip: Flexural slip allows folding by
creating layer-parallel slip between the layers of the
folded strata, which, altogether, result in deformation.
A good analogy is bending a phone book, where
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Principlesam Series
volume preservation is accommodated by slip between
the pages of the book. The fold formed by the
compression of competent rock beds called the
"flexure fold".
ii. Buckling: Typically, folding is thought to occur by
simple buckling of a planar surface and its confining
volume. The volume change is accommodated by layer
parallel shortening the volume, which grows in
thickness. Folding under this mechanism is typical of a
similar fold style, as thinned limbs are shortened
horizontally and thickened hinges do so vertically.
iii. Mass displacement: If the folding deformation
cannot be accommodated by a flexural slip or volume-
change shortening (buckling), the rocks are generally
removed from the path of the stress. This is achieved
by pressure dissolution, a form of metamorphic
process, in which rocks shorten by dissolving
constituents in areas of high strain and redepositing
them in areas of lower strain. Folds created in this way
include examples in migmatites and areas with a strong
axial planar cleavage.
Economic implication of folding to the Mining industry
i. Anticline oil trap: Layers of rock that fold into a
hinge need to accommodate large deformations in the
hinge zone. This results in voids between the layers.
These voids, and especially the fact that the water
pressure is lower in the voids than outside of them, act
as triggers for the deposition of minerals. Over millions
of years, this process is capable of gathering large
quantities of trace minerals from large expanses of rock
and depositing them at very concentrated sites. This
may be a mechanism that is responsible for the veins.
To summarize, when searching for veins of valuable
minerals, it might be wise to look for highly folded
rock, and this is the reason the mining industry is very
interested in the theory of geological folding.
ii. Oil industry: Anticlinal traps are formed by folding
of rocks. For example, if a porous sandstone unit
covered with low permeability shale is folded into an
anticline, it may contain hydrocarbons trapped in the
crest of the fold. Most anticlinal traps are created as a
result of sideways pressure, folding the layers of rock,
but can also occur from sediments being compacted.
Landform and landscape development
A landform is any surface feature on Earth. Landforms
create the planet’s different natural landscapes. They

provide homes for wildlife and humans. A place’s
landforms make up its topography. In other words,
topography is how landforms are laid out in a particular
area. E.g. folds, mountains, plateaus, and even plains or
lowlands, etc.
Landscape is an aggregation of landforms usually the
same landform found in an area. It is visible feature of
an area of land including the physical elements of
landforms, water bodies, and living things. The
activity that modifies the visible features of an area of
land is called landscaping.
Classification of landforms
Based on the mode of classification landforms are
classified into two ways;
i. Origin-source
ii. Process/ Processes-mechanisms
a) Based on origin
Two main landforms are identified;
i. Primary/major landform: Major Landforms are the
original landforms. Primary landform is Mountains,
plains. Explanation: Oceans and the Continent are the
highest forms of landforms. The three major types of
landforms are plateaus, mountains, and plains. Plateaus
are at least 1,968 feet above sea level, broad and flat.
Mountains have steep sides, narrow summits, and high
elevations. Plains are flat areas with low elevations that
never rise far above sea level.
ii. Secondary/ minor landform: The minor landforms
are categorized by the ways they were formed, such as
volcanic activity, glacial activity, running water, wind,
currents, and movement. Some of these landforms
include beaches, u-shaped valleys, flood plains,
volcanoes, landslides and dunes, buttes, canyons,
valleys, and basins.
The secondary types of landforms are just an updated
version of the primary features like Weathering,
erosion and mass movements that are responsible for
the physical, chemical and biotic process above the
surface of the earth.
b) Based on processes: Based on the process
classification, there are four landforms been identified,
such as;
i. Structure landforms: Any topographic feature
formed by the differential wearing away of rocks and
the deposition of the resulting debris under the
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influence of exogenetic geomorphic forces. Such forces
operate at the interface of the planetary atmosphere,
lithosphere, cryosphere, and hydrosphere. The
processes generating these forces are the major agents
of erosion, transport, and deposition of debris. They
include fluvial, eolian, glacial, groundwater, and
coastal-marine processes, as well as those associated
with mass movement.
ii. Weathering is one major process that shapes
different landforms. Temperature and precipitation
both contribute to weathering. So, does pressure on
rocks, minerals and soil. These are examples of
mechanical (physical) weathering. Chemical reactions
can also cause rocks, minerals and soil to break
down. One example is frost weathering, which is
sometimes called cryofracturing. It happens when
water gets into tiny cracks in rocks. The water expands
when it freezes, causing the rock to break apart. As the
freeze-thaw cycle continues, more water can get into
the cracks and break the rocks). Chemical
weathering changes in the chemical properties of
materials on Earth’s surface. One example
is carbonation, it happens when acid rain falls on rocks
that contain calcium carbonate (CaCO3). For instance,
limestone often breaks down because of carbonation.
The sulfuric acid in acid precipitation reacts with the
limestone. This replaces the rock with a new chemical
product, called calcium bicarbonate Ca (HCO3)2.
Oxidation also causes chemical weathering. Oxygen in
the air reacts with chemicals in different landforms.
Colour change is a common sign of oxidation,
especially in rock formations that contain a lot of iron.
When iron is exposed to oxygen, a redox reaction
produces iron oxide. That is a fancy word for rust.
iii. Erosional landform: Erosion is the process where
rocks are broken down by natural forces such as wind
or water. Erosion is another geological process that
creates landforms. Erosion by water and wind can wear
down land and create landforms like valleys and
canyons. Both processes happen over a long period of
time. There are two main types of erosion: chemical
and physical. Chemical erosion occurs when a rock’s
chemical composition changes, such as when iron rusts
or when limestone dissolves due to carbonation. In
physical erosion, the rock breaks down but its chemical
composition remains the same, such as during a
landslide or bioerosion, when plants take root and
crack rocks. When mechanical and chemical
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weathering breaks up materials on the Earth’s surface, ➢ Savanna landforms
erosion can move them to new locations. For example, ➢ Periglacial landforms, the dominance.
wind, water or ice can create a valley by removing
material Plateaus can also be formed this way. b. Nature of rocks
iv. Deposition: Of course, the material that gets carried ➢ Rock type
away does not just disappear. The accumulation of ➢ Level of resistance
materials such as shingles sandstone etc. When layers ➢ Rock composition
of eroded material pile up, it is called deposition. This c. Aggradation
can create new landforms. Example is how the coastal ➢ Erosional level
deposition is formed such as beaches are formed. When ➢ Level of deposition
eroded material is deposited at the mouth of the river, a ➢ The rate of weathering process involved
river delta is formed. Another example is the ➢ The rate of quotient agents such as running water,
Mackenzie River Delta in the Northwest Territories. wind and glaciation processes etc.
The constant downward pull of gravity can also change d. Biological factors
the landscape by creating new landforms. Gravitational ➢ Humans
erosion can involve small bits of soil slowly tumbling ➢ Plants
down a hill over many years. Or it can involve giant ➢ Animals
slabs of soil or rock suddenly giving way in a
landslide. The Major landforms are
i. Plateaus
The geological processes that lead to landforms ii. Plains
They are various movements, changes and interactions iii. Mountain building
take place within and on the surface of the earth. Plateau
i. Tectonic processes: This derives their energy from A plateau is an extensive area of flat upland usually
within the earth’s crust through the movement of the bounded. A plateau is an elevated area with a more or
lithospheric plates and magma and serve to create less leveled land on its top. It has a large area on its top
landforms. These occurs in three forms thus; and a steep slope on its sides. They are also called as
convergent, transform and divergent. Examples are high plains or tablelands. The plateaus cover about
folding, mountain building, and earthquakes, seafloor 18% of the earth’s land surface.
spreading, continental drift (diastrophism and Characteristics of Plateaus
volcanism). i. A high land with relatively flat terrain.
ii. Degradation and/Denudation process: These are ii. Usually have land surfaces of more than 50%
processes that operate to lower the surface of the land gentle slope.
or earth. They are also known as denudation or iii. Plateau is usually 90m high in terms of relief.
degradation process namely erosion, transportation, iv. They may be part of mountain range.
weathering and mass movement or wasting, etc. These v. They may be massive and extensive.
play a major role in producing secondary landforms.
iii. Aggradation processes: The means by which a Types of Plateaus
surface is raised by deposition or accumulation of i. Intermontane Plateaus
materials. This also contributes significantly to the ii. Volcanic plateaus
formation of several secondary landforms. The agents iii. Tectonic/Continental plateaus
of aggradation are wind, water, glacier etc. iv. Piedmont plateaus
v. Dissected plateaus
Factors affecting landform development i. Intermontane Plateaus: The plateaus which are
a. Climate bordering the mountain ranges (generally Fold
➢ Arid landforms Mountains) or are partly or fully enclosed within them
➢ Glacial landforms are the intermontane plateaus. The word ‘intermontane’
➢ Hot humid landforms means ‘between mountains. Intermontane plateaus are
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the highest in the world. They have nearly horizontal
rock layers which are raised to very heights by vertical
movements of the earth. Examples: The Plateau of
Tibet is an example of the intermontane plateau which
is surrounded by the Fold Mountains like the
Himalayas, the Karakoram, the Kunlun and the Tien
Shah.
Fig. 82: Intermontane Plateau
ii. Volcanic (lava and pyroclastic) plateau:
A volcanic plateau is a plateau produced by volcanic
activity. There are two main types: lava plateaus and
pyroclastic plateaus.
➢ Lava plateaus are formed by highly fluid basaltic
lava during numerous successive eruptions through
numerous vents without violent explosions.
➢ Pyroclastic volcanic plateaus are produced by
massive pyroclastic flows and they are underlain by
pyroclastic rocks. Example is North Island plateau in
New Zealand
iii. Tectonic/ Continental Plateau: They are formed
either by an extensive continental upliftment or by the
spread of horizontal basic lava (less viscous) sheets
completely covering the original topography. This kind
of plateaus shows an abrupt elevation in contrast to the
nearby lowland or sea (i.e., more steepness on sides).
The Continental Plateaus are also known as Plateaus
of Accumulation. Examples: Plateau of Maharashtra
is an example of the continental plateau; another
example is Tibetan Plateau is the largest plateau in the
world.
Fig. 83: Formation of tectonic or continental plateau
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Principlesam Series
iv. Piedmont Plateaus: Plateaus which is situated at
the foot of a mountain and is locked on the other side
by a plain or a sea/ ocean is called as a piedmont
plateau. The word ‘piedmont’ means ‘foot of a
mountain’. They are also called as Plateaus of
denudation as the areas once were high to the level of
mountains, have now been reduced to the foot level of
the mountain by various agents of erosion.
Examples: The Malwa Plateau is an example of
piedmont plateau Continental. Another example is
Malwa Plateau
Fig. 84: Piedmont Plateau Continental
v. Dissected plateau: A dissected plateau is a plateau
area that has been severely eroded so that the relief is
sharp. Such an area may appear as mountainous.
Dissected plateaus are distinguishable from orogenic
mountain belts by the lack of folding, metamorphism,
extensive faulting, or magmatic activity that
accompanies orogeny (mountain building). Example is
the Ellesmere Island in Canada.
Fig. 85: Formation of Dissected Plateau
The economic significance of Plateaus
➢ A storehouse of minerals: Most of the minerals in
the world are found in plateaus. The extraction of
minerals in plateaus is relatively easier on plateaus than
mountains. The major portions of industrial raw
materials are obtained from plateaus. We get gold from
the plateau of Western Australia; copper, diamond and
gold from the plateaus of Africa; and coal, iron,
manganese and mica from the Chottanagpur Plateau in
India.
➢ Generation of hydro-power: The edges of plateaus
form waterfalls which provide ideal sites for generating
hydel power.
➢ Cool climate: The higher parts of the plateaus even
in tropical and sub-tropical regions have a cool climate.
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➢ Animal rearing and agriculture: plateaus have
large grassland areas suitable for animal rearing
especially sheep, goat, and cattle. The lava plateaus
when compared to other plateaus are richer in minerals
and hence used for agriculture as the soil is very fertile.
Fig. 86: Formation of Structural Plain
Plains or Lowlands
Plains or lowlands refer to the areas below 300m above 2. Erosional lowlands or plains (mode of
the sea level. Plain or lowland is an extensive area of formation): These plains formed by the agents of
level or gentle undulating land, usually a few meters denudation such as rivers, wind, rain, glacier and ocean
above the sea level. Plains are the most important waves which wear out irregular rock surfaces, and
landforms found on the earth surface. smoothen them into plains known as erosional plains.
Formation Formation
➢ These plains are formed by the depositional activity ➢ Plains, resulting from the action of these agents of
of various geomorphic agents. denudation are called pediplain. Examples of erosional
➢ When plains are formed by the river deposits, they plains are Canadian Shield, Reg and Hamada of Sahara
are called as riverine or alluvial plains. Desert.
➢ A plain is nothing but a low-lying relatively flat land ➢ Erosional plains are formed by the continuous and
surface with very gentle slope and minimum local relief. longtime erosion of uplands. The surface of such plains
➢ About 55% of the earth’s land surface is occupied by is hardly smooth and hence, they are also called
plains. as Peneplains, which means almost plain.
➢ Most of the plain have been formed by deposition of
sediments brought down by rivers.
➢ Besides rivers, some plains have also been formed by
the action of the wind, moving ice and tectonic Fig. 87: Formation of Erosional Plain
activities.
Types of Plains or Lowlands 3. Depositional lowlands or plains (mode of
Base on the mode of formation, there are three major formation): These are plains formed by the deposition
types of lowlands or plains. These are; of materials or sediments transported thereby the
i. Structural lowlands or plains various agents of transportation such as rivers, winds,
ii. Erosional lowlands or plains waves and glacier forced to form these landforms.
iii. Depositional lowlands or plain.
1. Structural lowlands or plains (mode of
formation): These are relatively undisturbed
horizontal surface of the earth, formed by bedded
sedimentary rocks. Examples are the Russian platform
and the Great Plains of the USA.
Fig. 88: Formation of Depositional Plain
Formation
➢ These plains are mainly formed by the upliftment
Classification of Depositional lowlands or plains
of a part of the sea floor or continental shelf.
(features of river deposition)
➢ They are located on the borders of almost all the
Deposition of sediments results in the formation of
major continents.
several features, some of these features are:
➢ The structural plains may also be formed by the
1. The flood plain: this refers to the adjacent lowland
subsidence of areas.
at the river’s bank formed from the deposition of
sediments. The flood plain is inundated/ covered by
water during periods of high precipitation; however, it
can be seen when rainfall reduces and stream volume
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fall. It is formed adjacent to the stream bed and river
valley through the deposition of alluvium.
2. Deltaic plains: formed at the mouth of a river where
the river enters the sea. At the river’s mouth, transport
capacity of the river reduces and this encourages
deposition of fine sediments which form an extensive
platform. At the delta, the main river channel divides
into a network of minor channels called distributaries
through which the water flows into the ocean.
3. Alluvial plains or fans: They are usually formed in
the middle stage of a river. When a river is flowing at
a higher elevation abruptly flows into an area of
depression or lower elevation. The river’s velocity
falls abruptly and its transport capacity also reduces.
This leads to the deposition of alluvium (sediments) in
a fan-shaped feature called alluvial fan.
The economic significance of Plains
➢ Fertile soil: The plains generally have deep and
fertile soil. As they have a flat surface, the means of
irrigation can be easily developed. That is why plains
are called as the ‘Food baskets of the world’.
➢ The growth of industries: The rich agricultural
resources, especially of alluvial plains, have helped in
the growth of agro-based industries. Since the plains
are thickly populated, plenty of labour is available for
the intense cultivation and for supplying the
workforce for the industries.
➢ Expansion of means of transportation: The flat
surface of plains favours the building of roads,
airports and laying down railway lines.
➢ Centres of civilizations: Plains are centres of many
civilizations.
➢ Setting up of cities and towns: Easy means of
transportation on land and the growth of agriculture
and industries in plains have resulted in the setting up
and expansion of cities and towns. The most
developed trade centres and ports of the world are
found in the plains only and as much as 80% of the
world’s population lives here.
➢ The depositions of sediments in a lake give rise to
a Lacustrine Plain or Lake Plains. The Valley of
Kashmir is an example of lacustrine plain.
➢ When plains are formed by glacial deposits, they are
called as Glacial or Drift Plains.
➢ When the wind is the major agent of deposition,
those plains are called as Loess Plains.
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Principlesam Series
Mountain building
A mountain or orogeny is a large terrain rises high
and abruptly from the surrounding land. A natural
elevation of the earth’s surface rising more or less
abruptly to a summit and attaining altitude greater
than that of a hill”.
Classifications of mountains based on their mode of
formation
Trewartha Robinson and Hammond in Blij and Muller,
1993 made the following classification of mountains.
Therefore, mountains can be classified as;
➢ Plains- are low-lying with relief or less than
90m/300ft high.
➢ Hills- have relief up to 300m/1000ft
➢ Low mountains –between 300-900m/1000- 3000ft
➢ High mountains – in excess of 900m/300ft.
Characteristics of mountain belts
i. size/ alignment: e.g., Rockies stretch for over
4,800km from British Columbia in Canada to New
Mexico in USA.
ii. Age: Some mountains are young while others are
old.
The age is also determined by;
➢ Fossils in the case of fold mountains
➢ Rock basement and strata
➢ Geologic period of plate movement
➢ The extent to which geomorphic processes have
taken place.
iii. Thickness and characteristics of rock layers:
Ash, lava, etc. indicates volcanic mountain. A pattern
of folding and faulting or processes involved in their
formations may depend on the thickness of the rock.
iv. Metamorphism and plutonism: Most mountains
are continually deformed the process of metamorphic
changes through heat and pressure.
Classification or types of Mountains
The mountains, on the basis of their mode of
formation, can be classified as:
i. Fold Mountains
ii. Block Mountains
iii.Volcanic Mountains/ Accumulated Mountains
iv. Residual Mountains/ Relict Mountain
i. Fold Mountains: When plates collide or undergo
subduction (that is – ride one over another), the plates

tend to buckle and fold, forming mountains. Most of
the major continental mountain ranges are associated
with thrusting and folding or orogenesis. Examples are
the Balkan Mountains, the Jura and the Zagros
mountains. Example is Zard-Kuh, a fold mountain in
the central Zagros range of Iran.
Formation of Fold Mountains
Mountain ranges mainly consisting of uplifted folded
sedimentary rocks are called Fold Mountains. They are
formed due to the force of compression arising from
the endogenic or internal forces. Synclines (trough)
and anticlines (crest) are part of Fold Mountains. The
Himalayas in Asia, the Alps in Europe, the Rockies in
North America, and the Andes in
South America is the most prominent fold mountains
of the world. Since these mountain ranges were formed
during the most recent mountain building period, they
are also known as Young Fold Mountains.
Fig. 89: Formation of Fold Mountain
ii. Fault-block/ horst Mountains-Fault: Block
Mountain of the tilted type, Sierra Nevada Mountains
(formed by delamination) as seen from the
International Space Station. When a fault block is
raised or tilted, Block Mountains can result. Higher
blocks are called horsts and troughs are called
grabens. A spreading apart of the surface causes
tensional forces. When the tensional forces are strong
enough to cause a plate to split apart, it does so such
that a center block drops down relative to its flanking
blocks. An example of this is the Sierra Nevada Range;
where delamination created a block 650 km long and
80 km wide that consists of many individual portions
tipped gently west, with east facing slips rising
abruptly to produce the highest mountain front in the
continental United States. Another good example is the
Rila - Rhodope Mountain Massif in Bulgaria,
Southeast Europe, including the well-defined horsts of
Belasitsa (linear horst), Rila Mountain (vaulted domed
shaped horst) and Pirin Mountain - a horst forming a
massive anticline situated between the complex
grabens valleys of Struma and that of Mesta.
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Principlesam Series
Formation of Block Mountain
➢ Series of parallel faults develop
➢ Crustal rocks become weak
➢ There is an uplift of central block or sinking of side
blocks
➢ Sometimes forces pull the blocks apart, some parts
of the blocks move upward while sometimes others
may collapse downward.
➢ The upstanding block with tilting forms a Fault
Block or Block Mountain while the vertical one with
no tilting becomes a Horst.
Fig. 90: Fault Block and a Horst
Fig.91: Mt. Ruwenzori and Mt. Sinai
iii. Volcanic/Upwarped/ Accumulated/Uplifted
passive margins Mountains: Unlike orogenic
mountains there is no widely accepted geophysical
model that explains elevated passive continental
margins such as the Scandinavian Mountains, Eastern
Greenland, the Brazilian Highlands or Australia's Great
Dividing Range. Different elevated passive continental
margins most likely share the same mechanism of
uplift. This mechanism is possibly related to far-field
stresses in Earth's lithosphere. According to this view
elevated passive margins can be likened to giant
anticlinal lithospheric folds, where folding is caused by
horizontal compression acting on a thin to thick crust
transition zone (as are all passive margins).
Formation of volcanic or Accumulated Mountain
➢ The mountains formed by the accumulation of
volcanic materials are called as Volcanic Mountains or
Mountains of accumulation.

➢ Examples: Mount Mauna Loa in Hawaii Island,
Mount Popa in Myanmar, and Fuji Yama in Japan etc.
are some examples.
Fig. 92: Formation of volcanic or Accumulated Mountain
v.Residual/ Relict Mountains: Residual Mountains
are formed as a result of erosion of an existing
elevated area. They are also called mountains of
denudation. Examples in Europe include the Eastern
Rhodopes, part of the Rila-Rhodope Mountain
massif, which is the oldest landmass on the Balkan
Peninsula, the Scottish Highlands, the Scandinavian
Mountains, and Snowdonia in Wales. Examples in
India include: the Aravalli Range, the Nilgiri
Mountains in Tamilnadu, the Rajmahal Hills, and the
Eastern and Western Ghats. All these could be
accompanied and occurred through weathering by
agents such as wind, water, and ice. Inselbergs,
mesas and buttes are examples of Residual
Mountain.
Formation Residual Mountains or Relict Mountains
➢ We have seen the effects of weathering (as part of
exogenic processes). Weathering acts upon the earth’s
crust constantly.
➢ To a large extent, the process of wearing down
depends on the shape and structure of the rocks upon
which it acts.
➢ So, in some cases, some portions of an elevated area
escape from the process of weathering due to the
hardness of the materials it is made of.
➢ These portions remain unweathered while its
surrounding area gets eroded constantly. This results in
the formation of Residual or Relict Mountains.
➢ Examples: Hills like Nilgiri, Palkonda, Parasnath and
Rajmahal and Mountains like the Aravalli, the Vindhya,
and the Satpura are some of the examples of Relict
Mountains in India.
Fig. 93: Formation of Residual or Relict Mountain
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Principlesam Series
Economic Significance of Mountains
i. A storehouse of resources: Mountains are the
storehouse of natural resources. Large resources of
minerals like petroleum, coal, limestones are found in
mountains. The mountains are the main source of
timber, lac, medical herbs, etc.
ii. Generation of hydro-electricity: Hydro-electricity
is mainly generated from the waters of perennial rivers
in the mountains.
iii. An abundant source of water: Perennial Rivers
arising in the snow-fed or heavily rain-fed mountains
are one of the important sources of water. They help in
promoting the irrigation and provide water for many
other purposes.
iv. Formation of fertile plains: The Rivers that
originate from the high mountain ranges bring silt
along with water to the lower valleys. This helps in the
formation of fertile plains and further the expansion of
agriculture and related activities.
v. Natural political frontiers: The Mountains can also
act as natural boundaries between the two countries.
They have a prominent role in protecting the country
from external threats.
vi. Effects on climate: They serve as a climatic divide
between two adjoining regions. The mountains cause
orogenic rainfalls, diversion, and blocking of cold
winds, etc.
vii. Tourist centers: The pleasant climate and
beautiful sceneries of the mountains. They have nearly
horizontal rock layers which are raised to very heights
by vertical movements of the earth.
Why should we protect the Mountains?
Climate change is endangering mountain
environments. The changes the planet is undergoing
directly affect mountain settings, but also all those who
depend on them: fauna, flora and us, as humans.
a) Rising sea water levels: When glaciers melt, they
dramatically increase the sea level. It is estimated that
the sea level could rise by as much as 70 meters and
cause not only natural disasters but also fresh water
supply problems. This alteration of the oceans’ salt
water could also provoke the alteration of marine
currents, with a subsequent pattern change in the global
climate and extreme phenomena.
b) Pollution from mountain environments is
transmitted to both people and animals: The
ecosystem is interconnected like a large network, in
 Principlesam Series
which a small change can become a big problem. For
Fault Scarp
example, if a glacier melts, ice-trapped pollution can
enter rivers and oceans and end up affecting all living
organisms. The same can happen with the uncontrolled
dumping of chemical substances into natural karst
systems (spaces of soluble rock shaped by water),
where both groundwater and aquifers are the reservoir Fig. 94: a) Fault Scarp or Escarpment Fig. 94: b) Escarpment in
the Rift Valley system of East Africa
of drinking water for an area’s population.
c) Increase in natural disasters: Climatic variations
Formation of Kwahu-Mampong Scarp
can trigger natural catastrophes in mountain areas, such
❖ Fault scarps are the direct result of crustal
as avalanches, fires, floods… All this can end up
movement. They are produced as a result of a vertical
directly affecting the population and eliminating or
movement of the rocks along line of fault.
vulnerable and unique ecosystems in some places
❖ They may also result from tensional, compression
d) Climate alterations: Rising sea levels, caused by
forces and earthquakes where one side of the block
glacier melt, will cause a change in ocean currents due
may slide or sink along the face to create a steep slope
to the mix of fresh water with sea water. This will
with the other becoming gentle.
cause climate alterations and the appearance of severe
❖ Fault scarps could be altered by long period of
weather phenomena such as typhoons, tropical storms
denudation.
or variations in El Niño or La Niña.
e) Loss of biodiversity: Mountain areas are natural
refuges for many species of flora and fauna that are
endemic and/or in danger of extinction. These areas
represent a fragile ecosystem that is home to vulnerable
species, making them highly important hotspots
f) Increase in inequality in less developed areas: Fig. 95: Parts of Kwahu-Mampong Scarp
Mountain areas are vulnerable and less-developed
places in all respects. Because they represent a fragile Rift Valleys
ecosystem directly influenced by climate change, these ❖ Rift valleys consist of fault-trough between parallel
differences can become more noticeable, with growing faults on either side of the trough producing steep
inequality. faulting.
g) Uncontrolled deforestation: Forests are a key ❖ Rift valleys can form lakes when water collect in
element of mountain areas. They help us by improving them
air and water quality; they are a refuge for biodiversity, ❖ They are extensive and elongated depressions
they help reduce erosion in areas of steep terrain and usually between parallel faults
they are obvious physical barriers protecting us from ❖ They may also be found between ranges of hills and
natural disasters such as landslides, mudflows or mountains.
rockslides. Additionally, their roots help stabilize the How are they formed?
soil and contribute to reducing flood danger. It is believed to be formed through the hypotheses of
1.Tensional forces
Fault Scarp or Escarpment (formation) 2. Compressional forces
It is formed when steep slope facing a rock, hill,
mountain, etc. It is usually high and extensive with a
steep slope on one side and gentle slope on the other.
The steep slope forms the scarp. Examples are the
Kwahu-Mampong Scarp in Ghana, Elgeyo and Butiaba
scarps in Uganda, etc.
Fig. 96: Rift valley in diagram
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Graben (Characteristics)
Graben is a German word meaning Ditch. It is a
depression within a bedrock bordered by parallel faults.
It occurs side by side with Horst and is always
bordered by steep scarps
Formation
❖ They are produced by tensional forces which
produce parallel normal faults
❖ As a result, the hanging wall is thrown downward
while the footwall is thrown upward
Fig. 97: Graben in diagram
Fig. 98: Himalayas, the highest of all mountains
Formation
❖ From the uplift and folding of tectonic plates when
they move towards each other
❖ The movements may involve two continental plates
or a continental and oceanic plate
❖ Through compressional forces the land on either
side move towards each other (the centre) and the rocks
rise into series of folds or dome-shaped highlands
❖ They mostly form at the edges of continents due to
the thickest deposit of sedimentary rocks
Elevation of mountain belts
The stages involved in the formation of mountains are;
i. The accumulation stage
ii. The orogenic stage. Orogeny is a period of major
tectonic activities and mountain building
iii. The uplift and block- faulting stage
Orogenesis
❖ Orogenesis is the thickening of the continental crust
and the building of mountains over millions of years.
* Continent- continent convergence
*Oceanic- oceanic or continental convergence
❖ Orogeny encompasses all aspects of mountain
formation including plate tectonics, terrene accretion,
regional metamorphism, and thrusting, folding,
faulting, and igneous intrusions. Example is South
Carolina’s Blue Ridge Mountains and Inner Piedmont
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Principlesam Series
Region was formed by multiple orogenic events when
rocks were uplifted, metamorphosed, folded, faulted,
and thrusted.
The stages at orogenic is accompanied by;
- Metamorphism
- Volcanic and igneous activity
- Compressional and tensional (faulting)
- Subduction and spreading.
Deformation
➢ Deformation processes alter the earth’s crust by
extreme stress or pressure in the crust and mantle.
➢ Most deformation occurs along plate margins from
plate tectonic movements.
➢ Folding and faulting are the most common
deformation processes.
➢ Folding occurs when rocks are compressed such
that the layers buckle and fold. Ductile deformation.
➢ Faulting occurs when rocks fracture under the
accumulation of extreme stress created by compression
and extensional forces. Brittle Deformation.
Fig. 99: Stress and pressure as agent of deformation
Behavior of rocks under stress
• Elastic (recovery to original shape)
– Elastic limit
• Beyond this stress, permanent strain
• Plastic (ductile)
– Permanent strain by flow, or folding
– Typical at higher P, T within crust
• Brittle
– Permanent strain by fracture, failure
– Typical at lower P, T near surface
– Rocks fracture when strain rates are high

Faults and Faulting, Joints
Fault, a fracture in rock along which there is a
movement, usually occurs through diastrophism.
Faulting can be shift.
A fault is a crack, fracture or line of weakness in the
bedrock along which there has some displacement of
rock strata relative to one another. Faulting often
occurs in series and parallel. It is caused by the forces
that operate within the crust, thus the movement of the
earth. The earth’s movements of the earth (including
sea and ocean floor
Present Deformation of the Crust
Active fault: Fracture along which movement has
occurred rapidly
• “Creep”. Slow sustained movement along a fault
Joints: It is a break in rock along which no movement
has taken place. They may occur in the following form;
• Columnar jointing
• Sheet jointing
• Joint set
Fig. 100 a) Joint sets
Fault scarp/ escarpment (features)
➢ The steep facing slope of rock, hill, mountain etc. is
called Escarpment
➢ High and extensive with a steep on one side and
gentle slope on the other side.
➢ The steep slope forms the Scarp
➢ Examples are the Kwahu-Mampong Escarpment in
Ghana, Elgeyo and Butiabu in Uganda.
Fig.100: b) Fault scarp/ escarpment
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Fig. 100: c) Series of parallel faults
Types of Fault
There are several fault types but it has been classified
into three categories such as;
i. Normal fault: This is formed through tension; the
strata are pulled apart with one side of it thrown down
(divergence)
ii. Reverse/ thrust fault: This also occurs through
compressional force; the materials are pulled together
to form the faulting/fault. Reverse faults, a thrust fault
is a type of fault that has a dip of 45 degrees or less. If
the angle of the fault plane is lower (often less than 15
degrees from the horizontal and the displacement of the
overlying block is large (often in the kilometer range)
the fault is called an Overthrust or Overthrust fault.
Erosion can remove part of the overlying block,
creating a fenster (or window), when the underlying
block is exposed only in a relatively small area..
iii. Wrench/Tear/Transcurrent Fault: It is vertical
fracture which develops in rocks but instead of one side
of the rock moving vertically, the displacement is
horizontal along the line of fault.
iv. A strike-slip fault is a generally vertical fault where
the two sides pass horizontally past each other. If the
block opposite an observer facing the fault moves to
the right, the shift style is called “right lateral. If the
block moves to the left, the movement is called “left
lateral. The San Andreas Fault in California is the most
famous example of a right lateral impact-slip fault. It
produces a variety of floor shapes including pulse
shifts, louver ridges, detachable basins, overhanging
pools and deflected streams.

Fig. 100 d) Types of Faults
Classification of Faults
a) Fault blocks and host: A fault block is an uplifted
block between parallel faults with a form of tilting. It
has a steep slope on one side and a gentle slope on the
other, examples are: Sierra Nevada in USA, Mount
Ruwenzori Range in Uganda, etc. A Horst on the other
hand is a vertical uplift of block with no form of tilting.
It thus has steep sides, examples are: Mt. Sinai, Black
Forest Mt. in Germany, etc. Several movements of the
Earth's crust that lead to mountains are associated with
faults. These movements actually are amenable to
analysis that can predict, for example, the height of a
raised block and the width of an intervening rift
between blocks using the rheology of the layers and the
forces of isostasy.
b) Fault-bend folds: Thrust faults, particularly those
involved in thin-skinned style of deformation, have a
so-called ramp-flat geometry. Thrusts mostly propagate
along zones of weakness within a sedimentary
sequence, such as mudstones or salt layers, these parts
of the thrust are called decollement. If the
effectiveness of the decollement becomes reduced, the
thrust will tend to cut up the section to a higher
stratigraphic level until it reaches another effective
decollement where it can continue as bedding parallel
flat. The part of the thrust linking the two flats is
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Principlesam Series
known as a ramp and typically forms at an angle of
about 15°–30° to the bedding.
c) Fault-propagation folds: Fault-propagation folds
form at the tip of a thrust fault where propagation along
the decollement has ceased but displacement on the
thrust behind the fault tip is continuing. The continuing
displacement is accommodated by formation of an
asymmetric anticline-syncline fold pair. As
displacement continues the thrust tip starts to propagate
along the axis of the syncline. Such structures are also
known as tip-line folds. Eventually the propagating
thrust tip may reach another effective decollement
layer and a composite fold structure will develop with
characteristics of both fault-bend and fault-propagation
folds.
d) Thrust duplex: Duplexes occur where there are two
decollement levels close to each other within a
sedimentary sequence, such as the top and base of a
relatively strong sandstone layer bounded by two
relatively weak mudstone layers. When a thrust that
has propagated along the lower detachment, known as
the floor thrust, cuts up to the upper detachment,
known as the roof thrust, it forms a ramp within the
stronger layer. With continued displacement on the
thrust, higher stresses are developed in the footwall of
the ramp due to the bend on the fault.
Assignment 12
1. Write on geographical meaning of folding and
discuss their types
2. a) With the aid of diagram, describe the processes by
which fold mountains are formed
b) With using specific examples, outline the
characteristics of fold mountains
3. Write explanatory notes on features and formation of
the following;
i. rift valley ii. block mountain or horst
iii. residual plateau
4. a) Name three types plateaus
b) Describe the features and mode of formation of two
of the plateaus mention in (a) above
c) Outline four importance of plateaus
5. a) With of diagrams, describe the types of faults
b) With specific examples, highlight five important
uses of mountains to man.
c) With the aid of diagram, describe the three types of
faults
 Principlesam Series
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
RIVER/FLUVIAL PROCESSES AND LANDFORMS
The concepts of River
“A stream may be defined as a channelized flow of
water”. According to Jackie Smith; a river is a large
stream of fresh water flowing downhill within a
channel to enter another river or a lake or sea.
River: It refers to as fresh water that flows into an
ocean, lake, another river or depression. Or this is fresh
water that flows on the surface of the earth into an
ocean, lake another river or depression or hole. The
scientific study of a river is called potamology, while
limnology is the study of inland waters in general.
Rivers are relatively permanent bodies of water that
flow from highland areas to lowland areas under the B
influence of gravity. Rivers are distinguished from Fig. 101: a) Potamology b) Limnology
streams, creeks and brooks in that the former are
relatively larger in sizes compared to the latter. A river Source of a River
is usually sourced from a highland and flows through a - Rainfall
catchment area till it joins another river or the sea. The - Snowfall
area flown by a river and its tributaries is known as the Parts of a river
catchment area or drainage basin/water shed of that a) Mouth: This is where a river takes its source from
river. to form a delta.
A b) Tributary: This happens when a stream flows into
or joining a larger stream
c) Downstream: This occurs when water move
towards the mouth of river
d) Delta: A large, roughly triangular body of sediment
deposited at the mouth of the river.
e) Meander: A broad, looping bend in a river.
f) Braided: When a river is divided into multiple
channels by alluvial islands. This is what is called
braided of river. Braided river tend to have steeper
gradients.
g) Upstream: A river move toward headwater (up the
regional slope of erosion).
h) Distributary: When a numerous stream branches
into which a river divides where reaches its delta.

Fig. 102: The River Systems

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Components of River channel - Loss of property
1) Width -Land lost through flooding
2) Wetted perimeter Drivers: hydrology
3) Cross sectional area ➢ Determines channel size and the movement of
4) Water depth material
5) Stream gradient ➢ How catchments respond to precipitation and
snowmelt and in turn generate river flow depends on:
Component of river system ➢ Climate
1. Collecting system (branches) ➢ Topography
2. Transporting system (trunk) ➢ Land use
3. Dispersing system (root) ➢ Vegetation
➢ Soil
Geohazards of rivers ➢ Geology
- Loss of life ➢ Superficial drift cover
➢ Fluvial geomorphology input is needed for sustainable
river management and restoration
➢ For mitigating flood risk and geomorphic hazards

Fig.103: Sediment transport
Fluid flow in open channel
1. Uniform flow
2. Non-uniform flow
3. Steady Flow
4. Unsteady flow
5. Rapid flow: Stream gradient 40-50 degrees
6. Ultra-rapid flow: Stream gradient 60-80 degree
7. Renold number
Pattern
<500 = laminar flow, >500 = turbulent flow
8. Froude number: <1 = subcritical flow/ Tranquil,
1= critical flow, >1 = super critical flow
Types of river flow
i. Turbulent flow
ii. Lamina flow
Why is fluvial geomorphology important?
➢ Fluvial forms and processes are recognized as a
key component of river systems in EU WFD and
national legislation
➢ River landforms and flows constitute the basic
‘physical template’ that influences Riverine biota
Classification of rivers
Rivers in a basin can be classified based on their relative
sizes. The hierarchical classification of rivers based on their
relative sizes is what is referred to as stream order. The
concept of stream ordering is credited to Alan Strahler,
who proposed it in 1952.
According to Strahler;
1. All initial unbranched rivers constitute 1st order streams.
2. When two first order streams converge, a second order
stream is formed
3. When two streams of the same order, say to two 3rd order
streams, converge, the next higher order stream is formed;
in this example, a 4th order stream.
4. The convergence of two streams of different orders
where one is of a higher order than the other does not bring
about any change in their orders; the order of the bigger
stream is maintained. E.g. 3rd order + 4thorder = 4thorder.
5. It takes two streams of the same order to merge in order
to produce a stream of the next higher order.
6. The highest order stream is River Amazon in South
America followed by Mississippi of the United States.
Stream order is different from the number of streams in a
river basin.
First order streams are the world’s smallest streams or rivers
for first, through 3rd order streams are the headwaters in
the upper course. It is estimated that over 80% of the
world’s waterways are 1st to 3rd order streams 4th through
6th orders are medium size streams or rivers. From 7th up

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to 12th and above are largest rivers. For e.g.
Mississippi 10th while Amazon = 12th
Order streams.

Fig. 105: Classification of Rivers based on supply of

water (perennial river and Non-perennial or seasonal
river)

According to relation: Main River, tributary and

distributary

Fig. 104: The Stream Orders

Significance of stream orders Fig. 106: Classification of Rivers According to relation (Main
a. Gives an idea of the size of the stream River, tributary and distributary)
b. Determines the strengths of waterways
c. Allows for the study of sediments and load in a
waterway
d. It helps to determine the type of life present in
the waterway
e. Used in GIS to map river networks
f. It helps to understand the differences between
streams of different sizes and their management

Other Classifications of River based on their

sizes.
According to supply of water: Perennial River,
Non-perennial or Seasonal River
According to relation: Main River, Tributary,
Distributaries
According to their origin: Consequent,
subsequent, Sequent, obsequent
According to relation with structure of base:
Antecedent, Superimposed

Fig.107: Classification of River according to their origin

(Consequent, subsequent, Resequent, and Obsequent)
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Fig. 108: Superimposed River (superimposed
streams and Antecedent streams)
Works or Functions of a river
A river has three main functions. These are;
➢ Erosion
➢ Transportation and
➢ Deposition of materials.
Each of these functions is predominant at different
stages of the river’s course.
(a) River Erosion: River erosion is a very
powerful process which fosters the development of
surface features in a river valley. Erosion in the
river valley is influenced by factors such as the
velocity of the river, the gradient of the river basin,
the volume of the river, type of sediments carried
by the river, etc.
Fluvial erosion comes in two main forms. These
are;
1. Lateral/horizontal and
2. Vertical/downward erosion.
Lateral/horizontal erosion
Lateral erosion occurs where the river erodes it
banks. The condition that induces lateral erosion is
when the river has high kinetic energy but low
gravitational potential energy. Lateral erosion is
dominant at the middle and lower course of a river
where the gradient of the river valley is low,
leading to a reduction in its potential energy. It
leads to the formation of wide U-shaped valleys.
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Vertical/ downward erosion
This is vertical erosion dominant at the upper course of a
river. This part of a river’s course is characterized by high
gradient leading to a high gravitational potential energy of
the river. Gravity pulls the water body more towards the
earth hence erosion is downward. The result is the carving
of steep sided V- shaped valley at the upper course of a
river. This shows that vertical and lateral erosion varies as
one move from the upper to the lower course of a river. At
the upper course, vertical erosion is dominant, at the middle
course the two are at equilibrium while at the lower course;
there more lateral erosion than downward erosion.
Fluvial erosional landforms
River erosion results in the carving out of spectacular
landforms in the river channel. Some of these are:
1. Valleys- erosion carves out the channel in which rivers
flow. According to the Davisian cycle of erosion, river
channels are not pre-existing features. They are carved out
by external processes after landforms have been uplifted.
The two main types of valleys that river erosion creates are
U- shaped and V- shaped valleys. These names are just
reflections of the very shapes of the valleys produced by
the two types of stream erosion; lateral and vertical erosion.
2. Rills–these are minor linear gushes produced at the
initial stages of stream erosion.
3. Gullies- these are formed from widening of rills into
deep gutters.
4. Pot-holes – these are shallow depressions formed on the
river bed through vertical erosion.
5. Plunge pools are circular depressions formed at the
footwalls of waterfalls as the water scoops out hollows
through hydraulic action.
6. spurs- are a mass of sharp rock on the side of a
mountain.
Processes/Mechanisms of river erosion
River erosion has propelling mechanisms that sets it in
motion as well as maintains. These four ways are:
1. Hydraulic action- this refers to the scooting out of the
river bed and the banks as a result of the pressure exerted
by the water molecules as they forced against the bed or
banks of the river. In hydraulic action, the river uses its
kinetic energy to overcome any stress in its way leading to
erosion of its bank and bed.
2. Abrasion or Corrasion: This is the mechanism of river
erosion in which the load/ sediment in a river is rubbed
against the river bed and banks, leading to the wearing
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away of the river bank and bed through friction.
The sediments have abrasive effects on the river
bed or bank. Corrasion takes place in two different
ways:
(i) Lateral Corrasion: This is sideways erosion
which widens the river valley.
(ii) Vertical Corrasion: This is the downward
erosion which deepens on the river valley.
3. Attrition: In attrition, pebbles and boulders
carried by the river are rubbed against each other
causing their breakdown. The process of river
erosion whereby the eroded materials collide with
each other and further divided into smaller
particles.
4. Solution/corrosion: solution as a mechanism of
river erosion involves the dissolution of soluble
rock materials by the river. These dissolved
materials are then carried away by the river in
solution. This process reacts chemically with
soluble minerals in the rocks and dissolves them.
For example, when a river stream flows an area of
limestone (calcium carbonate), it erodes the
limestone by reacting chemically with it and
dissolves it.
Fig. 109: Processes of Erosion (Summary
diagram)
The features/ landforms produced through river
erosion are pothole, interlocking spurs rapids,
and waterfalls, etc. Rivers sometimes revive or
renew their erosive activities. This process is called
river rejuvenation. It is mainly caused by rapid
increase in the volume of the river through
excessive rainfall, river capture or a fall in sea
level. When rejuvenation occurs, the river develops
features and landforms such as Knick points, river
terraces and incised meanders among others.
(b) River Transportation
Rivers have power to transport the materials they
erode on their banks from higher grounds to lower
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grounds in the form of sediments. The transport process of
rivers is propelled by distinct mechanisms for specific type
of sediment. These mechanisms include:
The four (4) affecting factors are;
1. Slope of the River
2. Quantity of the water perimeter of the river
3. Weight of the materials
4. Size and weight of the materials
The Processes of River Transportation
1. Traction: Traction refers to the transport of heavier
sediments on the river bed. The materials are dragged along
the bed as the river flows. Large boulders requires large
amount of energy to move it. Only when there is enough
energy to move it, then will it move. Some can only be
move when there is heavy flooding. They usually slide and
roll along the riverbed. The loads are rolled downstream
along the bed of the riverbed. Traction large boulders
require large amount of energy to move it.
2. Suspension as a mechanism of river transport has to do
with sediments being mixed with the water and carried
along, though they do not get dissolved by the water. Fine
materials can be suspended in the water and therefore are
carried away in such a method. These particles are too light
to sink to the bottom of the fast moving river. Suspension
load forms the largest part of the river load. Materials that
can be suspended include silt, mud and clay.
3. Saltation: In Saltation, heavier loads such as boulders
and pebbles are bumped forth under the river’s power as if
they were leaping frogs. The materials are made to leap and
fall along the river bed. The leaping up and down the
riverbed, coarse sand and small rocks are transported down
the channel. This is due to the increase in river energy, and
the gravel are lifted and dropped along the river.
4. Solution: In solution, materials dissolved in river water
and transported as part of the water. Soluble materials
dissolve in the river water and are carried away as solution.
Materials that dissolve easily include calcium and sodium,
this type of transportation occurs at almost any time when
there is water.
5. Floatation: In this mechanism of river transport, lighter/
buoyant loads or materials are made to float on the water
surface and then eventually deposited at the lower course of
the river.
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Fig. 110: River Transportation; Traction,
Saltation, Suspension, and Solution
The Hjulström Curve
When discussing transportation, you need to know
the difference between the competence and
capacity of a river. The competence is the
maximum size of load a river is able to carry
whereas capacity is the total volume of material a
river can transport. The competence of a river is the
maximum particle size that a river can transport at
a particular point. The Hjulström curve shows the
relationship between river velocity and
competence. It shows the velocities at which
sediment will normally be eroded, transported or
deposited. The critical erosion velocity curve
shows the minimum velocity needed to for the river
to erode (pick up) and transport material of
different sizes (e.g. as bed load or in suspension). A
greater velocity is required to erode material
compared to just transporting it. The mean settling
velocity curve shows the velocities at which
different sized particles are deposited.
Fig. 111: The Hjulström Curve
(c) River Deposition: The next function of river as
an important factor in external landform
development is deposition. Deposition refers to the
laying down of the sediments carried by a river
mostly at its middle and lower course. Rivers carry
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lots of different sediments or materials, including rocks,
boulders, silt, mud, pebbles and stones. Normally, a river
has the power to carry sediment, but if the force of deposits
its drops, the river cannot carry sediment. This is when the
river deposits its sediment.
Deposition occurs in a selective manner. The deposition
process is characterized by the laying down of denser
materials first before lighter ones are later deposited. This
is called selective deposition. Deposition occurs primarily
as a result of the river losing it transporting ability. The
transporting ability of the river reduces as its gradient/slope
of its valley declines. Rivers flow from highlands to
lowlands. Features and landforms produced through river
deposition are deltas, meanders and cut-offs, levees,
alluvial fans and cones, braidation and flood plains among
others. Affecting factors of deposition are:
❖Decreasing the amount of water
❖Slope of the river
❖Dropping lake or ocean
❖Losses water velocity
Fig.112: Summary of deposition order
Reasons why a river deposit its sediments
1. Sediments are deposited when the river loses it velocity
ratio of flow
2. Sediments are deposited when the river has a lot of
rough river banks (rough meanders).
3. This occurs when the material carries along is mixed
with heavy load of debris and obstacles.
The affecting factors of a River works
❖ Climate
❖ Relief
❖ Nature of the rocks within the River
❖ Structure of the rocks
❖ Crack within the Riverine
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❖ Nature of the loaded material
❖ Nature of the wetted perimeter
❖Types of river
The Velocity of a river
The velocity of a river refers to the speed of the
river, which is the rate at which it moves its load in
valley. A river’s velocity is dependent on certain
factors such as:
1. The gradient of its valley
2. The volume of the river/ the discharge.
3. Shape of the rivers channel
4. Presence or absence of irregularities/obstacles.
Factors affecting the velocity of river
i. Topography
ii. The size of the river
iii. The volume of the river of which the river flows
iv. The nature of the existing rock
v. Velocity influences the development of a river
valley through erosion, transportation and
deposition; the main functions/work of a river.
The longitudinal profile of a river
A river course refers to the entire length from the
source to the mouth. This is divided into the upper
middle and lower courses. A river reveals three
main stages in its development from the source to
the mouth.
These are:
i. Youthful stage or upper course
ii. Mature stage or middle course
iii. Old age or lower course
Fig. 113: The Longitudinal Profile of a River
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Fig. 114: Cross-section of a stream profile
Development of a River Valley
The erosional and depositional land features produced and
modified by the action of running water may be better
understood if we note the stages through which a passes
from its source to its mouth. The source of a river may lie
in a mountainous region and the mouth may meet the sea or
lake. The whole path followed by a river is called its course
or its valley.
The course of a river is divided into three sections:
(i) The upper course or the stage of youth
(ii) The middle course or the stage of maturity
(iii) The lower course or the stage of old age.
River course
a) The upper course of a river
The upper course of the river is marked by high elevations
which increases the river’s gravitational potential energy.
These cause vertical erosion to supersede lateral erosion
leading to the creation of steep sided V-shaped valleys.
The main function of the river at this stage is erosion.
There is also transport of large pebbles and boulders. River
capture or piracy is also common at the upper course of the
river down with great speed. Under such a condition the
water can dig the river bed very deeply and carries or pools
down heavy boulders and pebbles. Erosion and
transportation are the main activities of a river in the upper
course.
A river has a deep and narrow channel in this stage.
Moreover, some of the rocks over which a river flows are
very hard, while the others are soft. As a result of this, the
river course is not smooth. It has falls, cataracts and rapids
in its course. The deep and steep-sided river valley is V-
shaped here. Both erosion and transportation are active at
this stage.
Sometimes, the river flows through very hard rocks. In that
situation the two sides of the river become so steep that
they become almost vertical. The formation is known as
Gorge. There are many gorges on the upper course of the
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Brahmaputra, the Indus, and the Ganges. Again,
when river flows through dry desert its bed
becomes very deep and the two sides become
vertical. The river valley takes the shape of I
instead of V. E.g. of upper course upper course;
erosional are V-shaped valley, shaped valley or
Canyon, George, Hanging Valley.
Fig. 115: a) Erosional landform of a river; Rapids, V-
Shaped Valley, Waterfall and Canyon
The Grand Canyon of the river Colorado of U.S.A.
is one of the best examples. On the other hand,
when river flows through soft rocks in the heavy
rainfall areas erosion takes place towards the head
of the river in addition to vertical and lateral
erosion. As a result, the source of the river retreats.
This type of erosion of the river is called Headword
Erosion. The sources of Sutlej and Koshi have
retreated towards Tibetan side and of Kaveri
towards west in Western Ghats. The other two
important formations of the upper course of a river
are rapids and waterfalls. When water flows with
high speed over the hard rock surface it is called
rapids and when the water falls vertically
downward it is called waterfalls. The Jog or
Gerosoppa falls of Kaveri river, Dhuandhar falls
near Jabalpur, Indrawati falls of Baster of Madhya
Pradesh, Hundroo falls of Ranchi and Bidan and
Bishop Falls of Shillong are some of the famous
waterfalls of India.
Some characteristics
✓ From the source to Mountain, Plateau areas
course are fall under this course.
✓ Downward erosion is the main characteristics.
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✓ As a result, I, V shaped valley, Canyon are formed
✓ Steep slope
✓ Height above base level
✓As a result, Erosional power of the river is more
Upper course (landforms)
In the upper course, there are a few unique landforms,
mainly caused by erosion, which you are not going to find
in the other courses of the river.
a) Mudstone - Where rivers flow over bands of tocks with
different resistance, the softer rocks will be eroded more
quickly. The River Twiss flows over limestone rocks and
meets a band of mudstone. The mudstone wears away
more quickly, creating a step which gradually becomes
deeper.
b) Overhang - Eventually the overhanging resistant rock
will collapse, making the waterfall steeper. If this happens
repeatedly, the position of the waterfall moves upstream,
known as retreat.
c) Undercutting - The water flows down over the resistant
rock but when it reaches less resistant rock underneath, it
erodes it, cutting back into the rock and creating the
overhang above.
d) Plunge pool - At the foot of the waterfall is where
plunge pool can be found. It is an area of deeper water that
has been created by the rapid erosion of the mudstone as
the waters plunge down. The higher the waterfall, the
greater the speed of erosion due to the higher speed the
water is travelling at.
Features of Upper Course a River
1. V-shaped Valley (characteristics)
It is valley whose outline resembles letter V'. It is deep. It is
steep-sided. The upper part is wide but it is narrow
towards the bed. It occurs at the upper part of a river River.
Rivers in Ngaila (Kenya) and Kafui (Zambia) have V-
shape valleys
Formation of V-shape Valley
it is formed at the upper part of a river. The river cuts
deeply into its bed due to high gradient. Farther vertical
erosion depends deepens the valley. Weathering and mass
wasting widen the upper part of the valley and it looks like
letter 'V'
2. Interlocking Spurs (Characteristics of Interlocking Spurs)
They are highlands that project into the river. They occur at
the upper part of a river They are found on either side of a
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winding river. They block the view of the river
valley. The river flows around the projected
highlands in the valley. The concave (outer) banks
are undercut and they stand as river cliff while the
inner (convex) banks have slip off (gentle) slope.
Erosion is vertical and headward (towards the
mouth). Examples are found at the upper part of
River Niger, Nile and those in the Lake District of
Britain.
Fig.115: b) V-shape Valley and Interlocking Spurs
Some characteristics:
✓River valleys are wider
✓Meandering of the river
✓Lateral erosion
✓Stratification of sediments
✓Ox -Bow Lake
✓Decreasing water velocity
b) The middle course of a River
The middle course of the river is characterized by a
reduction in gradient of the valley which tends to
reduce the gravitational potential energy of the
water. The potential energy is converted to kinetic
energy which induces more lateral erosion than
vertical erosion. There is the formation of a U-
shaped valley and some meanders. There also some
deposition which can cause the formation of flood
plains. As a river leaves the hilly area and enters
into a plain, its middle course starts. The slope of
the river bed is less on a plain. Hence, the speed of
the current is also less, compared to the upper
course. The river is fed by many tributaries and its
volume of water increases. The water flows at a
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slow speed, it cannot very much erode the bed nor can it
transport much material. But as the volume of water is
more, the banks are eroded and the river becomes wide.
Towards the lower part of the plain course, the slope of the
river bed becomes still less. The speed of the current also
decreases. It can hardly erode and transport at this stage.
The additional sediments carried by the river during the
floods are deposited in this part. The channel is sometimes
blocked, the river changes its course very often and
becomes winding. Such a winding channel is known as a
meander. Middle course; transportation: Rapids,
Waterfalls, Potholes and Plunge pools
Depositional: Meander, Riffle and Pool, Flood plain, River
Terrace, Alluvial Fan, Natural Leave, Point Bar.
Fig. 116: Ox-Bow Lake
i. Ox-Bow Lake: The lower part of the Dhansiri River of
Assam has a highly meandering course. The water flowing
through a meander normally strikes on its concave sides
and erodes it. On the other hand, sediments are deposited
on the convex sides.
Thus, the gap at the mouth of a meander decreases. At the
high flood time when water flows with speed the gap may
be removed. The river finally finds a straight course
leaving the meander aside. Such an abandoned meander is
called as Ox-bow Lake. There are many ox-bow lakes on
the two sides of Beki and Dhansiri rivers of Assam. At the
time of flood, water inundates the low-lying area by the
side of the river. The silt carried by the flood is thus
deposited in this area year after year and a plain is built up.
Such a plain is known as flood plain. The main activities
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of a river at its middle course are some amount of
erosion and some amount of deposition. At the foot
of the mountains, the materials carried by the river
from the upper course start collecting and taking
the shape of fan. It is called Alluvial Fan. In
course of time many alluvial fans join together to
make a plain. This type of plain at the foot of the
mountain is called Bhabar.
Fig. 117: a) Ox-bow Lake collapses to form River Meander
iii. Meanders: Formation of Meander
1) Due to banks of sediment at the bottom of the
river
2) This movement targets one bank of the section
after the riffle, subsequently leading to erosion
(carried out by hydraulic action and abrasion) – this
becomes the outside bend of the meander.
3) This leads to the formation of a river cliff on the
outside bend. The material eroded further upstream
is deposited on the opposite bank (inside bend) on
the slip off slope
4) Erosion and deposition continue which leads to
the meanders becoming more curved. The term
derives from the Meander River located in present-
day Turkey and known to the Ancient Greeks
iii. Waterfalls Formation
Waterfalls form where a river flows over an area of
hard rock followed by an area of softer rock. The
softer rock is eroded (more than harder rock) by
hydraulic action and abrasion. This creates a “step”
in the river. This gets eroded more and more. The
hard rock is eventually undercut by erosion. It
becomes unsupported and collapses.
Ways of a waterfall
✓Glaciers
✓Erosion of soft rock
✓Fault Scarp
✓Knick Point
✓Volcanoes
✓Earthquake Canyons
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Fig. 117: b) Formation of Waterfall
Conditions under which waterfall ca be formed
- there must be a resistant rock
- the resistant rock must lie across/discordant to the river
valley
-the river must plunge over the resistant rock to form a
waterfall
- the river valley must have a river flowing in it
- a fault line scarp must cut across a river valley
- a river must plunge over an edge of a plateau
- high velocity of flow
- the presence of a hanging valley
-damming of rivers
-the presence of a dyke across the river channel
iv. Waterfalls: Gorge
Over time, the more undercutting causes more collapse.
The waterfall will retreat (move back up the channel)
leaving behind a steep-sided gorge.
A gorge is a vertical narrow steep sided valley that is
usually found immediately downstream of a waterfall. The
river channel is found on the valley floor. There is often
many areas of bare rock, with turbulent, fast flowing water.
Characteristics of gorges
➢ also called ravines/canyons
➢ Elongated
➢ steep sided
➢ can be dry
➢ favours the construction of dams
➢ could be associated with faults
➢ deep narrow river valley
➢ can be found in limestone regions
➢ can be found on dissected plateau
➢ found along rejuvenated rivers
➢ formed where rivers cross outcrops of resistant rocks
➢ very common in upper course of rivers
➢ usually V-shaped
➢ Examples include the Rhine in Germany, Shiroro gorge
on river Kaduna, Bumbuna gorge in Sierra Leone on River
Rokel, Bui gorge on River Volta in Ghana, along River
Indus in India, Ajena gorge on River Volta in Ghana etc.
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Mode of formation of gorges
- formed mostly in the upper course of a river
- formed where waterfall retreats upstream
-formed along fault lines
- presence of alternate bands of hard and soft
rocks
- formed where rivers cut deeply along the lines of
weakness vertically
- further vertical erosion deepens the valley
- this creates an elongated depression
- the depression has steep sides due to minimal
lateral erosion
- the valley is called a gorge
- could be formed where a river crosses a
limestone region
- also where a river incises itself into the land
surface due to fall in sea level
Fig. 117: c) Formation of Gorges
Depositional landform of a River (Middle Course)
i. Riffle and Pool
ii. Alluvial Fans
i. Riffle and Pool:
➢ Riffle: Topographic highs along an undulating
reach-scale longitudinal profile. They occur at
characteristic locations, typically between bends
(the inflection point) in sinuous alluvial channels.
Clusters of gravel (up to boulder size) are
organised into ribs, typically with a rippled water
surface at low-stage. Alluvial riffles are alternating
shallow step-like forms that span the channel bed.
These sediment storage zones tend to comprise
tightly imbricated bed materials, suggesting the
action of local sorting mechanisms. They induce
local steepening of the bed.
➢ Pool: Pools may span the channel, hosting
tranquil or standing flow at low flow stage.
Alluvial pools are alternating deep areas of channel
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along an undulating reach-scale longitudinal bed profile.
Pools tend to be narrower than riffles and act as sediment
storage zones. They form at characteristic locations,
typically along the concave bank of bends in sinuous
alluvial channels.
fig. 117: d) Riffle and Pool
ii. Alluvial Fans: An alluvial fan is a large fan-shaped
deposit of sediment on which a braided stream flow over.
Alluvial fans develop when streams carrying a heavy load
reduce their velocity as they emerge from mountainous
terrain to a nearly horizontal plain. The fan is created as
braided streams shift across the surface of this feature
depositing sediment and adjusting their course.
Alluvial fans (Formation)
❖ Decrease of the slope
❖ Partiality blind valley
❖ Formation of braided structure of river
❖ Low transporting capacity due to braided structure of
river
❖ Weather
❖ Parent material
Modes of deposition of alluvial fans
❖ Flash flood
❖ inert stream relation
❖ Stream flood
Fig. 118: Alluvial Fans
c) The lower course of a river
The last part of a river near its mouth is called the lower
course. In this part the slope of the river bed is not very
steep. The current is also very slow. Deposition is the main
activity of a river at this stage. The silt and other materials
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 Principlesam Series
carried by the river are deposited. The river As the river erodes sideways, it swings from side to side,
channel is blocked very often and new branch forming large bends called meanders.
channels are dug out. In this way branching takes
place at the mouth of a river. These branch Braided River: The silt carried by the river water is,
channels are known as distributaries and the river therefore, deposited at the mouth. In the course of time, the
is said to be braided. As the river meets the sea the silt thus deposited forms a triangular island at the mouth of
current is almost halted. At the lower course of a the river. This is known as delta. When the tidal waves and
river, the stream gradient is very low and the sea currents constantly wash the river mouth a delta cannot
river’s speed decreases. There is therefore more be formed. Such a free mouth of a river is called an
deposition than erosion and lateral erosion estuary.
completely dominates vertical erosions. More
depositional features are therefore formed. It is
clear from the above that the velocity of a river is
the function of the stream gradient, the stream
volume, the nature of the stream bed and obstacles
or irregularities. The stream volume is also a
function of the amount of precipitation, number of
tributaries, rate of evaporation, etc. Also, features
such as flood plains, levees, delta’s etc. are a
function of deposition. Additionally, river capture,
gutters, plunge pools, etc. are a function of erosion.
E.g. Lower course; Depositional: Delta Fig. 119: a) Braided and River Valley Profile

Lower course (landforms) Delta: Delta is found in the old stage of a river. It is the
Unlike the upper course, the middle course has triangular shaped landform made up of alluvial deposition
both erosion and deposition acting upon it, but by in the mouth of the river. It is named after the fourth Greek
the lower course, the main process acting on it is alphabet called delta. Example, The Ganges Bhramaputra
deposition. delta is the largest delta in the world. The deltas of the Nile,
a) Meanders: In a meander, the river swings from Mississippi, Volga, Po and Yangstze kiang are some of the
side to side and the force of it doing so directs the world-famous depositional features at the mouth of the
fastest current and greatest force of water against river.
the outside of the meander, forming a steep bank
called a river cliff. On the inside edge of the
meander, the current is slower and deposition of
sand takes place, creating a gently sloping bank
called a slip-off slope.
b) Ox-bow Lake: Narrow neck of land is eroded.
Narrow neck of land is cut through and water takes
quickest route. An ox-bow lake is formed. A
deposition seals off old meander and ox-bow Lake
begins to dry up.

Features of lower course of a river

i. In the lower course of the river the gradient is
gentler than in the upper course.
ii. In the lower course there is more lateral
(sideways) erosion
Fig. 119: b) The Delta
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Fig. 119 c) Summary of the three courses of Rivers
Conditions/favorable factors for constructing Delta
✓ The river must have large load. This will be
possible if there is active erosion in the upper and
middle stages.
✓There should not be extensive deposition in the
middle stage e.g. presence of lake in between or
high evaporation rate (first).
✓The river’s load must be deposited faster than it
can be removed by the action of currents and tides.
✓ The presence of shallow adjoining sea or
continental shelf
✓The velocity of a river must be sufficiently low to
allow most of its load to be deposited in the river’s
mouth.
✓The relative density of ocean water
✓Agents of ocean water
✓Physiographic characteristics (gradient, depth,
etc.) of the coastal areas
Classification of Deltas: (According to shape)
1) Bird’s Foot Delta: They are formed due to
deposition of finer materials by river water.
Deposited alluvial material divides the river into
smaller distributaries. Such delta is also called as
finger delta. Example, Mississippi river delta, the
USA. Bird-foot deltas resembling the shape of foot
of a bird are formed due to deposition of finer
materials which are kept in suspension in the river
water which is lighter than the sea water. The rivers
with high velocity carry suspended finer load to
greater distances inside the oceanic water.
Principlesam Series
Fig.120:a)
Characteristics
➢ Fine materials
➢ Less densely water of river
➢ Linear delta
➢ Distributaries Rivers
➢Mississippi river delta
➢Mississippi river delta increasing 75m/year
2) Arcuate Delta: A bowed or curved delta with the
convex margin facing the body of water. It is also known as
fan-shaped delta. Such deltas are like an arc of a circle or a
bow and are of lobate form in appearance wherein middle
portion has maximum extent towards the sea whereas they
narrow down towards their margins. Such deltas are formed
when the river water is as dense as the sea water. The
arcuate or semi-circular shape is also given to such deltas
by sea waves and oceanic currents. The Nile Delta and
Ganga Delta in India is the best example of arcuate deltas
(fig. 120b), which is also called as Nile type of delta.
Arcuate deltas are formed of coarser materials including
gravels, sands and silt. The main river is bifurcated into
numerous channels known as distributaries. Such deltas are
very often formed in the regions of semi-arid climate.
Characteristics
➢ Latin word archus = bow (dhanuk)
➢ Bow in sea
➢ Joint result of Ocean current & ocean wave
➢ Maximum spread in middle part
➢ Called Bajni delta or jihba/ toung delta
➢ Increasing towards sea called progradation
➢ Nile river delta, Ganga River delta
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Fig.120b)
3) Estuarine Delta: It is formed at the mouth of
submerged rivers depositing down the sides of the
estuary. The delta is formed due to filling of
estuaries of rivers are called estuarine deltas. Those
mouths of the rivers are called estuaries which are
submerged under marine water and sea waves and
oceanic currents remove the sediments brought by
the rivers. Such deltas are called estuarine deltas.
The deltas of Narmada and Tapi (formerly Tapti)
rivers of India are the examples of estuarine deltas.
The other significant examples of estuarine deltas
include Mackenzie delta, Vistuala delta, Elb delta,
Ob delta, Seine River of France, Hudson delta etc.
Characteristics
➢ Deposition of river load into Long elongated
fiords
➢ Rine river delta in Germany
➢ Shain river delta in France
4) Cuspate Delta: It consists of fine to course
materials. It has a straight coastline and pointed
river mouth. it is extensive and has few
distributaries. Examples are the deltas of River
Ebro in Spain and River Tiber in Italy.
Characteristics
➢ Linear coast
➢ High velocity wave
➢ Flourish river load
➢ Limb of the delta is like arc to bend
➢ Bend increasing towards sea
➢ Taibar river delta in Italy
Principlesam Series
5. Truncated Delta: Sea waves and ocean currents modify
and even destroy deltas deposited by the river through their
erosional work. Thus, eroded and dissected deltas are
called truncated deltas.
6. Blocked Delta: Blocked deltas are those whose seaward
growth is blocked by sea waves and ocean currents through
their erosional activities. The progradation of deltas may
also be hampered due to sudden decrease in the supply of
sediments consequent upon climatic change or manage-
ment of catchment areas of concerned rivers.
7. Abandoned Delta: When the rivers shift their mouths
in the seas and oceans, new deltas are formed, while the
previous deltas are left unnourished. Such deltas are called
abandoned deltas. The Yellow (formerly Hwang Ho) river
of China has changed its mouths several times and thus has
formed several deltas. For example, the present delta of the
Yellow river is to the north of Shantung Peninsula while
the previous delta was deposited to the south of the
peninsula. The western part of the Ganga delta, which is
drained by the Hoogli River is an example of abandoned
delta.
Classification of Deltas: (According to Structure)
a) High destructive delta
b) Wave influenced delta
c) Tide influenced delta
d) High constructive delta
Fig. 120: c) Summary classification of Delta (Bird’s foot delta,
arcuate delta and estuarine delta)
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Benefits of deltas to man
1. They are good sources of petroleum, e.g., the
Niger delta of Nigeria.
2. They are excellent fishing grounds.
3. Fishes caught include tilapia and carries.
4. Most of them are tourist sites. Examples are the
Volta estuary and the Nigeria
5. They favour cultivation of crops like rice and
sugar cane. Raffias also grow wild in deltas.
River capture or Piracy
River capture is a major feature of the upper course
of a river. It is also known as river beheading or
piracy. A river capture occurs when a river of
strong erosive ability cuts into the basin of a minor
river and redirect the waters of the minor river into
its channel. The stronger streams (in terms of
channel gradient, stream velocity, and discharge
and kinetic energy) capture the upper courses of
weak and sluggish streams; (Fig.121) depicts the
stages of the capture of the Saraswati River by the
Yamuna River. The diversion of the part of the
course of a river by another river is called stream
diversion or stream capture or stream piracy. The
river which captures the course of another river is
called the capturing or captor stream while the part
of the stream which has been divested of its course
and water is called the capture.
Fig.121: River Capture or Piracy in Sarswati
River through the process of headward erosion
Principlesam Series
Types of river capture
The capture of a river is categorized in three folds, such as;
(1) Capture through headward erosion,
(2) Capture through lateral erosion, and
(3) Capture through the intersection of meanders.
(1) River capture through headward erosion: Most of
the river captures occur due to headward erosion. In the
initial stage of their development most of the streams and
their tributaries are engaged in active headward erosion
resulting into continuous creeping or shifting of water
divides and lengthening of their valley that wegs. The
nature and intensity of headward erosion of any stream
largely depends on the potential energy (height of the
divide) and the steepness of the side slope of the water
divide
Fig. 122: Illustration of river capture through
headward erosion WG= Water Gap, wg=wind gap
First, D stream, a tributary of B stream, was captured by
C stream, a tributary of A stream through active headward
erosion. Secondly, the headwaters of B stream (from the
source to E point, the elbow of capture) were diverted
towards A stream via D and C streams due to fallout of
the first stage. C-D streams now flow through deeply
entrenched narrow valley known as gorge (fig. 122). This
narrow passage through the ridge is called water gap (WG
in Fig. 122). B-E portion of the former B consequent
stream has become captured stream which turns at right
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angle forming an elbow of capture (E in fig. 17.18
II). H-B portion of the former B consequent has
now become a beheaded stream, the upper part of
which is called wind gap (wg. in fig. 122) because
of dry bed of the river due to capture of the upper
portion of the river. The H-B portion of the former
B consequent stream has now become misfit or
under fit river because now the existing H-B stream
is unable to adjust itself in its former valley
because of marked reduction in the volume of
water due to diversion of its headwaters to A
stream via D-C streams as a result of river capture.
There are two evidences which enable the
investigators to identify the captured streams in the
field.
(i) Elbow of capture and
(ii) Wind gap just to the downstream side of the
elbow.
The erosional work of the beheaded stream
becomes almost nil because of marked reduction in
the volume of water. Sometimes, the valley of the
beheaded stream becomes almost dry. On the other
hand, the captor streams (fig. 122, C and A) resort
to more vertical erosion resulting into accelerated
rate of valley deepening because of marked
increase in the volume of water due to additional
supply of water of D stream and headwaters of B
stream (B-E portion) because of river capture. It
may be pointed out that C and D tributary streams
were formerly flowing in opposite directions, but
now the waters of D stream flow in the direction of
C stream. Thus, such streams of reversed flow
direction are called inverted streams.
Examples: A group of geologists and
geomorphologists believe that the present drainage
system of the Himalayas is the outcome of
progressive river piracy during various stages of
drainage development.
(2) River capture through lateral erosion:
Lateral erosion and consequent valley widening
becomes more active and significant during mature
stage of river development than vertical erosion
and valley deepening. The water divides between
parallel streams developed on sedimentary rocks of
the coastal plains are gradually narrowed down due
to lateral erosion and valley widening. The streams
having more volume and discharge of water and
Principlesam Series
relatively steeper channel gradient than the other streams
resort to more lateral erosion due to which smaller-parallel
tributaries are consumed by the larger parallel streams. This
process of river capture is called stream abstraction or
natural selection.
(3) River capture through the intersection of meanders:
The streams adopt highly sinuous and meandering courses
during their late mature and old stages of development
because of the development of level to gentle slopes (0° -
5°) over major part of the area concerned. The meanders of
two closely spaced streams are gradually sharpened due to
continuous lateral erosion and ultimately, they intersect
each other and thus relatively more powerful stream
captures the waters of the other stream. For instance, the
Belan river, a tributary of the Tons river (which is itself a
tributary of the Ganga river), has captured the lower course
of its tributary, the Seoti river near Deoghat (about 80 km
south of Allahabad city) through meander intersection and
now has pushed its course through the course of the Seoti
while its older course, now an example of a palaeochannel,
has become quite narrow due to sedimentation and
anthropogenic processes (cultivation).
Conditions necessary for river capture/ piracy
Some conditions must be present to facilitate the formation
of a river capture. They include:
1. That a major river of higher erosive powers must lie
adjacent to a minor one
2. There must be two rivers flowing adjacent or almost
adjacent to each other. One must be powerful than the other
3. The powerful river should flow on relatively softer rocks
and at a lower base
4. The powerful river should erode headwardly to cut
through (breach) the watershed to enter the valley of the
weaker river
5. The headwaters of the weaker river is now redirected
into the channel
6. The captor river must lie on less resistant rocks to enable
the erosive processes.
7. The two rivers must lie adjacent to each other
8. The major river must erode into the headwaters of the
minor one.
9. The waters in the minor stream are redirected into the
channel of the bigger one.
10. The captor river increases in size and becomes more
powerful.
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Evidence of river capture/ piracy
1. There is a wind gap; there is space left at the
lower valley of the captured river
2. Elbow of capture; the point at which the capture
occurred
3. A misfit river; the captured river reduces in
volume and becomes smaller
4. Increased volume of the captor river
5. Examples: the Volta River Capture, Niger River
Capture, etc.
Before and after
Fig. 121: River Capture or Piracy; Before and After
Fig. 122: River capture/ piracy on Volta River and
Niger River Capture
Principlesam Series
Importance of river capture
1. River capture is very useful in diversion of a river that
can cause a flooding in a city.
2. The wind gaps are used in constructing roads, railways,
etc.
3. They are rich in agriculture land with vegetation always
available for cattle and farming activities.
4. It may also be useful for settlement
5. It is useful in tourism sector as people visit for pleasure
and relaxation.
Patterns of flow and velocity of a river
Two patterns of flow are identified namely:
a. Laminar or Horizontal
b. Turbulent or vertical
Laminar/Horizontal flow is more or less nonexistent.
Horizontal movement if existed would not disturb the river
bed.
Turbulent flow involves both lateral and vertical flow. It is
the dominant flow
Pattern and mostly depends on the velocity of the river.
Watershed: The line that demarcates the topographic of
the water across the drainage areas or a particular
watercourse or water body.
Processes shaping rivers
Weathering and mass movement are the main processes
that shape river valleys.
a. Weathering
i. Freeze-thaw - In the cold winter months, when rain
water enters a crack in a rock and freezes, the freezing
process exerts pressure on the rock eventually causing it to
break into smaller pieces.
ii. Biological - Tree roots can penetrate cracks in rocks and
split them apart
Chemical, all rainwater is slightly acidic and this can
dissolve some rocks, especially limestone and chalk.
b) Mass movement
❖ Soil creep - Particles of soil slowly move down the
sides of valleys due to gravity
❖ Slumping - The river erodes the valley sides making
them steeper and increasing the downward movement of
material. Heavy rainfall can trigger this movement.
River Rejuvenation
A river is said to be rejuvenated when the river has been
eroding the landscape in response to the lowering of its
base level. The process is often a result of a sudden fall in
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sea level or the rise of land. River rejuvenation can
lead to a number of changes in landscape. These
include the formation of waterfalls and rapids,
knick points, river terraces and incised meanders.
Rejuvenated terrains usually by the downcutting.
The effect of seaward tilting can be felt
immediately only when the direction of that stream
is parallel to the direction of tilting. Have complex
landscapes because remnants of older landforms
are locally preserved.
Fig. 123: River Rejuvenation (Before and After)
Causes of rejuvenated river
Rejuvenation may result from causes which are
dynamic, eustatic or isostatic in nature. All of this
cause the river to erode its bed vertically River
a) Dynamic rejuvenation: A region may be
uplifted at any stage. This lowers the base level and
streams begin active downward erosion again.
Dynamic rejuvenation may be caused by the
epeirogenic uplift of a land mass. Warping or
faulting of a drainage basin will steepen the stream
gradient followed (downcutting) faster as it
gains gravitational potential energy. That causes
effects such as incised meanders, steps where the
river suddenly starts flowing faster, and fluvial
terraces derived from old floodplains.
b) Eustatic rejuvenation: Eustatic rejuvenation
results from worldwide decrease in sea level, and
two types of such rejuvenation are recognized.
Diastrophic eustasy is the change in sea level due
to variation in capacity of ocean basins, whereas
glacio-eustasy is the change in sea level due to
withdrawal or return of water into the oceans, due
to the or melting of successive ice sheets. Eustatic
rejuvenation relocates the mouth of the stream.
Regrading of stream toward a new lower base level
Principlesam Series
will precede up-valley. The result may be an interrupted
profile with the point of intersection of the old and new
base levels.
d) Static rejuvenation: Static rejuvenation may also
occur, in rare instances, when a downstream knickpoint
erodes its way upstream to a lake which establishes base
level for its tributaries. When the knickpoint reaches the
lake, the lake drains, and the base level of upstream waters
lowers rapidly from that of the (now former) lake to that of
the river downstream of the knickpoint. At some point in
the future, a quite dramatic example will appear
when Niagara Falls cuts its way back to Lake Erie.
Three changes may bring static rejuvenation, to the stream.
➢ Decrease in loads
➢ Increase in runoff because of increased rainfall
accumulation
➢ Increase in stream volume through acquisition of new
tributaries
Rejuvenation due to decrease in load took place during
posts glacial times along many valleys that formerly
received large quantities of glacial outwash. With change to
no glacier conditions stream load decreased and valley
deepening ensued. Rejuvenation may result in a
"knickpoint", as it appears on a river profile, which often
appears as a rapid or a waterfall. An example is the
Seljalandsfoss stream in southern Iceland, where isostatic
(dynamic) uplift has occurred as a result of both
construction and deglaciation.
Knickpoint and waterfall (river terraces)
A knickpoint is a point on the river's course where there is
a change in the gradient of the river profile. An example of
a visible knickpoint would be a waterfall. However, some
knickpoints can be concealed in the landscape. It is
important that while there are other contributing factors to
such features in the landscape, rejuvenation is one of the
major influences. As mentioned, when a river rejuvenates,
it gains more energy and erodes vertically to meet its new
base level. The remains of an old floodplain at a higher
elevation than the present one. It typically results from
river rejuvenation with further rejuvenation able to form
new terraces, resulting in a step-like profile around a river.
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 Principlesam Series
How to identifying rejuvenation of a river Waterfalls
➢ Ox-bow lakes
➢ River capture
➢ Incised Meanders
➢ River terraces

Understanding the types of drainage systems

Properly corralling and dispersing water runoff is important
because we need it to water our vegetation without
drowning it. Additionally, collected water is used to
replenish a town’s freshwater supply.

i. Surface drainage system: Surface drainage systems

remove excess water from the land’s surface through
Fig. 124: Knickpoint in diagram
channels or ditches. In some cases, the ground surface is
shaped or graded to create sloping toward the channels.
Features of Rejuvenated River
Different types of surface drainage systems are open drains,
1. Terraces: When a river flowing on the valley
humps and hollows, levees, and grassed waterways. A cast-
floor experiences rejuvenation it cuts into the
in-place trench drain is a perfect example of a surface
valley floor. As this process continues it creates
drainage system.
steps at different levels known as terraces. They are
ii. Subsurface drainage system: Subsurface drainage
found on both sides of the river valley.
systems are implemented beneath the top layer of soil.
2. Incised/entrenched meander: It occurs when a
Sometimes referred to as a French drain, they work at the
meandering river experiences rejuvenation resulting
root level to remove excess water. Dig ditches to install the
in more downward (vertical) erosion. This causes in
pipes of subsurface drains. ABT sells a variety of subsurface
deep incisions (cuts) resulting in incised meanders.
drainage solution options based on the needs and the
3. Valley in a valley: The newly formed terrace
location of where the drain would be placed.
begins to cut back and form a valley. This valley
iii. Slope drainage system: Slope drainage systems are built
widens through lateral erosion. The process
to allow water to flow from a structure in a downward
continues gradually and if rejuvenation occurs
direction. It is done with the aid of pipes that move down
repeatedly new terraces form as well due to increase
through the slope. Since the installed pipe is anchored to an
in vertical erosion. This creates a smaller valley.
incline, it guides the water through the pipe to get it swiftly
away from the structure.
iii. Downspouts and gutter systems: Downspouts and
gutter systems are a structure’s first defense against over-
saturation from stormwater. They are often drained into an
aluminum extension, buried drainpipe, rain barrel, or other
solution. The purpose is to move water away and route
water to other drainage systems on the street or sidewalk.
Sometimes they are even connected to an underground
sewer line using gutter drains or “underground drains.

Drainage system
The flow of water through well-defined channels is known
as ‘drainage’ and the network of such channels is called a
‘drainage system’.

Fig. 125: a) Ingrown and b) Intrenched Meanders

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Types of Drainage System
1) Discordant drainage system: A pattern of
drainage that bears no relation to the structure of
the underlying rock. This may be because:
i. The drainage pattern developed on rock strata that
have since been removed by erosion; a process
known as superimposition. The drainage pattern
thus developed is called superimposed drainage (or
Epigenetic or Superinduced Drainage). Examples:
The Damodar, the Subarnarekha, the Chambal, the
Banas, and the rivers flowing at the Rewa Plateau,
rivers of the eastern USA and southern France.
ii. The drainage pattern was already present before
a period of uplift and folding that formed the
present structure. As the uplift took place, the
rivers were able to cut down at approximately the
same rate and so maintain their courses. This
process is called antecedence and the drainage
system thus developed is called antecedent
drainage. Many of the Himalayan Rivers have
antecedent origin i.e. these rivers existed even
before the Himalayan ranges were uplifted. These
rivers originate in the Tibetan side beyond the
mountain ranges of the Himalayas.
2) Stream Network or Initiation
Stream networks can be delineated from a digital
elevation model (DEM) using the output from the
Flow Accumulation tool. Flow accumulation in its
simplest form is the number of upslope cells that
flow into each cell. On the basis of the flow of
streams, they appear to be consequent, stream,
subsequent stream, resequent stream, and obsequent
stream etc.
Fig. 126: Types of Stream Network or Initiation
Types of stream network or initiation
a) Discordant drainage: A pattern of drainage that
bears no relation to the structure of the underlying
rock. This may be because:
Principlesam Series
i. The drainage pattern developed on rock strata that have
since been removed by erosion; a process known as
superimposition. The drainage pattern thus developed is
called superimposed drainage (or Epigenetic or
Superinduced Drainage). Examples: The Damodar, the
Subarnarekha, the Chambal, the Banas, and the rivers
flowing at the Rewa Plateau, rivers of the eastern USA and
southern France.
ii. The drainage pattern was already present before a period
of uplift and folding that formed the present structure. As
the uplift took place, the rivers were able to cut down at
approximately the same rate and so maintain their courses.
This process is called antecedence and the drainage system
thus developed is called antecedent drainage. Many of the
Himalayan Rivers have antecedent origin i.e. these rivers
existed even before the Himalayan ranges were uplifted.
These rivers originate in the Tibetan side beyond the
mountain ranges of the Himalayas. The Indus, Satluj,
Alaknanda, Gandak, Kosi, Brahmaputra all has an
antecedent origin. Since these rivers are antecedent, they
run transverse to the mountain ranges cutting deep V-
shaped, steep-sided valleys (deep gorges).
b) Concordant Drainage (also called accordant
drainage): The pattern of drainage which arises from and
closely follows the trends of the underlying strata are called
concordant drainage.
c) Consequent Streams: Those streams whose courses are
the direct consequence of the initial topography are called
consequent streams. Consequent streams are streams whose
course is a direct consequence of the original slope of the
surface] upon which it developed, i.e. streams that follow
the slope of the land over which they originally formed.
d) Subsequent Streams: These are developed after the
master consequent. Subsequent streams are streaming
whose course has been determined by selective headward
erosion along weak strata. These streams have generally
developed after the original stream. These streams develop
later and are generally a tributary to a subsequent stream.,
e) Obsequent streams: These flow in opposite directions
to the master consequent. Apparently, insequent streams
have an almost random drainage often forming dendritic
patterns. These are typically tributaries and have developed
by headward erosion on a horizontally stratified belt or on
homogeneous rocks. These streams follow courses that
apparently were not controlled by the original slope of the
surface, its structure or the type of rock.
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 Principlesam Series
f) Resequent Streams: A resequent stream flows a) Dendritic: The dendritic pattern develops where the
in the same direction as that of the initial river channel follows the slope of the terrain. The drainage
consequent stream, but which develops in response pattern resembling the branches of a tree is known as
to a new base level formed due to inversion of “dendritic” the examples of which are the rivers of northern
relief. plain. It is the most common stream pattern. A dendritic
g) Superimposed stream: It is that stream which pattern develops in a terrain which has uniform lithology,
immediately flows into the rivers it flows or and where faulting and jointing are insignificant.
channel in, or on the surfaces of the land it
channels on, hence becomes incised into rocks on
the surface or beneath the earth that trigger
different structures. Thus, the neither drainage
system bears nor relations all to the present surface
structure rocks.
h) Antecedent stream: It is a stream which has
Fig. 128: An example of Dendritic Pattern
been able to maintain its course after an upliftment
or rise of the land the river then carves a deep
b) Radial: The radial pattern develops when streams flow
gorge through the mountains or high elevations. It
in different directions from a central peak or a dome-like
is only a powerful river that can do this.
structure. E.g. the rivers like the Narmada, Son and
i) Insequent stream: It is that stream course is not
Mahanadi originating from Maikal Hills flow in different
controlled or drives by any geomorphic processes
directions and are good examples of a radial pattern. Radial
or forces or underlying structure forces; this stream
drainage patterns are also found/in the Girnar Hills
occurs by chance.
(Kathiwar, Gujarat), and Mikir Hills of Assam.

Fig. 129: An example of Radial drainage pattern

Fig. 127: Summary of the Drainage Systems
c) Trellis: When the primary tributaries of rivers flow
Drainage pattern
parallel to each other and secondary tributaries join them at
Drainage pattern refers to a design which a river
right angles, the pattern is known a‘trellis’. A trellis
and its tributaries form together from its source to
drainage pattern develops where hard and soft rocks lie
its mouth. The drainage pattern of an area is the
parallel to each other. For example, rivers in the upper part
outcome of:
of the Himalayan region and in the old folded mountains of
➢ The geological time period,
the Singhbhum (Chotanagpur Plateau) have drainage of
➢ Nature and structure of rocks,
trellis pattern. The trellis drainage pattern can also be seen
➢ Topography,
in the Appalachian region of the U.S.A., where hard and
➢ Slope,
soft rocks occur in parallel bands.
➢ Amount of water flowing, and
➢ The periodicity of the flow.

Some important drainage patterns

A combination of several patterns may be found in
the same drainage basin.

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 Principlesam Series
Fig. 130: An example of Trellis drainage pattern
d) Centripetal: When the rivers discharge their
waters from all directions in a lake or depression,
the pattern is known as ‘centripetal’. This drainage
pattern is also called endorheic drainage. For
example, Loktak lake in Manipur.

Fig. 133An example of a Barbed Drainage Pattern

g) Annular: Annular pattern represents that part of a

drainage pattern in which the subsequent streams follow
the curving or arcuate courses before joining the conse-
Fig. 131: An example of centripetal drainage pattern quent stream. This result from a partial adaptation to an
underground circular structure i.e. batholiths. This is not a
e) Rectangular: In this drainage, both the main very common drainage pattern in India.
stream and its tributaries show right-angled bends.
A rectangular drainage pattern develops on a
strongly jointed rocky terrain. It differs from trellis
pattern drainage, since it is more irregular and its
tributary streams are not as long or as parallel as in
trellis drainage. Example: Colorado River (USA),
streams found is the Vindhyan Mountains of India.
Fig. 134: An example of an Annular Drainage Pattern

h) Parallel Drainage Pattern

Fig. 132: An example of Rectangular Drainage Pattern
f) Barbed: If you look at the way that tributaries
empty into larger rivers, you will notice that most
of them flow in the same direction as the rivers
they empty into. But quite a large number flow the
other way. In fact, you will find stretches of some
rivers where every tributary empties into the river
in the “wrong” direction! Such an occurrence is
known as a barbed drainage pattern. Most barbed
drainage patterns are the result of river-capture
which reverses the direction of flow. However, the
tributary channels continue to flow in their original
direction. The Arun River (Nepal), a tributary of
the Kosi is an interesting example of a barbed
drainage pattern found in Pithoragarh
(Uttarakhand), Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu, and
Kera.
Parallel drainage pattern comprises numerous rivers which
are parallel to each other and follow the regional slope.
This pattern is more frequently developed on newly
emerged coastal plains. The western coastal plains of India
represent several examples of parallel drainage patterns
where the streams after taking their sources from the
western flanks of the Western Ghats drain in straight
courses towards west to empty into the Arabian Sea.
Parallel drainage pattern has also developed on the Eastern
Coastal Plains of India. It may be pointed out that a sub-
parallel pattern is, therefore, essentially an ‘initial drainage
pattern’.
Fig. 135: An example of Parallel Drainage Pattern
i) Herringbone Drainage Pattern
Herringbone drainage pattern, also known as rib pattern, is
developed in mountainous areas. The longitudinal
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consequent streams, as master streams, are
developed in the longitudinal parallel valleys while
tributaries, as lateral consequents, after originating
from the hillslopes of the bordering parallel ridges
join the longitudinal consequents almost at right
angle. The term herringbone has been derived from
the pattern of bones of herring fish (mainly spine
bones).
Fig. 136: An example of Herringbone Drainage Pattern
j) Pinnate Drainage Pattern
The drainage network of the upper Son and
Narmada rivers denotes the example of pinnate
drainage pattern. This pattern resembles the veins
of a leaf.
Fig. 137: An example of Pinnate Drainage pattern
Importance/ benefits of Rivers
1.Transportation: Rivers serves as a heap means
of transporting bulky and non-perishable goods like
timber as well as passengers. For example, river
Volta is navigable from Akosombo in the south to
Yepei in the north.
2.Generation of hydroelectric power: The River
Volta has been drained at Akosombo to provide
power requirements for the country. The power
generated from Akosombo is used for both
domestic and industrial purposes. The power
generated has also been sold to neighboring
countries for foreign exchange. Example Togo and
Republic of Benin.
3.Fishing: The Rivers serves as good fishing
grounds. The lower Volta is important for fishing
example Tilapia, Mudfish, Shrimps and others are
all obtained from rivers in the country.
Principlesam Series
4.Domestic and industrial water supply: Some of the
rivers serve as principal source of water supply for both
domestic and industrial uses, for example the Densu River
serves as the principal source of pipe borne water for the
Accra, Tema metropolitan area. Rivers are used as
industrial raw material in breweries and drinking factories
5.Irrigation: Some rivers are used to irrigate dry areas for
farming. River Densu is used to irrigate parts of the Accra
plains whilst the White Volta is extensively used for the
same purpose
6. Mining: Some also carried out along the courses of
some rivers. A typical is river Birim where diamond is
mined and Offin River from which gold is also mined.
7. Tourism: The river promote tourism example Dodio is
land on lake Volta, waterfall etc.
Assignment 13
1. a) With appropriate diagrams, outline three conditions
under which the following features can be formed:
i. river capture;
ii. waterfall;
iii. delta
b) Explain the three types of river capture
2. a) Outline the benefits of flood plain and delta to man
b) Explain the processes leading to waterfall or river
capture or piracy.
3. a) What is river rejuvenation?
b) i. Highlight four causes of river rejuvenation
ii. Identify river rejuvenation five benefits of river to man
4. a) Explain the term knickpoint with specific diagram,
describe its mode of formation
b) With the aid of annotated diagram, describe four
drainage systems.
5. a) Explain the following
i. river course ii. River velocity
b) Highlight the two flows of a river
c) With the aid of annotated diagram, describe three river
courses or stages
6. a) With the aid of diagram, describe the formation of
riffle and pools
b) Identify some conditions necessary for river capture or
piracy.
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CHAPTER FOURTEEN
THE ACTION OF RUNNING WATER
Introduction: You are all aware that out planet Earth
is a dynamic evolving system. There are many cyclic
processes acting on the surface of the earth. They are
done by aerial agents like air, wind, water, ice and
waves. They are called as geological agents. They
create a lot of landforms on the surface of the earth.
One such agent is the running water. We call them as
streams or rivers. Rivers are powerful and dynamic
geological agents. The water flowing through a stream
performs three kinds of geologic works as erosion,
transportation and deposition. Hence, a river is
considered as one of the geological agents on earth.
The flowing water has the force, velocity and power to
generate electricity. The flowing water also has the
ability to dissolve the soluble mineral substances
available on its way. A lot of landforms are developed
due to the geomorphic processes of rivers. They are
called as fluvial landforms. Fluvial processes and
fluvial landforms are the dominant land surfaces all
over the world, when compared to the limited effects of
glacial, coastal, and wind processes. Understanding of
the fluvial geomorphic processes is an essential aspect
in earth science studies. The following aspects are
highlighted in this lesson:
1. Streams and Drainages
2. Erosional Work of Streams
3. Transportation by Streams
4. Erosional Landforms
5. Depositional Landforms.
1. Streams and Drainages
Streams are flowing water bodies. The flow originates
immediately after the rain. Rain water falling on all
slopes of a land gets collected and starts flowing on the widening of the valley.
land as overland flow. They merge along converging
slopes, join together and run as mainstreams.
The main stream normally contains the cumulative
volume of flow. The total water flows out of a single
outlet is called as river discharge. When a river enters streams
into a sea and confluence with the sea, that part is
known as the mouth. The entire area encompassing the
catchment zone up to a river mouth controlling this
cumulative flow is known as a river basin.
-It is also called as a drainage basin.
-In a drainage basin, numerous streams develop due to
the erosive power of water.
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Principlesam Series
-The Slope of the land, nature of the rock type,
structure of the rocks, extent of weathering and mass
wasting processes that are acting on the land, climate
and frequency of rainfall, all are responsible for a
stream development.
Every stream has its own valley. River Valleys are
common on the earth surface.
-Streams develop over a long period of time. There are
various stages involved in the development of streams
and rivers. Every rainfall generates overland flow of
water. The water flowing over the land produces the
slope wash. The slope wash creates a stream channel.
-Stream valleys are developed through stream erosion
and mass wasting processes.
Small rills are initially developed by erosion. They
become deeper and wider along the direction of flow.
The major processes involved are;
-Downcutting
-Lateral erosion and
- Headward erosion
a) Downcutting is the first mechanism
-It refers to the downward erosion of the stream
channel.
-It occurs when the stream energy exceeds the stream's
load.
-It causes the valleys to be narrowed and steep-sided.
Downcutting creates the features like canyons and
gorges.
b) Lateral erosion is yet another process done by
flowing water mass: It undermines the part of a river
bank or the valley walls.
-Lateral erosion also leads to mass wasting and
*This process is enhanced by sheet erosion and rill
erosion.
-It causes the formation of V-shaped valleys.
c) Headward erosion is another major process of
-It involves lengthening of the valleys at the upstream
end also. Sometimes, it can also result in the creation
of a river piracy.
-River valleys are normally developed in stages.

Mechanisms of river valley
There are three mechanisms involved in the river
valley development like;
i. Deepening,
ii. Lengthening and
iii. Widening.
Stages of river development
There are three stages in a river development. A river is
said to be starting from a
1. Youthful stage
2. Mature stage and
3. Old stage depending upon its age, length of flow
path, density of streams, and population of its streams,
discharge volumes and width of its mouth.
2. Erosional work of streams
Moving water erodes material from the bed and sides
of the channel; it transports the eroded material to a
new location, and then deposits it.
Material deposited by streams is called alluvium. The
ability of a stream to do these works is controlled by
stream velocity and discharge.
A drainage basin is divided into three zones as:
Zone 1: Watershed areas of the drainage Basin
Zone 2: Area of Transfer and
Zone 3: Area of Deposition.
Erosion is the first part of the zone -1. Running water is
capable of conducting headward erosion, vertical
erosion and lateral erosion.
Flowing water erodes in three ways
a) First, flowing water dissolves materials from the
channel contributing to stream's dissolved load or,
solution load.
b) Secondly, the impact of water or hydraulic action on
the sides and bed of the channel dislodges materials
and makes them available for transport as part of the
stream load.
c) Materials too heavy to suspend scoot and roll across
the bed, eroding the channel by abrasion.
The rate of erosion depends on many factors such
as;
a) Climatic factors include the amount and intensity of
precipitation
b) The average temperature, as well as the typical
temperature range, and seasonality,
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Principlesam Series
c) The wind speeds
d) Storm frequency.
The geologic factors include
a) The sediment or rock type,
b) Its porosity and permeability,
c) The slope (gradient) of the land, and
d) Nature of structures likes tilts, faults, folds or
weathered.
e) The biological factors include ground cover from
vegetation or lack thereof, the type of organisms
inhabiting the area, and
f) The land uses.
Sediments containing more clay tend to erode less than
those with sand or silt. Here, however, the impact of
atmospheric sodium on erodibility of clay should be
considered.
Types of erosion by water
a) Splash erosion b) Sheet erosion
c) Rill erosion d) Gully erosion
e) Stream erosion f) Bank erosion.
a) Splash erosion is the detachment and airborne
movement of small soil particles caused by the impact
of raindrops on soil.
b) Sheet erosion is the detachment of soil particles by
raindrop impact and their removal down slope by water
flowing overland as a sheet instead of in definite
channels or rills. The impact of the raindrop breaks
apart the soil aggregate. Particles of clay, silt and sand
fill the soil pores and reduce infiltration.
After the surface pores are filled with sand, silt or clay,
overland flow of water begins due to the lowering of
infiltration rates. Once the rate of rainfall is more than
infiltration, runoff takes place. There are two stages of
sheet erosion.
The first is rain splash, in which soil particles are
knocked into the air by raindrop impact.
In the second stage, the loose particles are moved down
slope by broad sheets of rapidly flowing water filled
with sediment known as sheet floods.
This stage of sheet erosion is generally produced by
cloudbursts. The sheet floods commonly travel for
short distances and may last only for a short period of
time.
c) Rill erosion refers to the development of small,
ephemeral concentrated flow paths, which function as
both sediment source and sediment delivery systems

for erosion on hills lopes. Flow depths in rills are
typically on the order of a few centimeters or less and
slopes may be quite steep. These are very different
hydraulic environments. Eroding rills evolve
morphologically in time and space. The rill bed surface
changes as soil erodes, which in turn alters the
hydraulics of the flow. The hydraulics is the driving
mechanism for the erosion process, and therefore
dynamically changing hydraulic patterns cause
continually changing erosional patterns in the rill.
Thus, the process of rill evolution involves a feedback
loop between flow detachment, hydraulics, and bed
form.
The factors involved are:
a) Flow velocity b) Depth
c) Width d) Hydraulic roughness
e) Local bed slope f) Friction slope, and
g) Detachment rate.
All of these vary with reference to time and space, on
the rill’s evolutionary process.
Superimposed on these interactive processes, the
sediment load, or amount of sediment in the flow, has a
large influence on soil detachment rates in rills. As
sediment load increases, the ability of the flowing
water to detach more sediment decreases.
d) Gully erosion is another type of erosion. It occurs
when water flows in narrow channels during or
immediately after heavy rains or melting of snow in
mountainous regions.
A gully is sufficiently deep that it would not be
routinely destroyed by any tillage operations.
The narrow channels, or gullies, may be of
considerable depth, ranging from 0.3 to 0.6m to as
much as 25 to 30m.
e. Valley or Stream Erosion: Valley or stream erosion
occurs with continued water flowing along a linear
surface. The erosion is both downward, deepening the
valley, and headward, extending the valley into the
hillside. In the earliest stage of stream erosion, the
erosive activity is dominantly vertical. During this
stage the valleys will have a typical V shaped cross-
section and the stream gradient is relatively steep.
When some base level is reached, the erosive activity
switches to lateral erosion, which widens the valley
floor and creates a narrow floodplain.
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Principlesam Series
The stream gradient becomes nearly flat, and lateral
deposition of sediments becomes important as the
stream meanders across the valley floor.
In all stages of stream erosion, more and faster-moving
water is available to carry a larger sediment load.
In such processes, it is not the water alone that erodes.
In addition to water suspended abrasive particles,
pebbles and boulders can also act as catalysts for more
erosion.
f. Bank erosion is the wearing away of the banks of a
stream or river. This is distinguished from changes on
the bed of the watercourse, which is referred to as
scour.
3. Transportation by streams: Once the surface
material is detached from the channel, it can be
transported by water very easily. Transportation is the
movement of earth material by running water. As the
particles size increases, so too does the velocity needed
to transport it.
The material transported through the stream is called as
its stream load.
Transportation involves the following processes:
a) Traction: it refers to the load that is rolled along the
bed of the river.
b) Saltation: it refers the load that is bounced along the
bed of the river.
c) Suspension: it refers to the load that is transported
in a rivers' flow (current)
d) Solution: it refers to the load that is dissolved by a
river and then transported by it.
e) Flotation: refers to the material transported on the
surface of a river.
The larger pieces of material tend to be transported
along a rivers' bed.
As they get smaller, they can be transported in the
current (flow)? Only the smallest bits may be
dissolved.
The processes of erosion and transportation tend to
make a rivers' load smoother and rounder as you move
from the source to the mouth.
Stream Load: Stream load is composed of three
components as
a) Dissolved or solution load
b) Suspended load and
c) Bed load.
Water has the ability to dissolve soluble mineral
substances on the surface and also within the

groundwater system. The dissolved load comes
primarily from groundwater seepage into the stream.
Suspended load is comprised of sediment suspended
and transported through the stream. Turbulent flow
suspends clay and silt in the stream.
Suspended load comes from material eroded from the
surface bordering the channel and deposited in the
stream, as well as, erosion of the channel itself.
The stream capacity is the maximum load of sediment
a stream can carry for a given discharge.
The stream capacity increases with increasing flow
velocity.
Turbulent flow occurs under higher velocity. It
increases the water's ability to dislodge material from
the bed or sides of the stream.
Bed load is that which is moved across the bed of the
channel.
Bed load is transported in two ways:
a)Traction, which is a scooting and rolling of particles
along the bed and
b) The second is Saltation, a bouncing-like movement.
Saltation occurs when particles are suspended in the
stream for a short distance after which they fall to the
bed, dislodging particles from the bed.
The dislodged particles move downstream a short
distance where they fall to the bed, again dislodging
particles upon impact. As velocity of running water
decreases, the ability of the stream to move sediment
through it also decreases. Hence, the heaviest particles
will get deposited first on the bed. The very smallest
particles are easily transported even under low flow
velocity and will not settle out.
It is also evident that as the particle size and weight
increase, it is very difficult to transport the material and
deposition will occur with a slight drop in stream
velocity.
4. Erosional landforms: The erosional landforms of
the running water are very wide. They are
(a) River valleys (b) Canyons
(c) Gorges (d) Waterfalls
(e) Potholes (f) Ravines
(g) Gullies (h) Rills
Rills are shallow channels eroded by threads of
turbulent flow developed in the sheet flow. During rain
storms rills erode headward on the steepest local
gradient at faster rate. On open slopes they tend to
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Principlesam Series
form parallel to one another, converging in hillside
hollows to form dendritic patterns. Rills are ephemeral
features. They may be destroyed and recreated during
major storms. The rills terminate at the base of slopes
and thus they are not part of the regional drainage
network.
Gully is the first-order stream channel that develops on
slopes at the upper reaches of watersheds. They carry
ephemeral stream flow. Gullies are narrow and steep
sided. Gullies persist for years or decades, so they are
more persistent than rills but still not "permanent"
features. The most spectacular valley forms are
canyons and gorges. Canyons and gorges are still in the
initial phase of a valley development. Canyons and
gorges frequently develop across the trends of
underlying macrostructures.
A canyon or gorge is a deep ravine between cliffs
often carved from the landscape by a river. Most
canyons were formed by long-time erosion from a
plateau level. A Canyon is the steep-sided valley where
the depth of the river is considerably greater than the
width. These features are the result of stream erosion
at the youthful stage. The Grand Canyon of Colorado is
one of the well-known examples in the world. Gorges
are formed by water or rivers continually flowing over
the land. It can happen quickly when glaciers melt and
huge amounts of water move over an area, or it can
happen slowly over time and deeper narrow passage
with steep rocky sides.
5. Depositional landforms
The depositional landforms created by the running
water are:
i. Floodplains
ii. Alluvial fans
iii. Deltas
i. Floodplain: These are the surface of low relief
developed on the alluvium adjacent to a stream.
Floodplain becomes the stream bed during flood
seasons.
Floodplain contain various features like
a) Point bars (lateral accretion)
b) Overbank sediments (horizontal accretion)
c) Levees d) Levee crevasses
e) Splay deposit f) Meanders
g) Neck cutoff h) Oxbow lake.

The term meander refers to one of a series of regular
freely developing sinuous curves, bends, loops, turns,
or windings in the course of a stream, meandering
stream channels commonly have cross sections with
low width-to-depth ratios. They contain cohesive (fine-
grained) bank materials. The topographic gradient is
low.
A levee is an embankment built along the margin of a
watercourse. Levees are ridges found along the sides of
the stream channel composed of sand or gravel. Levees
are approximately one half to four times the channel
width in diameter. Floodplain deposits can raise the
elevation of the stream bed. This process is called
aggradation.
Oxbow lake is the crescent-shaped, often ephemeral
body of standing water situated by the side of a stream
in the abandoned channel (ox-bow) of a meander. It is
formed after the stream created a neck cutoff and the
ends of the original bend were silted up.
Depositional features of running water:
There are several factors that may cause the velocity of
a sediment-laden stream or river to decrease. They are:
a) The gradient may decrease,
b) Floodwaters may subside, or
c) The water may get evaporated or soak into
underlying porous materials.
In any case, as the velocity decreases, the sediments are
deposited. The heaviest and coarsest materials are
deposited first, while the lightest and finest particles
remain in suspension for a longer period of time,
traveling a greater distance from the source.
The term alluvium is applied to all fluvial deposits
with the exception of deltas.
Streams carrying coarse sediments develop sand and
gravel bars. These types of bars seen often in braided
streams which are common in elevated areas. Bars
develop in braided streams because of reductions in
discharge.
Two conditions often cause the reduction in discharge:
a) Reduction in the gradient of the stream and/or the
b) Reduction of flow after a precipitation event or
spring melting of snow and ice.
Sand Bars are the depositional features of a river.
Point bars develop where stream flow is locally
reduced because of friction and reduced in water depth.
In a meandering stream, point bars tend to be common
on the inside of a channel bend.
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Dunes and ripples are the primary sedimentary features
in streams whose channel is composed mainly of sand
and silt. Dunes are about 10 or more centimeters in
height and are spaced a meter or more apart.
Ripples are only a few centimeters in height and
spacing, and are found in slow moving streams with
fine textured beds. Rosgen, (1996), proposed the
following features that are created during the course of
deposition by a river along its flow path:
a) Creation of point bars
b) Point bars with few mid-channel bars
c) Numerous mid-channel bars
d) Side bars
e) Diagonal bars
f) main-channel branching with numerous mid-bars
and islands
g) Side bars and mid-channel bars with length
exceeding 2-3 channel widths
h) Delta bars.
Streams with high sediment loads that encounter a
sudden reduction in flow velocity generally have a
braided channel type.
In a braided stream, the main channel divides into a
number of smaller, interlocking or braided channels. i.
Braiding is generally confined to broad, shallow
streams of low sinuosity, high bed load, non-cohesive
bank material, and a steep gradient. Braided channels
tend to be wide and shallow because bed load materials
are often coarse (sands and gravels) and non-cohesive.
Meandering channels form where streams are flowing
over a relatively flat landscape with a broad floodplain.
Technically, a stream is said to be meandering when
the ratio of actual channel length to the straight line
distance between two points on the stream channel is
greater than 1.5m. Channels in these streams are
characteristically U-shaped and actively migrate over
the extensive floodplain.
Floodplains develop when streams over-top their
levees spreading discharge and suspended sediments
over the land surface during floods.
Ox-bow lakes are the abandoned channels created
when meanders are cut off from the rest of the channel
because of lateral stream erosion.
ii. Alluvial Fans: An alluvial fan is a large fan-shaped
deposit of sediment on which a braided stream flows
over. Alluvial fans develop when streams carrying a
heavy load reduce their velocity as they emerge from
mountainous terrain to a nearly horizontal plain. The

fan is created as braided streams shift across the
surface of this feature depositing sediment and
adjusting their course.
iii. Deltas: A delta is body of sediment that contains
numerous horizontal and vertical layers. Streams
flowing into the seas and oceans normally create a
delta. Deltas are created when the sediment load
carried by a stream is deposited because of a sudden
reduction in stream velocity. The surface of most deltas
is marked by small shifting channels that carry water
and sediments away from the main river channel.
These small channels also act to distribute the stream's
sediment load over the surface of the delta. Many
deltas are triangular in shape. Most deltas contain three
different types of deposits as foreset, topset and
bottomset beds. Foreset beds make up the main body
of deltas. They are deposited at the outer edge of the
delta at an angle of 5 to 25 degrees. Steeper angles
develop in finer sediments. On top of the foreset beds,
we have the nearly horizontal topset beds. These beds
are of varying grain sizes and are formed from deposits
of the small shifting channels found on the delta
surface.
Benefits of deltas to humans
1. They are good sources of petroleum, e.g. the Niger
delta of Nigeria.
2. They are excellent fishing grounds.
3. Fishes caught include tilapia and Claris.
4. Most of them are tourist sites. Examples are the
Volta estuary and the Nigeria
5. They favour cultivation of crops like rice and sugar
cane. Raffias also grow wild in deltas.
The Concept of Wetlands; Emphasis on Ghana
Wetlands are areas where water covers the soil, or is
present either at or near the surface of the soil all year
or for varying periods of time during the year,
including during the growing season. Water saturation
(hydrology) largely determines how the soil develops
and the types of plant and animal communities living in
and on the soil. Wetlands may support both aquatic and
terrestrial species. The prolonged presence of water
creates conditions that favor the growth of specially
adapted plants (hydrophytes) and promote the
development of characteristic wetland (hydric) soils.
Wetlands according to the Ramsar Convention (1971),
are “areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether
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natural or artificial, permanent or temporal, with water
that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salty,
including areas of marine water, the depth of which at
low tide does not exceed six metres”.
Wetlands are found from the tundra to the tropics and
on every continent except Antarctica. They cover about
6% of the Earth’s surface (GNA, 2012). Some of the
wetlands are recognised internationally as protected
areas and designated as Ramsar Sites under the Ramsar
Convention of 1971 with its enforcement in 1975.
The Ramsar Convention
The Convention on Wetlands of International
Importance, called the Ramsar Convention, is an
intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework
for national action and international cooperation for the
conservation and wise use of wetlands and their
resources. The treaty was adopted in the Iranian city of
Ramsar on 2nd February, 1971 and the Convention's
member countries cover all geographic regions of the
globe. The second day of February each year is
celebrated globally as “World Wetland Day”.
The day is marked by countries that are party to the
International Treaty on wetlands, commonly called the
Ramsar Convention to raise public awareness on
wetland values and benefits, and to promote their
conservation.
The Convention's mission is "the conservation and
wise use of all wetlands through local and national
actions and international cooperation, as a contribution
towards achieving sustainable development throughout
the world".
The Convention uses a broad definition of the types of
wetlands covered in its mission, including lakes and
rivers, swamps and marshes, wet grasslands and
peatland, oases, estuaries, deltas and tidal flats, near-
shore marine areas, mangroves and coral reefs, and
human-made sites such as fish ponds, rice paddies,
reservoirs, and salt pans.
The convention came into force in 1975 and Ghana
ratified the convention on 22/02/1988
Wetlands in Ghana
As of 2010, there were about 1,800 Ramsar sites
globally (IUCN and UNEP, 2010).
❖ Currently, from, 2012, the number stands at 1,950 of
which five are in Ghana namely wetland
❖ Sakumo wetland

❖ Songhor wetland
❖ Densu wetland
❖ Keta wetland and
❖ Muni-Pomadze
Thirteen (13) wetlands along the coast of Ghana were
identified by the Save of the Seashore Birds projects as
important feeding, roasting and nesting sites for 1000s
of migratory and residential seashore birds
❖ Eight (8) of these are recognized as international
important wetlands
❖ Keta, Muni-Pomadze, Densu, Elmina salt pans,
Sakumo, Songhor, Korle and Essiama but five are
designated as Ramsar Site
Managing wetlands in Ghana
In 1992, the government of Ghana received support
from the Global Environment Facility (GEF), for the
protection of the five Ramsar Sites (Muni-Pomadze,
Densu delta, Sakumo, Songhor, and Keta) under the
Coastal Wetlands Management Project (CWMP),
which is implemented by the Ghana Wildlife
Department.
Objectives of Coastal Wetland Management Project
(CWMP) are;
❖ To maintain and enhance the value of the wetlands
as a wildlife habitat and to integrate wildlife
conservation into the existing human use of the
wetlands
❖ To enhance the benefits derived from coastal
wetlands to improve the lives of communities that live
around it
❖ To control, monitor and coordinate the activities
which affect the coastal zone
❖ To increase public awareness of the rich wildlife
and scenic beauty of the coast
Categories of Wetlands
Wetlands vary widely because of regional and local
differences in soils, topography, climate, hydrology,
water chemistry, vegetation and other factors,
including human disturbance. Indeed, wetlands are
found from the tundra to the tropics and on every
continent except Antarctica. Two general categories of
wetlands are recognized: coastal or tidal wetlands and
inland or non-tidal wetlands.
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a) Coastal/Tidal Wetlands: Coastal/tidal wetlands in
the United States, as their name suggests, are found
along the Atlantic, Pacific, Alaskan and Gulf coasts.
They are closely linked to our nation's estuaries where
sea water mixes with fresh water to form an
environment of varying salinities. The salt water and
the fluctuating water levels (due to tidal action)
combine to create a rather difficult environment for
most plants. Consequently, many shallow coastal areas
are unvegetated mud flats or sand flats. Some plants,
however, have successfully adapted to this
environment.
b) Inland/Non-tidal Wetlands: Inland/non-tidal
wetlands are most common on floodplains along rivers
and streams (riparian wetlands), in isolated depressions
surrounded by dry land (for example, playas, basins
and "potholes"), along the margins of lakes and ponds,
and in other low-lying areas where the groundwater
intercepts the soil surface or where precipitation
sufficiently saturates the soil (vernal pools and bogs).
Inland wetlands include marshes and wet meadows
dominated by herbaceous plants, swamps dominated by
shrubs, and wooded swamps dominated by trees.
Certain types of inland wetlands are common to
particular regions of the country.
In the management objectives, 3 zones are
designated
1. The Core or Critical Zone (where no physical
activity is allowed
2. Management Area (activities regulated)
3. Support Zone (may not be necessarily under
Ramsar management)
Fig. 138: Management Zones of wetlands in Ghana

Importance/functions of wetlands in Ghana
Wetlands perform functions that of great importance to
society. They include:
a) Maintenance of the water table: Wetlands
facilitate the movement of large volumes of water into
the underground aquifers, resulting in the recharge of
the water table. This process maintains a highwater
table, supports healthy plant growth and may also be
drawn for human consumption and industrial activities.
b) Flood and erosion prevention: Wetlands prevent
surface run-off from moving swiftly and overflowing
the river banks downstream thus preventing erosive
flood conditions.
c) Storm protection: Wetlands, such as mangroves
and other forested coastal areas, act as windbreaks and
help to mitigate the impact of coastal storm surges. A
greater part of the eastern shoreline of Ghana,
especially at Keta and Ada, is vulnerable to storm
surges due to lack of such a natural protective system.
Hence, the frequent storm surges and sea erosion in
these areas.
d) Water purification: Wetlands remove sediments,
nutrients, toxic substances and other pollutants in
surface run-off. This improves the water quality and
prevents the siltation of downstream watercourses.
e) Micro-climate stabilisation: Wetlands vegetation
may also evaporate or transpire water into the
atmosphere. This falls as rain in the surrounding area
and helps to maintain stable climatic conditions. This,
in turn, supports stable agriculture and other resource-
based activities.
f) The wetlands as a habitat: Wetlands provide
habitat for high concentrations of birds, mammals,
reptiles, amphibians, fish and invertebrates species.
Thousands of waterfowl, many of them migratory, visit
Ghana during the northern winter. About 60% of all
fish catches from the sea spawn in coastal wetlands.
The west African Sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekei),
thought to be extinct in West Africa, has been
discovered recently in the Volta Delta.
g) Product of wetlands: The products of wetlands
refer to those components that are subject to human
exploitation, and therefore of socio-economic
importance to society. These include:
h) Plant products: Traditionally, mangroves and
other wood product are harvested for fuel-wood, timber
and medicinal purposes. Mats, baskets and thatching
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material are derived from grasses and reeds in the
wetlands.
i) Fish: Wetlands constitute an important fish habitat
and support large populations of fish. Many local
communities depend fish sources from wetlands for
their livelihood.
j) Forage: Wetland grasslands provide critical areas
for livestock grazing, especially during the dry season.
k) Water supply: Because of their ability to purify and
retain large volumes of water, wetlands provide clean
and reliable sources of water for human consumption,
agriculture and industry. Many rivers flow throughout
the year because the wetlands, like our rain forest,
release their stored water slowly into them, thus
extending the period when water is available in dryer
times. Wetlands are, therefore, important in
maintaining perennial rivers and streams.
l) Agricultural resources: Some important
agricultural resources, such as the wild variety of plant
materials, are derived from wetlands. Rice, for
example, which is a common wetland plant, is the
staple diet of more than half of humanity.
m)Recreation/ tourism: The spectacular concentration
of different species of animals and plant in wetlands
provide opportunities for tourism and recreational
activities. These include birdwatching, game-viewing
and sport fishing.
n) Attributes: The attributes of wetlands refer to the
value placed on their biological diversity. It also
includes their importance to cultural heritage.
o) Biological diversity: Most wetlands support
spectacular concentrations of a variety of plants and
animals. This attribute is of value in itself as it
contributes immensely to the maintenance of their
ecological processes for the benefit of the present and
future generations.
p) Cultural/heritage value: Many wetlands, such as
Sakumo lagoon, are regarded as the abode of "gods".
They are therefore revered and protected through
various traditional practices aimed at
maintaining and preserving them.
Utilization of wetlands in Ghana
❖ Hunting grounds for some people serving as source
of bush meat
❖ Salt mining
❖ Grazing for cattle and sheep
❖ Habitat for birds, mammals, reptiles, etc.
 Principlesam Series
❖ Tourist attractions and recreational centers ❖ Improving the living conditions of communities
around the wetlands

Ghana’s Wetland Resources Wetland ecosystems in

Ghana constitute about ten percent of the country’s
total land surface. Based on the criteria of the Ramsar
Convention, three main types of wetlands are identified
in Ghana. These are:
• marine/coastal
Fig.139: Example of wetlands in Ghana
• inland and
Methods of conservation of wetlands in Ghana • man-made.
➢ Public education
➢ Tree planting 1. Marine/coastal wetlands: The wetlands within the
➢ Taboos regarding hunting and overfishing are also coastal zone of Ghana are mainly saltwater ecosystems.
employed since the area is regarded as sacred e.g. no They are primarily associated with flood plains of
fishing on Wednesdays in Muni-Pomadze wetland estuaries of large rivers and watercourses.
➢ Hunting is illegal except during Aboakyer festival Marine/ Coastal Location/Examples
Ecosystems
➢ Ecological restoration strategies such as Korle 1. Rocky Marine Senya Bereku, Cape Three Points etc.
Lagoon project. Shores
2. Estuarine Waters Mouths of Volta, Pra, Butre, Ankobra
Challenges of conservation 3. Mangrove/tidal Lower reaches of Volta, Oyibi,
forest Kakum, Ankobra
➢ Inadequate resources at the disposal of the Wildlife 4. Brackish/Saline a. Open Korle, Amisa.
Division Lagoons b. Closed Songor, Muni
➢ Climate variability Marine wetlands include the open coasts not subject to
➢ Land degradation through salt production the influence of river water and lagoon systems. It
➢ Silting of lagoon extends to marine waters, the depth of which at low
➢ Lack of ownership to the land tide does not exceed six metres. This is exemplified by
➢ Cutting of trees for firewood and bush burning areas such as the sandy beaches and shallow waters
➢ Soil erosion along the Brenu Akyim seashore in the Central Region.
➢ Indiscriminate dumping of refuse
➢ Grazing by domestic animals such as goats, sheep 2. Inland wetlands: Inland waters are mainly
and cattle freshwater ecosystems. They occur wherever
➢ Encroachment groundwater, surface springs, streams or run-off cause
➢ General environmental degradation including saturated soils, frequent flooding or create temporary
pollution. and/or permanently shallow water bodies. Included are
the following;
How to Ensuring effective utilization and Inland Wetlands Location/Examples
1. Permanent river/stream Densu, Afram, Oti and Ankobra
conservation of wetlands in Ghana etc
❖ Intensification of public education 2. Permanent freshwater lake Bosumtwi
❖ Enforcement of rules and regulations regarding the 3. Freshwater swamp forest Amansuri
protection and conservation of wetlands 4. Freshwater marshes Black, Red and White Volta
❖ Dredging Inland or freshwater wetlands, especially freshwater
❖ Legal acquisition of land by the state marshes are the most widespread and important world-
❖ Well resourced – qualified personnel, funding of wide. In Ghana, this is the most extensive as it
Wildlife Division encompasses all the natural drainage systems as shown
❖ Coordination between and among major in Figure 1 (page 8; but 5 in original text).
stakeholders
159

3. Man-made wetlands: The Ramsar Convention also
recognises four categories of man-made or artificial
wetlands. These are wetlands constructed for
aquaculture, agriculture, salt exploitation, water storage
and urban/industrial purposes. In Ghana, these are
exemplified as follows:
Categories of Wetlands Location/Examples
1. Irrigated land Tono, Vea, Dawhenya , Anum
Valley
2. Salt Pans Elmina Salt Pans, Songor, Densu
Delta
3. Reservoirs Volta Lake, Kpong head pond,
Brimsu
4. Urban/Industrial reservoir
In addition, there are wetlands, which are widespread
and found in many places, e.g.Gravel pits, fish-ponds
and mining pools.
The major threats to the wetlands in Ghana
The major threats to wetlands include:
i. Water loss: Drains and channels may be constructed
to divert or increase water out-flow from wetlands.
Such drainage causes loss of water to the water table
and vital plant life. Consequently, the wetlands dry out,
resulting in the loss of the goods and services provided
by wetlands.
ii. Loss of run-off control: When wetlands loss their
water as a result of drainage, their soils dry out and are
no longer able to store large volumes of water. As a
result, there is increase surface run-off and frequency
of floods. Annual flow period of the river is reduced
and many water courses dry up. This is already being
experienced in many part of Ghana, especially the
Volta Basin.
iii. Wetlands conservation: Wetlands may be reclaimed
or filled for residential and industrial development,
road construction. They may also be converted for
aquaculture. This reduces the extent of wetlands and
impacts negatively on the associated species. Many
areas may experience increased frequency of flooding,
as wetlands are unavailable ton control surface run-off.
Traditional harvesting of fuel-wood, timber, fish and
good water supply are lost when wetlands are
converted to other forms of land use.
iv. Regulation of water supply: Construction of dams,
dykes and sea walls for the regulation of water supply
deprives many downstream wetlands of their normal
water regimes. For example, the construction of dams
on the White Volta in Burkina Faso is perceived to be
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the cause of the dropping water levels in the Volta
Dam at Akosombo; the construction of the Akosombo
Dam has also drastically reduced the water availability
to the downstream communities, disrupting the
livelihood of local communities dependent on valuable
fisheries productivity and water supply systems.
v. Saltwater intrusion/soil salinisation: In the coastal
areas, the reduction of the input from upstream sources
leads to increase intrusion of sea water into the water
table, and hence, soil Salinisation. The result is change
in species composition as salt sensitive species are
replaced by more salt-tolerant ones.
vi. Soil degradation: When wetlands soils are exposed
due to drainage or the destruction of their vegetation
through bush fires, lumbering and fuel-wood
harvesting, leaching of soil nutrient take place and the
sulphides in the original soils are converted into
sulphuric acid leading to acidification. The soil may
shrink upon drying and can no longer support good
agriculture or plant life.
vii. Pollution: The dumping of refuse, discharge of
industrial and domestic sewerage, as well as
agricultural run-off into wetlands increases the organic
loading of the wetland’s waters. This increases the
biochemistry oxygen demand (BOD) of the water
body, leading to inadequate oxygen supply to support
plant and animal life. This may seriously contaminate
the water, endangering the plant, animals and people
living in or near to the water. Typical example of such
polluted systems can be found in the Densu and subin
river basins and the Sakumo and Korle Lagoon.
viii. Over-exploitation: During times of draught, people
tend to migrate into wetland areas. Increased demand
on wetland resources, such as livestock grazing, fuel-
wood, timber, water abstraction and fisheries lead to
over-exploitation. This leads to the disruption of the
ecological and socio-economic functions of the
wetland, resulting in the loss of livelihood for many
local communities.
ix.Deforestation: Deforestation upstream of wetlands
result in increased surface run-off, as well as sediment
load of water that flow into the wetlands. This reduces
light penetration in wetlands waters and result in loss
in primary productivity.
x.Sediment and nutrient diversion: Dams and other
impoundment prevent sediment from reaching down-
stream water courses. Deficiency in nutrients and
sediment reaching deltas results in coastal erosion and

reduction in the natural productivity of some aquatic
life forms. For example, the normal nutrient and
sediment supply circle for the Lower Volta Basin
downstream of Akosombo was disrupted with the
construction of the dam and has resulted in increased
sea erosion in the Keta and Ada-Foah areas of the
coast line.
xi.Disruption of stable climatic conditions: The loss of
water and vegetation reduces evapo-transpiration from
wetlands. This leads to the disruption of the stable
climatic conditions leading to drought, and under
extreme conditions can lead to the disappearance of
the wetlands.
Principles of conservation of wetlands in Ghana
Ghana’s Wetlands Conservation Strategy is aimed at
achieving the guiding principles of ensuring
sustainable land use within the general context of
Ghana’s Land Policy. The Policy seeks to promote the
judicious use of the nation’s land and all its natural
resources by all sectors of the Ghanaian society in
support of various socio-economic activities
undertaken in accordance with sustainable resource
use and maintenance of viable ecosystems.
Purpose
The purpose of National Wetlands Wetland Strategy is
to build wetlands management, within the broader
context of environmental management, into the
day-to-day activities of Government, organisations,
traditional authorities, communities and individuals.
Guiding Principles
Recognising traditional perceptions, local needs,
national aspirations, as expressed in Ghana’s Vision
2020, as well as international guidelines, conventions
and agreements, the following principles will guide
Ghana’s Wetlands Conservation Strategy:
i. the principle of wise use, emphasizing on managing
wetlands within biological and physical constraints, to
ensure that future generations have access to the same
resources as the present generation.
ii. the principle of interdependence between physical,
biological, social, cultural, economic, technological
and environmental conditions of wetland ecosystems;
iii. the precautionary principle by avoiding activities
which would affect the integrity of wetlands and
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subjecting all development activities to environmental
impact assessment process;
iv. the principle of "polluter pays" will apply to all
development activities in wetland habitats;
v. the principle that local knowledge and traditional
management strategies play a role in the
management of wetlands;
vi. the principle that the livelihood of local
communities within the catchment area is inter-
linked with the ecological integrity of wetlands;
vii. the principle of participatory approach by the
involvement of traditional authorities, local
communities and all concerned people and
organisations at levels of decision-making in the
sustainable management of wetlands;
viii.. the principle that provisions of incentives and
disincentives are effective means of managing the use
of wetlands and wetland resources;
ix. the principle that international co-operation is
essential in the conservation and management of
shared wetland resources.
Assignment 14
1. a) Explain the work of river under the following
headings;
i. hydraulic action ii. attrition iii. solution
iv. abrasion v. corrosion vi. corrasion
b) Explain four reasons why a river deposits its
sediment
2.a) What is wetland according to Ghana law of
conserving and management of wetlands
b) With the aid of diagram, describe the three zones of
managing wetland in Ghana.
c)With discussion, employ three methods of
d) conserving wetlands in Ghana.
3.a) Explain four factors affecting river erosion
b) Identify four factors affecting river transportation
c) What are benefits derived from wetlands to
agribusiness?
4. a) Why are wetlands under threat in Ghana?
b) What has the impact of the developments been?
c) What can be done?
d) Highlight five functions of wetlands
 Principlesam Series
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
OCEANS AND LAKES OF THE WORLD
The Ocean Relief or topography of the ocean floor
The oceans are the planet's last great living wilderness, Seas and Oceans are blue beauties of the planet earth.
man's only remaining frontier on earth, and perhaps his Oceans are vast body of saline water occupying the
last chance to prove himself a rational species. John great depressions on the earth. They belong to the
L.Culliney. The coastal zone is rich in a variety of hydrosphere and cover almost 97% of it. Oceans cover
natural, commercial, recreational, industrial, and 361 million Sq.km of the earth’s surface. The volume
aesthetic resources of immediate and potential value to of water is 1.37 billion cubic km. They are extensive,
the present and future well-being of the nation. exhaustive and exploitable marine ecosystems. Very
An ocean is the body of saline water that composes huge masses of water with varied dimension exist as
much of planets hydrosphere. The world’s ocean oceans. On-shore and off-shore marine ecosystems are
occupies over 70% of the earth’s total area, (300 characterized by very distinct features with unique
million square kilometers of the earth’s total area of fauna and flora. They hold many marine habitats and
510 million square kilometers). contain a lot of natural resources. The sea floor was
The ocean contains 97% of the earth’s hydrosphere unknown environment to early mariners. They believed
(water). The world’s oceans in ascending order are; that the oceans were large basins or holes (depression)
i. Pacific Ocean in the earth’s crust, but they did not conceive or
ii. Atlantic Ocean considered that these basins hold features that were as
iii. Indian Ocean much magnificent as the mountain chains, great
iv. Arctic Ocean canyons, and deep valleys of the land. Thereafter, the
v. Antarctic Ocean (Southern/ the Southern Great World War II, serious efforts to map submarine
Ocean) topography using echo-sounding device began. In the
The earth is the only planet that is known to have open 1950s, improvement in technology made it possible to
water (ocean) or any large amounts of open liquid sample the deep-sea floor routinely and in detail by the
water. use of Bathysphere which was designed by a Swiss
engineer called AugustaPiccord. By the use of this
Table 14: The oceans of the world and their depths (sizes) device, the scientists have been able to come out with
Ocean Size in sq.km the features of the sea floor which is as varied as the
Pacific 179,679,000 features of the dry land. The ocean floor or the ocean
Atlantic 92,373.000 basin is in many ways similar to the land surface. When
Indian 73,917,000 we move towards the seashore, we may see the beaches
Arctic 14,091,000 with splashing tides and dancing waves. There is a
Antarctica/Oceanic 20, 326,000 bluish water body seen as a straight flat plane denoting
the sea-level. Waves’ coming towards the land break,
The 5 Oceans while nearing towards the coast and subsides while
Pacific Ocean touching the beach. The coastline is the boundary
– Largest and deepest ocean between land and ocean. The surface beneath the
– Mariana Trench: 11 km., 36,000 ft. (E.g. Mt. oceanic waters is characterized by a lot of relief
Everest 29,000 ft.) features. The structure, configuration and relief features
Atlantic Ocean of the oceans also vary from each other.
– About ½ the size of the Pacific All major oceans and seas vary in their sizes, shape,
Indian Ocean depth, areal extension and in all other aspects like
– Southern hemisphere temperature, density, salinity and chemical
Arctic Ocean composition. The marine geological, chemical and
– ¼ as deep, much smaller, sea ice biological information and data are very vast and useful
Southern Ocean for studying and analyzing the oceans.
– South of 50-degree South latitude
162

On the basis of Bathymetry and other studies, the
morphology of Ocean basins includes:
1) Continental margins encompassing Continental
shelf and Continental slope,
2) Deep ocean basins encompassing the Abyssal
plains, abyssal hills, ocean trenches, Mid-oceanic
ridges and deep ocean floor. The feature or landforms
found on the ocean floor include;
i.The Continental shelf or margin
ii.Continental slope
iii.Deep sea plain
iv.Ocean deep or trench
v. Ocean ridge
vi.Sub-marine valley or canyon
Significance of oceanic relief
1. It controls the motion of sea water.
2. It influences the oceanic movement in the form of
currents.
3. It helps in the navigation and fishing.
Fig. 140: The relief or topography of the ocean floor
1. Continental shelf or margin: The continental shelf
is a greatly sloping platform which stretches from the
coast towards the sea. It is a shallow water zone
surrounding the continent. It is very shallow and varies
in depth between 120m and 370m long. It forms 7% of
the total area of the ocean. It is found in Labrador.
A schematic profile of the continental margin to the
deep-sea shows the following zones:
1. The coastal plain is the first part of the water’s edge.
It includes the beaches, mainly covered by
unconsolidated sediments. These are subjected to wave
energy that moves these sediments by converging on
headlands.
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Principlesam Series
2. The inner and outer continental shelf. It is about 70
km wide, bordering the continent -topography. It
generally resembles that of the coastal plain. It has a
gentle slope of about 0.1 degree (1.9m/km). Sediments
are transported across this shelf region by the currents.
3. The continental slope is rather steep slope with 4
degrees (76m/km), following the continental shelf
break. Some slopes are cut by the submarine canyons.
These canyons are spaced closer together as the slope
increases. Deep-sea fans are also formed where these
canyons empty out their sediments onto the deep-sea
floor.
4. The upper and lower continental rise comes next.
These are usually smooth due to sediment cover. The
slope may be of 0.5 degrees (9.5m/km).
❖ The final part is the Deep-ocean Basin. The
underwater zone bordering the continents is known as
the continental shelf. It begins from the shoreline and
gently slopes down to a depth of about 130 meters.
❖ The Continental shelves vary in their width from
almost zero up to the 1,500km-wide. The maximum is
seen at the Siberian shelf in the Arctic Ocean. The
average width of the continental shelf goes to about 75
kilometers.
❖ The edge of the shelf, called as the shelf-break,
occurs at a depth of 20m to 550m, averaging to 130m.
This break is marked by an abrupt increase in the
gradient or slope to an average of about 4°. In places
like the Arctic region, the continental shelf extends up
to a distance of 1,600 kilometer. In some other areas,
particularly those bordering much of the Pacific, it
measures only 1.6 kilometers or less.
❖ The extensions of major rivers and their valleys of
varying depths cut through the continental shelf region.
The continental shelf region collects much of the
sediments (deposits of sand and mud) that are carried
by the rivers and deposited into the ocean.
❖ The continental shelves are the most exploited
oceanic regions commercially. It is here, all the
petroleum, sand and gravel deposits, and fishery
resources are found in enormous amounts. It is also the
location where most of the wastes are getting dumped.
❖ The shelves consist of vast deposits of sands, muds,
and gravels, overlying crystalline rocks and appreciable
thicknesses of consolidated sedimentary rocks.
❖ Deep submarine canyons are sometimes found
cutting across the continental shelf and slope regions.

They are often found to be extending from the mouths
of major rivers of continents.
❖ The notable rivers having such submarine canyons
are the Congo, Amazon, Ganges, and Hudson rivers.
The opinions of origins of continental shelf
❖ Constructional feature built by deposition from the
land
❖ Could be the results of marine erosion of shore
islands with the intervening basin being filled with the
finest sediments.
❖ It could be a submerged delta, e.g., Niger delta
❖ It could be submerged abrasion platform
Formation
It is believed that the continental shelf is the part of the
coastal plain submerged due to the rise in the sea level
resulting from the melting of ice at the close of the ice
age. An ice age is a period where the sea, river etc.
were in the form of ice. The continental shelf also may
have been formed from marine deposition of land
materials. It is also believed the shelf was built through
the deposition by sheets.
Importance of the continental shelf
a) Continental shelves are good fishing ground: It is
a good fishing ground because of its shallowness nature
the sun rays is able to reach the seabed. This helps the
growth of sea weeds for plankton (minute plants and
animal organisms) on which fish feed on. Examples
include the Grand Banks, off Newfoundland in Canada,
the North Sea and the coast extending from Mauritania
to Senegal.
b) Development of natural harbours: The
shallowness and gentle slope of continental shelf keep
out cold under current and increases the height of tides
thus improving shipping activities. Most of the world’s
Seaport including Southampton, London, Hamburg,
Hong Kong and Singapore are located on continental
shelves.
c) Continental shelf can facilitate the exploration of
petroleum: Because the continental shelf is shallow, it
makes the exploration of crude oil easy.
d) They serve as tourist centers: Its shallowness and
position make it a nice place for tourist attraction.
2. Continental slope: It is a steep slope that extends
from the edge of the continental shelf to the deep-sea
plane. It is very narrow and deep extending to about
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Principlesam Series
400meters. Continental slope marks the boundary of
the continental granitic mass and defines the boundary
between continental crust and oceanic crust.
Formation
The continental slope is believed to have been formed
through the process of down warping. As a result of
this the land extending from the continental shelf was
deformed to become steep to form continental slope.
Continental slopes are the longest and highest slopes on
the earth. The slope may be straight or curved. The
width of continental shelf zone may go up to 150 km
inside the sea. The water depth may range from 200m
to 2000m. This is a zone of steep slope. The slope may
range from 5°to more than 60°. In this steep
topographic gradient, there may be no marine deposits.
Many of the sediments may directly move down into
the deep ocean basins. The continental slope zone
occupies 8.5 % of the total are of ocean basins. Within
Atlantic Ocean it is about 12.4%. Within the Pacific
Ocean it is about 7.0%. In the Indian Ocean, it is about
6.5%. Again, continental slope is geologically not
belonging to the oceanic crust, but a part of the
continental margin covered by oceans. The most
outstanding features of the continental slopes are the
presence of features like submarine canyons.
3. Deep Sea Plain: It is a wide gentle undulating or
fairly level surface which has a depth of between 200m
and 3000m. It covers two-third of the ocean floor. It is
also called abyssal plain. Features found on the abyssal
plain include sub-marine plateau, ridges, trenches,
basins and oceanic islands that rise above sea level.
Examples are the Azores and the Ascension Island.
4. Ocean Deep or Trench: It is a narrow long
depression on the deep-sea floor. It has a steep side
with a depth of about 10,000m or more. E.g. is the
Mariana Trench (11,022km) deep, off the island of
Guam ocean deeps lying near or parallel to the coast
and are bordered with Fold Mountains.
Formation: Its formation is closely related
earthquakes, the earthquakes that occur on that portion
of the sea shelf with the creation of those trenches.
They may be formed when two tectonic plates collide
under the ocean. Trenches are long narrow depressions
in the ocean floor. They reach a depth of about 7000m
to 11000m below sea level. They occupy 1% of the

surface of the earth. The following are the
morphological features of the deep ocean-basin:
a) The width of the Deep-Sea Trenches varies from
30km-100 km, the Relief of features go up to less than
2 km. Water depth may range from 5000-12000 m.
b) The width of Abyssal Hills may range from 100m to
100,000 m. The Relief may range from 1m – 1000 m.
Most of the Trenches lie parallel to mountain ranges.
There are 26 trenches in the world ocean:
• 3 in the Atlantic Ocean
• 1 in the Indian Ocean
• 22 in the Pacific Ocean
❖ There are numerous Ocean Trenches beyond
continental rise. The greatest depths of oceans can be
seen only in the form of ocean trenches. These are steep
sided, long narrow and hollow portions. They may be
300-500 km in length and 30-100 km wide with a depth
of 6 km. Initially, their side slope at 4 to 8° and then
goes up to 16° to depths more than 10 km. For those
parts of a depression which exceed 6000m in depth, the
term Ocean deep is used. Ocean trenches are formed
due to subduction of the oceanic crust. The faults which
transect these ridges are called as Transform faults.
❖ Ocean trenches are found to be parallel to the
Volcanic Arcs in the oceans. These may extend 3 to
4km below the level of the surrounding ocean floor.
The greatest known trench of the world is the Mariana
Trench which goes up to a depth of 11022 m, below sea
level. The length may go up to 2550 Km and the width
may go up to 70 Km. The trench zones are
characterized by complete darkness and unimaginable
pressures due to the great depth. The pressure may go
up to 16000 pounds per square inch of the ocean floors.
This is almost inhospitable zone of deep sea for any life
to stay and survive in the oceans. There is yet another
feature within the ocean basins at the interior zones.
Features of deep ocean basins
The schematic profile of an ocean basin shows the
following ten features:
a) Submarine volcanoes.
b) Seamounts are isolated submarine hills, steep sides,
volcano-shaped - more than 1km in relief.
c) Mid-ocean rises and ridges.
d) Abyssal plains.
e) Knolls - or abyssal hills (mostly in Pacific) 30-
1,000m in relief, several mm wide, origin unknown,
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Principlesam Series
very common less than 1000m elevation, not
completely smooth.
f) Trenches - mostly in the Pacific - mark the transition
between the continents and the ocean basins. These are
steep sided, as deep as 11000m. Some are "higher" than
the Mt. Everest from the base.
g) Island arcs - on landward side of trenches, areas of
active mountain building - often with high mountains
on the adjacent continent. Fracture zones in the oceans
are generally east-west oriented. They extend several
1000km across the major Oceans.
h) Guyots or flat-topped seamounts: These gets
eroded seamounts during exposure at the surface. They
are more than 1km in relief.
i) Atolls: The abyssal plains lying at depths of 5000-
6000m being nearly flat. This is mainly due to
sedimentation. They are found mostly in the Atlantic
and are absent in the eastern Indian and most of the
Pacific Ocean floors. If there are no plains, then there
may be oceanic trenches.
5. Oceanic Ridge: They are extensive highlands found
on the sea floor. They take the form of either a ridge or
a plateau.
Formation
The may be formed when two tectonic plates drifts
apart allowing hot mantle to rise up to form new crust
under the ocean. Examples are the mid-Atlantic ridge
between Africa and the Americas, and the albatross
plateau, off the west coast of Central America. Some of
them may rise above the surface of the ocean to form
oceanic island.
The ocean ridges are of two types as;
a) Active spreading centre ridge and rise and
b) Inactive seismic ridge.
The active spreading ridges are about 1000km wide
and 1 to 2km high. There may also be ridge valleys.
The ridge valleys form due to the subsidence and
down-faulting of the central portions where two plates
are diverging. Oceanic ridges are traversed by series of
fractures with steep sides running perpendicular to
ridges (or) rises.
a) Island Arcs: Island arcs are curved chain of
volcanic islands. They are generally convex towards
the open sea. Due to this nature, they are called as
Arcs. There are hundreds and thousands of extinct
volcanoes in the ocean floors. These regions are
seismically active zones. Island arcs are

topographically and structurally continuous features.
These are formed when two oceanic plates converge
and collide. The melting of the descending plate rises
upwards as an extended magma, to form the islands.
Most of these eruptions are unnoticed. In some
localities, especially in islands, one can see the impacts
as mud volcanoes and hot springs. Various features
found in the ocean basins are not permanent. Some
parts of the ocean may be closing due to plate
movements and some part may be expanding. This
process of opening and closing of the ocean basin is
called as Wilson cycle.
b) Seamounts and Guyots: Seamounts and Guyots are
some more unique features of the ocean basins.
Seamounts are isolated steep sided submarine volcanic
mounts. They may be 2-100km wide and is less than
1km high above the sea floor. Very rarely, they rise
above the sea level as seen in Hawaii islands. Guyots
are flat-topped seamounts. The flat-top is created due to
wave action. It is named after the Swiss scientist. A.H.
Guyot. Seamounts are more than Guyots in the world.
Now-a-days, Digital Terrain Models of Seamounts are
generated from multibeam sonar data. These methods
are in a position to provide three-dimensional pictures
of the ocean floors and morphology.
c) The Vast Ocean Floor: The ocean floor is a very
vast zone. It consists of rocks of geologically young
age. The oldest is of Jurassic in age. Hundreds of
millions of tons of sediment are emptied into the ocean
every year by the world streams. Of the total volume of
sediments, half of it lies on the shelves, slopes and
rises. They are called as terrigenous sediments. The
rest are in the deep oceans. These are clays and oozes.
They are called as pelagic sediments. The age of the
oceans and the morphological features of the sea floor
have been extremely important to the development of
the theory of plate tectonics, oceanic water distribution
and circulation, control of marine life and the global
climate. The oceanic crust forms the ocean floor. It
consists of hard volcanic rocks called basalts. The
continents lie above the continental crust. Continental
crust consists of granitic rocks. Granites are lighter than
basalts. Due to this, the continental crust is assumed to
"float" on the mantle, above the oceanic crust.
6. Sub-marine Canyon or valley
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Principlesam Series
➢ They are long deep and steep side valley on the
deep-sea floor. It has its head on the continental shelf
and bottom on the continental slope.
➢ It has many tributary valleys joining it.
➢ They are V-shaped valleys that can run across
continental shelves and down the continental slopes.
➢ They are narrow, elongated and have many tributary
valleys joining them. They may have abyssal fans
which are land-derive and fan-shaped sediments which
have been moved down and deposited at the base
submarine
➢ Abyssal fans may form abyssal plains that is, very
flat plains
➢ Submarine canyons are erosion features.
Formation: submarine canyons or valleys are believed
to have been formed through a process known as the
“composite theory”. According to the theory,
Submarine valleys are formed when sediments of sand
and mud combine to form a powerful river which
moves along the continental slope to cut valley
turbidity current. They are formed when surface rivers
erode vertically along their channels creating valleys,
which are later submerged under the sea. The erosion
of the land may also be triggered off by faulting and
landslides. The Atlantic coast of the United States has a
lot of submarine canyons.
It is also believed that they were formed by surface
rivers before drowning. Rivers flowing on the land cut
deep valleys. Relative rise of the ocean floor or the land
caused the valleys or the rivers to be drown to form
submarine canyons or valleys.
Features of Submarine Canyon
❖ Submarine canyons are steep sided and V-shaped
valleys with tributaries, similar to those of river cut
canyons seen on land. These are formed due to
continental rifting. The distributary channels are called
as levees.
❖ Submarine canyons are located in transverse
direction to continental shelves.
❖ The fan-shaped deposits of these canyons which are
dumped at the bottom are known as deep-sea fans.
These are distinct underwater alluvial fans.
❖ They are transported and deposited by turbidity
currents.
❖ Submarine canyons resemble river canyons on land,
usually having steep, rocky walls. They are found along
most continental slopes. Those of the Grand Bahama

Canyon, which are thought to be the deepest, cut nearly
3 mi (5 km) deep into the continental slope. Most
submarine canyons extend only about 30 mi (50 km) or
less, but a few are more than 200 mi (300 km) long
Modern submarine canyons vary considerably in their
dimensions. The average lengths of canyons has been
estimated to be about 34 mi (55 km); although the
Bering Canyon is more than 680mile (1100 km) long
and is the world's longest submarine canyon.
❖ The shortest canyons are those of the Hawaiian
Islands, and average about 6miles (10km) in length.
❖ Submarine canyons are characterized by relatively
steep gradients. The average slope of canyon floors is
309 ft/mile (58m/km). In general, shorter canyons tend
to have higher gradients. For example, shorter canyons
of the Hawaiian group have an average gradient of 766
ft/mi (144m/km), whereas the Bering Canyon has a
slope of only 42 ft/mi (7.9 m/km).
❖ Continental Rise: At the base of continental slope,
the topographic gradient decreases to 1° (or) less and
the ocean enters into the abyssal plains or hills. This
portion of the sea floor is known as continental rise.
This is a product of deposition by turbidity current,
underwater landslides and many other processes.
Hypothesis/ theories on the origin of submarine canyon
❖ The theory of faulty: Belief that likes canyons on
land, faulting might have created submarine canyons
❖ The theory of sub-aerial origin: It is believed that
they may have been formed on land and then drowned
by down warping or tilting (Sheppard propounded it)
❖ The theory of glacio-eustatism: Control of sea
level by glaciations during the quaternary period. This
allowed the incision or excavation of the canyons at a
time of lower sea levels and later were inundated by
rise in sea level during ice melt
❖ The theory of composite origin: It is developed by
combination of processes such as successive erosive
activities of turbidity currents, down warping,
slumping, faulting etc. This was put forward by
Sheppard F.P when he abandoned his earlier theory of
sub-aerial origin.
Importance of the Ocean to man
a. The ocean serves as a source of food, e.g., fish
b. It also serves as a source of transportation
c. It provides a source of employment. E.g., fishermen
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Principlesam Series
d. Materials are also acquired from the ocean. E.g.,
petroleum
e. The oceans moderate the climate of an area.
Salinity of the Ocean
Salinity refers to the degree of saltiness or the
concentration of salt solution in the sea water. The
degree of salinity varies from one ocean to the other.
Salinity is measure in percentages (%), in parts per
thousand or percentage per thousand, ppt). The
saltiness of an ocean is expressed as number of gains of
salt in every 1000 grams of water, with an average for
the oceans being 35grammes.
On maps the line drawn to join places in the same
ocean having equal degree of salinity or rains are called
Isohalines or isohyets.
Bathymetry refers to the depth zones of Ocean Basins
depicted as charts and maps prepared using depth
sounding techniques. The words Bathos means depth,
metry means measurement.
A Hypsographic curve is a graphical representation of
the area of earth’s surface above any given elevation
(or) depth. This may be above the sea level or below
the sea level. Its vertical scale refers to the height (or)
depth in meter and the horizontal scale refers to the
percentage of total are equated to 5.2 million sq.km.
The Morphology of Ocean Basin means the
configuration of the ocean basins in terms of relief
features. This could be analysed by using the
bathymetric records. Great ocean bathymetric mapping,
marine explorations and expeditions have provided us
enormous data and information about the world’s
oceans.
Factors affecting the variation of salinity
1. The rate of evaporation: High temperatures causes
evaporation and which causes the volume of the water
to reduce. As the volume of the sea water reduces
through evaporation the amount of salt increase. The
water around high-pressure belts have high salinity
because of high temperatures leading to high rate of
evaporation. The temperate oceans have lower salinity
due to the low temperature and the low rate of
evaporation.
2. Supply of fresh water (salt free): The amount of
fresh water added by rainfall, melting ice, rivers and
snow has great effect on the ocean water. This fresh
water dilutes the salt in the ocean thereby reducing the

rate of evaporation and makes salinity lower. Salinity is
lower in equatorial waters due to heavy rainfall and
high relative humidity. Oceans are heated into which
huge rivers like Amazon, Longo and Ganges flow have
a lower salinity. Melting of ice, colder climate with
little evaporation and the much fresh water added to the
Basaltic, Arctic and Atlantic waters lower their salinity.
Very high salinity occurs in enclosed (inland) seas such
as the Dead Sea, Great Salt Lake in North America.
This is because very little fresh water is brought into
them by rivers and evaporation is high in these seas.
3. The degree of water mixing by currents: The
amount and quantity of fresh water that empty itself by
mixing with the ocean currents can also influence the
salinity of the ocean or sea. The fresh water can be rain
or precipitation as well. Salinity is high in wholly or
partially enclosed seas e.g., Caspian Sea because the
water does not mix freely with water and is not
penetrated by the ocean currents. In areas of inland
drainage without links to the ocean, continuous
evaporation causes high salinity. In open oceans where
currents freely flow salinity tends to be low. Free
mixing of water by surface and subsurface currents
reduces salinity of the oceans.
4. The level or rate of temperature: The rate at which
temperature occurs can cause heavy evaporation hence
determine the level of salinity in the ocean water. High
temperature promotes high evaporation and hence high
salinity and vice versa.
Circulation of Ocean Water (Ocean Currents)
Ocean Current refers to the regular movement of
water from one part of the ocean to another. In other
words, they are the horizontal movement of surface sea
water in regular pattern. Ocean currents are large
masses of surface water of the ocean flowing in regular
patterns around the ocean.
Various forces act upon ocean water, causing it to
move. They include the wind, temperature,
breaking waves and at tides, and sometimes
underground forces like earthquakes. Ocean currents
move at it pattern due to gravity, the rotating earth
(Coriolis Effect), water density, the sun, and wind. The
various forces determine the size, speed direction, and
shape of ocean currents. The water can either move
horizontally known as currents or vertically known as
downwellings or upwellings.
Classification of ocean currents
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Principlesam Series
a) Horizontal Currents
1. Surface Currents: They are currents that occur on
the top layer of the ocean and are primarily driven by
wind. They affect the water on the upper 300m of the
ocean. The currents mirror the large-scale circulation of
air, mostly derived from unequal heating of the planet’s
surface by the sun. The currents, therefore, form
rotating systems in the middle of the ocean systems,
called gyres. Surface currents are responsible for
redistributing heat at a planetary scale.
2. Deep-water Currents: As opposed to surface
currents that occur on the upper surface of the ocean,
deep-water currents occur deep inside the ocean. As
they occur far below the surface, they are not
influenced by the winds. However, they arise as a result
of variation in the density of the ocean water and are
controlled by the temperature and salt content of the
water.
b) Vertical Currents
i. Upwelling: Upwelling currents are currents that
move from deep in the ocean heading towards the
surface. They are responsible for bringing organic
matter from below the ocean towards its surface. For
instance, they sweep nutrients upwards, helping some
marine life. It can be seen when there are tremors
or earthquakes on the surface below the ocean and the
waves are pushed upwards. In Antarctica, upwelling
currents pump nitrogen and phosphates up from the
deep sea to blooms of algae and other plants. The
planktons can then be eaten by crustaceans called krill,
which in turn are eaten by penguins, seabirds, seals,
and the baleen whales, the largest animals on earth.
ii. Downwelling: These are currents that move
material from the surface of the ocean towards its
floor. Surface water can be forced downwards by the
pressure of the water when currents converge or wind
drives the ocean against a coastline. It is important as
the dissolved oxygen in the sediments and water below
would quickly be used up by the decay of organic
matter. Additionally, anaerobic bacteria would take
control of decomposition, contributing to a build-up of
hydrogen sulfide and only a handful of benthic animals
would survive such toxic conditions.
Types of ocean currents
Ocean currents are those that grouped into two main
types depending on its origin. They are;
1.Warm ocean currents and

2.Cold ocean currents.
Warm Ocean Currents: Warm ocean currents are
those that flow from equatorial regions towards the
poles and have a relatively high surface temperature.
Cold Ocean Currents: Cold ocean currents are those
that flow from the poles towards equatorial regions
and have a relatively low surface temperature.
Examples of ocean currents
a.Atlantic Ocean
Warm currents
- North equatorial current
- Gulf stream
- North Atlantic Drift
- South equatorial current
- Brazilian current
Cold current
- Labrador
- East Greenland Current
- West Wind Drift
- Cananeries
Causes or factors that affect the ocean currents
1. Temperature difference: The most basic cause of
ocean current is the difference in surface temperature of
the ocean. Ocean water found at the equator are very
more heated and are therefore very warm and light than
those at the poles. On the other hand, those at the poles
are cold, heavy (dense) gain density and slower along
the bottom towards the equator.
2. Salinity of the ocean water: Salinity is the degree
of saltiness of the ocean water. In oceans where the
salinity is high the water is dense or heavy, and creeps
(moves at the bottom of the ocean to low salinity areas.
Whiles in oceans where the salinity is low, the water is
light and flow at the ocean surface towards a light
salinity area.
3. Planetary winds: Wind is one of the more
important factors responsible for the movement of
water in oceans. The trade with move equatorial waters
pole-wards and westwards and warm the eastern coasts
of the continents for example. The North East trade
winds move the North Equatorial current to warm the
Southern and Eastern Coast of U.S.A. Also, the South
East trade winds drive the south Equatorial Currents
which warms the Eastern Coasts of Brazil e.g. Brazilian
Current.
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Principlesam Series
- Benguela
b. Pacific Ocean
Warm currents
- Kurosiwo
- North Equatorial current
- South Equatorial current
- East Australian current
Cold currents
- Kamchatka or Oyasiwo
- Peruvian current
- Californian current west Wind Drift
c. Indian Ocean
Warm currents
- South west and North east monsoon drift
- South Equatorial Current
- Mozambiquan current
Cold current
- West Australian current
- West Wind Drift
4. Rotation of the earth: As a result of rotation of the
earth, ocean waters are deflected to the right in northern
hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.
5. The distribution and shape of the landmass:
Warm and cold currents flow in obedience to the
topography of the landmasses. The landmasses may
divert the currents from the direction initially taken by
the current to different directions. For example, the tip
of southern Chiles part of the Western Wind Drift
northwards as the Peruvian Current. Also, the
‘shoulder’ of Brazil of Cape Sao Roque deflects the
west-flowing Equatorial Current southwards to become
the Brazilian Current. Moreover, due to the island of
Madagascar, the Mozambiquan Current is split into
two, such as warm and cold currents.
6. Gravity: Gravity tends to pull items towards the
surface of the earth. When the wind blows ocean water,
the water piles up in the direction of the wind. Gravity,
therefore, pulls the water down the ‘hill’ against the
pressure gradient.
7. Coriolis Effect: It refers to the rotation of the earth.
It produces forces on all bodies moving relative to the
earth. As the earth is spherical, the forces are greatly
felt at the poles and least at the equator. Coriolis Effect
also results in the wind changing direction,

with Northern Hemisphere winds and currents moving
towards the right while Southern Hemisphere currents
are deflected to the left.
8. Underwater earthquakes: They can trigger ocean
currents, moving masses of water inland. Earthquakes
can also trigger downslope movements of water-
saturated sediments, resulting in strong turbidity
currents.
Effects of ocean currents on the adjacent coast
i. Rainfall: A warm current brings heavy rains on the
adjacent areas. For example, the Warm Guinea Current
increases rainfalls at the coast of south west of Ghana.
Axim usually measures about 1500- 2000mm of
rainfall annually.
ii. Temperature changes: Cool currents lower
temperatures of the adjacent coastland. For example,
the coast Benguela Currents lowers Namibia. Port
Nolloth in the records of 60°F
iii. They can also cause deserts: Cold currents do not
give rise to moisture-laden winds and, therefore, there
is no rainfall in the coastal regions. The conditions
cause desertification in the affected coastal regions,
such as the Kalahari and Patagonia Deserts because of
the cold Benguela and Falkland currents, respectively.
iv. They can destroy marine wildlife: Some currents
might be too strong and end up destroying planktons.
For instance, El Nino currently destroys planktons
along the Peruvian coasts. It also brings with it several
diseases that kill fish.
v. They help with the continuity of life: In Antarctica,
strong upwelling currents pump nitrogen and
phosphates up from the deep sea to blooms of algae and
other plants. The planktons are eaten by crustaceans
called krill. The krill in turn feed penguins, seabirds,
seals, and the baleen whales, the largest animals on
earth.
vi. They save up on time and costs: It goes to the
advanced knowledge of currents by sailors. When
currents are in their favor, they can reach their
destinations in time. They can also rescue shipping time
and fuel costs. However, if they are against the sailors,
they might make tore time battling the currents, and use
more fuel to sail past those currents
vii. They can result in deaths: Ocean currents can also
result in deaths and destruction of property if they are
strong enough to overpower ships in the ocean. Of
course, to do so, they have to be very strong and
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probably accompanied by tremors or lightning, but in
the end, they can lead to disastrous results.
Importance of ocean currents
i. Controlling the climate: Ocean currents are
responsible for moving the heat from the equator and
towards the poles. As such, they maintain the natural
order and balance of the climate.
ii. Critical to marine life: Marine wildlife is heavily
dependent on the balance created by the ocean and is
maintained by the ocean currents. The currents carry
nutrients and food organisms, feeding the plants and
animals that depend on them.
iii. They also carry reproductive cells and ocean life to
new places. The best example is sea turtles that lay
eggs in the sand along the shores of the ocean. The
ocean currents then carry the young hatchlings into the
water.
iv. They are vital for ports in the Polar Regions:
Warm Ocean currents are responsible for keeping the
ports in Polar Regions operational. It is because they
keep the ports ice-free. The North Atlantic Drift, for
instance, keeps most of the European ports ice-free and
operational. Norway is a prime beneficiary of this drift.
v. Dispersal of life forms: Ocean currents are also
important as they disperse many life forms. For
instance, the life cycle of the European eel is highly
sustained and influenced by ocean currents.
vi. Transportation by humans: Humans rely on ocean
currents to move some of their sea vessels, such as
boats, on water. Currents are also important as they
help when docking and undocking boats, speeding up
shipping lanes, and keeping the ships safe, primarily in
narrow waterways. The direction of currents can also
help in search and rescue missions as well
as environmental disaster clean-ups.
vii. They are responsible for some sports: Not all
sports are played on dry land. Some currents create
waves that can be used for competitive sports or
recreational activities such as surfing. When surfing, a
surfer rides with or against the wave, helping carry the
surfer to shore.
How the Ocean Currents Affect the Climate
1. Maintaining the climate around the poles: Warm
currents move toward the poles while the cold current
moves toward the equator. Such movement ensures the

climate around the poles is maintained, and life around
the area is not disrupted.
2. Causing rains: Currents are also responsible for
rains. Warm currents migrate from around the equator
towards the poles and at the same time, the warmth
causes the water to evaporate. The same will result in
rains around the coastal regions or the ocean.
3. Ocean water directs ocean currents: Ocean currents
are continuously directed by the movement of ocean
water. Forces acting on the water, such as its density,
temperature, and its salinity, among others, control the
currents on the ocean.
4. They create global conveyor belts: The global
conveyor belt is a system of deep and surface currents,
which move water all over the globe. The currents
circulate the globe and can be instrumental in
determining the climate of a region. For instance, the
North Atlantic Drift brings rainfall to Western parts of
Europe, and Benguela and Falkland’s currents cause
desert conditions in the Kalahari and Patagonia Deserts,
respectively.
Islands, their types and coral reefs
Island is any area of land smaller than a continent and
entirely surrounded by water. Islands may occur in
oceans, seas, lakes, or rivers. A group of islands is
called an archipelago. For example, the British Isles,
the Balearic Islands of the Mediterranean Sea and the
islands of the Aegean Sea. Islands may be classified as
either continental or oceanic. Oceanic islands are those
that rise to the surface from the floors of the
ocean basins. Continental islands are simply
unsubmerged parts of the continental shelf that are
entirely surrounded by water. Many of the larger
islands of the world are of the continental
type. Greenland (840,000 square miles (2,175,000
square km), the largest island, is composed of the same
materials as the adjacent North American continent,
from which it is separated by a shallow and narrow sea.
Types of island
Based on their formation, islands have three main
types. These are continental, oceanic and coral reefs
a) Continental Islands: These islands are formed from
the part of continental portions and finally separate
from the main continents through by either lagoon or
lakes, streams or a deep channel. They rise or uplift
from the continental shelves and appear to be similar to
the main continents. For instance, their plants and
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animals most at times look similar to the mainland.
They appear to be the largest of all islands. E.g.
Newfoundland (dissected or separate from the
mainland by the Strait of Belle Isle); Madagascar
(separated by the Mozambique Channel); Sri Lanka
(separated from the mainland by the Palk Strait) and
Formosa (separated by the Formosa Strait. Others are
the Philippine and Indonesian Islands. Continental
islands are formed either by a rise in sea level or
submerge or fall of the land which causes part of the
land to be submerged and the upland parts become
islands.
b) Oceanic or Volcanic Islands
They are small island s that rises directly from the
ocean floor. They lie far from the shore. They are not
connected to the mainland. Their plains and animals
are, therefore, different from those on the mainland.
Some of them are the tops of ocean ridges and
plateaus, for example Falklands and Canary Islands.
Others may the tops of volcanoes. E.gs. are the
Hawaiian Islands, notable Mauna Koa and Mauna Loa.
Formation: Through eruptions, volcanic action opens a
vent which allows the seabed and basaltic lava to come
out. The lava then spread over the seabed and later
solidifies to build a cone which is below the seabed or
sea level. The repeated eruptions cause the cone to
come out the above the sea level. (Refers to basic lava
cone)
c) Coral Reefs: Coral reefs are underwater ecosystem
characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs are formed
of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium
carbonate. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals,
whose polyps cluster in groups. Coral belongs to
the class Anthozoa in the animal phylum Cnidaria,
which includes sea anemones and jellyfish. Unlike sea
anemones, corals secrete hard
carbonate exoskeletons that support and protect the
coral. Most reefs grow best in warm, shallow, clear,
sunny and agitated water. Coral reefs first appeared 485
million years ago, at the dawn of the Early Ordovician,
displacing the microbial and sponge reefs of
the Cambrian. Sometimes called rainforests of the sea,
shallow coral reefs form some of Earth's most diverse
ecosystems.
Material: As the name implies, coral reefs are made up
of coral skeletons from mostly intact coral colonies. As
 Principlesam Series
other chemical elements present in corals become and barrier reefs which extend only seaward, platform
incorporated into the calcium carbonate reefs grow in all directions. Some platform reefs of
deposits, aragonite is formed. However, shell fragments the Laccadives are U-shaped, due to wind and water
and the remains of coralline algae such as the green- flow.
segmented genus Halimeda can add to the reef's ability
to withstand damage from storms and other threats.
Such mixtures are visible in structures such
as Eniwetok Atoll
Fig. 142: Platform reef
Types of coral reefs
e) Atoll: Formation of an atoll according to Charles
a) Fringing reef: Fringing reef: Fringing reef at Eilat at
Darwin Atolls or atoll reefs are a more or less circular
the southern tip of Israel. A fringing reef, also called a
or continuous barrier reef that extends all the way
shore reef, is directly attached to a shore, or borders it
around a lagoon without a central island. They are
with an intervening narrow, shallow channel or lagoon.
usually formed from fringing reefs around volcanic
It is the most common reef type. Fringing reefs follow
islands. Over time, the island erodes away and sinks
coastlines and can extend for many kilometers. They
below sea level. Atolls may also be formed by the
are usually less than 100 metres wide, but some are
sinking of the seabed or rising of the sea level. A ring
hundreds of metres wide. Fringing reefs are initially
of reefs results, which enclose a lagoon. Atolls are
formed on the shore at the low water level and expand
numerous in the South Pacific, where they usually
seawards as they grow in size.
occur in mid-ocean, for example, in the Caroline
Islands, the Cook Islands, French Polynesia,
the Marshall Islands and Micronesia. Atolls are found
in the Indian Ocean, for example, in the Maldives,
the Chagos Islands, the Seychelles and around Cocos
Fig. 141: Fringing reef
Island. The entire Maldives consist of 26 atolls.

d) Barrier reef: Barrier reefs are separated from a

mainland or island shore by a deep channel
or lagoon. They resemble the later stages of a fringing
reef with its lagoon but differ from the latter mainly in
size and origin. Their lagoons can be several kilometers
wide and 30 to 70 metres deep. Above all, the offshore
outer reef edge formed in open water rather than next to
a shoreline. Like an atoll, it is thought that these reefs
are formed either as the seabed lowered or sea level
rose. Formation takes considerably longer than for a
fringing reef, thus barrier reefs are much rarer.
d) Platform reef: Platform reefs, also called bank or
table reefs, can form on the continental shelf, as well a) Fig. 143: Atoll; A small atoll in the Maldives
as in the open ocean, in fact anywhere, the seabed rises b)Inhabited cay in the Maldives
close enough to the surface of the ocean to enable the
growth of zooxanthemic, reef-forming corals. Platform Other reef types or variants
reefs are found in the southern Great Barrier Reef, the ➢ Apron reef – short reef resembling a fringing reef,
Swain and Capricorn Group on the continental shelf, but more sloped; extending out and downward from a
which is about 100–200 km from the coast. Some point or peninsular shore. The initial stage of a fringing
platform reefs of the northern Mascarenes are several reef.
thousand kilometers from the mainland. Unlike fringing

172

➢ Bank reef – isolated, flat-topped reef larger than a
patch reef and usually on mid-shelf regions and linear
or semi-circular in shape; a type of platform reef.
➢ Patch reef – common, isolated, comparatively small
reef outcrop, usually within a lagoon or embayment,
often circular and surrounded by sand or seagrass. Can
be considered as a type of platform reef[ or as features
of fringing reefs, atolls and barrier reefs. The patches
may be surrounded by a ring of reduced seagrass cover
referred to as a grazing halo.
➢ Ribbon reef – long, narrow, possibly winding reef,
usually associated with an atoll lagoon. Also called a
shelf-edge reef or sill reef.
➢ Habili – reef specific to the Red Sea; does not reach
near enough to the surface to cause visible surf; may be
a hazard to ships (from the Arabic for "unborn")
➢ Microatoll – community of species of corals;
vertical growth limited by average tidal height; growth
morphologies offer a low-resolution record of patterns
of sea level change; fossilized remains can be dated
using radioactive carbon dating and have been used to
reconstruct Holocene sea levels
➢ Cays – small, low-elevation, sandy islands formed
on the surface of coral reefs from eroded material that
piles up, forming an area above sea level; can be
stabilized by plants to become habitable; occur in
tropical environments throughout
the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans (including the
Caribbean and on the Great Barrier Reef and Belize
Barrier Reef), where they provide habitable and
agricultural land
➢ Seamount or Guyot – formed when a coral reef on
a volcanic island subsides; tops of seamounts are
rounded and guyots are flat; flat tops of guyots, or table
mounts, are due to erosion by waves, winds, and
atmospheric processes
Fig. 144: Zones of the reefs
The three major zones of a coral reef: the fore reef,
reef crest, and the back reef
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Coral reef ecosystems contain distinct zones that host
different kinds of habitats. Usually, three major zones
are recognized: the fore reef, reef crest, and the back
reef (frequently referred to as the reef lagoon). The
three zones are physically and ecologically
interconnected. Reef life and oceanic processes create
opportunities for the exchange of seawater, sediments,
nutrients and marine life. Most coral reefs exist in
waters less than 50m deep.
Fig. 145: The reef surface
Water in the reef surface zone is often agitated. This
diagram represents a reef on a continental shelf. The
water waves at the left travel over the off-reef
floor until they encounter the reef slope or fore reef.
Then the waves pass over the shallow reef crest. When
a wave enters shallow water it shoals, that is, it slows
down and the wave height increases.
➢ The reef surface is the shallowest part of the reef. It
is subject to surge and tides. When waves pass over
shallow areas, they shoal, as shown in the adjacent
diagram. This means the water is often agitated. These
are the precise condition under which corals flourish.
The light is sufficient for photosynthesis by the
symbiotic zooxanthellae, and agitated water brings
plankton to feed the coral.
➢ The off-reef floor is the shallow sea floor
surrounding a reef. This zone occurs next to reefs on
continental shelves. Reefs around tropical islands and
atolls drop abruptly to great depths and do not have
such a floor. Usually sandy, the floor often supports sea
grass meadows which are important foraging areas for
reef fish.
➢ The reef drop-off is, for its first 50 m, habitat for
reef fish who find shelter on the cliff face
and plankton in the water nearby. The drop-off zone
applies mainly to the reefs surrounding oceanic islands
and atolls.
➢ The reef face is the zone above the reef floor or the
reef drop-off. This zone is often the reef's most diverse
area. Coral and calcareous algae provide complex
habitats and areas that offer protection, such as cracks
and crevices. Invertebrates and epiphytic algae provide
much of the food for other organisms A common

feature on this forereef zone is spur and groove
formations that serve to transport sediment downslope.
➢ The reef flat is the sandy-bottomed flat, which can
be behind the main reef, containing chunks of coral.
This zone may border a lagoon and serve as a
protective area, or it may lie between the reef and the
shore, and in this case is a flat, rocky area. Fish tend to
prefer it when it is present.
➢ The reef lagoon is an entirely enclosed region,
which creates an area less affected by wave action and
often contains small reef patches. However, the
"topography of coral reefs is constantly changing. Each
reef is made up of irregular patches of
algae, sessile invertebrates, and bare rock and sand. The
size, shape and relative abundance of these patches
change from year to year in response to the various
factors that favor one type of patch over another.
Growing coral, for example, produces constant change
in the fine structure of reefs. On a larger scale, tropical
storms may knock out large sections of reef and cause
boulders on sandy areas to move."
Oceanography: “The application of science to the
study of phenomena in the oceans”. Oceanography is a
broad Science
Fig. 146: World Water and Science Oceanography
The Four (4) Disciplines of Oceanography
The study of the ocean is known as oceanography. An
oceanographer studies the ocean. Several thousand
marine scientists are busy at work in the United States
dealing with diversity of important issues from climate
change, declining fisheries, and eroding coastlines, to
the development of new drugs from marine resources
and the invention of new technologies to explore the
sea. Oceanography covers a wide range of topics,
including marine life and ecosystems, ocean
circulation, plate tectonics and the geology of the
seafloor, and the chemical and physical properties of
the ocean. Just as there are many specialties within the
medical field, there are many disciplines within
oceanography. They are;
1. Biological oceanographers and marine biologists:
This study plants and animals in the marine
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environment. They are interested in the numbers of
marine organisms and how these organisms develop,
relate to one another, adapt to their environment, and
interact with it. To accomplish their work, they may use
field observations, computer models, or laboratory and
field experiments.
2. Chemical oceanographers and marine chemists:
This studies the composition of seawater, its processes
and cycles, and the chemical interaction of seawater
with the atmosphere and seafloor. Their work may
include analysis of seawater components, the effects of
pollutants, and the impacts of chemical processes on
marine organisms. They may also use chemistry to
understand how ocean currents move seawater around
the globe and how the ocean affects climate or to
identify potentially beneficial ocean resources such as
natural products that can be used as medicines.
3. Geological oceanographers and marine geologists:
This explores the ocean floor and the processes that
form its mountains, canyons, and valleys. Through
sampling, they look at millions of years of history of
sea-floor spreading, plate tectonics, and oceanic
circulation and climates. They also examine volcanic
processes, mantle circulation, hydrothermal circulation,
magma genesis, and crustal formation. The results of
their work help us understand the processes that created
the ocean basins and the interactions between the ocean
and the seafloor.
4. Physical oceanographers: This study the physical
conditions and physical processes within the ocean
such as waves, currents, eddies, gyres and tides; the
transport of sand on and off beaches; coastal erosion;
and the interactions of the atmosphere and the ocean.
They examine deep currents, the ocean-atmosphere
relationship that influences weather and climate, the
transmission of light and sound through water, and the
ocean's interactions with its boundaries at the seafloor
and the coasts.
All of these fields are intertwined, and thus all
oceanographers must have a keen understanding of
biology, chemistry, geology, and physics to unravel the
mysteries of the world ocean and to understand
processes within it.

Fig. 147: The four Disciplines of Oceanography
The Scientific Method
Observation Collection of scientific facts through
observation and measurement
Hypothesis A tentative, testable statement about the
natural world that can be used to build more complex
inferences and explanation
Testing Development of observations, experiments and
models to test (and, if necessary revise) the hypothesis
after-much testing and experimentation.
Theory In science, a well-substantiated explanation
of some aspect of the natural world that can incorporate
facts, laws, logical inferences, and tested hypotheses
Importance of Studying Oceanography
By studying the ocean, it has the following purpose or
usage; it is used for or in;
1. Biodiversity
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2. Medical potential/drugs
3. Discovery
4. New models of life
5. Climate
6. Fisheries
7. Recreation
8. Fossil fuel resource
9. Ocean energy
10. Navigation/transportation
11. Carbon cycle
12. Marine biology
13. Hazards.
Why study historic oceanography?
❖ Connected to the world’s overall history
❖ Commerce, warfare, resources, weather
❖ The oceans have shaped humanity’s past
❖ Understand how and why people apply marine
sciences today
❖ Oceanography’s history is about people, not just
oceans and test tubes.
Salinity: The Chemical Composition of Seawater and
Average Salinity of seawater: 3.5% (parts per hundred)
35‰ (parts per thousand; most popular notation)
35,000 ppm (parts per million; commonly used for low
concentrations)
Chemical Composition of Seawater
Brine seawater: greater than 35% salinity. Brackish
seawater: less than 35% salinity. Salinity changes with
latitude. Equatorial seawater: the higher the
precipitation the lower the salinity (34.5%) Subtropical
oceans: higher evaporation the higher the salinity
(36%). A restricted area (enclosed areas) has unusual
salinity: Persian Gulf (40%); Red sea and
Mediterranean Sea (225%). Most natural elements are
found in seawater (dissolved solids). Seven elements
accounts for > 99% of the dissolved solids in seawater:
Chlorine (Cl-), Sodium (Na+), Magnesium (Mg2+),
Sulfur (as sulfate, SO42-), Calcium (Ca2+), Potassium
(K+), and Bromine (Br-).
Variations in salinity
The actual salinities of the oceans vary from
place to place.

➢ Salinities may be as high as 37 ppt in subtropical
regions where rates of evaporation exceed those of
precipitation.
➢ Salinities are lower in equatorial regions where
precipitation is abundant.
➢ Salinities of 32 or 33 ppt occur in polar regions
where seawater is diluted by melting sea ice.
➢ The lowest salinities often occur where large rivers
empty into the oceans.
The salinity varies and is lower where there is
a. a lot of precipitation
b. an estuary/river delta
c. Melting of glaciers
Sources of Sea salt
➢ Geological evidence indicates that the salinity of
ancient seas was not much different from that of
today’s oceans.
➢ The proportion of magnesium in the calcium-
carbonate shells of some marine organisms depends on
the overall salinity of the water in which the shells
form.
➢ Present-day shells contain about the same proportion
of magnesium as similar shells throughout geologic
time
➢ The sources of sea salts have remained the same
over time.
➢ Chlorine and sulfur dioxide dissolve in water and
form the chlorine and sulfate ions of seawater.
➢ The weathering of crustal rocks generates most of
the other abundant ions in seawater.
➢ These ions are then flushed into rivers and
transported to oceans.
How to remove Sea salts
– Salts are removed from the ocean at the same rate as
they are added.
– The removal of sea salts involves several processes.
– Some sea salts precipitate from seawater near arid,
coastal regions.
– Salty spray droplets from breaking waves are picked
up by winds and deposited inland.
– Marine organisms remove ions from seawater to
build their shells, bones, and teeth.
Physical properties of seawater
➢ Freshwater has a maximum density of 1.00 g/cm3.
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➢ Seawater is denser than freshwater because salt ions
are heavier than water molecules.
➢ The density of seawater ranges from about
1.02 g/cm3 to 1.03 g/cm3 depending on its salinity and
temperature.
➢ Because salt ions interfere with the formation of
hydrogen bonds, the freezing point of seawater
is –2°C.
Physical properties base on Absorption of Light
➢ Water absorbs light, which gives rise to another
physical property of oceans; they are dark.
➢ In general, light penetrates only the upper 100 m of
seawater.
➢ Red light penetrates less than blue light.
➢ Light sufficient for photosynthesis exists only in the
top 100 m of the ocean.
The dissolved gasses in the seawater
The three most important dissolved gasses are
1) Oxygen - O2
2) Carbon Dioxide - CO2
3) Nitrogen - N2
Gas Exchange = gasses in the atmosphere dissolve into
the seawater at the surface or the opposite can occur.
Gasses dissolve better in cold water than in warm.This
is important to animals at sea.
Transparency/turbidity
Seawater is relatively transparent. Why is this so
important? So photosynthetic organisms can grow
Physical Variables: Turbidity
Turbidity: Is the measurement of light penetration in
water produced by dissolved and suspended substances
(clay, humics, silt, plankton, colored compounds).
Typically measured with secchi disk or turbidometer.
More dense = higher turbidity. Some forms are more
desirable than others. Clay turbidity of over 30 cm
typically retards phytoplankton blooms in freshwater.
Fine particles can increase respiratory rate, smother fish
eggs, clog filtration equipment. Fish appear to be more
sensitive to suspended solids than clay turbidity. The
uper tolerance level: around 80 mg/L vs. 20,000 mg/L
for clay turbidity

Lakes development in the world
Lakes: A lake is a depression or hollow on the earth’s
surface in which water collects. It is simply a water
body completely surrounded by land. Some lakes are of
great size and are called seas. Some lakes are
permanent while others are temporal. Some lakes are
natural while others are man-made (artificial). Lakes
are produced or formed in several ways. These include:
i. Those produced through earth movements
(down-warping and rift valley): These are associated
with rift valley. They may be of various sizes which are
produced by earth movements, i.e. development of
faults. When compressional and tensional forces occur,
rift valleys develop due to crustal down warping of
blocks between parallel faults. The tensional force pulls
the blocks bordering to the central blocks away while
compressional forces cause side blocks to thrust over
the middle block, thus creating a depression, hollow or
trough to form a valley. This basin (rift valley) usually
collects water either from torrential rainfall or melting
ice or even flowing river to form a lake. Examples
include Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika, and Lake
Malawi all in East Africa and Lake Titicaca in Peru
(South America).
Fig. 148: Rift Valley Lake
iii. Lake Basins Created by Wind Erosion: Wind
eroded lakes are found in huge depressions created by
wind erosion in the desert sands. Once the water table
is reached the depressions fill with water. Due to
excessive evaporation, the lakes turn into muddy
swamps with small water points known as oases. An
example of such desert depressions is the Quattara in
Egypt. Sometimes these oases may dry up completely
forming salt flats known as playas. Man-made lakes
are formed as a result of damming of rivers where
multi-purpose river projects have been established.
They are important for production of Hydro-electric
power (H.E.P), transport, fishing, irrigation and
regulating flooding. Examples include Lake Nasser
behind the Aswan High Dam in Egypt, Lake Volta
behind the Akosombo Dam in Ghana and Lake Kariba
behind the Kariba Dam on River Zambezi. Kenyan
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lakes either differ from each other or are similar due to
the aspects of formation, location and human
interference. Lake Victoria is one of the Great Lakes of
Africa. It is 68,800 square kilometers in size, making it
the continent's largest lake, the largest tropical lake in
the world, and the second widest fresh water lake in
the world in terms of surface area. Lake Nakuru is one
of the Rift Valley soda lakes. It is a small shallow
alkaline lake on the southern edge of the town of
Nakuru. Lake Turkana, formerly known as Lake
Rudolf, is the most northern lake in the Kenya Great
Rift Valley. Its far end crosses into Ethiopia. It is the
world's largest permanent desert lake and the world's
largest alkaline lake. Lake Magadi is the southernmost
lake in the Kenya Rift Valley.
iii. Lake formed through volcano or volcanicity:
They are called caldera and crater lakes while others
may form lava-dammed lakes. Their formation begins
without pouring of lava on the earth’s surface. The
volcanic materials ejected may build a ring around the
volcanic vent to produce or form a crater. A violent
explosion or eruption may decapitate (cutting off the
top of the caldera or crater cone) to form a depression.
The depression, that is, caldera and crater may also
result from cauldron subsidence where part of the land
may sink into the underlying magma to create a
depression. Rainwater or melting ice will.
Fig. 149: Lake formed through volcano or Volcanicity
a) Caldera or Crater Lake: Crater Lake partially fills
a type of volcanic depression called a caldera that
formed by the collapse of a 3,700 m (12,000 ft) volcano
known as Mount Mazama during an enormous eruption
approximately 7,700 years ago.
Formation of crater lakes
Crater Lake was formed by the fall of a volcano.
Mount Mazama, a 12,000-foot-tall volcano, erupted
and collapsed approximately 7,700 years ago, forming
Crater Lake. The destructive eruption signaled the end
of the battle, but many natives mourned the loss of the
sacred volcano.

Fig. 150: Caldera or Crater Lake
b) Lake: Lava lakes are large volumes of molten lava,
usually basaltic, contained in a vent, crater, or broad
depression. Scientists use the term to describe both lava
lakes that are molten and those that are partly or
completely solidified. Lava lakes occur in a variety of
volcanic systems, ranging from the basaltic Erta
Ale lake in Ethiopia and the basaltic andesite volcano
of Villarrica, Chile, to the unique phonolitic lava lake
at Mt. Erebus, Antarctica. Lava lakes have been
observed to exhibit a range of behaviours. A
"constantly circulating, apparently steady-state" lava
lake was observed during the 1969–1971 Mauna Ulu
eruption of Kīlauea, Hawaii.
Formation of Lava Lake
Lava lakes can form in three ways
➢ from one or more vents in a crater
that erupts enough lava to partially fill the crater; or
➢ when lava pours into a crater or broad depression
and partially fills the crater; or
➢ atop a new vent that erupts lava continuously for a
period of several weeks or more and slowly builds a
crater progressively higher than the surrounding
ground.
Fig. 151: Lava Lake
iv) Lakes produced by glacier actions: A lake that
formed between the front of a glacier and the last
recessional moraine.
a) A cirque or corrie lake (A tarn): A tarn (or corrie
loch) is a proglacial mountain lake, pond or pool,
formed in a cirque excavated by a glacier. A moraine
may form a natural dam below a tarn.
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Principlesam Series
Formation of cirque or corrie lakes
A cirque is an amphitheatre-like valley formed
by glacial erosion. Alternative names for this landform
are corrie (from Scottish Gaelic coire, meaning a pot
or cauldron) and cwm (Welsh for 'valley'; pronounced).
A cirque may also be a similarly shaped landform
arising from fluvial erosion. The concave shape of a
glacial cirque is open on the downhill side, while the
cupped section is generally steep. Cliff-like slopes,
down which ice and glaciated debris combine and
converge, form the three or more higher sides. The
floor of the cirque ends up bowl-shaped, as it is the
complex convergence zone of combining ice flows
from multiple directions and their accompanying rock
burdens. Hence, it experiences somewhat greater
erosion forces and is most often overdeepened below
the level of the cirque's low-side outlet (stage) and its
down-slope (backstage) valley.
Fig. 152: Corrie or Cirque Lakes (Tarn)
b) Moraine (Characteristics of Moraine Lakes)
Moraines are landforms composed of glacial till
deposited primarily by glacial ice. Glacial till, in turn,
is unstratified and unsorted debris ranging in size from
silt-sized glacial floor to large boulders. The individual
rock fragments are typically sub-angular to rounded in
shape. Moraines may be found on the glacier's surface
or deposited as piles or sheets of debris where the
glacier has melted.
Fig. 153: Moraine Lake

Formation of Moraine Lakes
Moraines may form through a number of processes,
depending on the characteristics of sediment, the
dynamics on the ice, and the location on the glacier in
which the moraine is formed. Moraine forming
processes may be loosely divided into passive and
active. Passive processes involve the placing of
chaotic supraglacial sediments onto the landscape with
limited reworking, typically forming hummocky
moraines. These moraines are composed of supraglacial
sediments from the ice surface. Active processes form
or rework moraine sediment directly by the movement
of ice, known as glaciotectonism. These form push
moraines and thrust-block moraines, which are often
composed of till and reworked proglacial sediment.
Moraine may also form by the accumulation of sand
and gravel deposits from glacial streams emanating
from the ice margin. These fan deposits may coalesce
to form a long moraine bank marking the ice margin.
Several processes may combine to form and rework a
single moraine, and most moraines record a continuum
of processes. Reworking of moraines may lead to the
formation of placer deposits of gold as is the case of
southernmost Chile.
Types of Moraine Lakes
Moraines can be classified either by origin, location
with respect to a glacier or former glacier, or by shape.
The type of moraines are shown below
a) Lateral moraines: Lateral moraines are parallel
ridges of debris deposited along the sides of a glacier.
The unconsolidated debris can be deposited on top of
the glacier by frost shattering of the valley walls and/or
from tributary streams flowing into the valley. The till
is carried along the glacial margin until the glacier
melts. Because lateral moraines are deposited on top of
the glacier, they do not experience the postglacial
erosion of the valley floor and therefore, as the glacier
melts, lateral moraines are usually preserved as high
ridges. Moraines clearly seen on a side glacier of the
Gorner Glacier, Zermatt, Switzerland.
b) Ground moraines: Ground moraines are till-
covered areas with irregular topography and no ridges,
often forming gently rolling hills or plains. They are
accumulated at the base of the ice as lodgment till, but
may also be deposited as the glacier retreats. In alpine
glaciers, ground moraines are often found between the
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Principlesam Series
two lateral moraines. Ground moraines may be
modified into drumlins by the overriding ice.
c) Rogen moraines: Rogen moraines or ribbed
moraines are a type of basal moraines that form a series
of ribs perpendicular to the ice flow in an ice sheet. The
depressions between the ribs are sometimes filled with
water, making the Rogen moraines look like
tigerstripes on aerial photographs. Rogen moraines are
named after Lake Rogen in Härjedalen, Sweden, the
landform's type locality.
d) de Geer moraines: Closely related to Rogen
moraines, de Geer moraines are till ridges up to 5m
high and 10-50m wide running perpendicular to the ice
flow. They occur in large groups in low-lying areas.
Named for Gerard de Geer, who first described them in
1889, these moraines may have developed from
crevasses underneath the ice sheet. The Kvarken has a
very high density of de Geer moraines.de Geer
moraines.
e) End or terminal moraines: End moraines, or
terminal moraines, are ridges of unconsolidated debris
deposited at the snout or end of the glacier. They
usually reflect the shape of the glacier's terminus.
Glaciers act much like a conveyor belt, carrying debris
from the top of the glacier to the bottom where it
deposits it in end moraines. End moraine size and
shapes are determined by whether the glacier is
advancing, receding or at equilibrium. The longer
the terminus of the glacier stays in one place, the more
debris accumulates in the moraine. There are two types
of end moraines: terminal and recessional. Terminal
moraines mark the maximum advance of the glacier.
Recessional moraines are small ridges left as a glacier
pauses during its retreat. After a glacier retreats, the end
moraine may be destroyed by postglacial erosion.
f) Recessional moraine: Recessional moraines are
often observed as a series of transverse ridges running
across a valley behind a terminal moraine. They form
perpendicular to the lateral moraines that they reside
between and are composed of unconsolidated debris
deposited by the glacier. They are created during
temporary halts in a glacier's retreat.
g) Medial moraine: Multiple erratics on the terminal
moraine of the Okanogan Lobe. Cascade mountains in
the background. A medial moraine is a ridge of
moraine that runs down the center of a valley floor. It
forms when two glaciers meet and the debris on the
edges of the adjacent valley sides join and are carried

on top of the enlarged glacier. As the glacier melts or
retreats, the debris is deposited and a ridge down the
middle of the valley floor is created. The Kaskawulsh
Glacier in the Kluane National Park, Yukon, has a ridge
of medial moraine 1 km wide.
h) Supraglacial moraines: Supraglacial moraines are
created by debris accumulated on top of glacial ice.
This debris can accumulate due to ice flow toward the
surface in the ablation zone, melting of surface ice or
from debris that falls onto the glacier from valley
sidewalls.
i) Washboard moraines: Medial moraines, Nuussuaq
Peninsula, Greenland. The prominent dark streak at the
left quarter is forming a medial moraine. This is seen as
a mudflat at the water's surface. (Brüggen Glacier,
Patagonia). Washboard moraines, also known as minor
or corrugated moraines, are low-amplitude
geomorphic features caused by glaciers. The name
"washboard moraine" refers to the fact that, from the
air, it resembles a washboard.
j) Veiki moraine: A Veiki moraine is a kind of
hummocky moraine that forms irregular landscapes of
ponds and plateaus surrounded by banks. It forms from
the irregular melting of ice covered with a thick layer
of debris. Veiki moraine is common in northern
Sweden and parts of Canada.
Lakes produced by deposition
a) Ox-bow lake (Formation): It is formed by river
deposition. Formation starts where there is a
pronounced meander. Erosion occurs on the outer bank
while deposition occurs on the inner bank. Erosion play
a major role by cutting the necks the meander and the
river flows straight, thus abandoning the loop.
Deposition blocks the space between the main river and
meander, and the loop forms a lake. Examples are
found along Rivers Garma and Niger in Nigeria and
Mississippi in USA.
Characteristics of Ox-bow Lake
Ox-bow lakes occur on flood plains. They are semi-
circular. They may dry up with time especially in the
dry seasons. Thus, most ox-bow lakes are not
permanent.
b) Delta River or Lakes: A lake delta is a landform
created by deposition of sediment that is carried by a
river as the flow leaves its mouth and enters slower-
moving or stagnant water. This occurs where a river
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Principlesam Series
enters an ocean, sea, estuary, lake, reservoir, or (more
rarely) another river that cannot carry away the
supplied sediment. The size and shape of a delta is
controlled by the balance between watershed processes
that supply sediment, and receiving basin processes that
redistribute, sequester, and export that sediment. The
size, geometry, and location of the receiving basin also
play an important role in delta evolution.
Formation
River deltas form when river carries sediment reaches a
body of water, such as a lake, ocean, or a reservoir.
When the flow enters the standing water, it is no longer
confined to its channel and expands in width. This flow
expansion results in a decrease in the flow velocity,
which diminishes the ability of the flow to transport
sediment. As a result, sediment drops out of the flow
and is deposited as alluvium, which builds up to form
the river delta. Over time, this single channel builds a
deltaic lobe (such as the bird's-foot of the Mississippi
or Ural River deltas), pushing its mouth into the
standing water.
Fig. 154: Delta Lake
Types of Delta Lakes
Deltas are typically classified according to the main
control on deposition, which is a combination of river,
wave, and tidal processes, depending on the strength of
each. The other two factors that play a major role are
landscape position and the grain size distribution of the
source sediment entering the delta from the river.
a) Fluvial-dominated deltas: Fluvial-dominated deltas
are found in areas of low tidal range and low wave
energy. Where the river water is nearly equal in density
to the basin water, the delta is characterized by
homopycnal flow, in which the river water rapidly
mixes with basin water and abruptly dumps most of its
sediment load. Where the river water has higher density
than basin water, typically from a heavy load of
sediment, the delta is characterized by hyperpycnal
flow in which the river water hugs the basin bottom as

a density current that deposits its sediments as
turbidites.
b) Gilbert deltas: A Gilbert delta (named after Grove
Karl Gilbert) is a type of fluvial-dominated delta
formed from coarse sediments, as opposed to gently-
sloping muddy deltas such as that of the Mississippi.
For example, a mountain river depositing sediment into
a freshwater lake would form this kind of delta.
c) Wave-dominated deltas: In wave dominated deltas,
wave-driven sediment transport controls the shape of
the delta, and much of the sediment emanating from the
river mouth is deflected along the coast line. The
relationship between waves and river deltas is quite
variable and largely influenced by the deep-water wave
regimes of the receiving basin. With high wave energy
near shore and a steeper slope offshore, waves will
make river deltas smoother. Waves can also be
responsible for carrying sediments away from the river
delta, causing the delta to retreat. For deltas that form
further upriver in an estuary, there are complex yet
quantifiable linkages between winds, tides, river
discharge, and delta water levels
d) Tide-dominated deltas: Erosion is also an
important control in tide-dominated deltas, such as the
Ganges Delta, which may be mainly submarine, with
prominent sandbars and ridges. This tends to produce a
"dendritic" structure. Tidal deltas behave differently
from a river and wave-dominated deltas, which tend to
have a few main distributaries. Once a wave- or river-
dominated distributary silts up, it is abandoned, and a
new channel forms elsewhere. In a tidal delta, new
distributaries are formed during times when there is a
lot of water around such as floods or storm surges.
These distributaries slowly silt up at a more or less
constant rate until they fizzle out.
e) Tidal freshwater deltas: A tidal freshwater delta is
a sedimentary deposit formed at the boundary between
an upland stream and an estuary, in the region known
as the "subestuary". Drowned coastal river valleys that
were inundated by rising sea levels during the late
Pleistocene and subsequent Holocene tend to have
dendritic estuaries with many feeder tributaries. Each
tributary mimics this salinity gradient from their
brackish junction with the mainstream estuary up to the
fresh stream feeding the head of tidal propagation. As a
result, the tributaries are considered to be
"subestuaries".
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Principlesam Series
f) Estuaries: Other rivers, particularly those on coasts
with significant tidal range, do not form a delta but
enter into the sea in the form of an estuary. Notable
examples include the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the
Tagus estuary.
g) Inland deltas: In rare cases the river delta is located
inside a large valley and is called an inverted river
delta. Sometimes a river divides into multiple branches
in an inland area, only to rejoin and continue to the sea.
Such an area is called an inland delta, and often occurs
on former lake beds. Other prominent examples include
the Inner Niger Delta, Peace Athabasca Delta, the
Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta, and the Sistan
delta of Iran. The Okavango Delta in Botswana is one
example.
h) Mega deltas: The generic term mega delta can be
used to describe very large Asian river deltas, such as
the Yangtze, Pearl, Red, Mekong, Irrawaddy, Ganges-
Brahmaputra, and Indus.
Assignment 15
1. a) What is the ocean about?
b) identify the five oceans of the world
c) The salinity varies and is lower where there is what?
2. a) What is ocean current?
b) Name two warm and two cool currents that flows
along the coast of Africa
c) Explain how one of the cool currents affects the
climate of the coastal Africa.
3. With reference to one warm ocean current on the
north of the Equator, and one cool ocean current south
of the Equator, explain the influence of ocean current
on the climate of the adjacent coastlands
4. a) With the aid of diagram, describe the ocean floor
or topography of the ocean.
b) Write on the account, the formation of atolls and
their types with specific diagram of elaboration.
5. a) Explain the term salinity and explain five factors
that affects the salinity of the ocean.
b) Outline four uses of the ocean to man
6.a) What is mean by lake?
b) Describe the types of lakes based on their
development
c)Explain five benefits man derives from the usage of
lakes
7. a) With the aid of annotated diagram, describe the
formation of moraine lake with its types.

CHAPTER SIXTEEN
COASTAL FEATURES AND SEDIMENTATION
Coastal Shape/Morphology is the study of the
origin and evaluation of coastal features.
It is also the study of the nature and the features
that shapes or make up the coast of the world’s
oceans. The study of natural processes ongoing at
the shoreline coasts and of the impact due to
human interventions within the coastal zones
causes sediment deposition.
Classification of coasts
The interaction between the longshore processes
and the given coastal geology, sediment supply
etc. results in the formation of different type of
coastlines and coastal features. The problem is that
most coasts do not reflect present conditions but
past conditions due to the fact of the absence of
some mishaps
Classifications based on relative sea level
changes (eustatic and isostatic)
i. Submergent /submerge coast
Submerged coast: It occurs drowned due to the
sinking of the coastland or form rose in sea level.
This is drowned due to the sinking of the coastland
or form rise in sea level. These are examples of
indented coastlines such as Fjord and Ria coast
(also called flood coast or submerged coast).
Specific examples of submerged coast
❖ Fjords coasts: Fjord coast are submerged, U-
Shaped glaciations troughs. They, unlike Ria
coasts, are glaciated and shallow. E.g. coast of
Norway, Alaska, British Columbia and Southern
Chile.
❖ Ria coast: Is formed when a rise in the sea
level submerges or sinks or drowns the lower of
the valleys. Ria coasts are long narrow branching
inlets, separated by narrow headlands. They are
glaciated but they are deep. An example of Ria
coast is found in Northwest France, Northwest
Spain, Southwest Ireland, and Gambia to Sierra
Leone coast in West Africa.
❖ Estuarine coast:
❖ Dalmatian coast:
Characteristics of submerged coast
❖ Submerged coast is indented with offshore
islands, peninsular, inlets and estuaries.
Principlesam Series
❖ Submerged coast usually project sand and gravel
deposits, and places deposits such as diamonds, gold,
cassiterite, and heavy mineral sands
They are usually inundated by the sea by a relative rise in
sea levels from either isostacy or eustacy
ii. Emergent /Emerged coast: This results from a fall in
sea level change due to the glaciations or uplift of the land.
Examples are Raised beaches, Tidal flats and Barrier island.
Emerged Coast is formed as a result of the local tectonic
upliftment of the land or earth surfaces or the fall in the
elevation of the sea level because of a reduction in the water
level or volume of the ocean basins
Specific examples of emerged coast
❖ Raised Beaches
❖ Tidal flats
❖ King's Cave, Isle of Arran
Characteristics of emerged coast
❖ Emerged coast have rocky coastlines with cliffs and
nearly flat platforms that extend inland where older coastal
plains have been tectonically raised and are now elevated
above the modern land and water interface.
❖ They have raised beach or machair
❖ They also possessed wave cut-platform and sea cave such
as King's Cave, Isle of Arran.
Classification based on geology and coastal processes
Divides the world’s coast
a) Primary coast; unmodified- morphology (shape)
controlled by recent geologic history and non-marine
processes. A coast that have been altered or modified by the
sea is called primary coast. Examples;
Ria coast, it is drowned by river valleys that have indented-
shape controlled by drainage basin pattern.
Fjord coast; it is drowned by glaciated coast (e.g. deep
coastal valleys- Fjord) e.gs.
Deltaic coasts (single delta complex)
b) Secondary coasts; this is modified by coastal processes
that are shaped mainly by marine agents.
Examples
➢ Wave erosion coasts and
➢ Wave straightened cliff.
➢ Differently eroded coast
➢ Marine deposition coasts
i.Barrier beach
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ii.Barrier island
iii.Barrier spit
iv.Bay barrier
✓ Coastal built by organisms
✓ Coral reefs coasts (fringing)
Further sub-divided which occurs based on agents,
specifically and dominantly affected particularly
coast.
❖ Sandy beaches/ coast
❖ Rocky beaches/ coast
❖ Deltaic beaches / coast
❖ Estuary beaches / coast etc.
Characteristics and specific examples of
coastlines
❖ Rocky beach, Sandy beach, submerged coast,
emerged coast, deltaic coast, volcanic coast and
barrier coast
Rocky beach (characteristics)
❖ They have clean sea and many small inslettes
used as a secluded beaches or spots
❖ The Rocky beaches in the West have pebbles
while those in the east have sand beaches.
❖ They also usually have darky sand and fresh
water for domestic uses.
Specific examples are shown below;
❖ Rocky shore at Crystal cove State Park
❖ Rocky coast from Central Spitsbergen.
Sandy Beach: Is a depositional process along
coastlines, such as sediment transport, form Sandy
beaches and creates highly complex landforms that
experience constant change and movement.
Features such as spits, barrier islands, tombolos,
and dunes are classic forms in Sandy beach
environment. Sandy Beach is common in all the
beaches in the world, and they are found virtually
all continents on earth.
Characteristics of sandy beach
❖ They are mostly formed as a rest of
depositional processes which usually occurs along
the coast of rivers, Sea and oceans.
❖ They are erosional type of beaches which forms
from wave actions and currents from tidal waves.
They are mostly susceptible to backwash erosion,
with powerful storms and tsunamis having the
potential of stripping a beach of its sand. Specific
examples of Sandy Beach
Principlesam Series
❖ Australia's Eighty Mile Beach, which is the longest
Sandy beach in the world, with a total length 140 miles.
❖ Cox's Bazar is another sandy beach, which stretches for
about 75 miles, making it the longest unbroken natural
sandy beach.
Deltaic coast: These are formed as a result of depositional
features from interacting geomorphic processes, such as
wave energy, tidal currents, and river discharge.
Characteristics of Deltaic coast
❖ Their horizontal alluvial plains can form along estuaries,
sometimes called deltaic-estuarine plains. For example,
coastal lagoons (e.g. Colia Lake) and barrier estuaries (e.g.
Tuross Lake) because gradually in filled as fluvial sediment
builds up a bay head deltas into the estuarine basin.
❖ There is a complex interaction with the waves and the
tides.
❖ They are found in areas with a broader continental shelf
and low tidal action.
Factors that influence the types of coastlines
❖ Atmospheric/climatic factors: Gravity, solar energy,
climate (temperature, rainfalls, winds, glaciations) global
warming.
❖ Geologic/ terrestrial tectonic: It occurs as a result of
plate movement and volcanic activity.
❖ Hydrograph Regime/ Marine: It occurs when there is
waves, tides, tsunamis, coral etc.
❖ Sediment supply: It affects the distribution and
persistence of depositional features such as deltas and
barrier islands, wide sandy beaches.
❖ Anthropogenic/ human factors: The activities of
human such as buildings pollution, sea defenses,
conservation, tourism and recreations among others.
Coastal Sedimentation
What is Sediment?
Sediment refers to the conglomerate of materials, organic
and inorganic, that can be carried away by water, wind or
ice. While the term is often used to indicate soil-based,
mineral matter (e.g. clay, silt and sand), decomposing
organic substances and inorganic biogenic material are also
considered sediment. Most mineral sediment comes from
erosion and weathering, while organic sediment is typically
detritus and decomposing material such as algae.
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Coastal sediments: This comprises a piece of
solid material that may be moved due to water
motion (waves or currents) but do not.
Sediment may develop through weathering of
rock, shells or shell fragments, organic debris; or
chemical precipitation.
➢ They are particles from living organisms, the
land, the atmosphere and sea.
Sediment Transport
Sediment transport is the movement of organic
and inorganic particles by water. In general, the
greater the flow, the more sediment that will be
conveyed. Water flow can be strong enough to
suspend particles in the water column as they
move downstream, or simply push them along the
bottom of a waterway. Transported sediment may
include mineral matter, chemicals and pollutants,
and organic material. Another name for sediment
transport is sediment load. The total load includes
all particles moving as bedload, suspended load,
and wash load
Constituents of sediments
Beach sediments are made up of various materials
including;
❖ Sand
❖ Gravel
❖ Chemical solvents, etc.
❖ Sand is the dominant materials of the beach.
Sources of sediments
It comes from both
➢ biotic ( living) sources and
➢ Abiotic ( non-living) sources
Biotic (Living source) includes coral, algae,
mollusks and bryozoans
Abiotic (Non-living) includes rocks such as
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
They are solid materials such as soil and rock
fragments which then transported and deposited
by wind, water or ice; chemically precipitation
Types of sediments, based on source
i. Lithogenous sediments: Lithogenous sediments
are derived from the mechanical and chemical
erosion of existing rocks, which can be igneous,
metamorphic and sedimentary rocks.
Principlesam Series
ii. Biogenous sediments: Biogenous sediments are the
remains of plants and animals which consist of microscopic
shells, which marine geologists called Test etc.
iii. Authigenous sediments: Authigenous sediments are
chemical precipitates (solids that result from the chemical
reactions of substances dissolved in seawater) which are
called hydrogenous sediments. Example is ferromanganese.
iv. Cosmogenous sediments: Cosmogenous sediments are
particles that have fallen into water from outer space. They
are rare and make up less than 1% of the world skies.
Classification of coastal sediments based on size
The classes used are indicated broadly size ranges as; very
large, large, intermediate, and small particles respectively.
➢ Boulders = very large
➢ Gravels = large
➢ Sand= intermediate and
➢ Mud = small
Within these ranges there are further sub-divisions which
give detailed explanations.
Beach is an accumulation of sediments that occupies the
portion of the shore.
Shores: Are the land bordering a usually large water body
say the ocean/ sea.
Factors that influence the formation of sediments
➢ Geological factors
➢ Soil characteristics
➢ Terrestrial habitat cover (land cover)
➢ Topography
➢ Climate
➢ Source/distances
Effects of sediments/sedimentation on coastal
environment
➢ Estuary / estuaries
➢ Coastal geomorphic features
➢ Coastal vegetation
➢ Fauna
➢ Wave energy and coastal erosion
➢ Humans
➢ Shoreline movement etc.
Biodiversity Definition
The World Conservation and Management Centre (WCMC)
defined biodiversity as a contraction of biological diversity
and describe the number, variety and variability of living
organisms (WCMC, 1995).
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Biological diversity: Is the variety and richness of
plant and animal life (from genetic level to
ecosystems). It includes every form of life, from
the smallest microbe to the largest animals and
plants and the interactions between them.
Biodiversity can also be defined as the variability
among living organisms from all sources
including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and
other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological
complexes of which they are part; this includes
diversity within species, between species and of
ecosystems.
Biodiversity hotspot
A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region
that is both a significant reservoir of biodiversity
which is threatened with destruction. The term
biodiversity hotspot specifically refers to 25
biologically rich areas around the world that have
lost at least 70 percent of their original habitat.
Hotspots can also be defined as large regions
containing exceptional concentrations of plant
endemism and experiencing high rates of habitat
loss.
Criteria to consider for biodiversity hotspot
To qualify as a hotspot, a region must meet two
criteria:
❖ It must contain at least 1,500 species of
vascular plants (> 0.5% of the world’s total) as
endemics; it has to have lost ≥ 70% of its original
native habitat. Currently, 35 biodiversity hotspots
have been identified, most of which occur in
tropical forests.
❖ They represent just 2.3% of Earth’s land
surface, but between them they contain around
50% of the world’s endemic plant species and
42% of all terrestrial vertebrates. Hotspots have
lost around 86% of their original habitat and
additionally are considered to be significantly
threatened by extinctions induced by climate
change.
Types of biodiversity
Biological diversity is categorized into three and
these are;
❖ Genetic diversity: It describes the variation in
the number and types of genes as well as
chromosomes present in different species. The
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magnitude of variation in genes of a species increases with
increase in size and environmental parameters of the habitat.
❖ Species diversity: It describes the variety in the number
and richness of the spices with in a region. The species
richness may be defined as the number of species per unit
area. The richness of a species tells about the extent of
biodiversity of a site and provides a means for comparing
different sites.
❖ Ecosystem diversity: It describes the assemblage and
Interaction of spices living together and the physical
environment a given area. It relates varieties of habitats,
biotic communities’ ecological processes in biosphere. It
also tells about the diversity within the ecosystem. It is
referred as Land escape diversity because it includes
placement and size of various ecosystems.
Measurement of species diversity
Species diversity or richness is usually described by three
measures:
❖ Alpha (α) diversity: A direct count of all the species in a
local ecological community on a unit area basis, e.g. m2,
hectare, km2.
❖ Beta (β) diversity: The change in the number of species
within a selected area or along a transect line. It is a
measure of turnover.
❖ Gamma (γ) diversity: The total number of species in an
entire biome or, for example, the Amazon or Congo
drainage basins.
Importance of biodiversity
❖ Ecological stability
❖ Economic benefits to humans
❖ Ethical reasons or Existence.
Core values of biodiversity
❖ Intrinsic value: right to exist, to have evolved means
they have important role to play in the environment.
❖ Instrumental value: because of their use to humanity.
Plants species have been used for medicinal purposes. Local
herbs are used to treat diseases and ailment across the
world.
❖ Existence value: knowing the species exists in nature
and hence should be considered as such and protected
❖ Aesthetic value: wildlife viewing encouraging tourism.
They are used in recreation and tourism. Tourism serves as
the third highest gross domestic product to the economy of
Ghana.
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❖ Many areas serve as parks and forest where
wild nature and animals are kept as a source of
beauty and joy to many people, thereby
contributing to ecotourism.
❖ Bequest value: willing to pay for its existence.
They are also used in industries for the production
of fibers for clothing, wood for shelter and
warmth.
Animals also provide us with wool, silk, fur,
leather, lubricants. They are also used as a source
of transportation and people are ready to pay for
their usage.
Causes of biodiversity loss
❖ Alteration and loss of habitats
❖ Introduction of exotic species and genetically
modified organisms.
❖ Pollution
❖ Climate change
❖ Overexploitation of resources.
Results of biodiversity loss
Biodiversity loss leads to ‘desertification’
indicated by signs such as:
1. Soil erosion, flooding and droughts.
2. Increasing problems of plants and insects
diseases, as well as birds or small mammals’
diseases.
3. Silting of rivers, dams and coastal shelves.
4. Drying up of wells, springs and rivers.
5. Poverty, social breakdown, violence and
conflict.
6. Resource depletion and rising religious
fundamentalism.
7. War, genocide and eventual fall of civilizations
Threat to biodiversity
1. Population pressure and unequal distribution of
resources
2. Agricultural expansion
3. Urbanization and spread of activities related to
urban sprawl such as establishment of industries
4. Construction of hydro-electric power projects
5. Natural calamities like floods, high wind
velocities, earthquakes, etc.
6. Pollution of various kinds and release of toxic
substances.
7. Soil erosion and loss of soil nutrients.
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8. Poaching and hunting.
9. Forest fires including smoking in the woods.
10. Deforestation and overgrazing
11. Climatic changes like depletion of ozone, global
warming, increased concentration of carbon dioxide, etc.
12. Mining activities and quarrying.
13. Lack of awareness.
Ways of reducing biodiversity lost
a. Prevention and protection of premature species
b. Preserving and restore biodiversity species which provide
habitats and resource for the world’s species.
c. Punishment of offenders of biodiversity lose
d. Prevention of deforestation among invaders.
e. Practice and encourage the youth in afforestation in all
the protected areas.
Protected Area
Is an area which is reserve for the purpose or service to/ it
provides to humanity.
“An area of land or sea especially dedicated to the
protection of biological diversity and natural and associated
cultural resources, and managed through legal or other
effective means (IUCN 1996)”.
Ways of doing it are;
- Scientific functions
- Traditional function
Benefits provided by protected areas are;
i. Preserved for medicine and genetic resources
ii. Nutrient cycle
iii. Maintenance of harvestable resources
iv. Provision of clean air
v. Recreation
vi. Control of biological pest
vii. Conservation of ecosystem and biodiversity
viii. Soil regulation and regeneration.
Ecosystem
An ecosystem is an interaction between living and non-
living things within an environment for survival. The
interaction is in conjunction with the nonliving components
of their environment, interacting as a system. These biotic
and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient
cycles and energy flows. Energy enters the system through
photosynthesis and is incorporated into plant tissue.
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Ecology: Is the dealing with the relationship
between group of living things and their
environment.
Ecosystem ecology
The study of the movement of energy and
materials including water, chemicals, nutrients and
pollutant into or out of and within ecosystems. The
complex interaction that exists between plants and
animals within their environment is called
ecosystem ecology.
Classification of ecosystem
The components of the ecosystem: Any
ecosystem consists of two main components which
are living organisms such as plants, fungi, algae
and animals, non-living things such as air, soil and
water. Ecosystems may be classified according to
their sizes into:
1. Small as an area of land or water pond.
2. Large as a forest, a desert or an ocean.
3. Very large as the universe that is considered the
unified ecosystem.
There are many relationships between the
components of the ecosystems as:
a.The relationship between plants and the soil,
where the plants depend on the soil to absorb the
water and salts that are necessary to make their
own food by photosynthetic processes.
b. The relationship between the plants and
animals, where the animals feed on the plants to
get food and energy.
c. The relationship among different animals, where
some animals feed on other animals to get food
and energy. When the relationships (interactions)
among the components of the ecosystem are stable
(balanced), an environmental balance is occurred.
Fig. 155: Classification of ecosystem
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The components of the ecosystem
i. Biotic (biological): Is the living organisms that found
within the environment. Examples of biotic resources
include all flora and fauna, plants and animals
ii. Abiotic (non-biological): Is the non-living organisms
that are found within the environment. Examples of abiotic
factors include shells from snails, stones and rocks.
sunlight, water, air, humidity, pH, temperature,
salinity, precipitation, altitude, type of soil, minerals, wind,
dissolved oxygen, mineral nutrients present in the soil, air
and water, etc.
➢ Plants are primary producers because plants use the sun
energy to produce their own food through a process called
photosynthesis.
➢ Plants are Autotrophs (food producers)
➢ Animals are Heterotrophs (non-food producers, but
consumers).
➢ Biotic and abiotic are the two essential factors
responsible for shaping the ecosystem. The biotic factors
refer to all the living beings present in an ecosystem, and the
abiotic factors refer to all the non-living components like
physical conditions (temperature, pH, humidity, salinity,
sunlight, etc.) and chemical agents (different gases and
mineral nutrients present in the air, water, soil, etc.) in an
ecosystem. Therefore, both the abiotic and biotic resources
affect survival and reproduction process.
➢ Furthermore, both these components are reliant on each
other. Suppose if one of the factors is removed or altered, its
repercussions will be faced by the entire ecosystem.
Without a doubt, abiotic factors directly affect the survival
of organisms.
Fig. 156: Biotic and Abiotic Ecosystem in diagram
Types of ecosystem
1. Terrestrial ecosystem: An ecosystem where land
dominate water.
2. Aquatic ecosystem: An ecosystem where water
dominate land.
On land as an ecosystem
- Vegetation -Climate
- Human -Animals -Soil
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On water as an ecosystem
➢ Fish
➢ Lizards
➢ Swamps
➢ Rivers, lagoons and lakes are classified as salt
free liquids
➢ Sea/ ocean classified as salty ecosystem
➢ Estuary, where the sea and the river meet
during high or low tides.
Characteristics of marine ecosystem
1. Plankton: A minute organism that floats and
swims usually minute animal and plant life on the
water body. According to Merriam Webster
mobile dictionary.
2. Nekton: An aquatic organism that are
controlled by wave actions.
3. Benthos: An organism that lives on or in the
bottom of a water body.
- Epifauna- a benthic fauna living on the
substrate such as a hard sea floor or on other
organisms
- Infauna- a benthic fauna living in the substrate,
especially in the soft sea bottom.
Properties or attributes of an ecosystem
➢ It is monistic- single framework
➢ It is structured- orderliness of minerals is
arranged.
➢ It is functional- energy is generated
➢ It is the attribute of the general system because
it works in systematic order.
Ecosystem services
1. Provisioning 2. Regulating
3. Cultural 4. Supporting
All the four services of the ecosystem are
considered as social and economic prosperity.
Constituents of an ecosystem
➢ Sun- energy is released
➢ The Primary producers- green plants
➢ The consumers- heterotrophs
➢ The decomposers- reducers, they breakdown
organisms.
➢ The abiotic or the inorganic.
Green plants contain chlorophyll which attract sun
energy for food hence term as primary producers.
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Factors that influence the ecosystem
Both internal and external factors could affect ecosystem.
They are;
Internal factors
1. Climate: The most important of these is climate. Climate
determines the biome in which the ecosystem is embedded.
Rainfall patterns and seasonal temperatures influence
photosynthesis and thereby determine the amount of water
and energy available to the ecosystem.
2. Topography: Topography also controls ecosystem
processes by affecting things like microclimate, soil
development and the movement of water through a system.
For example, ecosystems can be quite different if situated in
a small depression on the landscape, versus one present on
an adjacent steep hillside.
3. Parent material: Parent material determines the nature
of the soil in an ecosystem, and influences the supply of
mineral nutrients. This interaction keeps the balance among
these components unless a disturbance arises because of
many factors.
External factors
Unlike external factors, internal factors are controlled, for
example,
a) Decomposition b) Root competition
c) Shading d) Disturbance
e) Succession f) The types of species present.
Environmental balance
Environmental balance is the balance among the
components of ecosystem, the interaction among
environmental components is a continuous process. This
interaction keeps the balance among these components
unless a disturbance arises as a result of many factors. If the
number of organisms and biomass is in a proper proportion
at different trophic levels in a region, the environment in
that region is said to be balanced. This balance can get
disturbed due to natural hazards or by human intervention.
How to make the environmental balance
We can make an environmental balance by
-Protecting the environment
-Planting trees
-Reducing pollution, and
-Conserving natural resources.
Factors that harm (disturb) the environmental balance
i. Natural changes: Change in the natural conditions
(circumstances) in ecosystem causes a disturbance that leads
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to disappearance of some organisms, appearance
of other organisms, environmental imbalance that
may take a short or a long period of time until a
new balance occurs in this environment.
Examples: In ancient eras, change in the natural
conditions of the environment leads to the
disappearance of dinosaurs causing
their extinction.
ii. Man interference: Some human activities lead
to the disturbance of the environmental balance,
among these human activities are cutting down
trees, burning forests, polluting the environment
and eroding the soil. Examples: Cutting down
trees as the green plants (trees) are the main source
of food and oxygen for all living organisms.
Factors that keep the environmental balance
Some food relationships help in keeping the
environmental balance such as Predation,
Saprophytism.
i. The effect of predation on keeping the
environmental balance. Predation organizes the
numbers of preys’ population, where predators
help preys to get rid of weak or sick members and
let the strong ones reproduce adding strong
members to population.
ii. The effect of saprophytism (saprophytic
organism) on keeping the environment balance.
The saprophytic organisms (decomposers) as
bacteria and fungi help the environment in getting
rid of the bodies of dead organisms by
decomposing them, recycling the chemical
elements found in the bodies of dead organisms
(as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorous) to the
environment, to make other living organisms
benefit from them.
How man benefit from saprophytic organism
Man can benefit from saprophytic organisms in
many industries such as:
➢ Food industry: Some saprophytic organisms
are used in the manufacture of certain kinds of
foods such as cheese, bread, yogurt, vinegar and
alcohol.
➢ Drug industry: Certain saprophytic organisms
are used in the production of certain drugs (drugs)
such as antibiotics.
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➢ Leather tanning industry: Some saprophytic
organisms are used in tanning of natural leather.
Processes of achieving environmental balances
Environmental balance can be achieved through the
following processes or ways:
1. Hydrological (water) cycle 2. Carbon cycle
3. Mineral nutrient cycle 4. Nitrogen cycle
5. Food chain and food web
i. Hydrological (water) cycle
1. This is the natural exchange or circulation of water
between the oceans, the atmosphere and the land
2. The atmosphere receives water through:
3. Evaporation from ocean, rivers and from land
4. transpiration form plants,
5. Breathing or respiration by plants and animals.
Fig. 157: Processes of achieving environmental balances
Atmosphere gain on the land
1. The land receives water 2. Rainfall from atmosphere
3. Infiltration and percolation 4. The ocean receives water
through:
a) Rainfall from the atmosphere
b) Streams and rivers
c) Run-off
Importance of water cycle or hydrological cycle and interdependence
1. Water is an important agent of weathering of rocks
2. Water helps to dissolve plant nutrients in solutions for
easy absorption by plants
3. Water is also required by plants for photosynthesis
4. All living organism require water for normal life
processes
5. Transpiration by plants aids cooling of the plants
ii. Carbon Cycle
Carbon cycle involves the series of processes which
contributes to the circulation of carbon in nature. Carbon is
circulated in form of carbon dioxide.
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Fig. 158: Attachment of carbon and nitrogen
Loss of carbon from the air
1. Carbon dioxide is removed from the air during
photosynthesis as green plants use it to
manufacture their food
2. Carbon is also lost in form of carbonates of
calcium and magnesium through leaching and
drainage
Gain of Carbon in the air
The atmosphere gains carbon dioxide through:
1. Burning of fuel like coal, wood and petrol
2. The action of volcanoes which release carbon
dioxide
3. Through respiration by plants and animals
4. The dead, decaying and putrefaction of plants
and animals.
Importance of carbon cycle (carbon cycle and
interdependence)
1. Carbon cycle provides carbon dioxide which is
an important gas in the atmosphere
2. Plants depend on carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis
• Carbon dioxide trapped in the leaves with the
presence of sunlight is used to manufacture food
1. Animals, therefore, depend on plants either
directly or indirectly for their food
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2. Animals take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere
3. Plants absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen during
photosynthesis.
iii. Nitrogen Cycle
➢ Nitrogen cycle involves the complex process by which
nitrogen is circulated between the atmosphere, soil plants
and animals
➢ Plants can only use nitrogen in form of nitrate.
Soil and plants are nitrogen-rich
i. Symbiotic nitrogen fixation: Through the root nodules of
leguminous plants with the aid of some bacteria
ii. Electrical discharge: When oxygen combines with
nitrogen in the atmosphere to form nitrate during lightning
can lead to nitrogen gain.
iii. Non-symbiotic nitrogen fixation: With the aid of some
bacteria, nitrogen is fixed aerobically or an aerobically into
the soil.
Fig. 159: How Soil and plants gain nitrogen
Ways nitrogen is lost from the soil
➢ Ammonification and nitrification: Ammonification
involves the conversion of dead and decaying organic
matter into ammonium compounds while nitrification
converts the ammonium compound first into nitrite and
finally into nitrate with the aid of some bacteria
➢ Application of organic manure and nitrogen fertilizers:
these add nitrogen into the soil
➢ Loss of Nitrate from the Soil
Denitrification: This is the major way by which nitrate in
the soil is lost by its conversion to gaseous nitrogen with the
aid of some denitrifying bacteria
➢ Other methods include leaching, erosion, soil Ph, crop
removal, etc.
➢ Importance of Nitrogen Cycle (nitrogen cycle and
interdependence)
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➢ It provides nitrogen which is an important gas
in the atmosphere
➢ It provides nitrate which is the main source of
protein synthesis in plants
➢ Nitrate is used to produce proteins for animals
➢ It also provides food for micro-organisms in the
root nodules of legumes
➢ The bacteria in turn decompose plants and
animals to release nutrients when they die.
➢ Mineral Nutrient Cycle Fig. 160: Food Web in diagram
➢ This refers to the circulation of mineral
nutrients between plants and the soil Environmental Interventions
➢ These mineral nutrients include calcium, iron, Environmental intervention refers to the forces of nature and
sulphur, zinc, sodium, phosphorus and potassium. the activities of man that alter the natural existence of the
components of the ecosystem
iv. Mineral nutrient cycle and interdependence
1. Plants absorb these nutrients from the soil for Types of environmental intervention
growth and production There are two types of interventions in our
2. When plants die, they decay and the nutrients environment. These are
are returned to the soil i. Natural intervention and ii. Human interventions.
3. The decomposition and release of nutrient are
aided by micro-organisms in the soil. i. Natural interventions: The natural intervention is caused
by a number of natural processes which include:
v. Food Chain Trophic Level and Food Web 1. Desert encroachment
a) Food Chain: Food chain is defined as the 2. Sea level changes
linkage of a series of organism in a habitat through ➢ Tectonic movement
the flow of energy of consumer levels and their 1. Volcanism 2. Earthquakes 3. Climatic changes
nutritional sequence. In other words, food chain a) Drought b) Hurricane c) Flooding
involves energy transfer in which each organism The effects of these Natural interventions include:
feeds on the one before it in a sequence. An 1. New features different from those initially there are
example of food chain areas are as follows: produced e.g., volcanism creates volcanic mountains
1. Grass sheep main 2. Changes in the landscape of the area e.g., earthquake will
2. Grass grasshopper toad snake hawk result in digging trenches and gullies where it was not
Diatoms euglena water fleas tilapia initially present.
The first in each group is usually called autotroph ➢ Raising and lowering of beaches
(or producer) e.g., grass, while the next e.g., sheep 1. Widespread destruction or extinction of aquatic life e.g.
is called the primary consumer while the last e.g., drought results in drying up the water and this will lead to
man is called the secondary consumer. the extinction of water animals
b) Trophic level: Trophic level refers to the 2. Displacement of animals 3. Displacement of man.
feeding stages found in a food chain, e.g.
Grass grasshopper toad snake hawk ii. Human intervention: Man has interfered with the
The above food chain has five trophic levels. ecosystem through many of his activities. These human
c) Food web: Food web is a complex feeding (man) interventions include the following:
relationship of organism made up of many 1. Deforestation 2. Pollution
interrelated food chains. It involves a wider range
of energy transfer. The food web in fig. 160 ➢ Mining/quarrying
contains five different food chains 1. Cloud seeding 2. Hunting
2. Urbanization 3. Land reclamation
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➢ Farming activities, e.g. burning
1. Construction 2. Fishing
2. Industrialization
➢ Grazing
Some of these interventions are now discussed in
detail.
i. Deforestation
1. Deforestation causes increased runoff and
flooding
2. It leads to destruction of natural habitat
3. It leads to changes in energy balance
4. It leads to erosion and reduction in rainfall.
ii. Land reclamation
1. It leads to less rainfall
2. It changes the drainage pattern
3. It reduces the amount of soil moisture content
4. It leads to loss of some organism and plants
➢Pollution (soil, water, atmospheric and noise)
1. Atmospheric and water pollution destroy plants
and animals
2. Oil spillage and water polluting alter the type of
plant that can grow in an area
3. Land pollution exposes the soil surface
4. It leads to changes in the chemical composition
of the soil, e.g., chemicals used in agricultural
practices such as fertilizer
5. It can also lead to reduction in agricultural land.
➢ Grazing
1. Overgrazing leads to reduction in agricultural
land
2. It depletes the vegetative cover of the soil
3. It leads to soil compaction through excessive
trampling by animals
4. It destroys the soil structure and causes soil
erosion
➢ Farming activities e.g. Burning
1. It causes the destruction of weeds
2. It burns the organic matter content of the soil
3. It causes the destruction of pest and natural
habitat
4. Some may be harmful to man
5. It can also lead to soil erosion
➢ Mining
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1. Mining causes pollution of the land
2. Illegal mining causes the reduction of farm lands
3. It leads to pollution of surface and underground water
4. It also leads to disintegration of settlement
➢ Urbanization
1. It causes reduction in agricultural land
2. Wastes produced can cause pollution
3. It can lead to loss of some organism and plants
4. It exposes the soil to erosion and flooding
➢ Construction
1. It destroys the soil structure
2. It can cause soil erosion
3. It can also kill plants and animals
4. Some wastes produced can cause this.
Assignment 16
1. a) Define the following;
i. sediment ii. sediment transport iii. ecosystem
iv. ecosystem ecology v. saprophytism
b) Explain the three measurement of species diversity
c) Describe the two environmental intervention and state
three impact of each on the environment
2. a) Highlight the two ecosystem types
b) With the aid of annotated diagram, describe the water or
hydrological cycle
c) In what five ways is the hydrological cycle beneficial to
man?
3. a) What is ecosystem biodiversity?
b) Explain the values of biodiversity
c) Outline three importance of biodiversity
d) Explain the following terms and construct an example
of chain for each.
i. food chain ii. food web iii. trophical level
4. a) Describe with diagram, the carbon cycle
b)Explain how the carbon cycle could be loss
c) Explain four importance interdependence of the carbon
cycle
5. a) Differentiate between coastal morphology and coast
b) Explain the two major types or classes of coast.
c) Identify three coasts or beaches and explain their
formations based on their characteristics and influential
factor of the coast identified above.
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CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
UNDERGROUND WATER AND KARST TOPOGRAPHY
Underground water: This is water that enters the lithologic body that stores, transmits and yields water
ground or rocks. Rainwater is the main source of in economic amount. It is a water bearing rock.
underground water. Water enters the ground in two
ways, that is, through; Types of Aquifers
1. Pore spaces such as cracks, etc. separating the Two types are identified namely;
individual grains of rocks. i. Confined Aquifer
2. Joints and faults. Based on the ability of rocks to ii. Unconfined Aquifer
allow water pass through them, rocks are classified into i. Confined Aquifer: It occurs when the water level is
the following groups:- held in a porous and permeable unit that is not
The extent to which rock can hold water depends on its connected vertically to the atmosphere but instead is
porosity or pore space or a hole in section is called overlain and underlain by less permeable or confining
permeability. water layers.
ii. Unconfined Aquifer: this type of aquifer is usually
The ability of rocks that allows water to pass through open to the atmosphere and its hydro-static (water
them depends their classification, hence the following table) and is within the water bearing unit itself. It is
classifications are labeled; the most common aquifer because it is open to the
a) Porous rock: This is a rock which has pore spaces atmosphere and its hydrostatic level is within the water
which water can enter or infiltrate. Example is bearing unit itself. When aquifer is penetrated by a well
sandstone, limestone, etc. or open hole it rises above the top (perk) of the aquifer.
The level to which water will rise is called
Types of porosity potentiometric surface. The volume of water
1. Primary porosity contained in fractures and pores in the earth’s
2. Secondary porosity underground reservoir is enormous; it is estimated at
almost 8millionkm3 in the outer 5km of the crust
b) Pervious rock: Some rocks have no pore spaces but (Todd, 1980).
have joints which can hold water. These are called
pervious rocks, e.g. granites, gneiss, etc. This is a rock
which has joints or faults into which water can enter or
infiltrate. Example is granite.
c) Permeable rock: Both porous and pervious rocks
are referred to as Permeable Rocks.
They have pore spaces, fracture, crevices, joints, etc.
through which water flow easily.
d) Impermeable rock: A rock which does not allow
water or liquid (water) to flow through them is called
Impermeable Rocks. They may have no joint or
fracture or have small pores in them, e.g. Shale, granite
with no joints or cracks, etc. Permeable rocks thus
serve as aquifers.
When the pore spaces of a rock are filled with water,
the rock is said to be saturated.

Aquifer
An aquifer is a rock which allows water to pass
through it regularly. It can also be defined as a
Fig. 161: An Aquifer in diagrams
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Factors affecting the flow of underground water
There are three (3) most common factors which
undermines the flow of underground water. They are;
1. Variation in infiltration
- Vegetated/ bear surface
- Topography or nature of landscape
- Nature of rocks available for infiltration
2. Evapotranspiration
- Loss of water from soil both by evaporation and by
transpiration from the plants growing thereon.
- Temperatures bearing high
3. Atmospheric pressure
- Recharge caldaria melting and precipitation and
ability can be the movement of other underground
water each by a leaked reservoir or movement.
- Discharge excessive withdrawal.
- Recharge = Discharge Stationary/ static or
stable
Note: The flow of water into an Aquifer is called
Recharge. How does this occur?
The flow of water out of an Aquifer is called
Discharge. When recharge is equal to discharge, the
water is said to be stationary or static/ stable.
Fig. 162: Types of Aquifer in diagram
The water tables
This is the upper limit of an aquifer which is wholly
saturated. When there is an easy outlet for the ground
water, it forms a spring but when there is none, the
water accumulates above the impermeable layer and
saturates the rock. The permeable rock in which the
water is stored is called aquifer while the surface of
the saturated area is called the water table.
Types of water table
The level of the ground water table always fluctuates.
It is never the same in any area. The level of the water
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table is controlled by the nature of land surface,
variation in the amount of rainfall and the character of
the underlying rocks. Water table is generally higher in
areas of high precipitation and also in areas bordering
rivers and lakes. Water-table changes according to
seasons. It is higher in rainy season and lower during
summers. On the basis of the variability, the water-
table is of two types;
(a) The permanent water table and
(b) The temporary water tables.
(a) Permanent water table: When the water table is
stable or static and never falls below a particular level,
it is called the permanent water-table. It is not
affected by seasonal change. Wells dug up to this depth
provide water in all seasons. They are perennial wells.
(b) Temporary water table: This is also known as
seasonal water table. The level at which the water-table
is not stable, when it keeps changing with season is
called temporary water table. It means that during the
wet season, the water table will be higher than it is
during the dry season. It is the water table of the wet
season that is temporary. Wells dug up to this level are
not perennial. They dry up during the summer season.
You might have seen wells drying up during the
summer season and becoming filled with water during
the rainy season. It is because such wells are dug up to
the temporary water-table.
Zones of water table
There are three zones of the water table. They are;
1. Zone of unsaturation/ aeration: Pore spaces allow
water to be hold underground. This is where pore
spaces never contain water.
2. Zone of intermittent saturation: It allowed holding
water temporary. This is where the pore spaces in a
rock contain water only after heavy rain.
3. Zone of saturation/ saturation zone: It holds water
permanently. This is where the pore spaces in a rock
are always filled with water. The upper surface of this
layer is called the water table.
The characteristics of the water table
Through the water table, the following types of
underground water can be identified/ developed
❖ Springs
❖ Wells

❖ Artesian basins
❖ Artesian wells, etc.
Springs and geysers, Wells, Tubewells, and Artesian Wells
i. Springs and Geysers: Springs are surface outflow of
ground water through an opening in a rock under
hydraulic pressure. In such cases the aquifer is either
exposed at the surface or it underlies an impermeable
rock. The amount of water in the aquifer depends upon
the amount of rainfall in that area, landform
characteristic and the size of the aquifer.
(a) Hot springs: The springs emitting hot or warm
water are called hot springs. These springs are found in
areas of present or past volcanic activity. In such
regions the underground water gets heated up by
coming in contact with hot rocks or steam.
b) Geysers: Hot springs emitting hot water and steam
at almost regular intervals is called geysers. The water
in geysers is ejected with force as in case of a fountain.
E.g. geysers are found in Iceland, Yellowstone
National Park of U.S.A and the northern part of New
Zealand.
ii. Wells: A man-made hole on the earth’s surface
through which underground water is obtained is called
a well.
iii. Tubewells: They are man-made holes dug into the
earth’s surface through which underground water is
drawn for drinking purpose and for irrigation. They are
either bored mechanically as in the (case of tubewells)
or are dug by man (as in the case of wells) to reach a
permanent water table.
iv. Artesian well: A well in which water flows out
automatically under its own pressure is called an
artesian well. A special type of well in which water
rises automatically under its own pressure to the
surface, either through a natural or a man-made hole is
called an artesian well. The name artesian has been
derived from the province of Artoi in France, where the
first well of this type was dug. Certain conditions are
prerequisite of an artesian well.
Conditions necessary for artesian wells
(a) Arrangement of rocks: For an artesian well, there
should be layer of permeable rock lying between two
impermeable rock layers. In such case, water present in
the permeable rock does not escape.
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Principlesam Series
(b) Structure of rock strata: Second condition for the
occurrence of artesian wells is that the rock must have
a synclinal or tilted structure.
(c) Intake area of the rock: It is necessary that the
permeable rock should be exposed at the ground
surface, so that rock can soak rainwater. This intake
area should be sufficiently high so that enough
hydraulic pressure will be developed to force the water
upward in the well.
(d) Availability of water: There should be sufficient
amount of precipitation of infiltration of water in the
area where the permeable rock is exposed at the
surface.
Fig. 163: Spring water
The factors that affects the depth of the water table
The depth of a water table depends on the following
factors
1. Relief of the area: The higher or bigger the relief,
e.g. a higher mountain, the higher the water table.
2. Type of rock: Presence of porous and permeable
rocks leads to low water table while the presence of
porous and impermeable rocks tends to favour high
water table.
3. Seasons: Rainy season favors high water table while
dry season reduces the level of water table.
4. Presence of springs: The availability of springs
tends to reduce the level of water table and vice versa.
Fig. 164: The water table
Through the development of the water table, some
underground water can be formed, namely; springs,
wells, Artesian wells and basins.
 Principlesam Series
Karst Springs
Karst springs are locations where groundwater emerges
from the limestone and flows across the surface
forming a stream or contained pool. The flow of Karst
springs is generally dependent on the weather and
climate. Ephemeral springs only flow following rainfall
or snowmelt events. More permanent springs are
connected to aquifers and flow year-round.
Fig.166: b) Artesian well
What is a Spring?
A spring occurs when groundwater appears at the land
surface. Springs occur in various forms and are
classified by the rock type in which the spring occurs,
how the spring was formed, how much water flows
from the spring, the temperature of the water, and if the
water flow varies from season to season. Some springs
may fall into more than one classification.
Formation of Springs
Springs are formed in areas with tilted rocks where
Fig.166 c): Artesian well and basin
permeable rocks lies on the top of an impermeable
rocks. The overlying permeable rock absorbs rainwater
b) Gravity Springs: Are formed by water soaking into
and becomes saturated. Water table is formed at the
the ground until the water encounters a confining layer
surface of the saturated rock and water flows as spring
that will not let the water seep further down (Fig. 166).
where the junction of the two rock layers meets the
The water then flows across the top of the confining
surface.
layer until it reaches the ground surface. Examples of
Types of Spring water
gravity springs are springs found in hillsides or cliffs.
a) Artesian Springs: Occur when the groundwater,
The springs along the north shore of Lake Superior and
under pressure, finds its way to the land surface (Fig.
along the Mississippi and St. Croix River Valleys are
165)
generally of this type.

Fig. 167: Gravity Spring

Fig. 165: a) Springs (e.g. Kintampo waterfalls, Boti falls etc.)

c) Perennial springs: Drain a large land surface area

The spring flows because the pressure in the aquifer
(water bearing soil or rock), which is covered by a and flow continuously throughout the year.
confining layer (clay or other impervious material), is Intermittent Springs
Flow only during certain times of the year when
greater than atmospheric pressure at the land. A spring
rainfall or snowmelt is sufficient to recharge the soil
is formed when the water reaches the surface through a
and groundwater.
fracture or porous layer. These types of springs usually
occur along faults (a fracture in the earth), or in areas
d) Tubular springs: Are most commonly associated
of great topographic relief such as cliffs or valleys.
with limestone channels and cavern, and volcanic lava
tubes. The water is contained in caves or solution
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 Principlesam Series
cavities in the limestone, or hollow “tubes” formed by layers appear on earth surface the water may flow out
cooling lava. Cavities or tubes may range from as spring.
microscopic in size to large openings measuring many
tens of feet across. Large tubular springs in some parts
of the United States flow over a million gallons per
minute. The large springs of southeastern Minnesota
are tubular springs.
e) Seepage springs: Are formed when groundwater
slowly seeps out of the ground. Seepage springs
usually occur in sand, gravel, or organic materials and
Fig. 168: Pervious and Impervious rock strata
generally are found in depressions or valley bottoms.
Seepage springs are different from artesian springs
(ii) Springs formed as a result of a dyke or sill
because they are not necessarily confined (contained
intrusion:
below a dense layer of clay or other material) and
➢ formed due to volcanic intrusive activity that creates
usually have low flows.
a dyke or sill
➢ the dyke/sill may cut across a layer of permeable
f) Thermal springs: Are springs that release
rock
groundwater warmer in temperature than groundwater
➢ when rain falls, some of the water sink into the
in the surrounding watershed area. Examples of
ground and move downwards by force of gravity
thermal springs are warm springs, hot springs,
➢ the water moves downward through permeable
mudpots, and geysers such as those at Yellowstone
rocks until it reaches an impermeable layer to form
National Park. Thermal springs are most commonly
ground water
found in areas with a recent history of volcanic
➢ the ground water may be impounded by a sill or a
activity.
dyke
➢ this obstruction occupies space underground and
Springs and artesian wells
may cause the water table to rise to the surface of the
Springs are often confused with flowing artesian wells.
earth
An artesian well is a hole or boring that has been
➢ Where the water table rises to meet the surface of
drilled into a water-bearing formation or "aquifer" that
the earth, the water gushes out as a spring.
is under pressure. The water in an artesian well rises
above the top of the aquifer (water-bearing formation)
until the pressure is equalized. In a flowing artesian
well, the water rises above the ground surface and the
water flows out of the well casing to equalize the
pressure. ways in which springs can be formed.

(i) Springs formed as a result of the presence of

permeable and impermeable rock strata
➢ Water outflow can occur at or below the plane
where water table intersects the surface where
permeable and impermeable rocks alternate
➢ When rain falls, some of the water sinks into the
ground by force of gravity
➢ The water moves downward through permeable
rocks until it reaches an impermeable layer
➢ If there is an outlet for the ground water at the point
where the two layers of permeable and impermeable
Fig. 169: Springs formed as a result of a dyke or sill intrusion
through Permeable and impermeable rock strata
(iii) Springs formed in well jointed rocks:
➢ In areas where the rocks are well jointed water may
enter the ground through the joints of rocks
➢ When rain falls, some of the water sink into the
ground
➢ The water moves downward by force of gravity
through the joints in rocks.

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 Principlesam Series
➢ the water may accumulate on an impermeable layer ➢ the water later re-emerges through sub-terranean
to form ground water passage on to the surface as springs
➢ continuous accumulation of the water underground
may cause the water table to rise
➢ Spring may develop where the trapped ground water
meets the surface of the earth.

Fig. 172: Vauclusian spring/re-emergence

spring/chalk spring

Fig. 170: Springs formed in well jointed rocks Do you know there are artesian basins and wells
around Aburi and Dodowa in Ghana?
(iv) Escarpment spring
- In a chalk escarpment where the permeable rocks lie
between impermeable rock strata when rain falls some
of the water sink into the ground.
- the water moves downward/percolates by force of
gravity through well jointed rocks.
- the water may accumulate on an impermeable layer to
form ground water
- continuous accumulation of the water underground
may cause the water table to rise
- spring may develop where the ground water meets the
surface of the earth
- When the ground water is issued out at the foot of the Fig. 173: Conditions for the development of karst
scarp it is called a scarp-foot or dip- slope spring processes
Karst processes
➢ A limestone is a rock containing at least 50%
carbonate mineral.
➢ The two most common carbonate minerals in
limestone are a low magnesium (1-4%) calcite and
dolomite.
➢ The purer the limestone is with the respect to
calcite, the great tendency to form karst.
Fig. 171: Escarpment spring
➢ Dolomite and evaporites such as gypsum and halite
are also prone to karstification.
(v) Vauclusian spring/re-emergence spring/chalk
Pseudokarst: is the term for karst-like development in
spring:
non-carbonate lithology that exhibits characteristics
➢ formed mostly in limestone regions, when chalk or
similar to karst landscapes, but which lack dissolution
limestone overlies an impermeable rock
as a primary means of landscape formation.
➢ When rain falls, water sinks into the ground through
the chalk layers and creates passages by solution
Conditions for the development of karst processes
process
1. Soluble rock
➢ the water then disappears underground
2. Porous rock

198

3. Water
4. The dissolving capacity of the water.
5. Water pressure gradient.
Characteristics of limestone topography
1. Relatively thick massive soluble rock, i.e.,
limestone, dolomite, or chalk near the surface.
2. Marked development of joints. If the rock is bedded,
the beds should be thin,
3. Considerable relief (preferably several hundred
meters) so that water is capable of circulation to cause
typical karst topography.
4. Moderate to heavy rainfall to cause solution of
rocks. Rainfall becomes carbonate by absorbing
atmospheric CO2. Moreover, rainfall encourages
growth of plants whose decomposition is an additional
source of CO2 to the flowing water. In dry areas the
development of karst landscape is inhibited.
Dolomite is not as suitable as limestone because of its
restricted solubility. Chalk is relatively unsuitable
because of its softness and unlithified nature.
a)
b)
Fig. 168: a) b) Surface and underground features of
karst landscape
Factors in karst development
The development of karst terrain depends on the
interplay of at least seven important factors in varying
degrees. These are: lithology, structure, relief,
hydrology, climate, vegetation, and time.
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Principlesam Series
a) Lithology: Several lithologies are susceptible to
karstification, but limestones and dolomites, owing to
their solubility and nature of resistance and widespread
distribution, are overwhelmingly dominant. According
to Pettijohn (1975), 75 percent of the Earth´s surface is
covered with sedimentary rocks, and of that, 10 to 20
percent consists of limestones or dolomite.
b) Structure: Structure is used here in the structural
geologic sense and is concerned with the attitude and
deformational effects of bedrock. Limestones and
dolomites at or near the surface tend to deform by
brittle fracture.
Vertical fractures usually manifest themselves at the
surface and focus the solution processes along them.
Large-scale structures or tectonics not only have led to
the development of specific landforms like poljes but
have also influenced the rates and degree of
karstification. Most poljes, for example, are associated
with boundary faults. Uplift and deformation of a
carbonate plateau accelerates the dissolution of the
limestone because of;
(1) Fracture density increases
(2) Any elevation rise is usually accompanied by an
increase in precipitation
(3) Increased relief increases piezometric surface
gradients. These conditions can
i. Lead to solution-enlarged conduits along fracture
planes
ii. Impart to the limestone a high hydraulic
conductivity
iii. Cause rapid fluctuations in the water table with
accompanying accelerated solution (Fetter, 1980)
c) Relief: Topographic relief is the elevation difference
between the highest and lowest points on the surface
for a given area. The Julian Alps in the inner region of
Yugoslavia have a topographic relief near 2000m. This
mountainous area is associated with an abundance of
potholes and few caves. In Florida, the vadose depth is
small, as is the topographic relief. However,
throughout low sea level stands during the Pleistocene,
the increased depth of the vadose zone probably led to
the development of a more extensive and efficient
subsurface drainage system with an increase in
dissolution along fractures and fissures. Even today the
effects of water table drawdown due to excessive
pumping have rendered some urban areas susceptible

to the sudden and unexpected collapse of buried
solution cavities. Such a collapse occurred in Winter
Park, Florida, in May 1981.
d) Hydrogeology: Hydrogeology is concerned with the
interrelation ships of geologic materials and processes
with water.
e) Climate: The best-developed karst regions of the
world are found in tropical (e.g., Jamaica) and
temperate (e.g., Yugoslavia) environments.
f) Vegetation: Arid karst regions, such as the Nullarbor
Plain in Australia, are associated with sparse
vegetation, thin soils, and therefore, a slowed rate of
surface karstification.
g) Time: The early karst studies of Cvijic and Grund at
the turn of the 20th century was strongly influenced by
the cyclic evolutionary teachings of Davis and Penck
(Roglic, 1972). Thus, karst topography has been
thought to evolve through stages of development
beginning with fluvial action and the initial formation
of dolines. As the surface drainage is slowly captured
by swallow holes and the developing subsurface
drainage, dolines coalesce to form uvalas, which, in
turn, expand to poljes.
Karst Processes and Landforms
Karst refers to processes and landforms associated with
the dissolution of limestone, salt, gypsum, etc. through
solution and other processes.
It is a topography of soluble limestone rich in calcite,
that is, CO2+H2O=H2CO3 (carbonic acid) which
eventually develops into CaCo3 (Calcium Carbonate)
which is acidic.
This acidic compound attacks limestone, chalk, rock
salts, etc. to develop both surface and underground
features.
Karst Topography
This is a term used to describe landscapes that are
formed by chemical weathering processes controlled
by groundwater activity. Karst landscapes are
predominantly composed of limestone rock that
contains greater than or equal to 70 percent calcium
carbonate.
Features
- Caves and Caverns
- Sinkholes and Dolines
- Underground drainage systems (streams and
springs)
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Principlesam Series
- Pavement, Pinnacles, Towers (Haystacks)
- Karst regions are often humid and display
distinctive.
Surface features of karst topography
Karst topography is a landscape shaped by the
dissolution of soluble bedrock (such as limestone or
dolomite). Most typically when carbonate rock, such
as limestone or dolomite, is dissolved away by mildly
acidic rain and ground water.
• Caves • Pinnacles • Towers • Pavements • Springs •
Sinkholes •Doline.
Fig. 174: Karst Features
Karst Underground Features
The topographical features created by the work of
underground water on limestone are of two types.
(a) Topographical features formed on the surface, like
sink holes and swallow holes.
(b) Topographical features formed underground like
caves, column or natural pillars caverns, stalactites and
stalagmites.
1. Cave: A large holes that was formed by natural
process which is in the side of a cliff or hill or under
the ground
2. Stalactite: A hall hanging down from a roof of a
cave (rock sediment).
A portion of the water dropping from the ceiling gets
evaporated and a small deposit of limestone is left
behind on the roof. This process continues and deposit
of lime stone grows downwards like pillars. These
beautiful forms are called stalactites.
2. Stalagmite: A rock that sticks up from the floor of a
cave and that is formed by dripping water which
contains minerals.
When the remaining portion of the water dropping
from the roofs of the cavern falls on the floor a part of
it is again evaporated and a small deposit of limestone

is left behind. This deposit grows upward from the
floor of the cavern. These types of depositional features
are called stalagmites.
4. Column or natural pillars: They are pillars that
stick to the ground of a cave or cliff.
(i) Sink Holes: A sinkhole is a surface depression in a
region of limestone or chalk terrain. Some sinkholes
are filled with soil washed from nearby hillsides, while
others are steep sided, dug holes. They develop where
the limestone is more susceptible to solution,
weathering or where an underground cover near the
surface has collapsed.
(ii) Swallow Holes: They are cylindrical in shape lying
underneath the sinkholes at some depth. In limestone
regions, the surface streams often enter the sinkholes
and then disappear underground through swallow
holes. It is so, because these holes are connected to the
underground caverns on their other side.
(iii) Caverns: Caverns are interconnected
subterranean cavities in bedrock formed by the
corrosions action of circulating underground water on
limestone. They are found near Dehradun in
Uttarakhand and in Almora in Kumaon Himalayas. The
caves of Kotamsar in the tribal district of Bastar in
Chhattisgarh are famous caverns of India.
Onondaga Cave in Missouri is a karst
landform formed by chemical solution
in carbonate limestone rocks. Features
within Onondaga Cave include
stalagmites, stalactites, dripstones and
active flowstone deposits. Missouri
contains so many caves that it is
nicknamed the “Cave State”.
Fig. 175: Features of Karst Landforms or Underground
limestone Caves
Fig. 176: Stalactites, Stalagmites, Natural Pillars or column
Factors affecting Karst Processes
1. Solubility of bedrock - Percent calcite
2. Climate - Temperature and Moisture
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Principlesam Series
3. Structure of limestone - Joints, fractures, porosity,
etc.
4. Vegetation/Non-carbonate Geology - Acidity (pH)
of groundwater
5. Atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) - affects
solubility of Carbonates.
Types of limestone
There are many types of limestone, each with the
caves. different texture, content and age. Oolite
limestone has a rock-like texture of small particles
which make up the rock. Coral is a limestone which is
formed from the skeletons of small sea animals like
Polyps and algae. Dolomite is a limestone containing
more magnetism. Carboniferous limestone is a
limestone rick of great age.
Characteristics of limestone or karst regions
1. Solubility: Limestone is easily dissolved by
carbonic acid in rainwater.
2. Absence of luxuriant vegetation cover: The area
lacks rich vegetation due to the rapid infiltration of
surface water.
3. Presence of joint and rugged landscape:
Limestone is well-jointed and rainwater enlarges the
joints into holes and pits making the place rugged.
4. Presence of dry valleys: Surface streams sink into
the ground and may re-appear below the limestone as
spring or resurgence. This makes most valleys dry.
5. Thin soils: The regions have shallow soils and this
is as a result the poor vegetation cover. Thus, only
small amount of leaves mixes with the soils.
6. Presence of depressions: These include sinkholes,
dolines and uvala.
7. Absence of surface drainage: The area lacks
streams and other streams, swamps, and other
wetlands. This is because of the continuous infiltration
of water into the ground.
8. Presence of underground caves, stalactite and
stalagmite: Caves are common in Karst regions,
Stalactite hang from the roof of the cave whiles
stalagmites are found on the floor of the caves.
Surface Features of Limestone Topography
❖ Grikes/limestone pavements
❖ Clints/steep sided gorge
❖ Sinkholes/dolines
❖ Disappearing streams

❖ Uvala/Poljes
A. Surface features of karst Regions
Surface factures in limestone regions include sinkholes,
dolines, ovalas, Grikes and clints, poljes and limestone
gorges.
1. Sinkholes or Swallow Holes (Characteristics of
Sinkholes): It is a shaft-like saucer-shaped depression
in limestone areas. It is deep and steep-sided. Water
passes through it to underground. An example is the
Gaping Ghyll in Yorkshire. Other examples are found
in Yugoslavia.
Formation of Sinkholes
Formation starts where there is a large arc of limestone
with many cracks and joints. Rainwater mixes with
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to form carbonic acid
which dissolves the limestone along the joints. The
joints are further deepened to become depressions
called swallow holes.
2. Doline or Dolina (Characteristics of Dolina)
It is a circular depression in Karst or limestone areas. It
has rocky margins. It is deep and steep-sided. The
floors may contain red clay or sink holes. Examples are
found on the Mahafaly Plateau in southwest Malagasy,
Khanifra in the Middle Atlas of Morocco and in
Yugoslavia.
Formation of Doline
Formation starts where there is a well- jointed
limestone. Rainwater absorbs carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere to form carbonic acid which dissolves the
limestone along the joints. Solution deepens the joints
and turns them into depressions called sinkholes.
Several sinkholes may merge to form a larger
depression called doline.
Fig. 177: Doline
3. Uvala or Ovala (Characteristics of Ovala)
This is a long depression in limestone or Karst regions.
It is steep-sided with flat floor. The floor may contain
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Principlesam Series
streams or lakes. The floor may be covered with red
clay (terra rosa). Some have large fertile floors which
are cultivated. Examples are found on the Mahafaly
Plateau in southwest Malagasy, Khanifra in the Middle
Atlas of Morocco and Karst region of Yugoslavia.
Formation of Ovala
formation of uvala starts where there is a large area of
limestone with many joints. Rainwater absorbs carbon
dioxide from atmosphere to form carbonic acids which
dissolve the limestone along the joints. through
solution, the joints are deepened into sinkholes. several
sinkholes may coalesce to form a larger depression
called doline. Many doline may also merge through
subsidence to form uvala.
4. Polje or Polge (Characteristics of Polge)
Polje is a long depression in limestone areas. It mostly
occurs in heavily faulted areas. It is steep sided. It has
flat floor. The floor may be covered with residual red
clay. Some polges have lakes on their floors. Polges are
large. An example is Livno Polge in Western Balkans.
Other examples are found in Yugoslavia and the Atlas
of Morocco.
Formation of Polge
Polge is formed by faulting or subsidence. First, there
is the presence of underground cave. Through
subsidence, the roof of the cave may collapse to form
polje.
Fig 178: Polje
5. Grikes and Clints (Characteristics of Grikes and Clints)
Grikes are depressions with steep sides. Their bottoms
are broad but the upper parts are narrow. They can be
few centimeters to several metres deep. They are
separated from each other by Clints. Clints are
limestone blocks with steep sides. They lie between
grikes or joints. They are elongated. They have almost
flat top. Grikes and clints occur in limestone areas.

Together, they form limestone pavement. An example
of grikes and clints is Ifrana in Middle Atlas of
Morocco. Others occur in the Karst region of
Yugoslavia.
Formation of Grikes and Clints
They are formed in limestones areas with many joints.
Solution deepens and widens the joints to form gullies.
The gullies are further enlarged to form grikes. The
harder parts of the limestone stand between the grikes.
as clients
Fig 179: Grikes and Clints
6. Dry Valley (Characteristics of Dry Valley)
It is a valley with steep sides. It is deep. It occurs in
both limestone and chalk areas. It is waterless but may
contain water after heavy rainfall or when the water
table rises. It has debris on its floor. Theta Rocky Gre
Dale, about 4 miles east of Buxton, is a dry valley.
Other examples are found in the Cotswolds and the
Chilterns, England.
Formation of Dry Valley
Dry valleys are disappearance of surface streams.
Many streams in limestone region disappear through
sinkholes to underground and leave behind dry valleys.
Fig 180: Dry Valley
B. Underground Features of Karst Regions
Underground features in Karst regions include caverns,
stalactite, stalagmite, pillar, limestone gorge and
springs.
1. Limestone Cavern or Cave (Characteristics of
Limestone Cavern)
A cavern is a natural underground hollow or chamber.
It is long and can extend up to 1.2km. Some caves are
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Principlesam Series
narrow, especially those formed along vertical joints.
Those formed along bedding planes are wide and low.
Features like stalactite and stalagmite are found in
caves. Some caves contain lakes and streams on their
floors. Caves are linked to the surface by sinkholes.
Some caves contain weathered materials on the floor.
Examples are Andrafiabr Cave in Malagasy; the
Matupi Cave D.R. Congo, Batu Cave in Yugoslavia
Mammoth Cave in Kentucky, United States of America
and Jeeita Grotto in Lebanon.
Fig181: Limestone Cavern/Cave
S: Sinkhole ST: Stalactite
SG: Stalagmite P: Natural Pillar
Formation of Limestone Cavern
First, there is a large area of limestone with many
cracks and joints. Rainwater absorbs carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere to form carbonic acid which dissolves
the rock along the joints. The dissolved rock is drained
by underground water. The water table is stable but
tectonic instability or a change in climate causes the
water table to fall. A cavern is formed at the former
level of the water table. The large space created may
contain lake or pond on the floor. Dripping of
dissolved limestone in the cave forms stalactite and
stalagmite (Fig 181).
2. Stalactite and Stalagmite (Characteristics):
Stalactite is a long, needle-shaped limestone. It hangs
from the roof of the cave. Stalagmite is a short, thick
deposit of limestone. It grows from the floor of the
cave. Stalactite and stalagmite are found in limestone
cave. When stalactite and stalagmite meet, they form
earth or natural pillar. Examples ot stalactite and
stalagmite include those found in the Matupi Cave in
the Democratic Republic of Congo and the Batu Cave
in Yugoslavia.
Formation of stalactite and stalagmite
Formation starts where there is massive limestone with
many joints. Rainwater and underground water
 Principlesam Series
combine to form underground cavern. Seeping or Terms associated with limestone caverns/ caves
dripping of dissolved limestone in the cave forms
stalactite on the roof of the cave and stalagmite on the
floor. The stalactite and the stalagmite may merge with
time.

Fig. 183: Grikes (irregular gullies) and Clints (ridges or blocks)

Fig. 181: Formation of Stalactite and Stalagmite Fig. 184: Sinkholes and Dolines

3. Natural or Earth Pillar

This is formed from the joining of stalactite and
stalagmite in a cave. Seeping or dripping of dissolved
limestone causes both the stalactite and the stalagmite
to grow and join together as natural pillar or earth Fig.185: Uvala and Poljes
pillar.
Surface Landforms: Limestone Pavement
4. Limestone Gorge (Characteristics of Limestone - Exposed areas of limestone
Gorge): It is a gorge in a limestone region. It has - Rugged and bare landscape with flat areas of rock
almost vertical sides. It also has flat floor. The floor is surface
covered by terra rosas. It is very long and deep. Most - Gradual widening of joints and fractures (bedding)
limestone gorges have rivers flowing in them.
Examples are the Cheddar Gorge in the United Features of limestone pavements
Kingdom and the Menambo River Gorge in Central Clint: section of a limestone pavement separated from
Malagasy. adjacent sections by grikes
Formation of limestone gorge Grike: vertical crack that develops along a joint in
Its formation starts when the top of a limestone cavern limestone
collapses through subsidence to form a narrow valley. Karren: small hollow that forms on the surface of a
The sides of the valley are widened (by carbonation or limestone Clint.
solution) to form a gorge. Cheddar Gorge in the United
Kingdom was formed in this way.
A limestone gorge is also formed when a river cuts
deep into a limestone rock. The Menambo River Gorge
in Central Malagasy is an example.
Fig. 175: Features of limestone pavements

Surface Landforms: Sinkholes

❖ Collapsed/depressed limestone features that develop
in karst landscapes.
❖ The ground water slowly dissolves the limestone
rock below the surface until it eventually becomes
unstable and collapses creating local depressional
features.
Fig.182: Limestone Gorge
204

❖ Groundwater dissolves soluble rock, creating
fractures and caves.
❖ Dissolving continues to form larger caves and
fractures
❖ Occur in a range of sizes, and can be temporarily,
seasonally, or permanently filled with water.
❖ Sinkholes pose a threat to developed areas.
❖ Increased pressure on water resources and depleted
ground water tables can trigger sinkholes to collapse
under the pressure of gravity or the void formed by the
depleted ground water. Often occur along the same
subterranean drainage system.
Uvala: series of smaller sinkholes coalesce into a
compound sinkhole.
Principlesam Series
Surface Water Features
➢ Karst regions are noted for their lack of well-
established surface drainage.
➢ Surface drainage is actually replaced by extensive
underground drainage.
➢ Where surface streams do develop, they do not flow
very far – they “disappear” (disappearing streams)
and “reappear” (springs).
Fig. 188: water surface features (disappearing stream and springs)

Disappearing Streams
➢ The streams that flow on the surface and then
seemingly “disappear” below ground
➢ Disappearing streams disappear into a sinkhole or
other karst solution features (caves)
➢ They may also disappear into factures or faults in
Fig. 186: Sinkhole the bedrock near the stream.
➢ Disappearing streams are also referred to as losing
The benefits and effects of limestone: streams, sinks, or sieves.
1. High in calcium: Helps makes lawns green.
2. Curbs pollution: Removes sulfur dioxide from coal
plant smokestacks.
3. Good for ponds: Increases nutrient availability, fish
growth and alkalinity.
4. Water treatment: Helps to remove excessive iron
Fig. 189: Disappearing streams
from water, reduce water pH.
5. Building materials: Is an essential component in
Karst Towers
concrete.
➢ Landscape is mottled with a maze of steep, isolated
6. Decorative floor covering: Travertine tile is a form
limestone hills
of banded limestone.
➢ Limestone beds are thick and highly jointed
➢ Puerto Rico, western Cuba, southern China, and
Table 15: Elements of sinkhole
northern Vietnam
Sinkholes
❖ Solution Sinkhole ➢ CO2 production by vegetation in these climates
❖ Little or no sediment is present facilitates weathering
over limestone
❖ Easily dissolved by water
❖ Cover-Subsidence Sinkhole
❖ Thick sediments overlay limestone
❖ Underlying limestone is dissolved,
sediments dump into the void
❖ Cover-Collapse Sinkhole
❖ Triggered by heavy rainfall,
drought, overloading
❖ Cause sudden
Fig 187: Sinkhole containing water Fig. 190: Karst Tower
205

Subsurface Karst Features: Caverns
➢ Limestone caverns and caves are large sub-surface
voids where the rocks have been dissolved by
carbonation.
➢ In sections where the ground water table has
dropped, pressure release promotes precipitation of
minerals creating a variety of speleothems
➢ Calcium carbonate precipitates out of the saturated
carbonate solution and accumulates as deposits.
➢ Stalactites are deposits that grow from the ceiling
downward
➢ Stalagmites are deposits that grow from the ground
up.
➢ If the stalactite and stalagmites join they form a
continuous column.
➢ Mammoth Cave in Kentucky and Carlsbad Caverns
in New Mexico are two of the largest cave systems in
North America.
Soda straws to stalactites
➢ Soda straws are initially hollow, allowing dissolved
limestone to travel through the tube.
➢ Because a dissolved solid is traveling through the
tube, it sometimes gets plugged up.
➢ This forces the dissolved limestone to “back up” and
start flowing on the outside of the straw.
➢ Eventually, it thickens and becomes recognizable as
a stalactite.
Cycle of erosion in karst topography
According to Cvijic, there are four stages in the
evolution of landforms in a karst region: youth,
maturity, late maturity and old age.
(i) Youth: The youth begins with surface drainage on
an initial limestone surface or one that has been laid
bare and is marked by a progressive expansion of
underground drainage. This stage is characterized by
the presence of such erosional features as lapies and
dolines. Large caverns are seldom to be seen and
underground drainage is in its initial stage. There is no
formation of large caverns.
(ii) Mature Stage: This stage begins with the
maximum development of underground drainage.
Large number of caves and caverns characterizes this
stage. Surface drainage is limited to short sinking
creeks which end in swallow holes and blind valleys.
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Principlesam Series
This stage is characterized by the development of
thousands of swallow holes and dolines. This stage
represents the maximum develop-ment of karst
topography with all its charac-teristic landforms.
(iii) Late Maturity Stage: Late maturity in the Karst
cycle begins with the decay and decline of karst
topography. Various feature of the karst topography
expand and coalesce to form uvalas. Poljes with their
hums are to be seen on the surface.
(iv) Old Stage: With the beginning of the old stage
there is return to surface drainage. Now, the caverns
collapse, leaving open, flat-floored valleys. Solution
activity has removed most of the limestone formations.
The karst windows, natural tunnels and bridges and
other solution features disappear. Only isolated knolls
remain as remnants of the former limestone surface
Assignment 17
1. a (i) List three landforms found in limestone regions.
(ii) Draw a well labeled diagram to show the
underground features of a limestone region.
b) Outline three ways by which limestone is beneficial
to man.
2.(a) Briefly discusses the erosional landforms of River with
suitable images? Write a short note on favorable factors for
formation of a river delta?
(b) Discuss the depositional features of a river? Define shortly
the process of erosion of a river with fitful diagrams?
3.a) What are the characteristics/behaviours of a limestone at
the?
i. Youthful stage ii. Maturity stage iii. Old age
b) Write short notes on springs and wells.
4. a) With the aid of diagrams, write on underground water
zones and water table.
b) Based on the variability, the water-table is of two
types; explain them.
5. a) Define the following terms
i. water table ii. Aquifer iii. Types of aquifer
iv. underground water.
b) Describe the factors that influence the flow of
underground

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
COASTAL PROCESSES, LANDFORMS AND MANAGEMENT OF MARINE RESOURCES
Wave action and coastal landforms
Waves: It is the circular movement of sea water caused
by wind blowing across the sea. Or it refers to as the
circular or turbulent movement of water by wind or air
on the surface of the sea/ocean.
Figure 191: Parts of waves
Types of Waves
The two types are identified below, namely
Constructive wave and destructive wave
1. Constructive waves: These cause materials to be
deposited on the beach. They are flat and low up to about along the shore, caused by approaching waves. Waves do
100m. Both swash and backwash are weak
2. Destructive waves: These are high energy waves.
They have strong swash and backwash which help to
carry materials from the beach back to the sea. They are backwards and produces through a force of propelling. A
very steep with shorter wave period. Most of the waves
in Ghana’s south eastern coast are examples of
destructive waves
The Work of Waves
Waves perform three main types of work, namely
✓ Erosion
✓ Transportation
✓ Deposition
The rate of wave erosion is influenced by the following
✓ Breaking point of the waves
✓ Wave steepness
✓ Nature of rocks
✓ Supply of beach materials
✓ Beach width including the slope
Coastal landforms feature
Coast: It refers to the place where the land and the sea
meet or this refers to the meeting point between the land
and the sea.
Principlesam Series
The coast has its processes possess this following
feature; such as coastline, shoreline, tides, beach, shore,
swash, longshore drift, backwash.
- Coastline: It is the limit to which wave takes place
- Shoreline: It is the line between high water and low
water levels.
- Tides: It is the rise and fall of the sea water by the
influence of gravity, rate of evaporation and moon
rotational force.
- Beach: It refers to the material deposited by the shore
sand and pebbles, singles, stone (rock) and gravel.
- Shore: It is the land that lays between high and low
water levels.
- Swash: It is the water thrown up the shore by
breaking waves
- Longshore drift: This refers to the process by which
waves transported materials along the coast. Or the
movement of materials such as pebbles singles and sand
three main types of work; erosion, transportation and
deposition.
- Backwash: It an amount of water that flow or move
condition or occurrence traceable to cause a general
recession in the surface of the ocean or sea.
- Undertow: This is the returning seawater that is
flashback during the sea flows near the bottom of the sea.
- Fetch-waters: It is the amount of distance that is
given by the sea opens over which the wind blows. The
wider the fetch water, the stronger or strengthen the
waves and vice versa.
How waves erode
Destructive waves erode through four main processes;
Hydraulic Action, Compression, Abrasion and Attrition.
a) Hydraulic action: Hydraulic Action is the sheer force
of water crashing against the coastline causing material
to be dislodged and carried away by the sea.
b) Compression: Compression occurs in rocky areas
when air enters into crack in rock. This air is trapped in
cracks by the rising tide, as waves crash against the rock
the air inside the crack is rapidly compressed and
decompressed causing cracks to spread and pieces of
rock to break off. Compression is one of the main
processes that result in the creation of caves.
c) Abrasion: Abrasion is when rocks and other materials
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carried by the sea are picked up by strong waves and
thrown against the coastline causing more material to be
broken off and carried away by the sea.
d) Attrition: Attrition is when material such as rocks
and stones carried by waves hit and knock against each
other wearing them down. As these materials are worn
down sand and rounded beach pebbles are formed.
Features or landforms associated with marine or
wave erosion
The features include:
1. Cliff/coastal cliff
2. Wave-cut platform
3. Cape headland or promontory
4. Sea Bay, inlet or coves
5. Sea Cave
6. Blowhole or gloup
7. Geo
8. Sea Arc
9. Sea Stack
10. Sea Stump
11. Sand spit
12. Sand bar
13. Tombolo
1. Cliff/coastal cliff (Formation): Sea cliffs are steep
faces of rock and soil that are formed by destructive
waves. A cliff is form when a cave collapses. Cliffs are
formed by wave erosion probably hydraulic action,
solution and abrasion. The wave erosion creates a notch
at the base of the coastal rock or headland where there is
weakness such as faults, joint planes or belt of less
resistance rocks. As the waves continues to enlarge the
notch the rock become undermined. Weathering and
mass wasting on the other hand attack weakens in the
upper part of the rock. The combined action of wave
erosion at the base and weathering and mass wasting
above ultimately lead to the collapse of the large block of
rocks between the enlarge notch and the upper part of
mass wasting leaving behind a very steep rock face
referred to as cliff. The fallen of rocks become further
broken down by wave action thus providing to the waves
with material for further attacks. This is indicated in the
diagram below.
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Principlesam Series
Fig. 192: Coastal Cliffs (Before and After)
Features of a cliff (coastal cliff)
a) It is a very steep slope or rocky face adjoining the
coast.
b) It may be vertical or inclined and may retreat or
recede landwards.
c) Cliff varies greatly in height and in profile. The height
may be quite low or several 100m high. For example, the
Beachy Head Sister of the English Channel Cliff is
150m high.
d) At the base of most coastal cliffs is found features
such as wave-cut platform, caves are beaches.
e) Majority of cliff are found in areas where marine or
wave erosion is very active
f) Some of the best-known cliffs are the Chalk of
English Channel which the Seven Sisters and white cliff
of Dover all in England, Ghana cliffs are found at the
Cape Three Points and shoreline of Takoradi Harbour,
Sekondi and Komenda in Ghana.
2. Wave-Cut Platform: It is an eroded base of a
headland that slopes gently form the foot of a cliff
towards the sea.
Formation
Wave-cut platform is formed by wave action notably.
Hydraulic action and abrasion of weathering and mass
wasting trigger this feature. The wave action (erosion)
cuts a notch at the base of the coastal rock or headland
where there is weakness such as faults, joint planes or
belt of less resistance rocks. As the waves continues to
enlarge the notch the rock become undermined
weathering and mass wasting on the other attack
weakens in the upper part of the rock. The combined
action of wave erosion at the base and weathering and
mass wasting above ultimately lead to the collapse of the
large block of rocks between the enlarge notch and the
upper part of the rock which is attached, weathering and
mass wasting forming a very steep face called cliff. The
 Principlesam Series
wave uses the fallen rock particles to attach the cliff. Formation
Cliff is also attached by hydraulic action, weathering and Headlands or capes are developed by wave or marine
mass wasting. It consequently retreats or recedes erosion especially hydraulic action and abrasion. They
landward. The rock debris are swept backward and are form on exposed coast where hard resistant rock, e.g.,
forwards by the breaking waves (swash and backwash) sand and clay. Abrasion and hydraulic action of waves
leaving behind on eroded platform that slopes gently on rocks varying resistance caused the coastline to be
from the foot of the cliff towards the sea. This platform is eroded irregularly. The softer rocks are warned back
referred to as wave-cut platform. Sometimes some of the rapidly to form a wide indentation or an opening through
debris that are swept backwash and forward by the which the water of the sea penetrates the land. This is
breaking waves collects along edge of the wave-cut called a bay, inlet or cove. The hard-resistant rocks
platform where it form an Offshore Terrance. (Refer to persist or remain projecting into the sea as a headland
the diagram on cliff). cape or promontory. This is indicated in the diagram
below on the next page.
Features of Wave-cut Platform
➢ The upper part of the wave-cut platform is exposed
(not covered by sea) at low tide.
➢ The surface of a wave-cut platform may be bare rocks
or covered with rocks debris that are like sand, gravels
and pebbles eroded from the receding cliff.
Fig. 194: A cape
➢ Sometimes some of the rocks debris that are swept
forwards and backwards by the waves collects along the
Features of a cape (characteristics)
seaward of the wave-cut platform where it forms on
1. A cape is also referred to as headland or a promontory
offshore Terrance.
2. Capes are made up of hard resistant rocks
➢ It has a wide and concave slopes
3. They are coastal features formed by waves erosion
➢ It is a coastal feature formed as a result of wave
especially abrasion, and hydraulic action on the coast
erosion especially abrasion. Examples are found in the
where soft rocks alternates with hard rocks.
strands flat in Norway along the west coast of Malta and
4. Headlands alternates with bays
along the coast between Saltpond and Cape Coast in
5. Example of a cape is Durlson Headland in South
Ghana.
England.
Previous portion
of cliff face
Eroding
cliff face

Fig. 195: An example of capes or headlands, MacLear in Malawi

Fig. 193: Scarp retreats as boulders settle at the base

4. A Sea Cave: Is a tunnel-like opening at the base of a
to form a pediplain
cliff face or headland that develops where there is a point
of weakness in rocks. The processes of compression and
3. A Cape: It is a part or piece of land that projects into
hydraulic are key to the creation of sea caves.
the sea. It is also called headland or promontory. A cape
Formation
is a headland or a promontory of large size extending
Caves are formed by marine erosion. They develop in an
into a body of water, usually the sea. A cape usually
area where there is presence of a cliff face or headland
represents a marked change in trend of the coastline
whose base is marked by line of weakness such as faults
which makes them prone to natural forms of erosion,
and joints, bedding plains or belts of less resistant rock
mainly tidal actions. This results in capes having a
through constant wave erosion especially wave abrasion
relatively short geological lifespan. Capes can be formed
and hydraulic action. These lines of weakness are
by glaciers, volcanoes, and changes in sea level. Erosion
widened to form a tunnel-like opening called caves.
plays a large role in each of these methods of formation.
209

Features of a cave
a. It formed through constant wave erosion when
weakness in the cliff face is opened up by wave abrasion
and hydraulic action.
b. It is cylindrically shaped with a wide entrance and a
narrow inner part
c. It contains water during high tides which developed at
opposite sides of headland to form an arc.
d. Examples are Flamborough head in England and
Ogbunike Caves in Nigeria and Komenda and Kpong in
Ghana.
5. A Blowhole: It is a natural vertical shaft or hole that
links a cave to the top of cliff or headland. A blowhole or
marine geyser is formed as sea caves grow landwards
and upwards into vertical shafts and expose themselves
towards the surface, which can result in hydraulic
compression of sea water that is released through a port
from the top of the blowhole. The geometry of the cave
and blowhole along with tide levels and swell conditions
determine the height of the spray.
Formation
Blowholes are formed by wave action (erosion)
especially abrasion and hydraulic actions. A blowhole or
marine geyser is formed as sea caves grow landwards
and upwards into vertical shafts and expose themselves
towards the surface, which can result in hydraulic
compression of sea water that is released through a port
from the top of the blowhole. The geometry of the cave
and blowhole along with tide levels and swell conditions
determine the height of the spray. It is initiated along a
coast where there is presence of a cave at the base of a
headland or a cliff. There should also be in place a line of
weakness such as faults, joints and bedding plains or
belts of less resistant rocks which links the roof of a cave
to the top of the cliff or headland. The occasional
splashing of the waves against the roof of a cave may
enlarge and deepen the point of weakness to form a
natural shaft which may eventually piece through to the
surface. This natural shaft is called blowhole. Lesouffleur
in Reunion in the Indian Ocean is a good example of a
blowhole.
Characteristics of a blowhole or gloup
a. It is a coastal landform formed by wave erosion
especially abrasion and hydraulic action and weathering.
b. Air and water may be force through it by waves that
breaks into the cave through constant alternating
compression and expansion of air and water in it
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Principlesam Series
c. Such shaft is also referred to as a gloup (forms the
noise produce by the water gurgling inside)
d. Example is Holborn Head in Scotland. In Ghana an
example is found at Komenda.
Fig.196: A Cave and Blowhole
6. A Geo: It is a long narrow inlet or a creck that extend
inland form, a cliff or a headed. It is an inlet, a gully or a
narrow and deep cleft in the face of a cliff. Geos are
common on the coastline of the Shetland and Orkney
islands. They are created by the wave driven erosion of
cliffs along faults and bedding planes in the rock.
Geos may have sea caves at their heads. Such sea caves
may collapse, extending the Geo, or leaving depressions
inland from the Geo. Geos can also be created from this
process.
Formation
Geo is formed by marine erosion especially hydraulic
action and abrasion. It is initiated by the presence of line
of weakness such as faults, joints, and bedding plains or
belts or less resistance rocks in the base of face of cliff or
headland. These lines of line of weakness are enlarging
by wave erosion to form a cave. When there is another
line of weakness that link the roof of the cave to the top
of the cliff or headland. The splashing of waves against
the roof or cave may enlarged and deepen the points of
weakness to form a neutral shaft which may enlarge
eventually pierce through to the surface. The neutral
shaft formed this way is referred to as blowhole or a
gloup. The enlargement of the blowhole and the
continued actions of wave weakens the roof of the cave.
The roof of the cave eventually collapses and long
narrow inlet or creck called Geo develops. Refer to the
diagram below.
Fig. 197: A diagram showing a Geo, blow hole and cave

Features or characteristics of Geo
a. It has a wide entrance and a narrow inner part or
inland part in narrow.
b. It is very long (above 30m) very deep and have steep
sides
c. It is formed by marine erosion especially hydraulic
and abrasion actions
d. Examples are the Wife Geo near Duncansby Head in
Scotland and the Devil’s frying pan of Lizard Peninsula,
Famous Huntsman’s Leap in Southern Pembrokeshine.
7. Sea Arch: An arch is a tunnel-like open normally
found on headland. It is usually curved part of a cliff or
headland or cave that is over the opening and that
supports the wall of the cave, cliff or headland.
Formation
An arch is formed by prolonged wave attack on a
headland along a coast. Its formation begins where two
caves are found along local points of weakness such as
joints or faults as the opposite side of headland by wave
erosion. The two caves cut back toward each other and
approach one another from other side of the headland
with time, the caves merges to form a natural arch.
Further erosion by waves with ultimately leads to total
collapse of the arch. The seaward portion of headland
will remain or persist as a pillar of rock known as stack.
See the diagram below
Fig. 198: A diagram showing an Arch, Cave, Stack, Stump
Features or characteristics of an Arch
1. It is a coastal landform as a result of wave erosion
especially hydraulic action and abrasion
2. It serves as a passage where sea water passes through
a mass of rock.
3. Examples are the Needle eye near Wick in Scotland
and Durdle Door on the Dorset Coast in England. Other
examples are found in Anomabu and Dixcove in Ghana
and the Green Bridge in Southern Pembrokeshine are all
examples of arches.
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Principlesam Series
8. Sea Stack: A stack is a pillar or rock or an isolated
mass of rock near a coasting separated from the mass or
headland usually by marine erosion.
Formation
Stacks are formed by wave erosion along the coast. First
there is the presence of a headland by wave action. The
caves available are cut back towards each other and with
time they merge to form an arch.
Wave action attack the roof of the arch and it eventually
collapse. The seaward portion of the headland then
remains as a pillar of rock called a stack (see the diagram
above). When a stack continuously attacks by waves it
reduces in size and height to form a stump.
Features or characteristics of stack and stump
a. A stack is separated from headland or mainland by a
narrow inlet
b. It rises steeply from the surrounding sea.
c. A stack is a coastal feature formed by wave erosion
especially hydraulic action and abrasion
d. When a stack reduces in size and height as a result of
wave erosion a stump is formed.
e. An example of stack is old man of toy in Orkey. Other
examples are needles in the Istle of height. In Ghana
include the stack in Axim and the Nkontompo stack in
Sekondi.
9. Sea Stump: When a stack reduces in size and height
as a result of wave erosion stump is formed. A sea stump
is formed when a tall sea stack is eroded and worn down
until it juts just above the surface of the sea.
Features or characteristics of stump
1. A stump is very close to the sea level and with time it
is completely removed by wave erosion.
10. A Bay, inlet or coves: It is a wide semi-circular inlet
along a shoreline. It can also be defined as a wide
indentation or project into the land of the sea. An inlet is
a narrow area of water that goes into the land from a sea
or lake. Or an opening through which air, gas, liquid can
enter.
Formation
It is formed by different wave erosion when alternative
layers of hard and soft rock (i.e. vertically along the
coastal, a combine activity of hydraulic action, abrasion
and solution may attack the rock layers.

Different erosion takes place; such that the soft layers are
easily and rapidly removed landwards sea water
advances to occupy it to for a bay. The intervening bands
of resistant rock, which are being worn back slowly
projects into the sea as headlands when the bay is worn
very deep inland, it becomes shattered and wave erosion
in the bay weakness.
Characteristics/ features of a bay
a. A bay is referred to as an inlet or cave
b. It is opening by which sea water penetrates or project
into the land.
c. It is formed by wave erosion especially and hydraulic
actions, where soft rocks alternate with hard rocks.
d. Bays alternate with headland.
e. Bays are made up of soft fewer resistant rocks.
f. They are wide and excellent for harbours. An example
of bay is the Swanage Bay in England.
Depositional Landforms
11. Sand spits: often have a curved or hooked end as a
secondary wind and wave direction curves the end of the
spit as waves strike from this second and different
direction. A series of such hooks can develop over time.
The spit creates an area of calmer water, sheltered by the
spit. A lagoon, salt marsh and finally dry land can
develop in this sheltered area.
A shoal is a natural submerged ridge, bank, or bar that
consists of, or is covered by, sand or other
unconsolidated material and rises from the bed of a body
of water to near the surface. It often refers to those
submerged ridges, banks, or bars that rise near enough to
the surface of a body of water as to constitute a danger to
navigation. Shoals are also known as sandbanks,
sandbars, or gravel bars. Two or more shoals that are
either separated by shared troughs or interconnected by
past or present sedimentary and hydrographic processes
are referred to as a shoal complex. Shoals can appear as
a coastal landform in the sea, where they are classified as
a type of ocean bank, or as fluvial landforms in rivers,
streams, and lakes. A shoal–sandbar may seasonally
separate a smaller body of water from the sea, such as:
➢ Marine lagoons
➢ Brackish water estuaries
➢ Freshwater seasonal stream and river mouths and
deltas.
➢ The term bar can apply to landform features spanning
a considerable range in size, from a length
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Principlesam Series
➢ of a few metres in a small stream to marine
depositions stretching for hundreds of kilometers along a
coastline, often called barrier islands.
12. Sand Bar: Sandbars, also known as a trough bars,
form where the waves are breaking, because the breaking
waves set up a shoreward current with a compensating
counter-current along the bottom. Sometimes this occurs
seaward of a trough (marine landform). Sand carried by
the offshore moving bottom current is deposited where
the current reaches the wave break. Other longshore bars
may lie further offshore, representing the break point of
even larger waves, or the break point at low tide.
Formation
A bar is created when there is a gap in the coastland with
water in it. This could be a bay or a natural hollow in the
coastland. The process of longshore drift occurs and this
carries material across the front of the bay. Material is
pushed up onto beaches at about 45 degree angle when
the swash brings it onto the coastline. The backwash
takes it back out towards the sea at a right angle to the
coast. Through this process material is constantly moved
along the coastline. The deposited material eventually
joins up with the other side of the bay and a strip of
deposited material blocks off the water in the bay. The
area behind the newly formed bar is known as a lagoon.
13. Tombolo (formation): A tombolo is formed when a
spit connects the mainland coast to an island. A spit is a
feature that is formed through deposition of material at
coastlines. The process of longshore drift occurs and this
moves material along the coastline. Material is pushed up
onto beaches at an angle when the swash brings it onto
the coastline at a 45 degree angle. The backwash takes it
back out towards the sea at a right angle to the coast.
Through this process material is constantly moved along
the coastline. When the coastline changes direction or
there is a river estuary the process of longshore drift
continues. This causes material to be deposited in a long
thin strip that is not attached to the coast and is known as
a spit. If this feature moves in the direction of island and
connects it to the mainland then it becomes a tombolo.
Depositional features produced by longshore drift
include spits, bars and tombolos. The main features of
coastal deposition are shown on the diagram below. The
diagram shows the building of a spit by longshore drift
across the mouth of a river.

Stages of formation:
➢ Sediment is transported by longshore drift
➢ Where the coastline changes direction, a shallow,
sheltered area allows for deposition of sediment
➢ Due to increased friction, more deposition occurs
➢ Eventually, a spit slowly builds up to sea level and
extends in length
➢ If the wind changes direction, then the wave pattern
alters and results in a hooked end
➢ The area behind the spit becomes sheltered
➢ Silts are deposited here to form salt marshes or mud
flats
Fig. 199: Formation of longshore drift showing Sand Spits,
Sand bar, and Tombolo
Harbour and river bars
A harbour or river bar is a sedimentary deposit formed at
a harbour entrance or river mouth by; the deposition of
freshwater sediment, or the action of waves on the sea
floor or up-current beaches. Where beaches are suitably
mobile, or the rivers suspended or bed loads are large
enough, deposition can build up a sandbar that
completely blocks a river mouth and damming the river.
It can be a seasonally natural process of aquatic ecology,
causing the formation of estuaries and wetlands in the
lower course of the river. This situation will persist until
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the bar is eroded by the sea, or the dammed river
develops sufficient head to break through the bar. The
formation of harbour bars can prevent access for boats
and shipping, this can be the result of:
➢ Construction up-coast or at the harbours, e.g.,
breakwaters, dune habitat destruction.
➢ Upriver development- e.g.: dams and reservoirs,
riparian zone destruction, river bank alterations, river
adjacent agricultural land practices, water diversions.
➢ Watershed erosion from habitat alterations- e.g.:
deforestation, wildfires, grading for development.
➢ Artificially created/deepened harbour s that require
periodic dredging maintenance. Nautical navigation
Conditions necessary for dam site construction
i. Adequate size water- light basin
ii. A narrow outlet of the basin with a foundation that
will permit economical construction of the dam
iii. To build on adequate and safe spilling to carry excess
water.
iv. Availability of resources needed for dam construction
(earthen dam)
v. Assurance that excessive deposition of mud and silt
will not short the life of the reservoir or dam.
Coastal Management and Marine Resources
Coastal Management: Global Challenges and
Innovations focuses on the resulting problems faced by
coastal areas in developing countries with a goal of
helping create updated management and tactical
approaches for researchers, field practitioners, planners
and policymakers. This topic gathers, compiles and
interprets recent developments, starting from paleo-
coastal climatic conditions, to current climatic conditions
that influence coastal resources.
The interface between land and ocean is one of the most
dynamic regions on the Earth’s surface (Harley et al.,
2011). Thus, coastal management and planning is crucial
to a sustainable and durable land use and to the appraisal
of this complex ecosystem. A systematic approach is
needed in order to assess and quantify the fluxes of
energy and sediment that are involved in such a
relentlessly changing area.
Coastal Zone Management
Inspired by the relatively easier stream catchment basin,
the coastal compartment concept tries to conceptualize
the energy and sediment fluxes interacting with the

compartment itself. The pioneering works appeared in
the USA (mainly California) around the end of the 1960s
(Sanderson and Eliot, 1999); a catalyst for further
conceptual developments like those of Davies (1974). In
this conceptualization of the headlands-embayment
system, balancing the coastal compartment sediment
equation means considering its sources and sinks, such
as:
- Onshore transport
- Offshore transport
- Longshore drift
- Deflation
- sinks (submarine canyons, tidal deltas, inlets, dunes)
- Internal biogenic production
- Human engineering activities (dredging, nourishment,
and mining)
Fig. 200: Coastal Management system
The agents of coastal management
This section gives an overview of the major natural
processes which need to be considered when assessing a
beach budget along the coasts of south east Australia and
beaches in Ghana as well.
1. Marine erosion: Today in south east Australia, it
contributes only 1-5% to the shore sediments because
embayment and headlands have different tempos during
which they evolve (Davies, 1976). In New South Wales,
the beaches near Seal Rocks integrate sand and shingle
eroded from a Pleistocene barrier truncated by marine
erosion (Bird, 2008).
2. Rivers contribution: Although through geological
time, rivers were the first sediment providers, nowadays,
in south eastern Australia only a few are significantly
contributing to the compartment, such as the Shoal haven
River (Davies, 1976). As Carvalho and Woodroffe
(2013) showed, the Shoal haven River mouth has been
open and closed following cycles of higher/lower river
depositional rates.
3. Onshore / offshore movement: Onshore
sedimentation is primarily driven by waves. The
sediment eroded from submerged geological outcrops or
collected from unconsolidated bottom deposits swashed
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into beaches from the sea floor (Short and Woodroffe,
2009; Bird, 2008).
Ways the ocean can be saved
Oceans cover 71 percent of the planet and are home to
important species and ecosystems that we rely on for
food, livelihoods, climate regulation and more. But the
oceans need our help. Saving the oceans can sometimes
feel like an overwhelming task, but if we all pitch in, we
can make a big difference.
i. Demand plastic-free alternatives: The oceans face a
massive and growing threat from plastics. An estimated
17.6 billion pounds of plastic leaks into the marine
environment from land-based sources every year, that is
roughly equivalent to dumping a garbage truck full of
plastic into our oceans every minute. And plastics
never go away! We therefore urge companies to provide
consumers with plastic-free alternatives and say no to
single use plastics such as straws, plastic cutlery, coffee
cups, water bottles, plastic bags, balloons, plastic-
wrapped produce and take-out food containers.
ii. Reduce in the Carbon footprint: Carbon dioxide, a
known greenhouse gas, is making our oceans more
acidic. This is contributing to the loss of corals on a
global scale as their calcium skeletons are weakened by
the increasing acidity of the water.
You can reduce your carbon footprint by adopting some
of these simple measures:
➢ Ride a bike, walk or use public transportation rather
than driving a car.
➢ Turn off the lights when you leave a room.
➢ Put on a sweater in the winter instead of turning up
your thermostat.
➢ Have some fun with your diet – buy sustainably
caught wild seafood. It is a renewable resource that
requires minimal freshwater to produce and emits less
carbon dioxide than land-based proteins like beef.
iv. Avoid ocean-harming products: There are many
products directly linked to harming endangered or
threatened species, unsustainable fishing methods and
pollution. For example, avoid cosmetics that
contain shark squalene, jewelry made of coral or sea
turtle shell, souvenir shells of conchs, nautiluses and
other animals, and single-use plastics like straws and
water bottles that can end up in our oceans. These
products support unsustainable fishing and threaten
important species and ecosystems.

v. Vote on ocean issues: Electing public officials that
support good ocean policies can help us protect marine
life and our oceans. Do your research on candidates and
make an informed decision, then exercise your right (and
responsibility) to vote. And do not let Election Day be
the last time they hear from you. Follow up with your
candidates and you care about.
Classical Models/Theories of Landscape Development
What are models? It is the creation of an idealised
representation of reality with the aim of revealing the
most important properties of that reality.
What are theories? It is an explanation of an event or
phenomenon based upon what is observed, but which has
not been proven.
Management of Coastal Erosion and Floods
To manage coastal erosion and floods, the following
must be considered
✓ The magnitude of the problem
✓ The causes
✓ The effects, that is, who and what are affected
✓ The strategies that must be put in place
Davisian Cycle of Erosion (The concept of
Peneplanation)
❖ This model of landscape development (Cycle of
Erosion was developed by William Morris Davis
between 1884 and 1899
❖ Davis considered that in a similar way to life forms,
landforms could be effectively analysed in terms of their
evolution
❖ He regarded landscape development as evolving
through a progressive sequence of stages each exhibiting
characteristic landform
❖ Erosion by streams in which series of stages in the
cycle of erosion are categorized by way of analogy to the
stages of human life as youth, matured and old age
❖ A rapid uplift is followed by progressive decline in
slope angles and stream gradients through time.
❖ This would ultimately result in the production of a
land surface with very low relief
❖ Such a surface he referred to as Peneplain hence the
concept of Peneplanation.
The Concept of Peneplanation
Peneplain (almost plain) refers to land worn down by
erosion almost to a level plain. It represents the final
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stage of erosion during times of extended tectonic
stability. Thus, the concept of Peneplanation was
developed by W. M. Davis, (1947) as part of Davisian
Cycle of Erosion. An initial uplifted relief will go
through series of stages as the youth, matured and old
age from high to low level gradient or relief called
peneplain. Thus the process of landscape development
characterised by declining surface gradient through time
is referred to as Peneplanation.
Fig. 201: Level of Peneplain surface
Fig. 202: Peneplain surface
Basic Assumptions of the Model
The theory has the following basic assumptions;
➢ Landform is a function of structure, process and
stage.
➢ The geologic history of the area must simple enough
to permit uninterrupted operation of the full cycle.
➢ The major geomorphological theory in this theory is
water
➢ The dominant mode of slope evolution is through the
process of slope decline and down-warping
➢ The theory is flexible and can accommodate changes
or interruption of the cycle.
Model Summary
➢ An uplifted landmass goes through erosional stages
of youthful, maturity, and old age which results in
progressive lowering by slope decline
➢ The uplift of a landmass is followed by period of
prolonged standstill in which there is no geologic or
tectonic movement until the cycle is completed
➢ The fluvial erosion by water is responsible for the
down wasting of land to base level. The cycle assumes
constancy of environment until the final product, the
peneplain, is produced

➢ The final product of the process is gentle undulating
featureless plain called a peneplain
Arguments (merits) infavour of the Davisian Concept
➢ Davis’ model of geographical cycle was highly
simple and applicable.
➢ His model was very detailed and based on careful
field observations.
➢ The theory was presented in a very lucid, compelling
and disarming manner.
➢ The theory filled a void by providing a theory that
complemented the doctrine of uniformitarianism
➢ The theory was a synthetisation of contemporary
geologic thought like base level grade level, consequent,
obsequent, profile or equilibrium, etc.
➢ It provided a basis for prediction of landscapes and
understanding denudation chronology
➢ It provided a rational approach which appeal to the
positivists
Arguments (demerits) against the Davisian Model
➢ Erosion is a continues process and never stops even
during periods of uplift, they go in paripassu.
➢ There was no logic in the assumption that flat slopes
are old and steep slopes are young
➢ His concept of upliftment is not acceptable, especially
as upliftment in plate tectonics is an exceedingly slow
and long continued process.
➢ An ideal cycle would take millions of years to
complete and the cycle may be interrupted by earth
movements.
➢ The theory had too much generalization which made
it an inadequate framework for landform interpretation.
➢ There is little evidence to prove that landforms
actually evolve to an end product or peneplain
➢ Most known plains are depositional plains, not
erosional.
➢ It appears Davis’ Model can be adopted in explaining
only certain types of landscape in the temperate
latitudes. It is therefore not universal hence concept of
Pediplanation.
➢ The mode of slope evolution may not always be by
slope decline.
➢ When the rock structure and other environmental
conditions are stable, most surfaces tend to evolve to a
state of equilibrium.
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L. C. King Model of Pediplanation
This model of landscape development involves scarp
recession. King owes much of his model to that of Davis
and Penck and was based on his observation of landscape
development in Southern Africa. King insisted that
pediments and scarp retreat are very active wherever
running water is responsible for shaping the surface.
Pediments (mountain front) are relatively flat surface of
bedrocks that occur at the base of a mountain. They are
very common in arid and semi-arid regions. Their
process of formation is called. It is denudation by scarp
retreat through lateral erosion. Streams from highlands
use their materials to undertake lateral corrosion. This
leads to the parallel recession of slopes at the scarp face.
As the slope surface retreats, it becomes more concave as
debris accumulates at the base. These low and gentle
sloping bare bedrock called pediments coalesce to form
Pediplain.
Basic Assumptions
➢ He replaced Davis’ concept of structure, process and
stage with process, structure and stage. He replaced
process first.
➢ New structures are developed from mature and old
surfaces following uplift and are separated by scarps.
➢ Residuals hills of the same rock as the surrounding
plains are left on the younger surfaces.
➢ Pediplains are formed by a combination of process,
structure, crustal movement and mass wasting.
➢ He envisaged parallel retreat as the mode of slope
evolution.
Model Summary
➢ King believed that an uplifted landmass may be
subjected to youth, maturity and age but that the old age
characterized by residual up land called Pediplains.
➢ Pediplains are formed by the combination of process
such as back wearing, parallel retreat and lateral
planation.
➢ That, slopes were wearing back not down
➢ He based his assumption on the works of Walther
Penck and his theory of parallel retreat by slopes.
➢ The primary agent of landscape development is again
running water.
➢ Pediments were formed by slope retreat (parallel
retreat).
Arguments against the pediplanation
➢ His concept was similar to that of Davis in adopting
the nomenclature of youth, maturity and old age.

➢ He was framed in the Davisian school which he
rejected.
➢ His model was limited to his tropical experience in
Africa.
➢ His claims of uniform development of landscape
under different environmental conditions were doubtful.
➢ Schools have rejected the universality of a Pediplains.
The Concept of Etchplanation
The model was propounded by a man called E.J.
Wayland in 1934 while working in Uganda, East Africa.
In his views, Peneplains suffer reworking especially in
the humid tropics with its attendant deep chemical
weathering and stripping. Hence, he introduced the term
etching, etchplains, and etchplanation.
Basic Assumptions
➢ The original peneplain is formed with a thick
weathered layer saprolite developed on it after some
time.
➢ There is uplift of the land intervening with subsequent
removal of the weathered mantle.
➢ Stability of the land followed with the development of
another deep saprolite which was subsequently removed.
Model Summary
➢ He recognized the existence of about five topographic
surfaces the uppermost which he called ‘etching’, By
‘etching’ , he meant the corroding of a surface through
the process of deep chemical weathering.
➢ The final product of the process is an etchplain and
the process is called etchplanation.
Arguments (merits) infavour of Etchplanation
➢ Wayland’s ideas have been used to explain erosion
surfaces in tropical areas characterized by deep chemical
weathering.
➢ Climate plays a dominant influence in his theory.
➢ He had a wide range of followership among tropical
geomorphologists.
➢ He introduced a new erosional surface different from
the peneplain and Pediplains.
Arguments (demerits) against etchplanation
➢ The concept seems to make sense only within the
context of Peneplanation.
➢ His concept appears to be applicable only within
Africa. It is seen as a tropical variant of Peneplanation.
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➢ He does not recognize the long-term effect of climate
change or tectonic movement.
➢ No applications for extra tropical areas offered and
so, explanations were considered of local importance
without universal application.
➢ The impact of this concept in geomorphology remains
limited even though it challenged the supremacy of
Davisian model.
The Concepts of isostasy and eustacy
Isostasy refers to a state of equilibrium or balance
existing in the crust such that equal mass underlies equal
surface area. The ideal condition of gravitational
equilibrium between the heights of continents and ocean
floors in accordance with the densities of their
underlying rocks is proposed by an American Geologist
Dutton in 1889. The continents are supposed to floats in
the Sima by displacing certain amount of Sima
equivalent to their volume so as to maintain equilibrium.
Conversely, if the surface accumulation is later removed
the region will tend to rise in a process called Isostatic
Rebound. It works by the Principle of Buoyancy ‘an
object will float in a fluid as long as its weight (specific
weight) per unit volume is less than that of the fluid’.
Thus, the volume of water displaced by a floating object
is the amount that has the same total weight as the object.
Isostasy thus works in a similar situation like the float of
an object such as log, canoe, etc. in water.
Fig. 203: Balance between oceanic and continental crust

Subsidence and uplift do not occur instantaneously
because flow within the Asthenosphere is only a few
centimetres (cm) per year. It is difficult to attain perfect
equilibrium due to the geological disturbances associated
with the earth.
Eustacy: Eustacy refers to a world-wide change in sea
level without any movement in the land itself. It is the
world-wide fall or rise in sea level resulting from the
withdrawal of large quantities of water to form ice-sheets
and ice-caps or return to the sea of melted water from
ice-sheets. Such major change occurred in the
Quaternary Period (Quaternary glaciations) especially in
the existing ice-fields such as Greenland, Northern
Europe, Siberia, Antarctica and ice-caps. One of the
hypothetical factors responsible for eustasy is the change
in the total volume of water in the ocean in the course of
the geological history of the earth, a change occurring as
a result of the evolution of the continents.
With respect to sea level change, the difference
between eustacy and isostasy
i. Eustacy and isostasy are ways of describing relative
sea level change which is a measure of changes in the
level (height) of the sea, relative to the land.
ii. Eustatic sea level change describes a change in
the volume of the sea in ocean basins. This is caused by
either a change in the amount of water in the basins (for
example, an addition of water from melting ice sheets) or
by a change in the size of the ocean basins (such the
formation of new continental crust, reducing the capacity
of the basins).
iii. Eustatic change causes a global rise or fall in sea
level.
iv. Isostatic Sea level change occurs due to the
movement of the land in relation to the sea in specific
areas and hence causes a local change in sea level.
v. Isostasy is a process by which the Earth’s crust
attempts to reach an equilibrium balance with the mantle
it is floating on. Hence isostatic sea level change occurs
when the Earth’s crust rises of falls relative to the sea,
often due to an increase or decrease of mass on top of the
crust.
vi. For example, during an ice age, the crust becomes
heavier due to the mass of ice on top of it, and sinks into
the mantle to remain buoyant and in equilibrium, leading
to an apparent increase in sea level relative to the land.
vii. When measuring change in sea level, both isostatic
and eustatic sea level changes must be taken into
consideration to measure the total amount of change.
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Glacioeustasy and glacioisostasy
Glacio-isostasy is crustal deformation resulting from the
build-up and decay of great ice sheets. The crustal
deformation varies with the rigidity of the crust. The
depression at one place must be compensated elsewhere,
and hence marginal displacement of the crust involving
upward bulging (forebulge) may be one aspect of this
compensation (Peltier, 1987). The distance between the
margin of the ice sheet to the fore-bulge depends on the
flexural parameter of the crust, or the amplitude of
bending of the lithosphere, which is mainly related to
lithospheric density, thickness and elasticity.
Glacio-isostatic recovery can be considered as a process
that accelerates rapidly and then slows gradually. Glacio-
isostatic recovery in response to deglaciation can be
subdivided into three phases (Andrews, 1970):
(1) Restrained rebound occurs beneath a thinning ice
sheet. This period is not recorded by direct sea-level data
because the area is covered by ice.
(2) Postglacial uplift is the rebound phase after
deglaciation. Relative sea-level variations can be
recorded by means of geomorphological and
sedimentological evidence.
(3) Residual uplift is the rebound that takes place several
thousand years after the region is deglaciated. Some
regions that were occupied by ice sheets during the last
ice age are still rising at present because of the long
response time of lithospheric recovery. In many areas
isostatic uplift is considered not to be complete.
Assignment 18
1. a) Explain the following landform features
i. waves
ii. coastline
iii. backwash
iv. swash
v. shoreline
vi. coast
b) Describe the two types of waves of the coast
c) With respect to sea level change, what is the difference
between eustacy and isostasy?
2. a) Describe the main differences between constructive
and destructive waves.
 Principlesam Series
b) Referring to a named stretch of coastline, explain how b) Explain the difference between isostatic and eustatic
marine, physical and human processes interact to sea level change.
produce a variety of landforms. c) For a named feature of coastal submergence, explain
3. a) Outline two of the processes by which coastlines its formation and usefulness to man.
are eroded.
b) Briefly outline the key stages in the formation of a 7. a) With the aid of annotated diagram, describe with at
stump. least three characteristics how each of these landforms
c) Explain how urbanization at the coast impacts on are produced
coastal processes. i. cliff
ii. wave-cut platform
4. a) Draw a fully labelled diagram to show the process iii. sea arc
of longshore drift. iv. a sea stump
b) Explain why many spits develop a curved end. v. tombolo and sand bar
c) For any named stretch of coastline evaluate the b) Outline four benefits of the coast to man.
success of the coastal management strategies adopted. c) State five ways the ocean can be saved from man
indiscriminate activities.
6. a) What is a coastal sediment budget?

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CHAPTER NINETEEN
ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARD AND RESOURCES
Environmental hazard is a substance, state or event 7. Another characteristic of a hazardous event is that it
which has the potential to threaten the surrounding may trigger other secondary hazards: e.g. an earthquake
natural environment or adversely affect people's health, causes landslides that cause floods
including pollution and natural disasters such as storms Examples of environmental hazards
and earthquakes. It can include any single or a) Outdoors
combination of toxic chemical, biological, or physical • Water
agents in the environment, resulting from human – Vehicle exhausts Pesticide and herbicide runoff
activities or natural processes, which may impact the – Industrial pollution Natural toxins
health of exposed subjects, including pollutants such as – Photochemical smog
heavy metals, pesticides, biological contaminants, and – Nitrates and fertilizer fun off
toxic waste, industrial and home chemicals. – Pesticide drift
Table 16: Classification of hazards – Dust and particulates
Natural Hazards (extreme geophysical and biological events) • Food
Geologic Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
1
– Smoke (including 2nd hand used vehicles)
landslides, avalanches
2 Atmospheric Cyclones, tornadoes, hail, ice and –Pesticide and herbicide residues
snow – Mercury, arsenic, and other heavy metals
3 Hydrologic River floods, coastal floods, drought b) Indoors
4 Biologic Epidemic diseases, wildfires – Radon
Technological Hazards (major accidents)
5 Transport accidents air crashes, train crashes, ship wrecks
– Lead
6 Industrial failures explosions and fires, release of toxic – Asbestos
or radioactive materials – Toxicants in plastics and consumer products
7 Unsafe public structural collapse, fire – Dust and particulates
buildings and
facilities
8 Hazardous materials storage, transport, miss-use Types of environmental hazards
Context hazards (global change) There two types of environmental hazards. they are
9 Climate change sea-level rise, frequency change of 1. Natural hazards are extreme natural events that can
extreme events cause loss of life, extreme damage to property and
10 Environmental deforestation, desertification, loss of disrupt human activities. Some natural hazards, such as
degradation natural resources
flooding, can happen anywhere in the world. Other
11 Land pressure intensive urbanization, concentration
natural hazards, such as tornadoes, can only happen in
of essential facilities
12 Super hazards Catastrophic Earth changes, impact
specific areas. And some hazards need climatic or
of near-Earth objects tectonic conditions to occur, for example tropical storms
or volcanic eruptions.
Hazardous characteristics: Six main characteristics
Types of natural hazard
can be defined.
Natural hazards can be placed into two categories -
1. Triggering factors
tectonic hazards and climatic hazards.
➢ Exogenic (on or above the surface)
a) Tectonic hazards occur when the Earth's crust
➢ Endogenic
moves. For example, when the plates move, friction can
➢ Man-made
cause them to become stuck. Tension builds until the
2. Spatial occurrence
plates release, which leads to an earthquake.
➢ Location
b) Climatic hazards occur when a region has certain
➢ Dimension
weather conditions, for example heavy rainfall can lead
3. Duration of the event
to flooding.
4. Time of onset
5. Frequency
2. Man-made Hazard: Man-made disasters have an
6. Magnitude / Intensity
element of human intent, negligence, or error involving
220

a failure of a man-made system, as opposed to natural
disasters resulting from natural hazards. Such man-made
disasters are crime, arson, civil disorder, terrorism, war,
biological/chemical threat, cyber-attacks, etc.
Examples of man-made hazards include:
➢ Airline disaster
➢ bush fire, deforestation, and using of atomic bombs
etc.
➢ Biological agents
➢ Disruptions in Services - Water, sewer,
communications, travel, etc.
➢ Hazardous materials - truck, rail, and pipeline
➢ Mass Gatherings
➢ Transportation - truck and rail
➢ Weapons of mass destruction
Examples of Environmental Hazards
➢ Pollution: This is the discharge of waste materials in
the environment which tarnish the image of the
environment, hence make the environment impure for
use.
➢ Earthquake: These are tremors and vibration within
the earth causing the earth surface to shake leading to
the destruction of buildings, roads, canals and railway
lines, gas pipe lines, causing fire outbreaks.
➢ Soil erosion: This is the removal of the top soil on
the earth surfaces by agents of erosion such as running
water, wind, and ice and wave action. This provides
little or no top soil for the cultivation of crops.
➢ Floods: This is where a water table is high springs
through river swells to overflow their banks spreading
over large area or terrain which result in loss of life and
properties.
➢ Deforestation: This is conscious destruction of the
vegetative nature of the environment. This can occur
through the activities of man and animals like cattle etc.
➢ Tornadoes, Hurricanes, Typhoons, Willie Willies
etc.: These are usual storms that hit areas destroying life
and properties.
➢ Tsunamis: These are high tidal waves that move at
the top speed landwards causing great damages on the
land.
➢ Bush fire: These are fire outbreaks resulting from
both natural or man activities which cause great damage
to large areas on the land.
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➢ Volcanic eruptions: A volcanic eruption is marked
by the discharge (aerially explosive) of fragmentary
ejecta, lava and gases from a volcanic vent. A volcano is
an opening, or rupture in the earth's surface that allows
hot magma, volcanic ash and gases to escape.
➢ Desert encroachment or desertification: This is the
period of desert or dry land climatic conditions to areas
that are forested. This is caused by human activities
such as indiscriminate cutting down of trees, bush fires
and poor farming techniques.
➢ Deforestation: This is the conscious destruction of
the vegetation by man and other animals in the
environment.
➢ Drought: This is prolonging dry season that leads to
the weathering of plants enhancing bush fires resulting
in famine which leads to diseases and deaths.
➢ Disaster: A serious disruption of the functioning of a
community or a society causing widespread human,
material, economic or environmental losses which
exceed the ability of the affected community or society
to cope using its own resources.
Desert encroachment
These are areas which are not desert but is either fast or
gradually changing to become desert. The following are
some of the areas: the Sahel regions of the Savannah,
North-East Nigeria, Niger Republic, the Savannah
region generally and the fingers of the desert e.g.
Namibia.
Causes of desertification
➢ Overgrazing of the forest and the Savannah lands
by livestock destroying the vegetative nature of the
environment making the land bare (denudation). The
destruction of the vegetation reduces the evapo-
transpiration rate reducing rainfall to create desert.
➢ Global climate change: The global warming caused
by the destruction of the ozone layer is increasing the
world temperature and reducing rainfall in a lot of
places producing deserts.
➢ Bush burning: This is where there is uncontrolled
setting of fire in the forest and savannah regions to clear
the land for farming, by hunters, palm wine tappers etc.
this practices can burn very large areas destroying the
vegetation of the area.
➢ Prolong drought: The prolong drought conditions
that result through the very time without rain can cause
a desert. This causes the vegetation to dry up and wither
and also water bodies to dry up producing aridity.

➢ Over cultivation: The area of land that is usually
overused for farming and other illegal means may lead
to the destruction of the land to cause balance. The
farming practices like bush fallowing and cultivation
involves continuous destruction of the vegetation. This
is because when the fertility of the land decreases a new
area is cleared for cultivation.
➢ Mining activities: When there is an open cast
mining, particularly ‘galamsay’ in the savannah lands,
accelerates desert encroachment. The vegetation and the
top soil are removed and the land becomes bare.
➢ Increased population: Livestock pressure on
marginal lands accelerates desertification.
Effects of desertification
i.Displacement of people and settlement: Due to the
shortage of water as a result of desertification
activities. The heat of aridity on deserts makes life
unbearable to mankind. This will then force people to
search for areas where there is water and to areas
where temperatures are favourable to them.
ii.Crop failure: Due to the absence of rain water
(drought), there is going to be a serious famine due to
crop failure. E.g. the areas like the oases may limit
farming to few areas hence reduces crop yield.
iii.Desertification reduces the land’s resilience to
natural climate variability: Soil, vegetation,
freshwater supplies, and other dry-land resources tend
to be resilient. They can eventually recover from
climatic disturbances, such as drought, and even from
human-induced impacts, such as overgrazing. When
land is degraded, however, this resilience is greatly
weakened, resulting in both physical and socio-
economic consequences.
iv.Soils unproductive: Soil becomes less productive
when exposed and eroded topsoil is blown away by the
wind or washed away by rainstorms. The soil’s
physical structure and biochemical composition can
then deteriorate as vital nutrients are removed by wind
or water. If the water table rises due to inadequate
drainage and poor irrigation practices, the soil can
become waterlogged, and salts may build up. When
soil is trampled and compacted by cattle, it can lose its
ability to support plant growth and to hold moisture,
resulting in increased evaporation and surface run-off.
The loss of vegetation cover is both a consequence and
a cause of land degradation. Loose soil can sandblast
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plants, bury them, or leave their roots dangerously
exposed.
v.Malnutrition, starvation, and ultimately famine
may result: Although famine typically occurs in areas
that also suffer from poverty, civil unrest, or war.
Drought and land degradation often help to trigger a
crisis, which is then made worse by poor food
distribution and the inability to buy what is available.
The relationship between soil degradation and crop
yields. Productivity is affected by many different
factors, such as the weather, disease and pests, farming
methods, and external markets and other economic
forces.
Mitigation measures to curb the spread of
desertification
1. Education: Proper education by EPA and other
environmentalists should do well to intensify their way
of educating people on the consequences of destroying
the environment such as;
➢ Integrating land and water management to protect
soils from erosion, salinization, and other forms
of degradation.
➢ Protecting the vegetative cover, this can be a major
instrument for soil conservation against wind and water
erosion.
➢ Integrating the use of land for grazing and farming
where conditions are favorable, allowing for a more
efficient cycling of nutrients within the agricultural
systems.
➢ Applying a combination of traditional practices with
locally acceptable and locally adapted land
use technologies.
➢ Giving local communities the capacity to
prevent desertification and to manage dry land resources
effectively.
➢ Turning to alternative livelihoods that do not depend
on traditional land uses, such as dry land aquaculture,
greenhouse agriculture and tourism related activities, is
less demanding on local land and natural resources, and
yet provides sustainable income .
➢ Creating economic opportunities in dry land at urban
centers and in areas outside of dry lands.
2. Afforestation and re-forestation: The government
or the community should embark on programme of
planting trees (afforestation). Also, there should be a

policy where trees are grown to replace the cut down
ones (re-forestation).
Afforestation and planting of soil binding grasses can
check soil erosion, floods and water logging.
3. Effective restoration practices: Effective restoration
and rehabilitation of decertified dry lands require a
combination of policies and technologies and the close
involvement of local communities. Examples of actions
to restore and rehabilitate ecosystems include:
➢ establishing seed banks
➢ reintroducing selected species
➢ countering erosion through terracing and other
measures
➢ enriching the soil with nutrients, and
➢ Planting trees.
➢ Policies that create incentives for rehabilitation
include capacity building, capital investment, and
supportive institutions.
4. Great green wall: Eleven countries in Sahel-Sahara
Africa- Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Sudan, Chad, Niger,
Nigeria, Mali, Burkina Faso, Mauritania and Senegal
have focused efforts to fight against land degradation
and revive native plant life to the landscape. The
initiative, managed in part by the Global Environment
Facility (GEF), plants a line of trees as a sustainable
way of regenerating the parkland and serves as an
example for other problematic locations.
5. Alternative farming and industrial
techniques: Alternative livelihoods that are less
demanding on local land and natural resource use, such
as dry land aquaculture for production of fish,
crustaceans and industrial compounds, limit
desertification.
6. Establish economic opportunities outside dry
land: Unpacking new possibilities for people to earn a
living, such as urban growth and infrastructure, could
relieve and shift pressures underlying the desertification
processes.
7. Crop rotation and mixed cropping improve the
fertility of the soil. It would increase production which
can sustain large population.
8. Salinity of the soil can be checked by improved
drainage. Saline soil can be recovered by leaching with
more water, particularly where water table of the ground
is not very high.
Flooding
It is an overflow of water that submerges land that is
usually dry? Floods are an area of study in the discipline
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of hydrology. They are the most common and
widespread natural severe weather event. Floods can
look very different because flooding covers anything
from a few inches of water to several feet. They can also
come on quickly or build gradually. To better answer
the question of “What is a flood?”
Areas of occurrence of flooding activities
- Flood plains of big rivers e.g. Rivers Nile, Nigeria, and
Benue
- Collapsed dam sites
- Low coastal areas
- Poorly drained areas
- Regions where water table is close to the surface
- Specific places e.g. the lower coastal areas of Rivers
State of Nigeria, etc.
- Deltaic areas
- Areas of heavy rainfall
Causes of flooding
1. Climate change; may also cause floods by shifting
the pattern of the jet stream. The Arctic is warming
faster than the temperate zones. This can change the air
pressure and turn the jet stream. When it plunges south,
it can pick up tropical moisture from the Gulf of Mexico
and dump it on the East Coast.
2. Higher temperatures also mean less snow and more
rain. One-sixth of the world's population relies on
snowmelt for its water supply. They expect slowly
melting snow to supply water at a steady pace. Instead,
they will receive buckets they are not prepared to store.
3. Along the shoreline, rising sea levels are making
floods worse. Consider these facts affecting Florida.
4. Global warming is causing more floods. As
temperatures rise, the air holds more moisture. Rainfall
becomes less frequent, creating droughts. At some
point, the skies release their moisture in a torrential
downpour. That creates floods. Instead of soaking into
the ground, the water runs on hard-packed earth that has
dried out during the drought.
Effects of flooding
1. Loss of life and property: Through flooding people
lost their lives and properties when they are displaced or
relocate to uncomfortable places unwillingly. Some
people die while their buildings, furniture and other
personal belongings are destroyed during flooding.
 Principlesam Series
2. It can reduce movement of people and vehicles: climate encroaching desert
change
Flooding block ways of passage by people and vehicles Dry land areas Human and Development of desert Maizels,
which impedes movement. natural like conditions and 1977
processes sustained decline in
3. Destruction of farm lands: Flooding destroy farm yield of major crops
lands near flood prone areas which can destroy the Warren
Arid, semiarid Human Change in the Mabbutt,
planted crops and harvested one as well, hence bring
and sub- action character of land to 1978
shortage of food and famine to the living persons. humid more desert
4. Spread of diseases: Diseases like water-bone are conditions,
impoverished
likely to occur through flooding. This can occurred by ecosystem (reduced
human excreta, chemicals that are newly spayed on our productivity), and
accelerated
food crops are many more filth or refuse (waste) are deterioration of soils
dumped in rivers, lakes and streams which most times and associated
livelihood systems
serves as source of drinking water to the living people. All terrestrial Human Reduced productivity Dregne,
5. Displacement of people and their settlement: ecosystems action of desirable plants, 1978
undesirable alterations
Flooding sometimes displaces people and resettles them in biomass and
to uncomfortable zones which bring them to homeless biodiversity,
accelerated soil
society. erosion and increased
hazards to human
occupancy
Mitigation measures to control flooding (Solutions)
Arid, semiarid Human Development of non- Ahmad
1. Building of defense walls: Every individual in the and sub- action and productive land and &
flood prone areas should try as much as possible to humid climatic reduced productivity Kassas,
variations 1987
build a defense wall to reduce excessive flooding. Arid, semiarid Human Sustained land Nelson,
2. Construction of gutters: Road contractors should do and sub- action degradation leading to 1988
humid decline in production
well to always create channels for water passage, hence potential that is not
reduces the excessive flooding in the areas of the plane readily reversible
Arid, semiarid Human Land degradation Dregne
lands. and dry sub- action et al.,
3. Public education of the effects (consequences) of humid 1991
Arid, semiarid Human Land degradation Maingue
flood: There must be intensive education both at and dry sub- action and t,
schools and radio, TV announcement to people to humid variations in 1994
Climate
understand the effects of flooding in the society.
Drought- Human Irreversible decrease UNCED,
4. Elaborating and enforcing laws against prone action and or destruction of the 1992
indiscriminate dump of refuse: Certain laws like the areas natural biological potential of
processes land and its ability to
pollutant pay police; other restricted legislation against support population
the victim of indiscriminate refuse dumpers to fines and
court suit will help reduce flooding. This will deter Land Degradation
many people from improper disposal of waste. Land degradation indicates temporary or permanent
5. Building of flood reservoir: Dams should be built to long-term decline in ecosystem function and productive
serves as flood reservoir, maintained and repaired capacity of the land.
regularly to reduce excessive flooding. ➢ Loss of natural fertility of soil because of loss of
6. Provision of more refuse bins: The government and nutrients.
other stakeholders of the day must provide enough dust ➢ Changes in the characteristic of soil
bins or containers and make sure they are placed in the ➢ Decline in vegetation cover
appropriate collection centers for proper disposal and ➢ Pollution of water resources from the contamination
accountability. of soil through which water sweeps into ground or
Table 17: Synthesis of desertification activities runoff to the water bodies.
Area of Causative Anticipated Impact Ref Changes in climatic conditions because of unbalanced
Applicability factors of Desertification
Arid and Human Spread of desert-like Rapp, created in the environment.
semiarid action or conditions, 1974
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Causes of land degradation land, water, biodiversity, and environmental concerns to
a) Natural meet rising food and fibre demands while sustaining
➢ Soil erosion by wind or water ecosystem services and livelihood (World Bank, 2006)
➢ Flood iii. Strip farming and Contour Farming
➢ Natural conditions e.g. soil type, topography (e.g. iv. Crop Rotation
steep gradient), weather/climatic conditions e.g. high v. Grass and Tree .planting
intensity rainfall, natural hazards vi. Soil/stone bunds (Use in dissipating the energy of
➢ Invasive species runoff and filter the soil transported)
➢ Drought i.e. precipitation is significantly lower than vii. Rainwater harvesting
average recorded levels for a prolonged period vii. Gully Rehabilitation (sandbag check dams,
➢ Climate Change brushwood check dams, retaining walls, reshaping of
gully sides, etc.)
b) Animal/human activities viii. Ecosystems services payments
i. Pollution ➢ Individuals
➢ Waste disposal ➢ Governments e.g. American Dust Bowl (paying
➢ Mining farmers to avoid farming on land with high degradation
➢ Acidic rains risk
ii. Population growth and urban expansion ➢ Education
iii. Unsustainable agricultural practices
➢ Demand for agricultural land
➢ Intensification of agriculture
➢ Overgrazing
Fig.204: land degradation and drought directly affect 1.5 billion
➢ Cultivation on the same farm people
vi. Deforestation (Clearance of tree cover)
Environmental Pollution: Pollution is the
Effects of land degradation contamination of the physical and biological
➢ Decline in the chemical, physical and/or biological components of the earth system to such an extent that
properties of soil (lower organic content and nutrient normal environmental processes are adversely affected
levels, salinization, pH changes in soil) (Kemp, 1998). The presence of substances and heat in
➢ Desertification environmental media (air, water, land) whose nature,
➢ Water Stress and Drought location, or quantity produces undesirable
➢ (Reduced availability of potable water, depletion of environmental effects (UN Environmental Glossary,
aquifers due to lack of recharge) 2015).
➢ Food insecurity and famine Environmental pollution consists of five basic types of
➢ Impacts on livestock and agriculture e.g. loss of pollution, namely, air, water, soil noise and radiation.
animals due to dehydration, reduced yields The substances that cause pollution are called
➢ 93% of world’s undernourishment can be attributed pollutants.
to LDD Air Pollution: Chemicals added to the atmosphere by
➢ Biodiversity loss natural events or human activities in high enough
➢ General reduction of the ability for the community to concentrations to be harmful. Atmospheric exposure to
depend on the natural environment for livelihood chemicals or particles, physical or biological
➢ Conflict over access to resources compounds which cause damage and harm to humans
➢ Mass migration and other organisms, or lead to damage to the natural
environment. It occurs when harmful levels of particular
Solutions to curb the spread of land degradation gases, fumes and toxins are released into the atmosphere
i. Community based approaches from human activities. The major contributors to air
ii. Sustainable land management: Is the combination pollution are vehicle exhaust fumes and industrial
of technologies, policies and practices that integrate combustion
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Two categories
Primary Air Pollutant: Harmful substance that is
emitted directly into the atmosphere
Secondary Air Pollutant: Harmful substance formed in
the atmosphere when a primary air pollutant reacts with
substances normally found in the atmosphere or with
other air pollutants
Sources or causes of air pollutants
i. Natural: forest fires, pollen, dust storm
ii. Unnatural: man-made; coal, wood and other fuels
used in cars, homes, and factories for energy
iii. Stationary and Area sources: factories, power
plants, dry cleaners and degreasing operations
iv. Mobile sources: on-road (vehicles) and non-road
(mowers, farm equipment, recreational vehicles)
Impacts or effects of air pollution
➢ Low level exposure
➢ Irritates eyes
➢ Causes inflammation of respiratory tract
➢ Can develop into chronic respiratory diseases
Urban air pollution
➢ Photochemical Smog
➢ Brownish-orange haze formed by chemical reactions
involving sunlight, nitrogen oxide, and hydrocarbons.
Effects of Primary Pollutants
➢ Carbon monoxide:
➢ Forms when carbon in fuels is not completely
burned
➢ When inhaled, CO enters the bloodstream
and binds to haemoglobin, the substance in blood
that carries oxygen to cells
➢ This disrupts the supply of oxygen to the
body’s organs and issues
Soil erosion
Soil erosion refers to the wearing away of a field's
topsoil by the natural physical forces of water and wind.
It can be a slow process. It is relatively unnoticed or can
occur at an alarming rate, causing serious loss of topsoil.
Soil compaction, low organic matter, loss of soil
structure, poor internal drainage, salinisation and soil
acidity problems are other serious soil degradation
conditions that can accelerate the soil erosion process.
Soil Erosion, whether it is by water, wind or tillage,
involves three distinct actions, soil detachment,
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movement and deposition. Accelerated erosion is
largely the consequence of human activity. The primary
causes are tillage, grazing, and cutting of timber. The
rate of erosion can be increased by activities other than
those of humans. Fire that destroys vegetation and
triggers erosion has the same effect. Here is a deeper
look at the causes and solutions to soil erosion;
Causes of soil erosion
i. Deforestation: Without plant cover, erosion can occur
and sweep the land into rivers. The agricultural plants
that often replace the trees cannot hold onto the soil and
many of these plants, such as coffee, cotton, palm oil,
soybean and wheat, can actually worsen soil erosion.
And as land loses its fertile soil, agricultural producers
move on, clear more forest and continue the cycle of
soil loss.
ii. Overgrazing: The conversion of natural ecosystems
to pasture land does not damage the land initially as
much as crop production, but this change in usage can
lead to high rates of erosion and loss of topsoil and
nutrients. Overgrazing can reduce ground cover,
enabling erosion and compaction of the land by wind
and rain. This reduces the ability for plants to grow and
water to penetrate, which harms soil microbes and
results in serious erosion of the land.
iii. Use of Agrochemicals: Pesticides and other
chemicals used on crop plants have helped farmers to
increase yields. Scientists have found out, that overuse
of some of these chemicals changes soil composition
and disrupt the balance of microorganisms in the soil.
This stimulates the growth of harmful bacteria at the
expense of beneficial kinds.
iv. Bad farming practices: Many farmers have practice
bad farming practices over years.
v. Mass-Wasting: Is the down-slope movement of rock
and sediments, mainly due to the force of gravity. Mass-
wasting is an important part of the erosional process, as
it moves material from higher elevations to lower
elevations where transporting agents like streams and
glaciers can then pick up the material and move it to
even lower elevations.
Solution to the control the spread of soil erosion
1. Use Soil-friendly agricultural practices: Terraced
farming needs to be implemented to make hillside
agriculture manageable. Terraces prevent erosion and
allow more water to flow to crops. In addition, hillside

farm fields need full crop cover to help keep the soil in
place. This can be accomplished by intercropping,
which means growing two crops together in the same
field, such as planting rows
of maize or soybean between rows of oil palm trees. For
smallholders, agroforestry systems where a diverse set
of crops, including trees, are grown together can be
effective. Access to manure improves the organic matter
of the soil, which inhibits erosion. Finally, alternating
deep-rooted and shallow-rooted crops improves soil
structure and reduces erosion at the same time.
2. Offer Incentives for land management: Although
the science of sustainable land management has been
gaining support, the socio-economic context often
makes implementation difficult. Sustainable land
practices need to be financially viable for farmers.
Governments and banks must help farmers get access to ii.Seasonal drought: This occurs seasonally such as
credit and support in implementing erosion prevention.
This is not only a good deal for the farmer, but for the
whole community.
3. Prevention and rehabilitation: The key to managing
and reducing soil erosion is to rehabilitate already-
damaged land, stop further degradation and put erosion-
preventative measures at the core of land management
policy. In this way, we can help prevent hunger and
mitigate the climate crisis.
Effects of environmental pollution;
(a) Pollutants are toxic and can kill aquatic plants and
animals. Example is sulphur dioxide.
(b) Toxic wastes can affect soils which can lead to
impairment of plant growth.
(c) It can decrease or increase the temperature.
(d) Pollutants can destroy goods e.g.; sulphur dioxide
destroys leather.
(e) Pollution can lead to chronic diseases such as
bronchial or lung cancer.
(f) It causes the destruction of the ozone layer.
(g) Pollutants cause acid rain which can destroy plants
and buildings.
(h) Pollutants form fog which reduces visibility and are
dangerous to air and motor traffic.
Drought
A drought is a period of drier-than-normal conditions
that results in water-related problems. The amount of
precipitation at a particular location varies from year to
year, but over a period of years, the average amount is
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fairly constant. In the deserts of the Southwest, the
average precipitation is less than 3 inches per year. In
contrast, the average precipitation in the Northwest is
more than 150 inches per year.
When little or no rain falls, soils can dry out and plants
can die. When rainfall is less than normal for a period of
weeks or years, stream flow decline, water levels in
lakes and reservoirs falls to a minimum form, and the
depth to water in wells increases. If dry weather persists
and water-supply problems develop, the dry period can
become a drought.
Nature/ types of droughts
i.Permanent drought: This occurred when vegetation
adapts to dry agricultural season that is impossible
without irrigation.
rainy and dry seasons.
iii.Unpredictable drought: This is belief to be irregular
dryness due to rain failure. It can occur in every
climate.
iv.Invisible drought: It is where higher temperatures
induce high rate of evapotranspiration.
Causes of drought
1) Land and water temperatures cause drought: As
overall temperatures increase more water evaporates
and severe weather conditions increase. Landscapes and
crops need more water to survive and overall, the
demand for water increases. This is why it is so
important to consider changes in Earth
Temperature when discussing water savings. You might
be using more water or less water depending on weather
conditions.
2) Air circulation and weather patterns also cause
drought: Key events like El Nino or La Nina help
contribute to drought in areas. All the water we ever had
we have today and it is stored in the air or on land.
Weather patterns move the water in the air around. This
is constantly changing.
3) Soil moisture levels also contribute to drought:
When soil moisture is depleted, there is less evaporation
of water to create clouds. Surface temperatures rise,
more water is needed and less is available which
contributes to a more severe drought.
4) Drought can also be a supply and demand of
water issue: When a region is growing rapidly the
demand for water can exceed the supply. When weather

conditions, temperatures or air patterns push a region
toward a drought the demand for water by people can
offset or worsen the situation depending on how the
region reacts. Excessive irrigation is an excellent of
people contributing to a drought.
5) Time: If the timing of water does not match the
agricultural season, it may have too much water when
they do not need it and too little when it need it. Proper
storage and collection of water is a key to counter
balancing this cycle and clearly in the scope of human
management. Severe droughts also impact the migration
of people. As countries continue to protect their natural
resources people will move to water. The amount and
timing of the movement can contribute to water issues
not previously felt before.
Effects of Drought
Drought can have many devastating effects on
communities and the surrounding environment.
1. The amount of devastation depends on the strength of
the drought and the length of time an area is considered
to be in drought conditions. Drought has greater impacts
on poorer communities than on more prosperous
communities who have better opportunities to bring in
resources from other areas. Drought, however, can be
very harsh on any type of community.
2. One impact of drought on communities is its effect on
water supply. When drought conditions persist with no
relief, or not enough precipitation to lift the drought
conditions, water restrictions are put into place by local
or state governments. This is important since
communities need to ration water consumption so that
the reservoirs and streams do not run too low on water
to meet the needs of utility companies and others who
use water as well as the local ecosystems.
3. Water restrictions are often provided in several
stages, depending on the severity of the drought. In
moderate to severe drought areas, water restrictions may
be put into place to limit whether or not communities
are able to wash their cars or water lawns. Sometimes
people are able to water their lawns at night because the
sun is not beating down and causing the water to
evaporate before the plants can absorb it. Water may
become especially polluted during times of drought due
to the lack of rain water to dilute industrial and
agricultural chemicals. This toxic water can be
harmful to plants and animals that use it and make it
difficult to clean for drinking water.
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4. A final impact of drought can be reduced electrical
generation. In the Southeast, most power generation
depends on the use of water for hydropower or coal-
burning and nuclear plants, so if water use is restricted,
then power plants may need to be shut down and more
expensive kinds of energy generation such as burning
natural gas may need to be used. This is particularly a
problem when the drought is accompanied by high
temperatures and increased demand for air conditioning.
Strategies to control drought
1. Construction of dams and canals
2. Cloud seeding
3. Desalination
4. Drought monitoring
5. Effective land used practices
6. Rain water harvesting
7. Recycle water
8. Tapping of ground water
9. Outdoor water use restrictions/ patronizing of water
Principles of pollution management
There are two main approaches to pollution
management:
• Pollution prevention: focuses on stopping pollution
being produced in the first place, or reducing any waste
generation at the source.
• Pollution control: those measures taken to control
pollution and wastes after they have been generated or
produced
Principles of pollution prevention
There are a number of principles of pollution
prevention; we will briefly discuss some of them.
q) Principle of waste optimization: The motto in this
principle is ‘Do not produce any waste; if this is not
possible, reduce or minimize waste generation as much
as possible’.
r) Polluter pays principle: This principle identifies the
people or organisations that generate or produce waste
or pollution as those who are accountable for any human
or ecological damage. They are responsible for paying
the costs of any damage. The principle is an economic
tool to enforce accountability and responsibility. Strict
standards for pollutant discharge permissions and
enforcing heavy taxation on products or waste handling
are ways of making the polluter pay.
s) Principle of ‘Cradle to Grave’: This principle
applies to the production of any object or to any activity

by an individual or institution and all the pollution that
object or activity might cause throughout its life cycle;
that is, from its ‘cradle’ to its ‘grave’. For example, if
you make a plastic bottle, pollution might be caused in
the manufacturing process; pollution is also caused by
the Lorries that transport the bottles around the country;
and pollution is caused when the bottle is thrown away.
All these aspects should be considered.
t) Precautionary principle: For any activity, there is
an obligation not to cause harm even when someone is
uncertain about the effect of the activity on humans and
the environment. Under this principle, you take
precautions to avoid environmental damage, even if you
are not certain that damage will result. The application
of waste minimization is an example.
u) Principle of duty of care: Any person or
organisation that produces waste, i.e., a waste generator,
has a citizenship and ethical obligation to handle their
waste properly. They have a duty to ensure that it does
not harm other people or the environment.
v) Principle of discharge/emission permit: A waste
generator has an obligation to obtain permission from
the regulatory authority in order to discharge waste to
surface water and to the atmosphere.
w) Sustainable development requires people to carry
out environmental mitigation (lessening the damaging
effects) for newly developed factories, dams, irrigation
schemes and other undertakings as prescribed by law.
Principle of the right to know: The public has the right
to information about pollution from a particular process.
Public participation at various stages of project
development avoids mistrust and the consequences of
ii.Hazard/risk analysis and evaluation: Here you would
conflicts of interest.
Pollution control
Pollution prevention through various applicable
principles and methods is not always possible and the
consequence is that some pollution is produced. If
iii.Communicate and consult: When the hazards and
pollution is produced, there should be some measures to
control it and minimize the effects on people and the
environment. The application of waste treatment before
disposal, restricting contact between the waste and the
public, and monitoring and evaluating the effect of the iv.Treat the hazard/risk: The interventions or control
waste on the immediate environment are some of the
intervention options in waste control. An environmental
v.Monitoring and reviewing: The implementation of
health hazard is anything in the environment that
endangers human health and life; there are various types
of environmental health hazard.
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1. Managing environmental health hazards requires
knowledge of environmental health hazard
identification, exposure conditions including the
pathways of the hazards and hazard controls or
interventions.
2. The principle of hazard management involves hazard
recognition, deeper analysis of the risk of the hazard and
the control or treatment and monitoring of the hazard.
3. Contamination and pollution are different;
uncertainty of damage is a characteristic of
contamination, while there is certainty of harm in the
case of pollution.
4. The environment has a natural self-cleaning process.
Pollution occurs when the self-cleaning process is
defeated. The consequence of water, air and soil
pollution is damage to the environment and to humans.
5. Pollution management is an extension of hazard
management with the focus on pollution prevention and
control. Pollution prevention and control principles
address various concepts including accountability,
responsibility, and economic and environmental
liability.
Principles of hazard management
Involvement in hazard management requires you to
follow certain steps, which are outlined below.
i.Establish the context and identify the hazard: These
are the first steps. You have learned that a hazard is
something that is harmful to our health. A description of
the categories of hazards is given in Section 2.2 above.
You should identify the type of the hazard in as much
detail as you can.
analyse the risk and evaluate the potential of the hazard
to cause damage to health. This step needs a deeper
appraisal in collaboration with
the woreda environmental health worker. The
evaluation may require appropriate design, sampling
and laboratory investigation.
risks have been determined, advice can be
communicated on the interventions or control measures
that are needed to control the hazard. There can also be
consultations with relevant people and organisations.
measures are carried out by the person or people
responsible for the hazard or risk.
interventions or control measures for the hazard must be
followed up in order to determine whether they are
successful. Correction measures can be applied if there

is any failure. Identifying appropriate indicators for
monitoring is critical and must be done formally.
vi.Record keeping: Keeping records and reports on
hazard management is always important. These records
must contain the type of hazard, exposures and what
control measures were taken.
Environmental Resources
Environmental resources are resources that have
intrinsic value of their own or are of value for the
longer-term sustainability and use by humans. Social
and human resources are defined in terms of density of
population groups, their occupational activities, their
land rights, their source of income, their standard of
livings, gender aspects, etc. one of the major global
problems is that the present rate of global resources
utilization forever increasing population raises the
demand for sufficient resources to meet the demands for
future generation.An environmental resource is any
material, service, or information from the environment
that is valuable to society. Clean land, air, and water
are environmental resources, as are the abilities of land,
air, and water to absorb society's waste products. Here
we describe four types of human, environmental and
natural resources in collective terms. Environmental
resources can be classified as renewable, non-
renewable and continuous. Renewable environmental
resources are those which are, or can be, renewed
within a relatively short time, for example, water
through the water cycle; and plants, animals and marine
life through reproduction
1. Natural Resources
2. Man-made Resources
1. Natural resources: Natural resources are materials
or substances occurring in nature which can be
exploited for economic gain. E.g.: air, water, wood, oil,
wind energy, iron and coal. Refined oil and hydro-
electric energy are not natural resources because people
make them. There are two types of natural resources
Renewable resources and Nonrenewable resources
a) Renewable resources: Renewable resource (infinite
resources) that can be refilled in a short period of time.
E.g.: Solar Geothermal (energy from earth’s heat) Wind,
Biomass (energy from burning organic or living matter),
Water or Hydroelectric (energy from the flow of water)
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b) Nonrenewable resources: Non-renewable resource
is a natural resource that cannot be re-made or re-grown
at a scale comparable to its consumption.
c) Continuous Resources are available and cannot be
degraded even with gross mismanagement. For
example, solar energy, wind, gravity, tidal energy and
geothermal energy are good examples.
2. Man-made Resources: Defined as a resource created
by humans. “Man-made resources are items or
substances that have value to human lives that do not
occur in the natural world” E.g.: Museum Botanical
garden, Buildings, Hospitals, Krishibhavans, and
Research centers Zoo.
3. Extrinsic Resources are prone to breakdown or
degradation, yet are available continuously if managed
properly for example, human skill, institutions
‟management abilities, etc.
Categories of environmental resources under the
natural resources
a. Water resources
b. Atmospheric resources
c. Mineral resources
d. Land resources
e. Vegetation resources; and
f. Human resources
a. Water resources are natural resources of water that
are potentially useful. The uses of water include
agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and
environmental activities. All living things require water to
grow and reproduce.97% of the water on the Earth is salt
water and only three percent is fresh water; slightly over
two thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps.
Uses of water resources
1. Agriculture: It is estimated that 70% of worldwide
water is used for irrigation, with 15–35% of irrigation
withdrawals being unsustainable. It takes around 2,000 -
3,000 litres of water to produce enough food to satisfy
one person's daily dietary need. This is a considerable
amount, when compared to that required for drinking,
which is between two and five litres. To produce food
for the now over 7 billion people who inhabit the planet
today requires the water that would fill a canal ten
meters deep, 100 meters wide and 2100 kilometers long.

2. Industries: It is estimated that 22% of worldwide
water is used in industry. Major industrial users
include hydroelectric dams, thermoelectric power
plants, which use water for cooling, ore and oil
refineries, which use water in chemical processes, and
manufacturing plants, which use water as a solvent.
Water withdrawal can be very high for certain
industries, but consumption is generally much lower
than that of agriculture.
4. Domestic use (household): Drinking water. It is
estimated that 8% of worldwide water use is for
domestic purposes. These include drinking water,
bathing, cooking water toilet flushing, cleaning, laundry
and gardening. Basic domestic water requirements have
been estimated by Peter Gleick at around 50 liters per
person per day, excluding water for gardens.
5. Recreation: Whitewater rapids Sustainable
management of water resources (including provision of
safe and reliable supplies for drinking water and
irrigation, adequate sanitation, protection of aquatic
ecosystems, and flood protection) poses enormous
challenges in many parts of the world.
Recreational water use is usually a very small but
growing percentage of total water use. Recreational
water use is mostly tied to reservoirs. If a reservoir is
kept fuller than it would otherwise be for recreation,
then the water retained could be categorized as
recreational usage. Release of water from a few
reservoirs is also timed to enhance whitewater boating,
which also could be considered a recreational usage.
Other examples are anglers, water skiers, nature
enthusiasts and swimmers.
6. Environment: Explicit environment water use is also
a very small but growing percentage of total water use.
Environmental water may include water stored in
impoundments and released for environmental purposes
(held environmental water), but more often is water
retained in waterways through regulatory limits of
abstraction. Environmental water usage includes
watering of natural or artificial wetlands, artificial lakes
intended to create wildlife habitat, fish ladders, and
water releases from reservoirs timed to help fish spawn,
or to restore more natural flow regimes.
Ways of preserving water
1. Turn off the taps: Don't let your
water consumption run out of control. Save 6 litres of
water a minute by turning off your tap while you brush
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your teeth. Fix leaky taps too, and stop what could be
60 litres of water going straight down the drain every
week.
2. Quality and seasonal eating: Rearing animals for
meat and dairy and harvesting crops like avocado at a
large and unsustainable scale is incredibly water-
intensive. By cutting down on meat and dairy and
eating seasonal vegetables you'll be helping to conserve
water.
3. Shower with less: Every minute you spend in a
power shower uses up to 17 litres of water . Set a timer
on your phone to keep your showers short, sweet and
water-saving.
Switching to an efficient shower head will allow you to
lather up in less water, which means it will save water
and cut your bills.
4. Washing a full machine load of clothes uses less
water and energy than two and half-loads .This means
lower bills as well.
5. Boil what you need: Save water, money and energy
by only boiling as many cups of water as you need.
4. Steam your veggies: Steam your food to cut water
usage and retain more of the natural nutrients.
If you do boil, try using the leftover water as a tasty
stock for soups. Or let it cool and use it to water plants.
5. Reduce food waste: It takes a lot of water to produce
our cereal, fruit and other food. Get some handy advice
from Love Food Hate Waste , or get inspired by high-
tech solutions to food waste from around the world.
6. Time your gardening: Water outdoor plants in the
early morning or at the end of the day to stop water
immediately evaporating in sunlight and heat. Water the
soil so that the liquid goes straight to the roots, where it
is needed. In a heat wave, animals need water too.
7. Catch rainwater: Installing water butts saves up to
5,000 litres of water a year. And your plants will thank
you for rainwater rather than treated tap water.
You can also cut water use by 33% by watering plants
manually instead of using automatic sprinklers.
8. Put pressure on government: Around the world,
governments can also help to save fresh water and
prevent water pollution by;
➢ measuring water use and setting targets to reduce it
➢ obliging large companies to measure and manage
the amount of resources they use
➢ encouraging lower water diets – including reduced
meat consumption

➢ supporting industry to make water-intensive products
last longer
➢ providing consumers with the tools to understand the
water impacts of the things they buy
➢ making laws to increase water recycling
➢ Preventing people and companies from polluting
waterways by making laws against using toxic
chemicals which could pollute our soils.
Challenges and treats in economic consideration
Water supply and sanitation require a huge amount of
capital investment in infrastructure such as pipe
networks, pumping stations and water treatment works.
It is estimated that Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development (OECD) nations need to
invest at least US$200 billion per year to replace aging
water infrastructure to guarantee supply, reduce leakage
rates and protect water quality.
b. Atmospheric resources: Atmospheric resources are
resources found in the atmosphere which are of benefit
to man, animals, and plants. These resources include
wind, water, sunlight, and gases like nitrogen, oxygen,
carbon dioxide and ozone.
Types of atmospheric resources
Atmospheric gases: oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
water vapour, ozone layer, neon, etc.
i. Oxygen (Importance):
✓ Oxygen is used by plants and animals for respiration
✓ It also supports burning of materials (i.e.
combustion)
✓ Oxygen supports animal life.
✓ Oxygen combines with water vapour for chemical
weathering.
✓ Oxygen is also used for industrial purpose
ii. Carbon Dioxide (Importance):
✓ It is required by plants for photosynthesis
✓ Carbon dioxide combines with water to
produce weathering (carbonation)
✓ Green plants take in carbon dioxide
✓ Carbon dioxide absorbs heat to control atmosphere
temperature in the carbon
iii. Nitrogen
Nitrogen cycle:
➢ Bacteria or lightning convert free nitrogen from the
atmosphere into nitrates.
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➢ Nitrates combine with soil and are absorbed by plants
to produce proteins.
➢ Plant and animal proteins are converted into amino
acids and ammonia.
➢ Ammonia is converted into nitrates, and these nitrates
and nitrites in the soil are then acted upon by another
group of bacteria known as denitrifying bacteria.
Denitrification is the process by which nitrates are
converted into free nitrogen and released back into the
atmosphere.
The nitrogen cycle is comprised of the following terms:
1. Nitrogen fixation: Plants cannot use free nitrogen
present in the air. This nitrogen molecule is broken
down into nitrates and nitrites, which can then be taken
up and used to create the necessary molecule. This is
known as nitrogen fixation, and it can be accomplished
by bacteria that live in the root nodules of leguminous
plants. During the physical process of lightning, high
temperatures and pressures are created in the air,
converting nitrogen into oxides of nitrogen, which
dissolve in water and fall as rain. This is also known as
nitrification.
2. Ammonization: Plants use the nitrogen compounds
formed to form proteins, which are then converted into
ammonia.
3. Nitrification: Nitrogen nitrates and nitrites are acted
upon by other microbes, such as Pseudomonas bacteria,
which convert these compounds into free nitrogen gas.
Importance
✓ Nitrogen is required by plants for the manufacturing
of protein
✓ It combines with water to provide food for plant
growth.
✓ Nitrogen in soil can be converted to nitrate in the soil
✓ Nitrogen gas is used in electrical industry
✓ Ozone (Importance):
✓ It acts as a blanket to the earth
✓ It protects the earth from the ultra-violet rays
✓ It protects the earth and its living things from the
effects of the ultra-violet rays such as skin irritation and
cancer.
Human impact on the atmosphere
Humans impact the physical environment in many
ways:
1. Greenhouse gases: Greenhouse gases, such as
carbon dioxide and methane, contribute to the
greenhouse effect, which causes the atmosphere to trap
heat, making temperatures rise in the oceans and on the

planet. According to the U.S. National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, the concentrations of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere have increased by 38
percent since 1750, while methane concentrations have
gone up 148 percent during the same period.
2. Depleted ozone layer: The ozone layer, a protective
covering of the atmosphere, helps to block ultraviolet
radiation. In May of 1985, scientists from the British
Antarctic Survey discovered that something was
destroying ozone molecules above Antarctica. Study of
the problem traced the destruction to
chlorofluorocarbons and other ozone-depleting
chemicals, and in 1987, countries around the world
signed the Montreal Protocol to discontinue the use of
CFCs.
3. Air pollution: Humans also affect the atmosphere
locally through air pollution. Compounds released by
fossil fuel combustion often create ozone molecules at
the ground level. This poses a threat to people with
breathing difficulties, and can damage the lungs with
long-term exposure. The EPA regularly publishes air
quality alerts for affected areas, and advises people
with breathing difficulties or environmental
sensitivities to stay inside on days where ozone
concentrations are highest.
a) Long-term effects: Even after banning certain
chemicals or cleaning up the air, it will take some time
for the atmosphere to heal. Even though CFCs were
banned in the U.S. in 1985, their molecules live a long
time in the atmosphere. The British Antarctic Survey
estimates that the hole in the ozone layer may take as
many as 50 years to disappear, provided no new threats
to the ozone come into play.
b) overpopulation
c) pollution
d) burning fossil fuels, and
e) Deforestation.
Importance of the atmosphere
1. The atmosphere protects living things from the Sun's
most harmful rays. Gases reflect or absorb the strongest
rays of sunlight. The atmosphere shields Earth from the
most harmful solar rays.
2. Weather and water: The atmosphere also serve an
important purpose as a medium for the movement of
water. Vapor evaporates out of oceans, condenses as it
cools and falls as rain, providing life-giving moisture
to otherwise dry areas of the continents.
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3. Protection: The atmosphere blocks out harmful rays
from the sun.
4. Water. The Earth's atmosphere contains water
5. Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide. Life on Earth needs the
atmosphere to breath
6. Other Benefits: The atmosphere contains a large
amount of nitrogen.
Actions required globally to continue the recovery of
the ozone layer are:
➢ Ensuring that existing restrictions on ozone-depleting
substances are properly implemented and global use of
ozone-depleting substances continue to be reduced.
➢ Ensuring that banks of ozone-depleting substances
(both in storage and contained in existing equipment)
are dealt with in an environmentally-friendly manner
and are replaced with climate-friendly alternatives.
➢ Ensuring that permitted uses of ozone-depleting
substances are not diverted to illegal uses.
➢ Reducing use of ozone-depleting substances in
applications that are not considered as consumption
under the Montreal Protocol.
➢ Ensuring that no new chemicals or technologies
emerge that could pose new threats to the ozone layer
(e.g. very short-lived substances).
c. Mineral resource: A 'Mineral Resource' is a
concentration or occurrence of material of intrinsic
economic interest in or on the earth's crust in such form,
quality and quantity that there are reasonable prospects
for eventual economic extraction. Mineral Resources are
further sub-divided, in order of increasing geological
confidence, into inferred, indicated and measured as
categories.
Types of Mineral Resources
Minerals in general have been categorized into three
classes’ fuel, metallic and non-metallic. Fuel minerals
like coal, oil and natural gas have been given prime
importance as they account for nearly 87% of the value
of mineral production whereas metallic and non-
metallic constitutes 6 to 7%.
(a) Fuel Minerals: Coal, oil and natural gas are the
basic fossil fuel. We have good reserves for coal but are
very poor in more essential fuel, oils and natural gas.
1.Fuel Minerals: Mineral fuels, such as coal and
petroleum, are organic in nature and generated from
buried animal and plant life. They go by the name of
fossil fuels as well.
 Principlesam Series
2.Other Non-metallic Minerals: Other non-metallic non-metallic minerals, based on their place of origin.
minerals, like mica, limestone, and graphite, are India is blessed with several non-metallic minerals, but
inorganic in nature. only a small number of them are significant from an
3. Crude oil (Petroleum): It is believed that petroleum economic standpoint. They are gypsum, phosphate,
has been formed over a period of millions of years, kyanite, sillimanite, dolomite, limestone, and mica.
through conversion of remains of microorganisms living Many different sectors, including those that produce
in sea, into hydrocarbons by heat, pressure and catalytic cement, fertilizer, refractories, and electrical items,
action. The petroleum on fractional distillation and employ these minerals.
further processing provides us numerous products and
by-products. Characteristics of Non-metallic Mineral Resources
4. Natural gas: The proven reserve for natural gas on i. Minerals appear with a non-metallic shine or lustre
April 1993 works out to be approximately 700 billion ii. Do not contain extractable metals in their chemical
cubic meters (BCM). As regard to production Visa Vis composition
utilization aspect in earlier years, more than half of gas Characteristics of Minerals:
coming out of the wells remained unutilized. A mineral's fundamental qualities include the following:
b) Metallic Minerals: Metallic minerals serve as a solid i.The mineral crystal structure is clearly defined.
foundation for the growth of the metallurgical industry. ii.They have a definite chemical composition.
This group includes materials that generate metal, such iii.They are naturally occurring.
as iron ore and bauxite. Metallic minerals have an iv.They are formed by inorganic methods.
outward appearance of metallic lustre or shine. v.They are solid in nature.
A rock must exhibit at least three of these qualities in
Ferrous and non-ferrous metallic minerals are order to be considered a mineral.
subcategories of metallic minerals. i.Other properties of minerals include their irregular
i.Ferrous: Ferrous minerals refer to all minerals that spatial distribution.
include iron. Examples of ferrous minerals include ii.Mineral quality and quantity are inversely correlated,
chromites, iron ore, and manganese. About three-fourths meaning that high-quality minerals are rarer than low-
of the value of all metallic mineral production is made up quality minerals.
of ferrous minerals. These minerals offer a solid iii.All minerals eventually become depleted.
foundation for the growth of the metallurgical industries, Geologically speaking, minerals take a very long
especially those producing iron, steel, and alloys. In period to produce, and they cannot be instantly
terms of ferrous mineral reserves and output, India is in a replaced when needed.
good position. Table 18: Categories of Coal
ii.Non-ferrous: Iron-free minerals are referred to as non- Type %Carbon % Volatile %
ferrous minerals. Non-ferrous minerals include copper, Matter Moisture
Lignite 38 19 43
bauxite, and others. Except for bauxite, India has little Bituminous 65 10 25
access to non-ferrous metallic minerals. Anthracite 96 1 3
Characteristics of Metallic Minerals
i. Metallic Minerals show a metallic shine in their
appearance.
ii. The potential source of the metal can be got through
mining.
iii. Contains metals in their chemical composition.
iv. Metallic minerals contain metal in raw form.

c) Non-Metallic Minerals: Non-metallic minerals lack

extractable metals in their chemical makeup and can
either be of organic or inorganic origin. They are further Fig. 205: Fractional Distillation Tower
divided into two groups, namely mineral fuel and other
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Some important minerals:
Iron ore: Iron ore resources are fairly numerous in India,
and the ore is of very high grade with an iron content of
more than 60%. Haematite, magnetite, and limonite make
up the three main forms of iron ore found in the nation.
Types Iron ore Iron content
Hematite (red ore) 68%
Magnetite (black ore) 60%
Limonite (Yellow ore) 35% -50%
i.The districts of Anantapur, Khammam, Krishna,
Kurnool, Cuddapah, and Nellore are among those in
Andhra Pradesh that have iron ore reserves.
ii. Additionally, the states of Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and vi.The majority of India's bauxite is produced in Odisha.
Tamil Nadu contain some deposits. Particularly for
export purposes, the mines at Bailadila, Rajhara, and
Kiruburu in Chhattisgarh and Odisha are being
developed.
iii. Although Goa's ore is of lower quality, it nevertheless
makes an impressive contribution to the nation's
overall production. From Mormugao Port, about all
of Goa's iron production is shipped to Japan.
Manganese:
i.Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and
Andhra Pradesh are the key production regions. A belt
extending from the Maharashtra districts of Nagpur and
Bhandara to the Madhya Pradesh districts of Balaghat
and Chhindwara has more than 78 percent of India's
total manganese ore deposits.
ii.The largest producer of manganese in the nation is
Madhya Pradesh i.e; accounts for 33% of all production
nationwide.
iii.Sundargarh, Rayagada, Bolangir, Keonjhar, Jajpur,
Mayurbhanj, Koraput, Kalahandi, and Bolangir are the
significant mining regions.
iv.Another significant producer in the nation, Karnataka
contributes 26% of the overall output and has mines in
Dharwad, Ballari, Belagavi, North Canara,
Chikkmagaluru, Shivamogga, Chitradurga, and
Tumkur.
v.Manganese, which is mined in the districts of Nagpur,
Bhandara, and Ratnagiri, is another key mineral
produced in Maharashtra.
Bauxite:
i.A non-ferrous metallic material called bauxite is used
to make aluminium.
Principlesam Series
ii.Laterite rocks are related to bauxite, which is typically
found in tertiary deposits.
iii.Bauxite is widely distributed throughout peninsular
India's plateaus and hill ranges, as well as in the
nation's coastal regions. India has enough bauxite
deposits to maintain its independence.
iv.Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Goa,
and Uttar Pradesh all have significant reserves.
v.Significant bauxite resources have been found in the
Eastern Ghats of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu's Salem, Nilgiri, and Madurai districts, and Uttar
Pradesh's Banda area.
States Region
Gujrat Bhavnagar, Junagadh and Amreli
Jharkhand Palamau, Ranchi and Lohardaga districts
Chhattisgarh Surguja, Raigarh and Bilaspur in
Amarkantak plateau
Madhya Pradesh Mandla, Shahdol and Balaghat and Katni
district
Karnataka North-western parts of Belgaum district
Maharashtra Kolhapur, Raigarh, Thana, Satara and
Ratnagiri districts
Copper:
i.For the manufacture of cables, electric motors,
transformers, and generators, copper is a crucial metal in
the electrical sector.
ii.In terms of copper reserves and production, India is a
developing nation. Major copper ore resources can be
found in the districts of Jhunjhunu, Alwar (Rajasthan)
Balaghat (Madhya Pradesh), and Singhbhum in
Jharkhand.
iii.Gujarat, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
Sikkim, Meghalaya, Maharashtra, and West Bengal all
have modest deposits. India's largest copper producer is
Madhya Pradesh.
iv.The Khetri-Singhana belt in the Jhunjhunu district is the
most significant copper-producing area in Rajasthan,
which is the second-largest producing state in India.
v.India must buy copper from other countries since
domestic production of copper ore never meets our
needs. Most imports are made in the United States,
Canada, Zimbabwe, Japan, and Mexico.
Mica:
i. The electronic and electrical sectors use mica
primarily.
ii. It may be divided into incredibly thin, resilient sheets.
The largest producer of sheet mica is India.
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iii. India has a large amount of mica, but only three major
belts—the states of Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Bihar,
and Rajasthan—have usable reserves.
iv. The states of Bihar and Jharkhand are blessed with
excellent ruby mica.
v. In Bihar, the districts of Gaya, Munger, and Bhagalpur
are rich in mica deposits.
vi. The primary mica belt in Jharkhand is located in the
districts of Dhanbad, Palamau, Hazaribagh, Ranchi,
and Singhbhum.
vii. The best mica is made in Andhra Pradesh's Nellore
district. The mica belt in Rajasthan stretches from
Jaipur to Bhilwara and includes Udaipur.
Gold:
i.Auriferous lodes contain the precious metal gold, which
is found there.
ii.In addition to being utilized as a kind of cash
internationally, it is used to make ornaments.
iii. There are three gold fields in the nation: Ramgiri Gold
Field in Anantapur District, Kolar Gold Field in Kolar
District, and Hutti Gold Field in Raichur District (all in
Karnataka) (Andhra Pradesh). India's top gold-producing
state is Karnataka. The Kolar Gold Field contains gold
resources across an area of around 80 km2. The region is
still India's main source of gold exports. One of the
world's deepest mines is Kolar Gold Fields.
Uses of mineral resources:
i.Both industrialized and developing nations make
extensive use of minerals.
ii.Sand, gravel, brick clay, and crushed rock aggregates are
all considered construction minerals. They are employed
in the creation of concrete, bricks, and pipes as well as in
the construction of homes and roadways.
iii. Non-metallic industrial minerals are utilized in a
variety of industrial processes, such as the production of
chemicals, glass, fertilizers, and fillers for paper, plastics,
and pharmaceuticals. Salt, clays, limestone, silica sand,
phosphate rock, talc, and mica are examples of industrial
minerals.
Man-Made Resources: When humans use natural things
to make something new that provides utility and value to
our lives, it is called human-made resources. For instance,
when we use metals, wood, cement, sand, and solar
energy to make buildings, machinery, vehicles, bridges,
roads, etc. they become man-made resources. Likewise,
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Principlesam Series
technology is also a man-made resource. Man-made
resources are mostly renewable.
Conservation of Mineral Resources
Here are some measures to conserve minerals:
i. Use of minerals in a planned and sustainable manner.
ii. Recycling of metals
iii. Use of alternative renewable substitutes.
iv. Technology should be improved to use the low-grade
ores profitably.
e. Vegetation resource: Vegetation provides habitat to
wildlife and ecosystem services such as food and fuel
and many other products to humans. Vegetation defines
landscapes in people's minds, and is an essential
component of any biome or environment. Vegetation
has large sections of two of the earth's biomes: the taiga
and the tundra.
Types of forest vegetation
Forest includes the rainforest, mangrove forest,
Mediterranean forest, monsoon forest and coniferous
forest.
Uses of vegetation resources
1. It is helpful for timber construction: Vegetative
products or materials are fine for timber harvest.
Commercial trees like mahogany, Wawa, odum, teak
and fir are gotten from the rainforest, monsoon forest
and Mediterranean forest respectively.
3. For medicinal purpose: Plants leaves, roots and
barks are useful for the preparation of local and
international herbs.
4. Protection of watercourse: Trees are used to protect
streams, lakes and large water bodies during the period
of long time drought or inadequate rain water.
5. Protections to soil: Many trees in the forest regions
serve as erosion prevention measures, especially their
roots and leaves protect the soil from wind and water
erosion.
6. Serves as tourist attraction: Forest regions and
game reserves attract tourist. Tourism helps countries to
get more foreign exchange for development.
7. Fuel: Firewood is gotten from forest trees, also
charcoal are the forest regions from every nation or
state.
Assignment 19
1. a) Write a geographical account of flooding in urban
areas under the following headings:

i. four causes;
ii. three effects;
iii. four measures that can be used to control the
flooding.
b) What is the best benefit of wind power?
2. a) Explain overgrazing. What are the changes caused
due to overgrazing?
b) What is a source of energy that is formed from the
remains of plants and animals that lived millions of
years ago?
3.a) What is air pollution?
b) How it is caused?
c) Give any two harmful effects.
4. a) What is water resource?
b) Write on four uses of water resource
c) Write a note on how forests influence the quality of
our air, soil and water resources.
d) List any three human activities which would lead to
an increase in the carbon dioxide content of air.
5. a) Define the term atmosphere
b) Outline three uses of the atmosphere
c) Highlight four human activities that trigger the
decomposition of the atmosphere
6. Explain the nitrogen cycle in detail and define all the
terms involved in it.
Principlesam Series
7. a) Explain the term environmental hazard
b) Explain any four environmental hazards under the
following
i. three causes;
ii. three effects;
iii. suggesting solutions
c) Identify air pollutants that could be released to the
atmosphere from the following sources;
(a) a coal-fired power station;
(b) a paint-spraying process;
(c) a diesel-fueled forklift truck
d) Explain any three effects of environmental
pollution.
8. What is the importance of afforestation and waste
management for environmental conservation?
9. What steps can humans take to make a positive
impact on the ecosystem?
10. What are some of the human activities that destroy
the environment?
11. What is the impact of human activities on the soil as
part of the environment?
12. How do human activities affect the rate of soil
erosion?
13. a) List the types of pollution that could be produced,
giving one example of each type.
b) Describe the two main approaches to pollution
management. Outline the pollution management
methods that could be used for the pollutants you have
listed.

237

CHAPTER TWENTY
SOILS
Soil: Soils are the surface mineral and organic
formations which constantly manifest themselves as a
result of the combined activity of the following
agencies: living and dead organisms, parent material,
climate and relief (Dokucharv, v.v., 1879).
Soils are the loose materials of the upper layers of the
earth which contain organic and mineral matter,
water, air and living organisms and capable of
supporting plant growth (I. Y. Dadson, 2017).
Regolith: Is a thin layer of loose rock, clay, and sand
that overlies bedrock
Sources of soils
The source of soil can be derived from
- Weathering materials
- Rocks materials
- The end product of rock weathering is called rock
mantle/ regolith.
Figure 206: Components of Soils
Components of Soil
i. Mineral Matter: They are inorganic chemical
elements or components such as Aluminum, iron,
calcium, potassium, magnesium, silicon and sand, silt
and clay are also greater than 2mm (stones), between
0.02 to 2mm (sand), between 0.02 to 0.002mm
(silt)which is less than 0.002mm (clay particles). There
are two mineral matters in the soil horizon layers. They
are; micro-mineral matter and macro-mineral matter.
Micro-mineral matter, the amount of minerals which
are needed by plants to grow and survive is called
micro-mineral matter. This is usually needed in a small
quantity. Examples are Magnesium, oxygen, etc.
Macro-mineral matter is the amount of minerals
needed in a large quantity by plants for growth and
survival. E.g., NPK
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Principlesam Series
The role humus play in soil formations are;
- It make soil fertility for use by plants
- It promote the growth of plants by giving them
nutrients
- It increase the rate of water intake by plants
- It binds soils together
- It increases the pores of the soil.
- It increases the water retaining capacity of soils.
Note: The minerals in the soil are; iron, oxygen,
nitrogen, magnesium, potassium, etc.
ii. Organic matter: They are usually all dead, fallen,
decomposed or partly decomposed plant and animal
matter (fossils). They occur in the upper layers of the
soil where leaves and dead part of plants and waste
matter from animals like earth worms, insect, etc.,
accumulate which can produce humus. Humus is part of
organic matter. Decomposition is done by micro-
organisms like bacteria and fungi e.g. mycorrhizae fungi
and bacteria. The process is called humanification.
ii. Soil water: Soil water with its dissolved salts make
up the soil solution or medium through which chemical
activities take place. Water fills the spaces between soil
minerals and capillary water; stored water that plants
can use. Gravitational water; this percolate to the
water table. Hygroscopic water; water bound to soil
particles by adhesion and is unavailable to plants. This
process is caused as a result of;
➢ Infiltration of water
➢ Gravitation water
➢ Capillary water
➢ Hydroscopic water
Plants needed only hydroscopic water for their
survival; it holds in the form of vapour.
* It is non-liquid
* It is immobile
* It is a form of gaseous.
iv. Soil Air: Voids within soils are filled with air or
gases. Soil air make up the environment from which
plants and other soil organisms obtain oxygen for
metabolism. Soil air contains more CO2 and some
amount of oxygen and nitrogen.
Poorly aerated soils have all pore spaces filled with
water (soil is saturated).
The air in the soil exist in the form of (all called
aeration)

- Oxygen
- Carbon dioxide
- Nitrogen
What is wilting point?
Wilting is defined as the rolling, folding or dropping of
leaves and young stem due to loss of turgidity. It occurs
due to high transpiration and low water absorption rate
due to low water absorption xylem vessels loss their
turgidity resulting in the blockage of xylem vessels. The
blocked xylem vessels are unable to transport water
further to the upper parts of plant which result in wilting
of the plant.
Cause of Wilting
i. It occurs due to higher rate of transpiration and lower
rate of water absorption from the soil.
ii. It occurs generally in hot and dry seasons due to low
water availability in the soil.
iii. However, it may also occur due to low availability of
capillary water in the soil such as plant growing in
swamp regions.
iv. It may also cause due to excess water accumulated
around the pants with unproper drainage facilities.
v. Wilt disease (that cause wilting) is caused by
different variety of bacteria, fungus and viruses.
Types of Wilting
There are 3-types of wilting.
1.Incipient Wilting: It is invisible wilting which occurs
due to partial loss of turgidity in the cells. It is
unnoticeable and plant cells recovery itself in short
period of time.
2.Temporary Wilting: During hot summer days, small
plants and herbaceous plant wilt due to the result of high
transpiration rate causing water deficiency in the cells.
These plants regain water and normal turgidity in night
as temperature decreases. This is called as temporary or
transient wilting.
3.Permanent Wilting: When water in the soil reaches
to critical quantity to plant for absorption, a plant
permanently wilt and dies off as over transpiration is not
balanced. These plants or its wilted parts do not retain to
their normal state even after maintaining suitable
conditions and environment.
Advantages of wilting in plants
Though wilting is not considered good but there are few
advantages.
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Principlesam Series
i. It prevents plant from over exhaustion in dry
seasons as transpiration activities stops.
ii. It develops drought resisting character in plant for
survival.
Disadvantage of wilting
i. Permanent wilting result in death of plants.
ii. It stunts the proper growth and development in
plants.
iii. It may reduce photosynthetic yield
Factors of soil differentiation in the tropics
These are the factors of soil formation and they include
1. Climate: Climate is one of the active factors and
most important in the tropics. It provides precipitation
(moisture), temperature, sunshine and wind which
affects the soil. Climate affects weathering, leaching,
vegetation and distribution of living organisms which
affects soil development. Climate affects the rate of
evaporation, Evapotranspiration, decomposition of
organic matter and other chemical processes collectively
or singularly. Precipitation provides water to dissolve
and ionize the soil body. Excess results in eluviations
and hence the deposition of materials at lower profile is
called illuviation and the increase in temperatures
promotes micro-organic well-being as well as a high
population of insects and bacteria. The wind is of minor
importance but in some tropical areas it may be crucial
in determining the nature of the soil e.g. Loess soil.
2. Parent material: The soil develops from parent
materials such as rock. Weathered rocks, fresh dunes,
newly emerged beach sands, till sheet, volcanic
deposits, household waste etc. the parent materials
determine the characteristics of the soil. Passive factor:
some parent materials can give rise to different kinds of
soils under different climatic conditions. It affects soil
structure and texture.
➢ Sedimentary rocks → clayey soils (sticky)
➢ Quartzite → sandy soils (porous)
➢ Igneous rocks → rich volcanic soils
➢ Limestones → thin alkaline soils
➢ It affects depth and mineral composition of soils
➢ The influence of plant mineral (residual or
transported) will diminish with time.
3. Organisms: An active factor of soil formation
playing both direct and indirect roles.
Direct role: The numerous plants and animals release
minerals from parent materials, supply organic matter,

ensure aeration, translocation of materials, and
protection from erosion.
Indirectly role: Tree roots and burrowing animals open
and penetrate the ground, facilitating easy penetration of
soil solution. Humification, nitrogen-fixing, etc., are
done by soil micro-organisms.
Vegetation cover also influences soil structure, texture,
profile, colour, etc., leaves, barks, branches, flowers and
roots, dead remains. Bacterial are most important in soil
development because they breakdown organic matter
into humus, e.g., mull, peat, etc. the Earthworms,
nematodes, ants, termites, woodlice, centipedes, and
burrowing animals stir up and mix up the soil.
Earthworms ingest the soil and excrete the soil which
alters its texture, structure, and chemical qualities.
4. Topography: Topography plays an important role in
soil formation using altitude, slope, and aspects. The
role of topography is mostly felt in high altitude
mountains. Altitude affects soil by moderating climate
and vegetation. In terms of slopes, upper slopes have
thin soils and lower slopes have deeper soils. Steep
slopes have rapid runoff which disturbs soil formation.
Gentle slopes and flat lands are ideal for soil
development.
5. Time: Time again, of all the factors of soil formation,
act overtime. Time factor refers to the duration it takes
to have mature soils. No fixed amount of time but it
can take 500 years to develop 2.5cm of soil. Mature
soils are soils with complete and well-developed
diagnostic horizons (takes thousands of years).
Immature or premature soils have no distinct horizons,
i.e., the process of soil formation is yet to run its full
course, Soil chronosequence.
• Jenny 1941 equation: - S=f (cl, o, r, p, t.)
• Where S= soil, Cl=climate, o=organism, r= relief or
topography, p=parent material and t=time.
6. Biotic Activity: Plants and animals are the
instruments of biotic activity. Plants form a part of the
soil profile in the form of humus, which is basically
decayed plant material. Plants check soil erosion
through the interception of rainwater and by binding the
soil with their roots.
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Principlesam Series
Soil composition
When dry soil is crushed in the hand, it can be seen that
it is composed of all kinds of particles of different sizes.
Most of these particles originate from the degradation of
rocks; they are called mineral particles. Some originate
from residues of plants or animals (rotting leaves, pieces
of bone, etc.), these are called organic particles (or
organic matter). The soil particles seem to touch each
other, but in reality, have spaces in between. These
spaces are called pores. When the soil is "dry", the
pores are mainly filled with air. After irrigation or
rainfall, the pores are mainly filled with water. Living
material is found in the soil. It can be live roots as well
as beetles, worms, larvae etc. They help to aerate the
soil and thus create favourable growing conditions for
the plant roots (Fig. 207).
Fig. 207: a) The composition of the soil
Soil Catena
This is the arrangement of soil across a slope face from
the top to the base is called the Catena or soil
toposequence. Aspect is another topographic effect on
soil formation as sun-facing slopes have different soils
than those in the shadows.
Fig. 207: b) Soil Catena
Process of soil development in the tropics
There are pedogenic regimes that drive the soil-forming
factors to produce soils of all descriptions. There are
five major soil-forming processes; Laterization,
Podzolization, Gleization, Calcification, and
Salinization.

i. Laterization: This is a major soil-forming process in
tropical regimes with its high rainfall and temperature.
Intense leaching and oxidation produce laterites with
little humus. This permits the total leaching of bases,
resulting in the formation of crusts of iron and
aluminium compounds (laterites). Lateralization is a
year-round process. The soil is reddish in colour and
little humus is in the soil called latosols.
ii. Calcification: Occurs when Evapotranspiration
exceeds precipitation, Important in climates where
moisture penetration is slow. The subsoil is typically too
dry to support tree growth and so it enhances grass
growth. The grasses use calcium, drawing it up from
lower horizons and returning it to the soil when the
annual grasses die. The grasses produce large amounts
of organic matter. Produces much humus and is one of
the world’s most productive agricultural soils and is
very common in tropical deserts and savannah.
iii. Gleization: This is limited to waterlogged areas
especially in cool climates. Gleization comes from a
Polish word meaning muddy ground. The poor drainage
can be the product of flat topography, high water table,
or other various conditions. Gleization is common in the
great lakes of the USA. The soils are called Gley soils.
It has a highly organic (A- horizon) because
decomposition and bacterial activity are slow due to
lack of oxygen. Gley soils are anaerobic and too acidic.
iv. Podzolization: It takes its named after the soil
colour it produces (grey). Podzol is a Russian word,
meaning ashes. Podzolization is not common in the
tropics. It occurs in mid-latitudes with short summers
and long winters. This reduces microbial activities and
increases humus accumulation. Again, leaching removes
bases including iron and aluminium oxides, leaving
silica in a distinctive ash-grey horizon. The pines forest
promotes soil acidity. Soil fertility is generally low.
v. Salinization: This is common in arid and semi-arid
regions especially in enclosed valleys and basins.
Moisture is drawn upward and into the atmosphere by
intense evaporation. The evaporating water leaves
behind various salts in or on the surface of the soil,
sometimes a brilliant white colour. The salts are
mainly chlorides and sulphates. Sometimes, toxic
supporting salt-tolerant grasses and shrubs, ‘Salin’ is a
Latin word for salt can be made productive through
treatment and management.
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Principlesam Series
Properties of soil
Soil physics: Soil physical properties are those related
to their inorganic portion, and they are extremely
important from both internal characteristics and
productivity standpoints. Minerals come from a variety
of sources, but the key process is physical weathering of
rocks by the actions of wind, rain, ice, sunlight, and
biological pressures, which break them down into
smaller particles. This will also affect soil temperatures
and the soil's ability to store water.
The composition of soils is categorized into;
i. Soil depletion
ii. Soil acidity
iii. Soil structure
iv. Soil texture
v. Soil colour
i. Soil depletion: Soil depletion occurs when the
components which contribute to fertility are removed
and not replaced, and the conditions which support
soil's fertility are not maintained. This leads to poor
crop yields. The depletion of soil has affected the
state of plant life and crops in agriculture in many
countries. Soil fertility can be severely challenged
when land-use changes rapidly. For example,
in Colonial New England, colonists made a number
of decisions that depleted the soils, including:
allowing herd animals to wander freely, not
replenishing soils with manure, and a sequence of
events that led to erosion.
Factors that bring about soil depletion
1. Soil erosion: The topsoil is removed through the
agents of soil erosion (e.g. wind, water, or ice). Hence
destroy the stored nutrients and reduces plant growth.
2. Overgrazing: These activities of livestock may
expose the soil to erosion.
3. Poor farming methods
4. Dumping non-biodegradable waste on land.
5. Surface runoff
6. Excessive intense cultivation
7. Slope gradient and absence of vegetation.
ii. Soil acidity: Soil acidity is a condition in which the
soil pH is lower than a neutral pH (less than 7). It is an
index of the activity of H+ as it interacts with soil
components, nutrients in the soil solution (water) and
plants growing in the soil.

Types of soil acidity
a) Active acidity = pH, [H+] in solution, soil water
solution. Measure directly with pH meter, e.g. 1:1 soil:
water suspension, pH controls chemical properties pH
affects both biological and physical properties
b) Exchangeable acidity. Buffer pH amount of
aluminum [Al+++], Hydrogen [H+] and (some) Iron
[Fe+++] that occupies exchange sites on clays, soil
aggregates, and organic matter
c) Residual acidity.-not readily available bound
aluminum and hydrogen in clay minerals and soil
aggregates
Causes of soil acidity
The four major causes for soils to become acid are
explained below:
i. Rainfall and leaching: Excessive rainfall is an
effective agent for removing basic cations over a long
time period (thousands of years). In Oklahoma, for
example, we can generally conclude that soils are
naturally acidic if the rainfall is above 30 inches per
year. Therefore, soils east of 1-35 tend to be acidic and
that west of 1-35, alkaline.
ii. Parent material: Due to differences in chemical
composition of parent materials, soils will become
acidic after different lengths of time. Thus, soils that
developed from granite material are likely to be more
acidic than soils developed from calcareous shale or
limestone.
iii. Organic matter decay: Decaying organic matter
produces H+ which is responsible for acidity. The
carbon dioxide (CO2) produced by decaying organic
matter reacts with water in the soil to form a weak acid
called carbonic acid. This is the same acid that develops
when CO2 in the atmosphere reacts with rain to form
acid rain naturally. Several organic acids are also
produced by decaying organic matter, but they are also
weak acids. Like rainfall, the contribution to acid soil
development by decaying organic matter is generally
very small, and it would only be the accumulated effects
of many years that might ever be measured.
iv. Crop production: Harvesting of crops has its effect
on soil acidity development because crops absorb the
lime-like elements, as cations, for their nutrition. When
these crops are harvested and the yield is removed from
the field, then some of the basic material responsible for
counteracting the acidity developed by other processes
is lost, and the net effect is increased to form soil
acidity.
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Principlesam Series
v. Nitrification: The use of fertilizers, especially those
supplying nitrogen, has often been blamed as a cause of
soil acidity. Acidity is produced when ammonium
containing materials are transformed to nitrate in the
soil. The more ammoniac nitrogen fertilizer is applied,
the more acidic the soil gets.
Effects of soil acidification
i. Deficiency in soil fertility
ii. Plants stagnant and slow growth
iii. Reduction in soil nutrients
iv. Decay in soil organisms
v. Reduction in organic matter, which reduces aggregate
stability.
How soil acidity affects plant growth
Acidity itself is not responsible for restricting plant
growth. Instead, biological processes favourable to plant
growth can be negatively affected by acidity. Acidity
has the following effects on soil:
➢ It decreases the availability of plant nutrients, such as
phosphorus and molybdenum, and increases the
availability of some elements to toxic levels,
particularly aluminum and manganese.
➢ Essential plant nutrients can also be leached below
the rooting zone.
➢ Acidity can degrade the favorable environment for
bacteria, earthworms and other soil organisms.
➢ Highly acidic soils can inhibit the survival of useful
bacteria, such as the rhizobia bacteria that fix nitrogen
for legumes.
Soil pH as a measure of acidity
Soil pH is a measure of acidity or alkalinity. A pH of 7
is neutral, above 7 is alkaline and below 7 is acid.
Because pH is measured on a logarithmic scale, a pH of
6 is 10 times more acid than a pH of 7.
Soil pH can be measured either in water (pHw) or in
calcium chloride (pHCa) and the pH will vary
depending on the method used. As a general rule, pH
measured in calcium chloride is 0.7 of a pH unit lower
than pH measured in water.
Fig.208: pH measurement of calcium chloride and water

There are several differences between pH of calcium
and water (pHCa and pHw):
➢ Soil pHCa measurements in Australia vary from
pHCa 3.6 to pHCa 8 for a range of different soil textures
(sandy loams to heavy clays). Soil pHw values lie
between pHw 4 and pHw 9.
➢ The pH of water may be higher by 0.6 to 1.2 in low
salinity soils and higher by 0.1 to 0.5 in high salinity
soils. Research has shown a difference of 0.7 for a wide
range of soils.
➢ Higher pHw values to around 10 may be associated
with alkali mineral soils containing sodium carbonates
and bicarbonates.
➢ Research has shown that seasonal variation of pHw
can vary up to 0.6 of a pH unit in any one year. In
comparison, soil pHCa measurements are less affected
by seasons.
➢ When a laboratory measures your soil's pH, make
sure they specify which method (water or calcium
chloride) was used.
Soil pH levels
A pHCa range between 5 and 6 is considered ideal for
most plants. Acid soils have a major effect on plant
productivity once the soil pHCa falls below 5:
➢ pH 6.5 — close to neutral — Optimum for many
acid-sensitive plants. Some trace elements may become
unavailable.
➢ pH 5.5 — slightly acid — Optimal balance of major
nutrients and trace elements available for plant uptake.
➢ pH 5.0 — moderately acid —Below pH 4.8
aluminum (Al) can become toxic to plants, depending
on soil type. Phosphorus combines with Al and may be
less available to plants.
➢ pH 4.5 — strongly acid —Aluminum becomes
soluble in toxic quantities. Manganese (Mn) becomes
soluble and toxic to plants in some soils, depending on
temperature and moisture conditions. Molybdenum
(Mo) is less available. Soil bacterial activity is slowed
down.
➢ pH 4.0 — extremely acid — Irreversible soil
structural breakdown can occur.
➢ Soil pH will influence both the availability of soil
nutrients to plants and how the nutrients react with each
other.
➢ For example:
➢ At a low pH, many elements become less available to
plants, while others such as iron, aluminum and
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Principlesam Series
manganese become toxic to plants. Aluminum, iron and
phosphorus also combine to form insoluble compounds.
➢ At a high pH, calcium ties up phosphorus, making it
unavailable to plants and molybdenum becomes toxic in
some soils. Boron may also be toxic in some soils.
Fig. 209: pH Measurement of calcium
Testing soil pH
Soil pH is one of the most routinely measured soil
parameters. This is because:
➢ testing is relatively easy
➢ field equipment to measure pH is relatively
inexpensive.
Don't rely on field test kits for decisions such as rates of
lime application. Test kits will only tell you whether
your soil is acid or alkaline. You're unlikely to get
responses to lime if other nutrients are lacking.
Professional soil sample analysis by a recognised
laboratory will ensure the most accurate results.
Management strategies to reduce soil acidity
➢ Avoid using the more acidifying fertilizers.
➢ Achieve a high rate of crop recovery of applied
nitrogen and sulfur fertilizers.
➢ Minimize leaching of nitrate-N by applying
appropriate amounts of nitrogen fertilizer in a timely
manner relative to crop need and with good irrigation
management.
➢ Consider the acid-neutralizing value of irrigation
water.
➢ Consider the effect of applied manure on soil pH. vi.
Use sulfur only if there is a high probability of crop
response.
➢ Consider that the ratio of basic nutrients to nitrogen
in the harvested product affects the rate of soil
acidification.

iii. Soil structure: Soil structure is defined by the way
individual particles of sand, silt, and clay are assembled.
Single particles when assembled appear as larger
particles. These are called aggregates. Aggregation of
soil particles can occur in different patterns, resulting in
different soil structures. The circulation of water in the
soil varies greatly according to structure; therefore, it is
important for you to know about the structure of the soil
where you plan to build a fish-farm. Although you may
not be able to assemble all this information yourself, the
specialized technicians from the soil testing laboratory
will be able to provide it after examining
your undisturbed soil samples.
Fig. 210: a) The soil structure
The Classes and types of soil structure
By definition, class of soil structure describes
the average size of individual aggregates. Usually,
five distinct classes may be recognized in relation to the
type of soil structure from which they came about. They
are:
➢ Very fine or very thin;
➢ Fine or thin;
➢ Medium;
➢ Coarse or thick;
➢ Very coarse or very thick.
Types of soil structure
By definition, type of soil structure describes the form
or shape of individual aggregates. Generally, soil
technicians recognize seven types of soil structure, but
here only four types are used. They are rated from 1 to 4
as follows:
1. Granular and crumb structures are individual
particles of sand, silt and clay grouped together in small,
nearly spherical grains. Water circulates very easily
through such soils. They are commonly found in the A-
horizon of the soil profile.
2. Blocky and subangular blocky structures are soil
particles that cling together in nearly square or angular
blocks having more or less sharp edges. Relatively large
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Principlesam Series
blocks indicate that the soil resists penetration and
movement of water. They are commonly found in the B-
horizon where clay has accumulated
3. Prismatic and columnar structures are soil
particles which have formed into vertical columns or
pillars separated by miniature, but definite, vertical
cracks. Water circulates with greater difficulty and
drainage is poor. They are commonly found in the B-
horizon where clay has accumulated
4. Platy structure is made up of soil particles
aggregated in thin plates or sheets piled horizontally on
one another. Plates often overlap, greatly impairing
water circulation. It is commonly found in forest soils,
in part of the A- horizon, and in claypan soils.
Prismatic Platy
Fig. 210: b) Types of soil structure
iv. Soil color: As for colour, accumulations of oxidized
iron compounds give red chroma, while loss of organic
matter and iron compounds gives light coloured grey
horizons. Red and brown mottled horizons are
indicative of reduced conditions or water logged soils.
Soil water holding characteristics are important for dry
land farming, selection of the correct irrigation system,
irrigation scheduling, crop selection, and ground water
quality. The development and distribution of color in
soil results from chemical and biological weathering,
especially redox reactions, soil color does not affect the
behavior and use of soil; however, it can indicate the
composition of the soil and give clues to the conditions
that the soil is subjected to. Soil can exhibit a wide
range of colour; grey, black, white, reds, browns,
yellows and greens.
Causes of soil colour
Soil color is produced by the minerals present and by
the organic matter content. Yellow or red soil indicates
the presence of oxidized ferric iron oxides. Dark brown

or black color in soil indicates that the soil has high
organic matter content. Wet soil will appear darker than
dry soil. However, the presence of water also affects soil
color by affecting the oxidation rate. Soil that has high
water content will have less air in the soil, specifically
less oxygen. In well drained (and therefore oxygen rich)
soils, red and brown colors caused by oxidation are
more common, as opposed to in wet (low oxygen) soils
where the soil usually appears grey or greenish by the
presence of reduced (ferrous) iron oxide.
Classification
Often described by using general terms, such as dark
brown, yellowish brown, etc., soil colors are also
described more technically by using Munsell soil color
charts, which separate color into components of hue
(relation to red, yellow and blue), value (lightness or
darkness) and chroma(paleness or strength).
iv. Soil texture: Soil texture (such as loam, sandy loam
or clay) refers to the proportion of sand, silt and clay
sized particles that make up the mineral fraction of the
soil. For example, light soil refers to a soil high in sand
relative to clay, while heavy soils are made up largely of
clay.
The mineral particles of the soil differ widely in size
and can be classified as follows:
Name of the particles Size limits in Distinguishable
mm with naked eye
gravel larger than 1 Obviously
sand 1 to 0.5 Easily
silt 0.5 to 0.002 Barely
clay less than 0.002 Impossible
Principlesam Series
The texture of a soil is permanent, the farmer is unable
to modify or change it
Texture is important because it influences:
➢ The amount of water the soil can hold
➢ The rate of water movement through the soil how
workable and fertile the soil is.
➢ How workable and fertile the soil is. For example,
sand is well aerated but does not hold much water and is
low in nutrients. Clay soils generally hold more water,
and are better at supplying nutrients. Texture often
changes with depth so roots have to cope with different
conditions as they penetrate the soil. A soil can be
classified according to the way the texture changes with
depth. The 3 profile types are:
i. Uniform; same texture throughout the soil profile
ii. texture-contrast; abrupt texture change between the
topsoil and
iii. Subsoil gradational; texture gradually increases
down the soil profile.
How to determine soil texture (Soil Test)
1. Take about 2 tablespoons of soil in one hand and add
water, drop by drop, while working the soil until it
reaches a sticky consistency.
2. Squeeze the wetted soil between thumb and
forefinger to form a flat ribbon.
3. Determine the texture based on the length of the
ribbon that can be formed without breaking

The amount of sand, silt and clay present in the soil

determines the soil texture.
i.In coarse textured soils: sand is predominant (sandy
soils).
ii.In medium textured soils: silt is predominant (loamy
soils).
iii.In fine textured soils: clay is predominant (clayey Fig. 211: Soil texture; Particle-size classes
soils).
iv.In the field, soil texture can be determined by rubbing Soil water: Water supply through soils is vital for both
the soil between the fingers (see Fig. 28). plants and soil organisms; they need water to survive.
v.Farmers often talk of light soil and heavy soil. A coarse- Soil water contains nutrients that move into the plant
textured soil is light because it is easy to work, while a roots when plants take in water. Water enters the soil
fine-textured soil is heavy because it is hard to work. through large pores (macropores) and is stored in many
Expression used by the farmer Expression used in literature small pores (micropores). Porous soils have a balance
light Sandy Coarse
between macro and micro pores.
medium Loamy Medium
heavy Clayey Fine

245

Specific terms
To understand how much water is held in soil, the
following terms are important:
i. Field capacity: the amount of water held in the soil
after it has been fully wetted and free drainage has
stopped. Water applied above this limit will make the
soil saturated but water will drain quickly or be lost as
runoff. The make-up of macropores, micropores, soil
mineral, water and organic matter
ii. Permanent wilting point: The soil moisture
condition at which the plant could not obtain water and
has wilted and died. The crop cannot be revived by an
irrigation or rainfall event.
ii. Plant available water capacity (PAWC): The
amount of water between field capacity and permanent
wilting point that is available to a plant. This requires
careful management and depends on soil texture,
structure and organic matter in the soil.
iii. Controlling water use: When soil is at field
capacity, further rainfall cannot be stored in the soil
profile so most of the water runs off and can cause
erosion. When a soil profile is full, one option is to plant
a crop to use the water.
iv. Waterlogging: When the soil is at or near field
capacity, micropores in the soil are full of water and the
macropores allow for the movement of oxygen. When a
soil is above field capacity, the macropores with water
and the soil is depleted of oxygen. When this happens,
plant roots cannot get oxygen from the soil and
microbial activity slows. Over a prolonged period,
plants eventually die. Also, without oxygen in the soil,
nitrogen breaks down and is lost as gas in a process
called denitrification (This can cause a decline in soil
fertility)
v. Soil limitations to water entry: Water infiltration
into the soil will be limited by the least permeable layer,
so restrictions near the surface may be more important
than restrictions deep in the profile. If water is unable to
enter the soil profile due to surface sealing or
hardsetting for example, the ability of the soil to store
water is reduced.
vi. Surface seal: A surface seal or crust is a thin layer
(1−10mm) formed on the soil surface by water drop
impact. It can have porosity 90% lower than that of an
unsealed soil. Permeability declines during rainfall or
irrigation when the surface aggregates break down and
are compacted under drop impact. Surface sealing is
largely responsible for restricted initial infiltration under
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Principlesam Series
rainfall or irrigation. Water that is unable to move into
the soil profile will run off. Sealing and crusting may be
natural, or induced when soil cover is removed. Soil
aggregates break down during wetting, then set to a
hard, structure less mass during drying. This can be
exacerbated by over-cultivation and reduction in organic
matter, which reduces aggregate stability.
vii. Soil compaction: Surface compaction is induced by
tillage tool smearing, tractor wheels and farm animals.
This occurs when the soil is sheared or compressed at
the critical moisture content known as the plastic limit.
Compaction results in high soil strength and reduced
porosity, preventing water from accessing the root zone.
In tilled soils, a plough pan can be created directly under
the tilled layer by the smearing action of tines.
viii. Impermeable subsoil: Impermeable subsoils are
an inherent feature of some soils and may be associated
with a sodicity subsoil or shallow soil profile on rock.
Water entry is limited and under high rainfall,
waterlogging may occur on top of the impermeable
layer.
ix. Saturation: During a rain shower or irrigation
application, the soil pores will fill with water. If all soil
pores are filled with water the soil is said to be
saturated. There is no air left in the soil. It is easy to
determine in the field if a soil is saturated. If a handful
of saturated soil is squeezed, some (muddy) water will
run between the fingers. Plants need air and water in the
soil. At saturation, no air is present and the plant will
suffer. Many crops cannot withstand saturated soil
conditions for a period of more than 2-5 days. Rice is
one of the exceptions to this rule.
Identifying restrictive soil layers
A layer that restricts water infiltration in the soil may
have the following characteristics: The soil is not wet
enough after good rain. The soil surface appears sealed
after rain. Water runs off rather than infiltrating.
Waterlogging is a problem.
Factors influencing the infiltration rate
The infiltration rate of a soil depends on factors that are
constant, such as the soil texture. It also depends on
factors that vary, such as the soil moisture content.
i. Soil Texture: Course textured soils have mainly large
particles in between which there are large pores. On the
other hand, fine textured soils have mainly small particles
in between which there are small pores. In coarse soils,
the rain or irrigation water enters and moves more easily

into larger pores; it takes less time for the water to
infiltrate into the soil. In other words, infiltration rate is
higher for coarse textured soils than for fine textured
soils.
ii. The soil moisture content: The water infiltrates
faster (higher infiltration rate) when the soil is dry, than
when it is wet (see Fig. 212b). As a consequence, when
irrigation water is applied to a field, the water at first
infiltrates easily, but as the soil becomes wet, the
infiltration rate decreases.
iii. The soil structure: Generally speaking, water
infiltrates quickly (high infiltration rate) into granular
soils but very slowly (low infiltration rate) into massive
and compact soils. Because the farmer can influence the
soil structure (by means of cultural practices), he can
also change the infiltration rate of his soil.
Soil Profile
A soil profile is a vertical exposure of soil horizons and
it extends from the surface of the landscape through
some horizons to the solid rock. It is simply the vertical
cross-section of the soil layers from the leaf litter to the
parent rock material. They can be different in colour,
texture, structure, chemical and biological composition.
Fig. 212: a) The soil profile
Figure 212: b) Soil Profile
A-HORIZON: The A-horizon is the mineral layer that
has formed. It exhibits obliteration of all or much of the
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Principlesam Series
original rock structure and show one or both of the
following:
(1) An accumulation of humified organic matter closely
mixed with the mineral fraction, or
(2) Properties resulting from cultivation, pasturing, or
similar kinds of disturbance. It is also where most plant
roots and soil organisms are found.
Features
❖ Zone of eluviation
❖ Zone of organic matter and fresh plants
❖ Upper part has leaf litter
❖ Many plant roots
Fig. 212: c) Infiltration rate and soil moisture content
The conjunct of the O and A horizons constitute the
solum, which is the part of a soil body in which the
parent material has been modified and plant roots are
contained. It is also where the effects of climate and
biological activity are most pronounced
B-HORIZON
❖ Zone of illuviation and sub-soil
❖ Lighter in colour and contains little humus
❖ Consists of decomposed materials leached from A-
Horizon
❖ Contains some materials from C-Horizon
C-HORIZON
❖ Bedrock regolith and lacks properties of A and B
horizons
❖ Different from the unweathered bedrock
❖ Solid and reservoir of soil materials
O-HORIZON: O horizons forms on the surface of the
soil often a layer is found, rich in leaf litter and other
organic material more or less decomposed. Some are
saturated with water or were once saturated.
E-HOROZON: The E horizon is a mineral layer where
the main feature is the loss of silicate clay, iron,
aluminum, or some combination these, leaving a
concentration of sand and silt particles. This horizon
exhibits obliteration of all or much of the original rock

structure. By comparison, the B-horizon is the zone
where new material from below and nutrients from
above accumulates. Sometimes an impermeable layer or
pan is formed above it, denying plants to access this
rejuvenating source of new nutrients. It has formed
below an A, E or O horizon and it shows much of the
following:
✓ Illuvial concentration of silicate clay, iron,
aluminum, humus, carbonates,
✓ gypsum, or silica, alone or in combination,
✓ evidence of the removal or addition of carbonates,
residual concentration of oxides, coatings of
sesquioxides that make the horizon conspicuously lower
in colour
✓ value, higher in chroma, or redder in hue, without
apparent illuviation of iron, alteration that forms silicate
clay or liberates oxides, or both, and that forms a
✓ granular, blocky, or prismatic structure if volume
changes accompany changes in moisture content,
✓ brittleness or
✓ strong gleying.
R-HORIZON: R- layers are strongly cemented to
indurated bedrock. This is sufficiently coherent when
moist to make hand digging with a spade impractical,
although it may be chipped or scraped. The cracks may
be coated or filled with clay or other material.
W-HORIZON: W layers are layers filled with water
within or beneath the soil.
Table 19: Soil master horizons
Horizon Horizon Description of detailed soil horizons
O -Consists mainly of organic matter from the vegetation,
which accumulates.
-Under conditions of free aeration
A -Eluvial (outwash) horizon consisting mainly of mineral
matter mixed with some humified (decomposed)
organic matter.
E Strongly eluviated horizons having much less organic
matter and/or iron and/or clay than the horizons
underneath. Usually, pale coloured and high in quartz.
B Illuvial (inwashed) horizon characterised by
concentrations in clay, iron or organic matter.
C Weathered parent material lacking the properties of the
solum and resembling more the fresh parent material.
R Regolith, the unconsolidated bedrock or parent material.
A very general and simplified soil profile can be
described as follows:
a. The plough layer (20 to 30 cm thick): is rich in
organic matter and contains many live roots. This layer
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Principlesam Series
is subject to land preparation (e.g. ploughing, harrowing
etc.) and often has a dark colour (brown to black).
b. The deep plough layer: contains much less organic
matter and live roots. This layer is hardly affected by
normal land preparation activities. The colour is lighter,
often grey, and sometimes mottled with yellowish or
reddish spots.
c. The subsoil layer: hardly any organic matter or live
roots are to be found. This layer is not very important
for plant growth as only a few roots will reach it.
d. The parent rock layer: consists of rock, from the
degradation of which the soil was formed. This rock is
sometimes called parent material.
Importance of soil profile
✓ It helps to determine the youngness of matureness of
the soil.
✓ It helps to determine the materials of which the soil is
formed or developed.
✓ It also helps to determine the thickness and depth of
organic material or matter.
✓ It helps to know the colour, texture, and structure of
the soil and the suitability of the soil to agriculture.
Characteristic of tropical soils
The soil consists of the following features. They are;
1. Alluvial soils
2. Ferrallitic soils
3. Mountain soils
4. Ferruginous soils
5. Vertisols
6. Arid and semi-arid soils
7. Non-tropical soil
Soil moisture content
The soil moisture content indicates the amount of water
present in the soil. It is commonly expressed as the
amount of water (in mm of water depth) present in a
depth of one metre of soil. For example: when an
amount of water (in mm of water depth) of 150 mm is
present in a depth of one metre of soil, the soil moisture
content is 150 mm/m (see Fig. 214).

Fig. 214: Soil moisture content
The soil moisture content can also be expressed in
percent of volume. In the example above, 1 m3 of soil
(e.g. with a depth of 1 m, and a surface area of 1 m2)
contains 0.150 m3 of water (e.g. with a depth of 150 mm
= 0.150 m and a surface area of 1 m2). This results in
soil moisture content in volume percent of:
Thus, a moisture content of 100 mm/m corresponds to a
moisture content of 10 volume percent.
Note: The amount of water stored in the soil is not
constant with time, but may vary.
Species of soils in Ghana
There are four orders, namely:
a) Climatophytic earths: These are well drained soils
whose genesis is considered to have been predominantly
influenced by climate and vegetation of the areas in
which they occur. The suborders are differentiated by
the intensity of leaching into:
i. Hygropeds: These are thoroughly leached soils. The
soils percolating water reaches the water table without
much accumulation of basic cations in the profile.
ii. Xeropeds: soils of the climatophytic earths that are
not thoroughly leached. The wetting front does not
reach the groundwater table. This suborder exists only
in theory. It is doubtfully represented in Ghana. The
Hygropeds are common in the country. They are
subdivided according to potential of fertility restoration
of leached out bases by the parent material. Two groups
have been defined at the subgroup family level. These
are:
- Latosols: highly weathered soils with the clay fraction
dominated by 1:1 clays (kaolinitic clays), iron and
aluminum oxides (see Table 1 for examples of the great
soil groups, some of which are described below).
- Basisols: (this is a poorly defined class).They
represents soils with considerable amounts of
weatherable minerals in parts of the soil profile. The
weatherable minerals are rich in basic cations and the
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Principlesam Series
clay fraction contains appreciable amounts of 2:1 clays
(montmorillonitic clays).
b) Topoclimatic earths: This order comprises soils
whose formation is due mainly to climate and relief
(high mountains) .These is apparently absent in Ghana
and exists only in theory.
c) Topohydric earths: The morphological and physico-
chemical characteristics of these soils are primarily
influenced by the relief and drainage conditions. They
have impeded drainage. Five suborders are recognised
under this order.
i. Planopeds: This is poorly or imperfectly drained soils
as induced by flat topography e.g. peneplains and river
terraces.
ii. Clinopeds: These comprise soils occurring on slopes
that are influenced by lateral seepage of water from
upslope following a recharge-discharge phenomenon
which consequently leads to the precipitation of
chemical substances in the profile.
iii. Depressiopeds: These are soils developed in
depressions, and poorly drained externally (i.e are epi-
saturated) in parts of the year.
iv. Hydropeds: These are soils developed in open
water, for example shallow lagoons and permanent
swamps and lakes.
v. Cumulopeds: These are soils developed in
depressions where peat has accumulated. The suborders
of the topohydric earths, except the depreciated, are
grouped at soil group family level according to the
nature and reaction of the groundwater that influences
the soil.
The following are recognized: very acid, acid, neutral,
calcium and sodium group families. The depression
peds are grouped into Gleisols (very acid, acid and
neutral) and Vleisols (calcium and sodium). The great
soil groups are presented in Table 1.
d) Lithochronic earths: The developments of these
soils are mainly influenced by parent material and time
over which the soil is developed. The profiles of these
soils are generally immature. The specific factors that
cause the young nature of the soils are used to group
them into two suborders.
i. Lithopeds: It occurs when the profile development is
restricted by rocks that are relatively resistant to
weathering or an out balance of soil erosion over soil
accumulation on steep slopes.
ii. Regopeds: It occurs when the parent material is poor
or inert (e.g. loose sand). The soil group family is

Regosol. In order to cover the whole country on a small
scale of the order of 1:1500 000 or smaller, up to 1:3
000 000, the great soil group taxonomic level is
adopted. However, soil maps at a scale of 1:250 000
cover the whole country
Major soils of the world
a) Chernozems: They are soils with a thick, dark
topsoil, rich in organic matter with a calcareous subsoil
Characteristics of Chernozems
1. Morphological characteristics: Virgin Chernozems
have a thin leafy litter layer on top of a dark grey to
black, crumb, `vermic' Ah-horizon. The surface horizon
can be only 20 cm thick but extends down to a depth of
more than 2 metres in well-developed Chernozems.
Worm casts and krotovinas testify of intense faunal
activity.
2. Mineralogical characteristics: The mineral
composition of Chernozems is rather uniform
throughout the profile, in line with the high rate of
homogenization of the soil material.
3. Hydrological characteristics: Although it is widely
accepted that Chernozems formed under conditions of
good drainage, there are also (Russian) soil scientists
who maintain that certain Chernozems passed through a
boggy phase of soil formation. Today's Chernozems are
well drained, apart from soils in depressions with
occasional shallow groundwater.
b) Podzols: They are acidic soils with a subsurface
accumulation of iron-aluminum-organic compounds
Formation: Podzolic soil, also termed as podzol, or
called the lessive soil, is a soil that is usually formed in
a broadleaf forest and is mostly characterized by the
average leaching, which is also highly susceptible to
compaction.
Characteristics of podzols
1. Morphological characteristics: The typical Podzol
in the zonal has a greyish-grey, highly leached eluvial
horizon beneath the dark-skinned living atmosphere,
and above a very dark brown surface. Most Podzols
have a layer of the top layer (H-horizon) 1 to 5 cm thick,
open and sponge, and grading into Ah-horizon with
humified organic matter.
2. Mineralogical characteristics: The mineralogy
characteristics of Podzols are somewhat different but it
is nearly always marked by a predominance of quartz.
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Principlesam Series
In a cool, humid climate environment where the
leaching is intense, and the parent material may be
originally intermediate or even basic composition. Iron
and aluminium can be found at maximum at different
depths in the B-horizon, depending on the genetic
history of a particular podzol soil.
3. Hydrological characteristics: This podzol is
generally wet because of its climate or terrain condition.
The movement of the water through the soil will be
impaired even in the dryland areas if the soil is having a
dense illuviation horizon or an indurated layer at some
depth of the soil.
5. Physical characteristics: Most of the Podzols have a
sandy texture and weak aggregation of the structural
elements. their bleached eluviation horizon contains
normally less than 10 percent clay but the clay content
could be slightly higher in the underlying illuvial
horizon.
processes for the formation of podzol soil
A favourable combination of environments of
podzolization include the following:
i) Ideal climatic conditions: The humid and cold
climatic conditions are ideal for it.
ii) Parent material: Sandy materials have poor reserves
of weatherable minerals. Hence, they generally favour
the operation of podzolization because it helps in easy
percolation of water.
iii) Acid product vegetation: Acid-producing
vegetation such as coniferous pines are essential.
iv) Leaching and translocation of sesquioxide: Due to
becoming mobile of hummus and Sesquioxide, they
leach out from the upper horizon and deposit in the
lower one. As iron and aluminium move about, the
horizon gives a bleached grey and ashy appearance. The
Russians used the term Podzols (pod means under, and
the meaning of Zola is ash-like, i.e., ash-like horizon
appearing beneath the surface horizon) for such soils.
c) Laterite soil: The laterite soil develops in areas with
high temperature and heavy rain. This is the result of
intense leaching due to heavy rain. Humus content of
the soil is low because most of the microorganisms,
particularly the decomposers, like bacteria, get
destroyed due to high temperature
Distribution of Laterite – Lateritic Soils
• Laterite soils cover an area of 2.48 lakh sq km.

• Continuous stretch of laterite soil is found on the
summits of Western Ghats at 1000 to 1500 m above
mean sea level, Eastern Ghats, the Rajmahal Hills,
Vindhyan, Satpuras and Malwa Plateau.
• They also occur at lower levels and in valleys in
several other parts of the country.
• They are well developed in south Maharashtra, parts
of Karnataka etc. and are widely scattered in other
regions.
Crops in Laterite – Lateritic Soils
• Laterite soils lack fertility due to intensive leaching.
• When manured and irrigated, some laterites are
suitable for growing plantation crops like tea, coffee,
rubber, cinchona, coconut, are canut, etc.
• In some areas, these soils support grazing grounds
and scrub forests.
Economic value of laterite – lateritic soils
• Laterite and lateritic soils provide valuable building
material.
• These soils can be easily cut into cakes but hardens
like iron when exposed to air.
• As it is the end-product of weathering, it cannot be
weathered much further and is durable.
Chemical composition of laterite – lateritic soils
• Laterite soils are rich in bauxite or ferric oxides.
• They are very poor in lime, magnesia, potash and
nitrogen.
• Sometimes, the phosphate content may be high in the
form of iron phosphate.
• In wetter places, there may be higher content of
humus.
Other great soil groups in Ghana
Other minor great soil groups of taxonomic importance
have been mapped in Ghana (Brammer, 1962; Obeng,
1971). These include Forest and Savanna
Lithosols, Regosols, Forest and Savanna
Gleisols, Groundwater Podsols, Sodium
Vleisols and Alluviosols.
a)Lithosols: They are found both under forest and
savanna vegetation. They are shallow or brashy soils
developed on steep slopes or have extensive exposures
of hard rock and ironpan. They have very little
agricultural value.
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Principlesam Series
b)Regosols: These are restricted to a narrow strip along
the coast of Ghana. They are deep sands developed in a
probable coastal dune landscape. The soils are highly
acid and poor in nutrients (basically composed of
quartz). They are, therefore, generally of low
agricultural value. They, however, support good coconut
plantations especially in southwestern Ghana where
annual rainfall is over 1800 mm. The sandy texture also
provides good rooting conditions for extensive root
growth of the coconut palm.
c) Gleisols: They occur along a few of the major river
basins (e.g. the Volta, Nasia and Ofin rivers). They
occupy terrace positions and are rarely inundated by the
present river floods. The soils, due to their alluvial
nature, vary in texture, colour and reaction. They are
locally used for vegetable and sugar cane production or
grazing.
d) Groundwater Podsols: They are developed in old in-
filled lagoons locally identified along the coast in the
Southwest. The profile consists of about 5 cm of humus-
stained sand over about 60 cm of bleached sand that is
abruptly underlain by dark brown organic pan. Below
the pan the soil is grey to brown sands. Atuabo series is
an example of this soil type.
e) Sodium Vleisols: These are saline soils that border the
saline coastal lagoons. They stretch eastward from the
Songaw lagoon to beyond the Keta lagoon to the Togo
border along the Ghanaian coast. They are black to dark
grey clays with hard and sticky consistence and well
noted for the presence of salt crust on the soil surface,
especially on bare lands bordering the margins of the
lagoons. The soils have limited agricultural potential.
They are, however, cultivated to sugarcane around the
lower Volta basin where they receive an influx of fresh
water annually, thereby reducing their sodicity.
f)Alluviosols: These are soils bordering most of the rivers
and streams network in the country. They are either
recent alluvial deposits or presently influenced by the
floods of these drainage channels. The topsoil are
usually sandy, loamy or clayey textured and may show
buried horizons and lithological discontinuities. Their
positions in the flood plains restrict their use for
agriculture. They are locally used for wetland rice and
sugarcane cultivation. Dry season vegetable gardening
is common in some areas.
Erosion is the transport of soil from one place to
another. Climatic factors such as wind and rain can
 Principlesam Series
cause erosion, but also under irrigation it may Assignment 20
occur. Over a short period, the process of erosion is 1. (a) (i) What is communal land tenure system?
almost invisible. However, it can be continuous (ii) Enumerate six problems associated with the
and the whole fertile top layer of a field may communal system of land tenure.
disappear within a few years. (b) (i) Explain the term soil development.
(ii) Outline five problems that hinder the attainment of
Soil erosion by water depends on: self-sufficiency in food production in your country due
a) The slope: steep, sloping fields are more exposed to to soil acidification.
erosion; 2. (a) State three disadvantages of soil infertility
b) the soil structure: light soils are more sensitive to (b) (i) What is soil?
erosion; (ii) List five uses of the soil
c) the volume or rate of flow of surface runoff water: (c) Give one function of each of the following in soil
larger or rapid flows induce more erosion. Erosion is formation
usually heaviest during the early part of irrigation, (i) climate
especially when irrigating on slopes. The dry surface (ii) parent rocks
soil, sometimes loosened by cultivation, is easily (iii) soil organisms
removed by flowing water. After the first irrigation, the (iv) time
soil is moist and settles down, so erosion is reduced. 3. (a) Explain how each of the following soil physical
Newly irrigated areas are more sensitive to erosion, properties affect plant growth:
especially in their early stages. There are two main (i) Soil texture
types of erosion caused by water; sheet erosion and (ii) Soil structure
gully erosion. They are often combined. (iii) Soil water.
i. Sheet erosion: Sheet erosion is the even removal of (b) Discuss three factors that affect the use of fertilizers
a very thin layer or "sheet" of topsoil from sloping land. in acidic soils.
It occurs over large areas of land and causes most of the 4. (a) Differentiate between soil and water
soil losses conservation?
The signs of sheet erosion are: (b) Outline the roles of each of the following practice
- Only a thin layer of topsoil; or the in soil and water conservation
subsoil is partly exposed; sometimes (i) Green manuring;
even parent rock is exposed; (ii) Mulching.
- Quite large amounts of coarse sand, (c) (i) Give four functions of phosphorus in plant
gravel and pebbles in the arable layer, growth,
the finer material has been removed; (ii) Describe two symptoms associated with the
- exposure of the roots;
deficiency of phosphorus in the soil.
- Deposit of eroded material at the foot of
5. a) what is soil catena?
the slope.
b) With an annotated diagram describe the soil catena
ii. Gully erosion: Gully erosion is defined
c) Explain any four process of soil development in the
as the removal of soil by a concentrated
tropics
water flow, large enough to form channels
6. a) What is soil depletion?
or gullies. These gullies carry water during
b) Explain any four factors that bring about soil
heavy rain or irrigation and gradually
depletion
become wider and deeper. The signs of
7. a) What is plant wilting?
gully erosion on an irrigated field are:
b) Outline the types of plant wilting
- irregular changes in the shape and length of the
c) Give two merits and demerits of plant wilting
furrows;
8. a) Describe the characteristics of chernozem soils
- accumulation of eroded material at the bottom of the
(black earth)
furrows;
b) What is the economic importance of these soil.
- exposure of plant roots.
252

CHAPTER TWENTY ONE
DESERT/ ARID LANDFORMS
Desert: A desert is an area characterized by little or lot dangerous. Statistically, more people have drawn in
unpredictable rainfall. Deserts generally receive 25
centimeters (about 10 inches) of rain each year.
They are characterized by dry soil, high
evaporation, and little surface water. Desserts
are too dry that rain constantly evaporates before it water in their stems, leaves, and roots. Others grow deep
hits the land. Desserts are available almost
throughout the world, with the largest being the
Sahara Desert in Africa. Deserts form in many
ways. One way is when rain clouds are carried by
winds into the high mountains. Condensation takes
place later, and rain drops down on that area of the
mountain, rendering the other side without rain.
The side of the mountain without rain is known as
the rain shadow and is characterized by very little
humidity. One desert known to have occurred this
way is called the great Gobi Desert found in India.
It was created when wind and clouds were forced
up the Himalayas Mountains. The clouds
condensed and rain dropped on one side, rendering
the other mountainside relatively dry.
Fig. 213: Sand Dunes Desert Landform
(Morocco)
Features of desert landforms
1.Water: When many hear of a desert, they believe
that rain doesn’t fall there at all.
2.Deserts occasionally experience rainfall. The
Sahara desert once recorded 44mm of rainfall
within 3 hours. After such heavy rains, dry stream
channels known as wadis or arroyos can rapidly
fill up, and flash floods can render these channels a
Principlesam Series
deserts channels than died in deserts due to thirst.
3.Plants: Deserts feature certain plant species that are
drought and salt-resistant. They have an interesting
adaptation to survive in the desert, for instance, some store
roots that reach water tables. The deep roots also hold the
soil firmly and prevent massive erosion. The stems and
leaves of some desert plants are strong enough to lower the
speed of sand-carrying winds and insulate the ground from
massive erosion.
4. Soils: Deserts typically feature mineral soils with little
organic content. The continuous pile-up of water in some
soils results in the formation of different layers of salt.
Calcium carbonate evaporated from the salt mixture might
cement gravel and sand into the hard layers known as
Calcrete, which can form layers up to 50 meters thick.
5.The reddish-brown to white layers occurring in most
desert soils are known as Caliche. It predominantly forms
as nodules or wraps around mineral grains created by the
sophisticated interaction between carbon dioxide and water.
The carbon dioxide is normally emitted by plant roots or
rotting organic matter.
Types of Deserts
➢ Subtropical Deserts- general atmospheric circulation
brings dry, subtropical air into mid-latitudes. Examples:
Sahara of Northern Africa, Kalahari of Southern Africa,
and the Great Australian Desert.
➢ Continental Deserts- areas in the continental interiors,
far from the source of moisture with hot summers and cold
winters. Examples: Gobi, Takla Makan
➢ Rain shadow Deserts- areas where mountainous
regions cause air to rise and condense, dropping its
moisture as it passes over the mountains. Examples:
Deserts East of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, California
and Nevada, East of the Cascades of Oregon and
Washington, and East of the Andes Mountains in South
America.
➢ Coastal Deserts- Areas where cold upwelling seawater
cools the air and decreases its ability to hold moisture.
Examples: the Atacama Desert of coastal Peru, the Namib
Desert of coastal South Africa.
➢ Polar Deserts- Cold polar regions where cold dry air
prevails and moisture available remains frozen throughout
253

the entire year. Examples: Northern Greenland, and
ice-free areas of Antarctica.
The different types of desert landforms or
surface
a. Reg or stony desert landforms or surface: It
occurs when a compose of extensive sheet of
angular pebbles and gravels which the winds are
not able to able to blow off. It has different names
in other areas. For instance in Libya and Egypt is
called Serir and other parts of Africa they are called
reg.
b. Badland: The term badland refers to where the
hill was badly eroded by occasional rainstorms into
gullies and ravines. E.gs. the painted desert
Arizona, South Dakota of USA.
c. Hamada rocky surface: It is a barren surface of
land which consists of stretches of bare rocks swept
clear by sand and dust wind. These exposed rocks
are smoothed and polished. Example, Hamada of
Al-Hamra in the Sahara desert of Libya.
d. Mountainous desert: These are deserts which
are found on highlands such as plateaus and
mountain ranges have been deserted into peaks and
craggy ranges and their steep slopes cut wadis. In
the Sahara, the Ahaggar plateau or Tiberti are good
examples.
e. Erg or sandy: It is the surface that is
predominantly covered by sand example, calanscio
sand sea in Libya.
Main Landforms in a Desert
The areas with little and or no vegetation,
experiences more shaping by the wind than any
other area, the speeding wind picks up
loose rocks and blasts them on other rocks' surfaces
close to the ground. This results in magnificent
landforms. Examples of landforms found in deserts
include:
Sand Dune: There are five (5) types of dunes that
exist on earth today, but the most common in
deserts include barchans and seif dunes.
a. Barchan dunes are formed due to the wind
action resulting in crescent-shaped dunes. These
small crescent-shaped sand bodies form in
locations where the wind blows consistently from
one direction. They can reach heights of 30meters
and spread nearly 300 meters.
Principlesam Series
b. Seif dunes, on the other hand, are long and narrow with
a sharp crest common in the Sahara. They can also form a
long chain of dunes.
Characteristics of seif dunes
- found in arid regions
- they are sand deposits
- they are long and narrow ridges
- lie parallel to the direction of prevailing winds
- they lie parallel to each other
- could attain 60 meters in height
- could be over 100km in length
- crests are characterized by peaks and saddles
- they migrate and are therefore not stationary
- they are separated from each other by a corridor
- also known as longitudinal dunes
- have steep sides
-the crest line is serrated
-examples are the Great Sand Sea of Egypt and Libya in the
Sahara Desert, Northeastern Nigeria, Namib Desert, Thar
Desert, in West Australian Desert, Southern Persian Desert
Mode of formation of Seif Dunes
- formed in desert areas
- formed due to wind deposition
-Sand dunes are deposited parallel to the prevailing wind
- Winds blow to clear the corridors between the dunes of
sand
- eddies blow towards the sides of the corridors
- This results in long parallel mounds of sand called the
seif dunes
- may also be formed when wind breaks through barchans
- The winds forming the barchans may change their
direction
- This results in removal of sand from the middle of the
barchans
- The removed sands are deposited at the horns to build up
seif dunes
- The crest of the sand dunes moves forwards as more sand
is accumulated by wind action
- Sand is blown up the windward side
- This action leads to dune advancement/migration.
c. dunes form when there is
(1) A ready supply of sand
(2) A steady wind
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(3) An obstacle such as vegetation, rocks, or
fences, to trap some of the sand. Dunes migrate by
erosion of sand by the wind on the gentle upwind
slope and deposition and sliding on the slip face.
Fig. 214: Dunes
Principlesam Series
3. Yardangs: Just like rock pedals, Yardangs form due to
sand grains carried away at supersonic speeds. The
abrasion forces of the sand grains cut away the rock to form
low ridges of soft rock. Yardangs mainly occur in flat
deserts where strong and steady winds carry away dust and
silt. The upper surfaces of Yardangs are not subjected to
abrasion as erosion mainly occurs in the lower sections
since sand-carrying winds normal stay just above the
ground. Further, these abrasions cause undercutting of
these ridges. Salah in central Algeria and the regions near
the Kom Ombo (Egypt).

Types of dunes
1. Oasis: Oasis typically occurs in the middle of a
desert. They are fertile areas of the dessert
consisting of one or multiple springs surrounded by
vegetation. Oasis is formed due to a mix of extreme
temperatures resulting in islands of life. This comes
Fig. 216: Yardangs
about because the oasis is situated in parts of the
desert where the elevation is so low that the water
4. Deflation hollows: This is a kind of landform found in
table is just near the surface enabling vegetation to
arid and semi-arid areas. It forms when loose materials are
flourish.
scooped out by strong winds, leaving behind a hollow
2. Rock pedestals: These are landforms created
(blowout). Sometimes the erosion can be severe to the
due to erosion by sand-carrying winds. The
extent that it reaches the water table, leading to water
speeding sand grains carve out the base of rock
oozing out. Over time, the water fills up the hollow, leading
structures, but their tips remain intact. The carving
to the formation of an Oasis.
out mainly occurs when the sand grains travel in a
5. Desert pavements: A desert pavement is a desert
bouncing fashion slightly above the ground.
surface covered with stones as opposed to sand. Desert
pavements occur as a result of strong winds blowing loose
Formation of rock pedestals
particles away, leaving the stones behind. Desert
The weaker regions in the rocks are easily worn out
pavements may also form as a result of soil type in the
by the abrasion activity of the wind and lead to
ground, which leads to finer particles being sucked up
tower like structures with many types of shapes.
underneath the pebbles. Desert pavements serve as shelter
The Tibesti Mountain of Central Sahara provides
for ants or mulch for plants.
good example of these structures. These structures
can also be witnessed in the desert land of Saudi
Arabia.

Fig. 217: Pavement features

6. Transverse Dunes- large fields of dunes that resemble

sand ripples on a large scale. They consist of ridges of sand
with a steep face in the downwind side, and form in areas
where there is abundant supply of sand and a constant wind
Fig. 215: Rock Pedestals direction. They can reach heights of 200 meters and may
extend for 100’s of kilometers.
255

7. Linear Dunes- long straight dunes that form in
areas with a limited sand supply and converging
wind directions.
Fig. 218: Linear dunes
8. Parabolic (also called blowout) Dunes- "U"
shaped dunes with an open end facing upwind.
They are usually stabilized by vegetation, and
occur where there is abundant vegetation, a
constant wind direction, and an abundant sand
supply. They are common in coastal areas.
Fig.219: Parabolic (also called blowout) Dunes
9. Star Dunes - are dunes with several arms and
variable slip face directions that form in areas
where there is abundant sand and variable wind
directions.
Fig.220: Star dunes
10. Loess
Description of Loess Large deposit of wind
deposited dust. Much of the loess was derived from
debris left by glacial erosion. Yellow River, and
loess deposits, China.
It is fine-grained and friable soil which is carried
by the wind. It is loose and porous. It is fertile. It
does not have any meaningful stratification. It
occurs at all levels up to about 8,000ft. Examples
are found in the Hwang-Ho basin in China, (blown
Principlesam Series
from the Gobi Desert of Central Asia); Sahara (blown from
Eastern Sudan desert) and some parts of Germany and
Belgium that is along the Rhine, Rhone and Danube
valleys.
Formation of Loess
Loess is formed from deflation and transportation of
materials from deserts by the wind. Wind carries sand and
rock particles high over a long distance. When it reaches a
humid region, the materials absorb water and become
heavy so they are brought down and deposited as loess.
11. Zeugens: A furrow and ridge landscape is formed
when the wind abrase the soft and less resistant part of the
rock and the hard resistant part is left. The ridges thus
formed are called Zeugens and can be of varying sizes,
some even 30 m high.
These ridges wear away eventually through constant
undercutting by winds.
Characteristics of Zeugens
➢ It is a table-shaped area rock
➢ It is found in arid and semi-arid areas.
➢ It is formed under the influence of wind erosion
➢ Zeugens are the ridges in ridge and furrow
landscape
➢ It can also be found in deserts
12. Inselberg: The rounded top isolated masses which are
formed due to almost complete erosion of original surface
are called inselberg. Some of these can be the remains of
the edges of plateaus which have gone through extensive
weathering and further sheet wash has removed the
weathered debris from its surface
Fig. 221: Summary of Sand Dunes
Types or process of wind erosion (Aeolian Processes)
a) Aeolian Wind Erosion
Wind operates on hot deserts through the following
mechanisms:
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 Principlesam Series
i) Abrasion: The wearing away of rock by c) Aeolian deposition of materials by the wind
airborne sand and dust particles. It is a process in Wind deposits material when its speed of the wind may
which wind uses sand particles in it to blast and reduce. They reduce when it meets an obstacle such as
remove rocks. rock or vegetation, or when the load increases. Also, when
ii) Deflation: It is the lifting and blowing away of the wind enters rainfall area, its load gathers moisture to
loose materials by the wind. Sand particles are become heavy and is dropped.
later carried away by saltation; gravels and small Desert Sand Dunes
stones by traction and fine materials are carried ➢ Accumulations (hills) of loose wind-born sand
away in suspension. Shifting of loose particles ➢ Vegetation and Dune Stabilization
ii) Attrition: It refers to the wearing away of wind ➢ Dune migration
borne materials as they collide with each other. It ➢ Size, shape, and orientation of dunes are determined by
causes rock particles to reduce in size. It also available sand, vegetation and wind
occurs when large materials are rubbed against the
ground. Landforms created by water action in Tropical Deserts
iv) Eddying: It is the sweeping action of wind in In tropical deserts rain seldom falls but when they do they
circular motion. create some landforms
➢ Such rains create intermittent streams
Differences between Abrasion and Deflation ➢ Water that runs quickly create flash floods
1. Abrasion involves hauling of rock particles ➢ Flash floods create mudflows and wadis or arroyos dry
against other rocks while deflation involves washes
blowing of light materials. ➢ Alluvial fans or sore cones flow down slopes
2. Abrasion again involves polishing, Scratching ➢ Several fans combine to form bajadas or bahadas
and wearing away of rock Surfaces. On the other ➢ It can also form salt flats or playa or scalar
hand, in deflation, loose materials are rolled along
the ground. Table 20: Geographical Distribution
3. Abrasion is most effective at the base of the Deserts Name Area Km2 Countries/Towns
rocks and undercuts them whereas deflation lowers Sahara 8,600,000 Egypt, Libya, Chad etc.
the land surfaces. Arabian 2,331,000 Saudi Arabia, UAE, Iran, Iraq
Great Victoria 647,000 Australia
4. Abrasion is associated with wind, water and
Chihuahuan 450,000 Mexico and U.S.A
waves but deflation is associated with only the
Great Sandy 400,000 Australia
wind. Kalahari 260,000 Botswana, South Africa and
Namibia
b) Aeolian Transportation Wind Syrian 260,000 Syria, Jordan and Iraq
Transportation Mechanisms or Processes Gibson 155,000 Australia
– Traction, Suspension, saltation, and creep (bed Simpson 145,000 Australia
load). Atacama 140,000 Chile, Peru
1. Traction: It is a process in which large and Occur between latitude 5-35% north and south of the equator
heavy materials are dragged on the ground by the
wind.
2. Saltation: It refers to the movement of rock
particles in series of jumps as they are being
carried away by the wind.
3. Suspension: It is a process in which light
objects picked by the wind float in it as they are
being carried away.

Fig. 222: Tropical Deserts

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 Principlesam Series
Controlling factors of Tropical Deserts 2. Rivers flowing on deserts during the past wetter
a. Temperature climates: The deserts experienced some rainfall in the past
❖ The highest average annual temperature on which kept many streams flowing. But when the climate
earth. changed for a more severe one, the rivers dried up.
❖ The highest percentage of sunshine (High 3. Foreign or exotic rivers: These rivers flow constantly
insolation). across deserts from humid regions where there is rainfall
❖ 50⁰c by day and zero degrees by night. throughout the year.
❖ Extremely high diurnal range. Examples are the Nile in the northern Africa, the Tigris-
b. Precipitation Euphrates in Southeast Asia and the Colorado in USA.
❖ Precipitation is very irregular (years without 4. Casual streams on desert: Many streams on deserts
rain). flow for a short distance and drain into depressions. They
❖ The average rainfall is less than 250mm per never reach the sea. Some of these streams only flow after
year. the occasional downpour.
❖ Relative humidity (10 %– 30%).
The evidence for rapid climate change through desert is
Table 21: Distinction between tropical and compelling with:
temperate deserts i. Global temperature rise: The planet's average surface
Tropical deserts Temperate deserts temperature has risen about 2.12 degrees Fahrenheit (1.18
Very high temperature (>1000) Low temperature degrees Celsius) since the late 19th century, a change
Sunshine in copious Little shine from the sun
driven largely by increased carbon dioxide emissions into
Air is warm and dry occasional Air is cold and wet with
cold long winters the atmosphere and other human activities.4 Most of the
Brief rain (once a year) and (liquid Snowfall is common (solid warming occurred in the past 40 years, with the seven most
precipitation) precipitation) recent years being the warmest. The years 2016 and 2020
High rate of evaporation Evaporation is very low
are tied for the warmest year on record.
Created by rising hot air from the Created by cold descending
equatorial region air from poles ii. Warming ocean: The Ocean has absorbed much of this
There is some plants life with high Few plants grow here increased heat, with the top 100 meters (about 328 feet) of
biodiversity ocean showing warming of more than 0.6 degrees
Formed along the 300 latitude belt Formed in the high
Fahrenheit (0.33 degrees Celsius) since 1969.6 Earth stores
(300 north and south of the polar latitude region
equator) 90% of the extra energy in the ocean.
Created by rising hot air from the Created by cold descending iii. Shrinking ice sheets: The Greenland and Antarctic ice
equatorial region air from poles sheets have decreased in mass. Data from NASA's Gravity
There is some plants life with high Few plants grow Here
biodiversity
Recovery and Climate Experiment show Greenland lost an
Formed along the 300latitude belt Formed in the high average of 279 billion tons of ice per year between 1993
(300 north and south of the polar latitude region and 2019, while Antarctica lost about 148 billion tons of
equator) ice per year.7
Examples are the Sahara, Arabian, Examples are the whole
Namibian, and Kalahari continent Antarctic, most
iv. Glacial retreat: Glaciers are retreating almost
Greenland plants Alaska, everywhere around the world including in the Alps,
Canada, and Sibernia. Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, Alaska, and Africa.
Created by rising hot air from the Created by cold descending
equatorial region air from poles
Features formed by water erosion on deserts
1. Wadi (Characteristics of Wadi)
Sources of running water on deserts
It is a deep U-shaped valley on desert. It is very long and
Apart from wind, weathering and mass wasting,
steep-sided. It is waterless but may contain water after
running water also helps in shaping desert
occasional rainfall. It has interlocking spurs. It has flat
landscape. The following are the major sources of
floor and the floor may have alluvial fans. An example is
water on deserts.
Chebka or Shebka in Algeria.
1. Flash floods: These are floods are produced by
occasional rainstorms on the deserts.
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Formation of Wadi
Most wadis are valleys of rivers that flowed on
deserts in the past wetter climates. When the
climate changed, the rivers dried up and their
valleys formed wadis. Weathering and mass
wasting widened the sides of the valleys.
Some wadis are formed by flash floods produced
by occasional rainfall. The floods erode and
produce small valleys. Weathering and mass
wasting widen and deepen the valleys to form
wadis.
Fig. 223: Formation of Wadi
2. Mesas and Buttes
Characteristics of Mesas and Buttes
Mesas and buttes are that, table-like hills on
deserts. They are steep-sided. They are made up of
hard and soft rocks with hard rock on top. They
are separated by gorges Canyons. Mesa is higher
and bigger while butte is shorter and smaller.
Mesas and buttes occur on the Sahara Desert and
western USA.
Formation of Mesas and Buttes
Their formation begins where there is a plateau
capped by hard rock. Streams erode vertically into
the hard rock on top to reach the softer rock
below. The softer rock is eroded faster to deepen
the
Weathering and mass wasting valleys widen the
valleys to form gorges or canyons. The more
resistant parts of the plateau stand as mesas. Mesas
are further eroded to form buttes.
Fig. 224: Mesas and Buttes
Principlesam Series
3. Inselbergs or Residual Mountains
Features of Inselbergs
They are the remains of already existing mountains. They
have irregular surfaces. They are steep-sided. They are
formed by denudation. They are of varying heights and
sizes. They are isolated. Most of them have round top
which is the result of wind erosion. Examples include the
Shai, the Krobo, the Bundase and the Adaklu Hills, all of
Ghana, and the Idanre Hills and the Ado Rock both of
Nigeria.
Formation of Inselbergs
They are formed from already existing high mountains.
They are formed when the general level of the highland is
lowered by Wind, running water and weathering Some
hard parts of the mountains remain, after the lowering of
the inselbergs. The inselbergs like Shai and Krobo in
Ghana as well as the Idanre hills and Ado rock in Nigeria
are examples.
Some inselbergs are formed from plateaus which have
been dissected by rivers such that the land is divided into
hills and valleys. The hills form inselbergs and the valleys
are further widened to form peneplains. It must be noted
that for inselbergs and peneplains to form, the agents of
denudation must work for many years without
interruption.
Fig. 225: Inselbergs and Peneplain
Features Produced by River or Water Deposition (on Deserts)
1. Alluvial Fan (Description of Alluvial Fan): It is a
deposit of fairly coarse materials. It marks the place where
a stream moves from steep mountain slope unto a plain. It
is fan-shaped with the apex at the upstream of the tributary
river. The size of alluvial fan varies from a few metres to
several kilometers wide. It is a typical of arid and semi-
arid climates but it is not confined to them. The soils
formed by alluvial fan are fertile. Examples are the
Amekrana in Morocco and the Blida fan in southwest
Algiers
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Formation of Alluvial Fan
A river carries more materials highland areas or
areas of heavy rainfall. When it reaches the lower
course (where the gradient is low), it deposits the
load. The heavy and coarse materials are deposited
first at the head while the fine ones are later
deposited downslope to form alluvial fan. When
deposition continues, the individual fans grow and
coalesce, and they form a large fan called Bajada.
Fig. 226: Alluvial Fan
2. Bajada
Characteristics of Bajada
It is an extensive alluvial plain. It consists of very
thick alluvial deposits. It occurs in arid and semi-
arid areas. The soils are fertile, well-drained, and
fine-textured. The surface is undulating. Examples
are found in the Sahara, Californian and Arabian
Deserts.
Formation of Bajada
Bajada is formed from coalescing merging of
more alluvial fans. It is therefore imperative to
start from the formation of alluvial fan when
explaining the formation of Bajada.
3. Playas or Sebkhas and Salinas
Features of Playas and Salinas
Playa is a temporary Salt Lake in arid and salt
semi-arid areas. Salina is whitish salt crystals in a
depression. Playa and salina may be large. They
do not have an outlet. Their size varies from a few
square metres to many hectares. Some are shallow
but others are deep. Several playas and salinas
occur on Sahara Desert. Lake Magadi in Kenya
and Lake Natren are examples.
Formation of Playas and Salinas
They are formed by streams and flash floods.
Occasional scanty rainfall on deserts produces
Principlesam Series
temporary streams and floods which drain into basins to
form temporary lakes called playas. Evaporation causes
the lake to dry up to form salt flats or crystals called
salinas.
Assignment 21
1. a) Describe the role of wind in the formation of desert
landscape.
b) With the aid of suitable diagrams, describe one desert
landform resulting from wind erosion and one desert
landform resulting from wind deposition (SSSCE 1993).
2. Using suitable diagram, write explanatory description on
either alluvial fan or inselberg
3. a) Name four desert landforms that been formed as a
result of running water, in spite of the Aridity of the desert
b) Account for three sources of running water causing
formation of landforms in desert areas (SSSCE 2001, July)
4. Write on the physical characteristics and formation of
the following
i)depression,
ii) loess,
iii) seif dune.
5. a) Write on the formation and characteristics of two
desert features formed by water erosion.
b) Write on deserts under the following headings:
i) location,
ii) climate
iii) vegetation
7. a) Write on four differences between yardangs and
zeugens. Use diagrams to support your answer
b) Outline three differences between
abrasion and deflation
8. a) Using examples describe one landform produced by
each of abrasion and deflation. Use diagrams to illustrate
your answer
b) Give two reasons why wind erosion is more effective in
arid areas than in humid areas.
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CHAPTER TWENTY TWO
GLACIAL LANDFORMS
Glaciers: A glacier is a mass of ice on land
consisting of compacted and recrystallized snow
that flows under its weight. The sea ice of the
Arctic Ocean, ice shelves adjacent to Antarctica,
and icebergs are not glaciers. Glaciers cover 1/10
of Earth’s land surface. The vast glaciers of the
Pleistocene (1.6 million to 10,000 years before
present) Ice Age produced many erosional and
depositional landforms across much of the
Northern Hemisphere.
Glacial landforms are landforms created by the
action of glaciers. Most of today's glacial
landforms were created by the movement of
large ice sheets during the Quaternary glaciations.
Some areas, like Fennoscandia and the
southern Andes, have extensive occurrences of
glacial landforms; other areas, such as the Sahara,
display rare and very old fossil glacial landforms.
Condition of glacier formation:
As snow piles up, air squeezes out and compacts
into a thickened mass of snow and ice. In order
for glaciers to form, it needs to meet several
conditions:
➢ It is formed when mean annual
temperatures are close to the freezing point.
➢ It is formed when Winter
precipitation produces significant accumulations
of snow.
➢ It is formed when temperatures throughout
the rest of the year do not result in the complete
loss of the previous winter’s snow accumulation.
➢ Snow accumulation: Glaciers need continuous
snow accumulation to form over continents. When
snow adds to the glacier, it has to be retained
without melting.
➢ Ice Crystal formation: Next, air squeezes out
and compacts through sublimation. Then, crystals
of ice form by going from a solid to gas, without
turning into a liquid. Gradually, it refreezes into
grains of ice like the size of sand. Because the
snow pushes together, it forms glacial ice. Overall,
glaciers can grow hundreds of feet in height. This is
because ice is piling up on top without ever
melting.
Principlesam Series
Formation of Glacier
➢ Glaciers begin forming in places where more snow piles
up each year than melts. Soon after falling, the snow begins
to compress, or become denser and tightly packed.
o The process of snow compacting into glacial firn
(dense, grainy ice) is called firnification.
➢ When the ice grows thick enough, about 50 meters
(160 feet), the firn grains fuse into a huge mass of solid
ice. The glacier begins to move under its own weight.
o Different parts of a glacier move at different speeds.
The flowing ice in the middle of the glacier moves
faster than the base.
Erosion and Transport
➢ Glaciers are moving solids and can erode and transport
huge amounts of material, especially sediment, and soil.
➢ Bulldozing takes place as a glacier shoves or pushes
unconsolidated material along its path. Plucking results
when glacial ice freezes in the crevices of a bedrock
projection and eventually pulls loose blocks of the rock.
Abrasion takes place as bedrock underlying a glacier is
eroded by the flowing sediment-laden ice.
➢ Most of the sediment carried by continental glaciers is
concentrated at the base of the ice and derived from the
materials across which they flow. Valley glaciers carry
sediment in all parts of the ice. Much of their sediment is
supplied by mass wasting along valley walls. Michigan
➢ Abrasion of bedrock by sediment laden glacial ice
produces glacial polish, a smooth surface that glistens in
reflected light.
➢ Abrasion can also produce glacial striations, straight
scratches a few mm deep on rock surfaces
➢ Abrasion grinds rocks to clay- and silt-size particles
collectively known as rock flour. This material gives
glacial streams a milky look.
Erosion by Valley Glaciers
Some of the world’s most inspiring scenery was erosionally
sculpted by valley glaciers. When peaks and V-shaped
stream-cut valleys of mountain ranges are modified by
valley glaciers, a landscape of angular ridges and peaks in
the midst of a broad valley is formed. Among these features
are horns, aretes, cirques, etc.
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Erosion by Continental Glaciers
Erosion by continental glaciers produces smooth
and rounded landscapes. High areas that project
into the ice are beveled and abraded to form a
relatively flat topography interrupted by rounded
hills. Ice-scoured plains characterized by deranged
drainage with numerous lakes and swamps,
extensive bedrock exposures, and little or no soil is
an example of erosion by continental glaciers.
Fig. 237: Antique postcard shows rocks scarred by glacial erosion
Fig. 228: Erosion of by Continental Glaciers
Emotional glaciation
Lakes and ponds may also be caused by glacial
movement form when a retreating glacier leaves
behind an underground or surface chunk of ice that
later melts to form a depression containing
water. Occur when glacial debris dams a stream
(or snow runoff). Jackson Lake and Jenny
Lake in Grand Teton National Park are
➢ There is Kettle: Depression, formed by a block
of ice separated from the main glacier, in which the
lake forms
➢ Tarn: A lake formed in a cirque by over
deepening
➢ A series of lakes in a glacial valley, formed
when a stream is dammed by successive
recessional moraines left by an advancing or
retreating glacier
➢ Glacial lake: A lake that formed between the
front of glacier and the last recessional moraine
Fig. 229: Ice Glacier moving
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Types of glaciers
There are two major types of glaciers:
1.Continental Glaciers: Continental glaciers form over
continents. Continental glaciers are continuous masses of
ice that are much larger than alpine glaciers. Small
continental glaciers are called ice fields. Big continental
glaciers are called ice sheets. Continental glaciers bury the
landscape and only the highest mountain peaks poke out
through the ice surface. The Arctic is not a glacier. It’s just
sea ice. Continental glaciers in Greenland and Antarctica
store roughly 99% of the world’s ice.
2. Alpine Glaciers: Alpine glaciers form on
mountainsides and move downward through valleys.
Sometimes, alpine glaciers create or deepen valleys by
pushing dirt, soil, and other materials out of their way.
Alpine glaciers are found in high mountains of every
continent except Australia (although there are many in New
Zealand).
Table 22: Types of glaciers
Glacier Type Area Volume
Antarctic Ice 14,000,000k 30,000,000km
Sheet m2 3
Greenland Ice 1,700,000km 2,850,000 km3
2
Sheet
Alpine Glaciers 680,000 km2 170,000 km3
Fig. 230: Formation of Glaciers
Glaciers chisel away the land like a rake. They are
powerful agents of erosion. They are just second to water
which is the best at eroding land. Like a rake scraping the
dirt, glaciers move very slowly leaving a lasting
impression. For example, they alter landscapes into arêtes,
cirques, horns, drumlins, and moraines. During the last ice
age, glaciers scraped away Canadian rock and carried
glacial debris on a path to New York. In fact, Long Island
is the glacial debris from the sediment dumping of a glacier
terminal moraine. It is easy to recognize glacial sediment
because it is unsorted material (glacial till). Continental
glaciers scrape away at the land and dump boulders, dirt,
and powder rock along their track.
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The components of a glacier
Glaciers shape the land. They have three main
components to them:
i. Zone of Accumulation: The “zone of
accumulation” is where snow falls and adds to the
glacier.
ii. Zone of Ablation: The “zone of ablation” is
where the glacier loses ice most likely due to
melting.
iii. Firn Line: The “firn line” marks the division
between the zone of accumulation and ablation.
Alpine glaciers accumulate snow at the top of
mountains. Then, they flow downhill in a fluid
manner (ductile flow). They move much quicker
than continental glaciers.
Fig. 231: Glaciers components
Classification of glaciers
Glaciers can be classified according to their:
o Size (i.e. ice sheet, ice cap, valley glacier,
cirque glacier)
o Thermal regime (polar vs. temperate).
a) Based on size:
i) Ice cap: An ice cap is a dome-shaped glacier
mass flowing in all directions, such as the ice cap
on Ellesmere Island in the Canadian Arctic.
o There is still some uncertainty about the
full volume of glaciers and ice caps on Earth,
but if all of them were to melt, global sea level
would rise approximately 70
meters (approximately 230 feet), flooding every
coastal city on the planet.
ii. Valley glaciers: Also called Alpine
glaciers or Mountain Glaciers, they form on
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mountainsides and move downward through valleys.
o They are found in high mountains of every continent
except Australia (although there are many in New
Zealand).
• Example: The Gorner Glacier in Switzerland and
the Furtwangler Glacier in Tanzania.
iii. Ice sheets: Unlike valley glaciers, ice sheets are
not limited to mountainous areas. They form broad
domes and spread out from their centers in all
directions.
As ice sheets spread, they cover everything around
them with a thick blanket of ice, including valleys,
plains, and even entire mountains.
o The largest ice sheets, called continental glaciers,
spread over vast areas.
• Continental glaciers cover most of Antarctica and
the island of Greenland.
iv. Cirque glaciers: They are short and wide, are
confined to cirques, or amphitheatres, cut in the mountain
landscape.
b) Based on thermal regime:
i. Polar Glacier: A polar glacier is defined as one that is
below the freezing temperature throughout its mass for
the entire year.
o A subpolar glacier contains ice below the freezing
temperature, except for surface melting in the summer
and a basal layer of temperate ice.
ii. Temperate Glacier: A temperate glacier is the one
that’s essentially at the melting point, so liquid water
coexists with glacier ice.
o They are found in North America, South America,
Europe, Africa, and Asia and New Zealand.
• Some of the Antarctic glaciers and Greenland’s
southern outlet glaciers are temperate.
Landforms associated with glaciers or glacial activities
a) Erosional landforms
i. Cirque: At top of the glacial valley, it has a head-wall
called “cirque”. Cirques are concave in shape and form
near or at the bottom of the mountains.
ii. Arête: Arêtes are steep knife-edge ridges that form on
opposing sides. Both sides have been worn down by
erosional processes creating a narrow ridge.
iii. Horn: When arêtes erode three or more sides, the
sharp-edge peak that remains is a “horn”. For example, the
Matterhorn in Switzerland is one of the most notable horns
formed by glacial erosion.
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iv. Fjords: Fjords are glacial valleys that formed
from glaciers. Between two steep cliffs, the area
flooded out at the base is a fjord.
v. U-Shaped Valley: When glaciers erode a valley,
they create U-shaped valleys. Whereas streams
carve out V-shaped valleys. Rivers mainly have
one point of contact. But glaciers have contact
everywhere which gives them a bowl shape.
Fig. 232: Erosional and depositional landforms due to
glaciers
b) Depositional landforms
i. Drumlins: When glaciers move through
mountains, the hills that are not completely
removed are “drumlins”. These thick, low oval
mounds point in the direction of the ice flow.
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ii. Terminal moraine: Alpine glaciers erode rocks and the
unsorted glacial sediment is carried to the end of the glacier
at a “terminal moraine”. The endpoint where the glacier
dumps rock and sediment are the point of furthest
advancement.
iii. Braided streams: When glaciers dump sediment at the
end of the glacier, it can choke the carrying capacity of
streams. When glacial ice melts, it creates a braided stream
with the flow of water winding back and forth.
iv. Icebergs: If glaciers move into an oceanic environment,
large chunks of the glacier can tear off. This process of
calving can form icebergs as the torn ice floats away into
the water.
v. Kettles: Kettles are depressions that form from dead ice.
When glaciers recede, large blocks of ice are left behind. If
outwash gets dumped around it, ice melts in the middle.
This creates a depression lake which is a kettle.
vi. Crevasses: Most glaciers have breaks (or crevasses) at
the top of them. These brittle parts in glaciers are deep
cracks due to the stress of moving on rocky terrain beneath.
Types of Glaciers in the World
There are 9 Types of Glaciers in the world: Due to
the complexity of glaciers, there are many different kinds.
Broadly speaking, glaciers are divided into two
groups: alpine glaciers and ice sheets. From here,
depending on the part of the glacier or where it travels, they
can be divided into further subgroups.
a) Continental Ice Sheets: The largest type of glacier is
a continental ice sheet. The definition of an ice sheet is a
glacier that covers an area of over 50,000km2. These
glaciers are so thick they completely conceal topographical
features like mountains and valleys. Once, millions of years
ago, these vast areas of glacial ice covered much of the
Earth’s surface. Now, they are only found in Antarctica and
Greenland.
b) Ice caps and ice fields: By contrast, an ice cap or ice
field covers an area of less than 50,000 km2. However, an
ice cap or ice field can also completely cover peaks in
mountainous areas, such as the ice fields found in
Patagonia. These enormous glacial formations can feed
many other types of glaciers, which spread out from their
center.
c) Outlet glaciers: Glaciers that flow out of ice sheets, ice
fields or ice caps are called outlet glaciers. The flow of
outlet glaciers is affected by the landscape, travelling
through valleys and exposed rock. An outlet glacier often
continues through these rocky channels to become a valley
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glacier. An example of an outlet glacier is
the Lambert Glacier in Antarctica. The Lambert
Glacier is the largest glacier in the world, draining
roughly 16 percent of the Antarctic ice sheet out
towards the ocean. Furthermore, it’s also one of the
world’s fastest ‘galloping glaciers’.
Fig. 233: Outlet glaciers; Alpine Glaciers
d) Valley glaciers: Outlet glaciers can slide away
from ice sheets, creating valley glaciers. However,
valley glaciers can also form by themselves in
mountain ranges. Starting high up near mountain
peaks, a valley glacier will flow down between the
steep sides of two mountains. As a result, the
enormous eroding power of the glacier will cut a
U-shaped valley. Steep-sided, flat-floored valleys
carved by ancient glaciers can be found in locations
like Yosemite National Park, California.
e) Hanging glaciers: A hanging glacier will
generally begin high in the mountains, feeding into
a valley glacier. However, unlike the smooth
meeting of a river with its tributaries, hanging
glaciers towers over the edge of cliff-faces like
enormous frozen waterfalls. For example, the
mighty Tronador or ‘thunder’ glacier in northern
Patagonia earned its name from the sound of the ice
crashing into the bowl-shaped valley below.
f) Cirque glaciers: Cirque glaciers occur in
mountain ranges where dips and crevasses in the
topography allow snow to collect and
compact. When the glaciers form, they begin to
erode large, bowl-shaped valleys known as cirques
or corries. Sometimes, cirque glaciers will become
so full that they will spill over the side of the
mountain, creating valley glaciers. Discover more
facts about glaciers in this article: in Los Glaciars
National Park.
Fig. 234: Cirque Glacier
Principlesam Series
Features that are caused by glaciers
Glaciers are the ultimate sculptors of the landscape. If you
look around, they carve out features like drumlins, kettles,
and valleys. Here is some of the common terminology you
will hear for glaciers, such as;
a) Tidewater glaciers: Tidewater glaciers flow into the
ocean, either from ice sheets or alpine glaciers. Tidewater
glaciers will ‘calve’ ice as they move forward, where parts
break off and fall into the ocean. Many of the glaciers in
the Northern and Southern Patagonian Ice Fields are
tidewater glaciers. Interestingly, due to their extreme and
protracted cycles of advancement and recession,
tidewater glaciers are less sensitive to climate change
b) Piedmont glaciers: A piedmont glacier forms when a
glacier emerges out of a rocky channel onto a flat plain,
creating what is effectively a gigantic frozen puddle. For
example, in the late 1800s explorers described the San
Rafael Glacier in the Northern Patagonian Ice Field as
having a large bulbous front called a ‘Piedmont lobe’. As is
usual with tidewater glaciers, the San Rafael Glacier has
now receded, losing its Piedmont front.
c) Rock glaciers: All glaciers contain some type of rock
and debris, known as moraine. However, a glacier is
defined as a rock glacier when it carries a particularly large
concentration of debris. Usually, rock glaciers will look
more like a huge, dense mudslide rather than a river of ice.
Due to their density, rock glaciers are particularly slow-
moving and can occur as part of ice sheets or alpine
glaciers. Glaciers are erosional behemoths. Glaciers can
tear down mountains faster than any other geologic
process. As glacial ice flows in a fluid manner, it erodes the
surface in two primary ways:
➢ Ice Plucking: Ice plucking fills between cracks and rips
sediments by freezing and thawing.
➢ Abrasion: Abrasion drags, scratches and grinds down
material along the base of the glacier through friction.
Together, ice plucking and abrasion incorporate the
material into the glacier. The embedded material can
pulverize rock into finer bits of sediment “rock flour”.
When the glacier recedes, wind can blow the fine dust. As
it spreads along the surface, this “loess” helps fertility for
soils. Both continental and alpine glaciers use these two
erosion mechanisms. But the scale for “abrasion” and “ice
plucking” in continental glaciers is massive.
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Fig.235: Plucking and abrasion
d) Pyramidal peak: If there are three or more
corries and arêtes back-to-back, a pyramidal peak
can form. This is a sharply pointed mountain peak.
The Matterhorn on the border between Switzerland
and Italy is an example of a pyramidal peak.
e) Erratics: Erratics are random rocks of different
sizes and types from the area they are found
There is no pattern to their deposition, and they
look completely out of place on the landscape
Glaciers pick up large rocks and carry them
hundreds, sometimes thousands of kilometres from
where they originate. Erratics are carried deep in
the ice and do not erode the same as rocks at the
edges of the glacier
An example is the Great Stone of Fourstones, (Big
Stone)' on the moors of Tatham Fells, England
The rate of glacier erosion varies. Six factors
control erosion rate:
➢ Velocity of glacial movement
➢ Thickness of the ice
➢ Shape, abundance and hardness of rock
fragments contained in the ice at the bottom of the
glacier
➢ Relative ease of erosion of the surface under the
glacier
➢ Thermal conditions at the glacier base
➢ Permeability and water pressure at the glacier
Significance of glaciers
1. Glaciers as reservoirs: About three-
quarters of Earth's freshwater is stored in
glaciers. Therefore, glacier ice is the second
largest reservoir of water on Earth and
the largest reservoir of freshwater on Earth.
The cold runoff from glaciers also affects
downstream water temperatures.
2. Glaciers feeding rivers: The Gangotri
Glacier, one of the largest glaciers in the
Himalayan Mountains, is the source of the
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Ganga River. The Ganges is the most important source
of freshwater and electricity in India and Bangladesh.
3. Glaciers for aquatic life: Many aquatic species in
mountainous environments require cold water
temperatures to survive which is provided by Glaciers.
Some aquatic insects are especially sensitive to stream
temperature and cannot survive without the cooling
effects of glacial meltwater. Such changes in stream
habitat may also adversely impact native trout and
other keystone salmon species.
4. Glaciers for People: Glaciers provide people with
many useful resources. Glacial till provides fertile soil
for growing crops. The deposits of sand and gravel are
used to make concrete and asphalt.
Assignment 22
1. a) What is glaciation or glacier?
b) Identify the main types of glaciers in the world
2. a) What is plucking?
b) Outline the factors that bring variation in glacies through
erosion.
3. a) Describe the classification of glaciers by
i) erosion on size
ii) deposition
b) Explain how moraine glaciers are formed
4. Write an explanatory description of the following
a) drumlins
b) hanging valleys
c) pyramidal peak
d) terminal moraine
5. a) Outline the essential factors which helps to produce a
cirque.
b) With specific examples, explain the benefits and adverse
effects of glaciation
6. Describe the features of and mode of two of the
following glacial features
a) Cirque
b) U-shape glacier trough
c) Moraines.
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