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vi Contents
5.4 Longitudinal Strains in Beams 449 7.4 Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress 656
5.5 Normal Stress in Beams (Linearly 7.5 Hooke’s Law for Plane Stress 669
Elastic Materials) 453 7.6 Triaxial Stress 675
5.6 Design of Beams for Bending 7.7 Plane Strain 679
Stresses 466 Chapter Summary and Review 694
5.7 Nonprismatic Beams 476 Problems 697
5.8 Shear Stresses in Beams of Rectangular
Cross Section 480 8. Applications of Plane Stress
5.9 Shear Stresses in Beams of Circular (Pressure Vessels, Beams, and
Cross Section 488 Combined Loadings) 719
5.10 Shear Stresses in the Webs of Beams 8.1 Introduction 720
with Flanges 491 8.2 Spherical Pressure Vessels 720
*5.11 Built-Up Beams and Shear Flow 498 8.3 Cylindrical Pressure Vessels 726
*5.12 Beams with Axial Loads 502 8.4 Maximum Stresses in Beams 733
*5.13 Stress Concentrations in Bending 509 8.5 Combined Loadings 741
Chapter Summary and Review 514
Problems 518
Problems 768
6. Stresses in Beams (Advanced Topics) 553
9. Deflections of Beams 787
6.1 Introduction 554
6.2 Composite Beams 554
9.2 Differential Equations of the Deflection
6.3 Transformed-Section Method 563
Curve 788
6.4 Doubly Symmetric Beams with Inclined
9.3 Deflections by Integration of the
Loads 571
Bending-Moment Equation 793
6.5 Bending of Unsymmetric Beams 578
9.4 Deflections by Integration of the Shear-
6.6 The Shear-Center Concept 589 Force and Load Equations 804
6.7 Shear Stresses in Beams of Thin-Walled 9.5 Method of Superposition 809
Open Cross Sections 590
9.6 Moment-Area Method 818
6.8 Shear Stresses in Wide-Flange
9.7 Nonprismatic Beams 826
Beams 593
9.8 Strain Energy of Bending 831
6.9 Shear Centers of Thin-Walled Open
Sections 597 *9.9 Castigliano’s Theorem 836
*6.10 Elastoplastic Bending 605 *9.10 Deflections Produced by Impact 848
Chapter Summary and Review 614 *9.11 Temperature Effects 850
Problems 616 Chapter Summary and Review 854
Problems 856
7. Analysis of Stress and Strain 639
7.1 Introduction 640 10. Statically Indeterminate Beams 883
7.2 Plane Stress 640 10.1 Introduction 884
7.3 Principal Stresses and Maximum Shear 10.2 Types of Statically Indeterminate
Stresses 648 Beams 884
Contents vii
10.3 Analysis by the Differential Equations References and Historical notes 1019
of the Deflection Curve 887
APPenDIX A: Systems of Units and Conversion
10.4 Method of Superposition 893
Factors 1029
*10.5 Temperature Effects 907
*10.6 Longitudinal Displacements at the Ends APPenDIX B: Problem Solving 1043
of a Beam 914
APPenDIX C: Mathematical Formulas 1051
Problems 919 APPenDIX D: Review of Centroids and Moments
of Inertia 1057
11. Columns 933
APPenDIX e: Properties of Plane Areas 1083
11.2 Buckling and Stability 934 APPenDIX F: Properties of Structural-Steel
11.3 Columns with Pinned Ends 942 Shapes 1089
11.4 Columns with Other Support APPenDIX G: Properties of Structural
Conditions 951 Lumber 1101
11.5 Columns with Eccentric Axial
Loads 960 APPenDIX H: Deflections and
11.6 The Secant Formula for Columns 965 Slopes of Beams 1103
11.7 Elastic and Inelastic Column APPenDIX I: Properties of Materials 1109
Behavior 970
Answers to Problems 1115
11.8 Inelastic Buckling 972
11.9 Design Formulas for Columns 977 Index 1153
Problems 996
*A star attached to a section number indicates a specialized and/or advanced topic.
A B o U T T H eCAoUnTTHe on RT S
Barry J. Goodno
Barry John Goodno is Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering at
Georgia Institute of Technology. He joined the Georgia Tech faculty in 1974. He
was an Evans Scholar and received a B.S. in Civil Engineering from the University
of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, in 1970. He received M.S. and Ph.D. degrees
in Structural Engineering from Stanford University, Stanford, California, in 1971
and 1975, respectively. He holds a professional engineering license (PE) in Georgia,
is a Distinguished Member of ASCE and an Inaugural Fellow of SEI, and has
held numerous leadership positions within ASCE. He is a past president of the
ASCE Structural Engineering Institute (SEI) Board of Governors and is also a
member of the Engineering Mechanics Institute (EMI) of ASCE. He is past-chair
of the ASCE-SEI Technical Activities Division (TAD) Executive Committee, and
past-chair of the ASCE-SEI Awards Committee. In 2002, Dr. Goodno received
© Barry Goodno
the SEI Dennis L. Tewksbury Award for outstanding service to ASCE-SEI. He
received the departmental award for Leadership in Use of Technology in 2013 for
his pioneering use of lecture capture technologies in undergraduate statics and
mechanics of materials courses at Georgia Tech. He is a member of the Earth-
quake Engineering Research Institute (EERI) and has held several leadership posi-
tions within the NSF-funded Mid-America Earthquake Center (MAE), directing
the MAE Memphis Test Bed Project. Dr. Goodno has carried out research, taught
graduate courses and published extensively in the areas of earthquake engineering
and structural dynamics during his tenure at Georgia Tech.
Dr. Goodno is an active cyclist, retired soccer coach and referee, and a
retired marathon runner. Like co-author and mentor James Gere, he has com-
pleted numerous marathons including qualifying for and running the Boston
Marathon in 1987.
James M. Gere
James M. Gere (1925-2008) earned his undergraduate and master’s degree in
Civil Engineering from the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1949 and 1951,
respectively. He worked as an instructor and later as a Research Associate for
Rensselaer. He was awarded one of the first NSF Fellowships, and chose to study
at Stanford. He received his Ph.D. in 1954 and was offered a faculty position
in Civil Engineering, beginning a 34-year career of engaging his students in
challenging topics in mechanics, and structural and earthquake engineering. He
served as Department Chair and Associate Dean of Engineering and in 1974
co-founded the John A. Blume Earthquake Engineering Center at Stanford. In
1980, Jim Gere also became the founding head of the Stanford Committee on
Earthquake Preparedness. That same year, he was invited as one of the first for-
eigners to study the earthquake-devastated city of Tangshan, China. Jim retired
Courtesy of James and
from Stanford in 1988 but continued to be an active and most valuable member
Janice Gere Family Trust
of the Stanford community.
ix
x About the Authors
Jim Gere was known for his outgoing manner, his cheerful personality and
wonderful smile, his athleticism, and his skill as an educator in Civil Engi-
neering. He authored nine textbooks on various engineering subjects starting
in 1972 with Mechanics of Materials, a text that was inspired by his teacher
and mentor Stephan P. Timoshenko. His other well-known textbooks, used
in engineering courses around the world, include: Theory of Elastic Stability,
co-authored with S. Timoshenko; Matrix Analysis of Framed Structures and
Matrix Algebra for Engineers, both co-authored with W. Weaver; Moment
Distribution; Earthquake Tables: Structural and Construction Design Manual,
co-authored with H. Krawinkler; and Terra Non Firma: Understanding and
Preparing for Earthquakes, co-authored with H. Shah.
In 1986 he hiked to the base camp of Mount Everest, saving the life of a
companion on the trip. James was an active runner and completed the Boston
Marathon at age 48, in a time of 3:13. James Gere will be long remembered by
all who knew him as a considerate and loving man whose upbeat good humor
made aspects of daily life or work easier to bear.
P R e FAC e
Mechanics of Materials is a basic engineering subject that, along with statics,

must be understood by anyone concerned with the strength and physical per-
formance of structures, whether those structures are man-made or natural. At
the college level, statics is usually taught during the sophomore or junior year
and is a prerequisite for the follow-on course in Mechanics of Materials. Both
courses are required for most students majoring in mechanical, structural, civil,
biomedical, petroleum, nuclear, aeronautical, and aerospace engineering. In
addition, many students from such diverse fields as materials science, industrial
engineering, architecture, and agricultural engineering also find it useful to study
mechanics of materials.
Mechanics of Materials
In many university engineering programs today, both statics and mechanics of
materials are taught in large sections of students from the many engineering
disciplines. Instructors for the various parallel sections must cover the same
material, and all of the major topics must be presented so that students are
well prepared for the more advanced courses required by their specific degree
programs. An essential prerequisite for success in a first course in mechanics of
materials is a strong foundation in statics, which includes not only understanding
fundamental concepts but also proficiency in applying the laws of static equi-
librium to solutions of both two- and three-dimensional problems. This ninth
edition begins with an updated section on statics in which the laws of equilib-
rium and an expanded list of boundary (or support) conditions are reviewed, as
well as types of applied forces and internal stress resultants, all based upon and
derived from a properly drawn free-body diagram. Numerous examples and end-
of-chapter problems are included to help students review the analysis of plane
and space trusses, shafts in torsion, beams and plane and space frames, and to
reinforce basic concepts learned in the prerequisite course.
Many instructors like to present the basic theory of say, beam bending, and
then use real world examples to motivate student interest in the subject of beam
flexure, beam design, etc. In many cases, structures on campus offer easy access to
beams, frames, and bolted connections that can be dissected in lecture or in home-
work problems, to find reactions at supports, forces and moments in members
and stresses in connections. In addition, study of causes of failures in structures
and components also offers the opportunity for students to begin the process of
learning from actual designs and past engineering mistakes. A number of the new
example problems and also the new and revised end-of-chapter problems in this
ninth edition are based upon actual components or structures and are accompa-
nied by photographs so that the student can see the real world problem alongside
the simplified mechanics model and free-body diagrams used in its analysis.
An increasing number of universities are using rich media lecture (and/
or classroom) capture software (such as Panopto and Tegrity) in their large
undergraduate courses in mathematics, physics, and engineering. The many
new photos and enhanced graphics in the ninth edition are designed to support
this enhanced lecture mode.
xi
xii Preface
Key Features
The main topics covered in this book are the analysis and design of structural
members subjected to tension, compression, torsion, and bending, including
the fundamental concepts mentioned above. Other important topics are the
transformations of stress and strain, combined loadings and combined stress,
deflections of beams, and stability of columns. Some additional specialized top-
ics include the following: stress concentrations, dynamic and impact loadings,
non-prismatic members, shear centers, bending of beams of two materials (or
composite beams), bending of unsymmetric beams, maximum stresses in beams,
energy based approaches for computing deflections of beams, and statically
indeterminate beams.
Each chapter begins with a Chapter Overview highlighting the major top-
ics covered in that chapter and closes with a Chapter Summary and Review in
which the key points as well as major mathematical formulas in the chapter
are listed for quick review. Each chapter also opens with a photograph of
a component or structure that illustrates the key concepts discussed in the
chapter.
new Features
Some of the notable features of this ninth edition, which have been added as
new or updated material to meet the needs of a modern course in mechanics of
materials, are:
• Problem-Solving Approach—All examples in the text are presented in a
new Four-Step Problem-Solving Approach which is patterned after that
presented by R. Serway and J. Jewett in Principles of Physics, 5e, Cengage
Learning, 2013. This new structured format helps students refine their
problem-solving skills and improve their understanding of the main con-
cepts illustrated in the example.
• Statics Review—The Statics Review section has been enhanced in Chapter
1. Section 1.2 includes four new example problems which illustrate calcu-
lation of support reactions and internal stress resultants for truss, beam,
circular shaft and plane frame structures. Thirty-four end-of-chapter prob-
lems on statics provide students with two- and three-dimensional structures
to be used as practice, review, and homework assignment problems of
varying difficulty.
• Expanded Chapter Overview and Chapter Summary and Review sections—
The Chapter Overview and Chapter Summary sections have been expanded
to include key equations and figures presented in each chapter. These sum-
mary sections serve as a convenient review for students of key topics and
equations presented in each chapter.
• Continued emphasis on underlying fundamental concepts such as equilib-
rium, constitutive, and strain-displacement/ compatibility equations in
problem solutions. Example problem and end-of-chapter problem solu-
tions have been updated to emphasize an orderly process of explicitly writ-
ing out the equilibrium, constitutive and strain-displacement/ compatibility
equations before attempting a solution.
Preface xiii
• Expanded topic coverage—The following topics have been updated or have

received expanded coverage: stress concentrations in axially loads bars
(Sec. 2.10); torsion of noncircular shafts (Sec. 3.10); stress concentrations
in bending (Sec. 5.13); transformed section analysis for composite beams
(Sec. 6.3); generalized flexure formula for unsymmetric beams (Sec. 6.5);
and updated code provisions for buckling of steel, aluminum and timber
columns (Sec. 11.9).
• Many new example and end-of-chapter problems—More than forty new
example problems have been added to the ninth edition. In addition, there
are more than 400 new and revised end-of-chapter problems out of the
1440 problems presented in the ninth edition text. The end-of-chapter
problems are now grouped as Introductory or Representative and are
arranged in order of increasing difficulty.
• Centroids and Moments of Inertia review has moved to Appendix D to free
up space for more examples and problems in earlier chapters.
Importance of example Problems

• Examples are presented throughout the book to illustrate the theoretical
concepts and show how those concepts may be used in practical situations.
All examples are presented in the Four-Step Problem-Solving Approach
format so that the basic concepts as well as the key steps in setting up and
solving each problem are clearly understood. New photographs have been
added showing actual engineering structures or components to reinforce
the tie between theory and application. Each example begins with a clear
statement of the problem and then presents a simplified analytical model
and the associated free-body diagrams to aid students in understanding
and applying the relevant theory in engineering analysis of the system. In
most cases, the examples are worked out in symbolic terms so as to better
illustrate the ideas, and then numeric values of key parameters are substi-
tuted in the final part of the analysis step. In selected examples through-
out the text, graphical display of results (e.g., stresses in beams) has been
added to enhance the student’s understanding of the problem results.
example 1-1 In many cases, the problem

involves the analysis of a
real physical structure, such
Figure 1-6 Figure 1-7 as this truss structure (Fig.
Free-body diagram of truss model 1-6) representing part of
y
the fuselage of a model air
P plane. Begin by sketching
C
the portion of the structure
2P
θC = 80° of interest showing
a members, supports,
b
θB = 40° dimensions and loadings.

θA = 60° This Conceptualization
Ax A B
D x step in the analysis often
Ay By leads to a free-body
c/2 c/2 diagram (Fig. 1-7).
xiv Preface
Solution:
The solution involves the following steps:
The next step is to simplify 1. Conceptualize [hypothesize, sketch]: First sketch a free-body dia-
the problem, list known gram of the entire truss model (Figure 1-7). Only known applied
data and identify all
forces at C and unknown reaction forces at A and B are shown and
unknowns, and make
necessary assumptions to then used in an equilibrium analysis to find the reactions.
create a suitable model 2. Categorize [simplify, classify]: Overall equilibrium requires that the
for analysis. This is the
Categorize step. force components in x and y directions and the moment about the z
axis must sum to zero; this leads to reaction force components Ax,
Ay, and By. The truss is statically determinate (unknowns: m 1 r 5 5
Write the governing 1 3 5 8, knowns: 2j 5 8) so all member forces can be obtained using
equations, then use the method of joints. . . .
appropriate mathematical
3. Analyze [evaluate; select relevant equations, carry out mathematical
and computational
techniques to solve the solution]: First find the lengths of members AC and BC, which are
equations and obtain needed to compute distances to lines of action of forces.
results, either in the form
of mathematical formulas Law of sines to find member lengths a and b: Use known angles u A, u B,
or numerical values. The and uC and c 5 10 ft to find lengths a and b:
Analysis step leads to
support reaction and sin(u B ) sin(408 )
b 5c 5 (10 ft) 5 6.527 ft,
member forces in the truss. sin(uC ) sin(808 )
sin(u A ) sin(608 )
a 5c 5 (10 ft) 5 8.794 ft
sin(uC ) sin(808 )
Check that computed lengths a and b give length c by using the law
of cosines:
c 5 (6.527 ft)2 1 (8.794 ft)2 2 2(6.527 ft)(8.794 ft) cos(808 ) 5 10 ft

List the major steps in your
analysis procedure so that it 4. Finalize [conclude; examine answer—does it make sense? Are units
is easy to review or check at
a later time. correct? How does it compare to similar problem solutions?]: There
are 2 j 5 8 equilibrium equations for the simple plane truss consid-
ered above and, using the method of joints, these are obtained by
applying SFx 5 0 and SFy 5 0 at each joint in succession. A com-
puter solution of these simultaneous equations leads to the three
reaction forces and five member forces. The method of sections is an
efficient way to find selected member forces.
List the major steps in the Finalize step,

review the solution to make sure that it is
presented in a clear fashion so that it can
be easily reviewed and checked by others.
Are the expressions and numerical values
obtained reasonable? Do they agree with
your initial expectations?
Preface xv
Problems
In all mechanics courses, solving problems is an important part of the learning
process. This textbook offers more than 1440 problems, many with multiple
parts, for homework assignments and classroom discussions. The problems
are placed at the end of each chapter so that they are easy to find and don’t
break up the presentation of the main subject matter. Also, problems are
generally arranged in order of increasing difficulty, thus alerting students to
the time necessary for solution. Answers to all problems are listed near the
back of the book.
Considerable effort has been spent in checking and proofreading the text so
as to eliminate errors. If you happen to find one, no matter how trivial, please
notify me by e-mail (bgoodno@ce.gatech.edu). We will correct any errors in the
next printing of the book.
Units
Both the International System of Units (SI) and the U.S. Customary System
(USCS) are used in the examples and problems. Discussions of both systems
and a table of conversion factors are given in Appendix A. For problems involv-
ing numerical solutions, odd-numbered problems are in USCS units and even-
numbered problems are in SI units. This convention makes it easy to know
in advance which system of units is being used in any particular problem. In
addition, tables containing properties of structural-steel shapes in both USCS
and SI units may be found in Appendix F so that solution of beam analysis
and design examples and end-of-chapter problems can be carried out in either
USCS or SI units.
Supplements
Instructor Resources
An Instructor’s Solutions Manual is available in both print and digital versions,
and includes solutions to all problems from this edition with Mathcad solutions
available for some problems. The Manual includes rotated stress elements for
problems as well as an increased number of free body diagrams. The digital
version is accessible to instructors on http://login.cengage.com. The Instructor
Resource Center also contains a full set of Lecture Note PowerPoints.
Student Resources
FE Exam Review Problems has been updated and now appears online. This
supplement contains 106 FE-type review problems and solutions, which cover
all of the major topics presented in the text and are representative of those likely
to appear on an FE exam. Each of the problems is presented in the FE Exam
format and is intended to serve as a useful guide to the student in preparing for
this important examination.
Many students take the Fundamentals of Engineering Examination upon
graduation, the first step on their path to registration as a Professional Engi-
neer. Most of these problems are in SI units which is the system of units used
xvi Preface
on the FE Exam itself, and require use of an engineering calculator to carry out
the solution. The student must select from four available answers, only one of
which is the correct answer. Go to http://www.cengagebrain.com to find the
FE Exam Review Problems and the resources below, which are available on
the student website for this book:
• Answers to the FE Exam Review Problems
• Detailed Solutions for Each Problem
S.P. Timoshenko (1878–1972)

and J.M. Gere (1925–2008)
Many readers of this book will recognize the name of Stephen P. Timoshenko—
probably the most famous name in the field of applied mechanics. A brief
biography of Timoshenko appears in the first reference in the References and
Historical Notes section. Timoshenko is generally recognized as the world’s most
outstanding pioneer in applied mechanics. He contributed many new ideas and
concepts and became famous for both his scholarship and his teaching. Through
his numerous textbooks he made a profound change in the teaching of mechan-
ics not only in this country but wherever mechanics is taught. Timoshenko was
both teacher and mentor to James Gere and provided the motivation for the
first edition of this text, authored by James M. Gere and published in 1972.
The second and each subsequent edition of this book were written by James
Gere over the course of his long and distinguished tenure as author, educator,
and researcher at Stanford University. James Gere started as a doctoral student
at Stanford in 1952 and retired from Stanford as a professor in 1988 having
authored this and eight other well-known and respected text books on mechan-
ics, and structural and earthquake engineering. He remained active at Stanford
as Professor Emeritus until his death in January of 2008.
Acknowledgments
To acknowledge everyone who contributed to this book in some manner is clearly
impossible, but I owe a major debt to my former Stanford teachers, especially my
mentor and friend, and co-author James M. Gere.
I am grateful to my many colleagues teaching Mechanics of Materials at
various institutions throughout the world who have provided feedback and con-
structive criticism about the text; for all those anonymous reviews, my thanks.
With each new edition, their advice has resulted in significant improvements
in both content and pedagogy.
My appreciation and thanks also go to the reviewers who provided specific
comments for this ninth edition:
Erian Armanios, University of Texas at Arlington
Aaron S. Budge, Minnesota State University, Mankato
Virginia Ferguson, University of Colorado, Boulder
Preface xvii
James Giancaspro, University of Miami
Paul Heyliger, Colorado State University
Eric Kasper, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo
Richard Kunz, Mercer University
David Lattanzi, George Mason University
Gustavo Molina, Georgia Southern University
Suzannah Sandrik, University of Wisconsin—Madison
Morteza A.M. Torkamani, University of Pittsburgh
I wish to also acknowledge my Structural Engineering and Mechanics

colleagues at the Georgia Institute of Technology, many of whom provided
valuable advice on various aspects of the revisions and additions leading to
the current edition. It is a privilege to work with all of these educators and to
learn from them in almost daily interactions and discussions about structural
engineering and mechanics in the context of research and higher education.
I wish to extend my thanks to my many current and former students who have
helped to shape this text in its various editions. Finally, I would like to acknowl-
edge the excellent work of Edwin Lim who suggested new problems and also
carefully checked the solutions of many of the new examples and end of chapter
problems.
I wish to acknowledge and thank the Global Engineering team at Cengage
Learning for their dedication to this new book:
Timothy Anderson, Product Director; Mona Zeftel, Senior Content Developer;

D. Jean Buttrom, Content Project Manager; Kristin Stine, Marketing Manager;
Elizabeth Brown and Brittany Burden, Learning Solutions Specialists; Ashley
Kaupert, Associate Media Content Developer; Teresa Versaggi and Alexander
Sham, Product Assistants; and Rose Kernan of RPK Editorial Services, Inc.
They have skillfully guided every aspect of this text’s development and
production to successful completion.
I am deeply appreciative of the patience and encouragement provided by
my family, especially my wife, Lana, throughout this project.
Finally, I am very pleased to continue this endeavor begun so many years
ago by my mentor and friend, Jim Gere. This ninth edition text has now reached
its 45th year of publication. I am committed to its continued excellence and wel-
come all comments and suggestions. Please feel free to provide me with your
critical input at bgoodno@ce.gatech.edu.
Barry J. Goodno
Atlanta, Georgia
M I n DTA P o n L I n e C o U R S e
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xviii
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SyMBoLS
A area
Af , Aw area of flange; area of web
a, b, c dimensions, distances
C centroid, compressive force, constant of integration
c distance from neutral axis to outer surface of a beam
D diameter
d diameter, dimension, distance
E modulus of elasticity
E r , Et reduced modulus of elasticity; tangent modulus of elasticity
e eccentricity, dimension, distance, unit volume change
(dilatation)
F force
f shear flow, shape factor for plastic bending, flexibility,
frequency (Hz)
fT torsional flexibility of a bar
G modulus of elasticity in shear
g acceleration of gravity
H height, distance, horizontal force or reaction, horsepower
h height, dimensions
I moment of inertia (or second moment) of a plane area
I x, I y, I z moments of inertia with respect to x, y, and z axes
I x1, I y1 moments of inertia with respect to x1 and y1 axes (rotated axes)
I xy product of inertia with respect to xy axes
I x1y1 product of inertia with respect to x1 y1 axes (rotated axes)
IP polar moment of inertia
I1, I 2 principal moments of inertia
J torsion constant
K stress-concentration factor, bulk modulus of elasticity, effective
length factor for a column
k spring constant, stiffness, symbol for P /EI
kT torsional stiffness of a bar
L length, distance
LE effective length of a column
ln, log natural logarithm (base e); common logarithm (base 10)
M bending moment, couple, mass
M P, MY plastic moment for a beam; yield moment for a beam
m moment per unit length, mass per unit length
N axial force
xxi
xxii Symbols
n factor of safety, integer, revolutions per minute (rpm)

O origin of coordinates
O9 center of curvature
P force, concentrated load, power
Pallow allowable load (or working load)
Pcr critical load for a column
PP plastic load for a structure
Pr, Pt reduced-modulus load for a column; tangent-modulus load
for a column
PY yield load for a structure
p pressure (force per unit area)
Q force, concentrated load, first moment of a plane area
q intensity of distributed load (force per unit distance)
R reaction, radius
r radius, radius of gyration ( r 5 I /A )
S section modulus of the cross section of a beam, shear center
s distance, distance along a curve
T tensile force, twisting couple or torque, temperature
TP, TY plastic torque; yield torque
t thickness, time, intensity of torque (torque per unit distance)
tf , t w thickness of flange; thickness of web
U strain energy
u strain-energy density (strain energy per unit volume)
ur , ut modulus of resistance; modulus of toughness
V shear force, volume, vertical force or reaction
v deflection of a beam, velocity
v9, v 0, etc. dv/dx, d 2 v /dx 2 , etc.
W force, weight, work
w load per unit of area (force per unit area)
x, y, z rectangular axes (origin at point O)
xc , yc , zc rectangular axes (origin at centroid C)
x, y, z coordinates of centroid
Z plastic modulus of the cross section of a beam
a angle, coefficient of thermal expansion, nondimensional ratio
b angle, nondimensional ratio, spring constant, stiffness
bR rotational stiffness of a spring
g shear strain, weight density (weight per unit volume)
g xy , g yz , g zx shear strains in xy, yz, and zx planes
g x1y1 shear strain with respect to x1 y1 axes (rotated axes)
gu shear strain for inclined axes
d deflection of a beam, displacement, elongation of a bar
or spring
Symbols xxiii
∆T temperature differential
d P , dY plastic displacement; yield displacement
« normal strain
« x, « y, « z normal strains in x, y, and z directions
« x1, « y1 normal strains in x1 and y1 directions (rotated axes)
«u normal strain for inclined axes
«1, « 2 , « 3 principal normal strains
«9 lateral strain in uniaxial stress
«T thermal strain
«Y yield strain
u angle, angle of rotation of beam axis, rate of twist of a bar
in torsion (angle of twist per unit length)
up angle to a principal plane or to a principal axis
us angle to a plane of maximum shear stress
k curvature (k 5 1/r )
l distance, curvature shortening
n Poisson’s ratio
r radius, radius of curvature ( r 5 1/k ), radial distance in polar
coordinates, mass density (mass per unit volume)
s normal stress
s x, s y, s z normal stresses on planes perpendicular to x, y, and z axes
s x1, s y1 normal stresses on planes perpendicular to x1 y1 axes (rotated
axes)
su normal stress on an inclined plane
s 1, s 2, s 3 principal normal stresses
s allow allowable stress (or working stress)
s cr critical stress for a column (s cr 5 Pcr /A)
s pl proportional-limit stress
sr residual stress
sT thermal stress
sU , sY ultimate stress; yield stress
t shear stress
t xy , t yz, t zx shear stresses on planes perpendicular to the x, y, and z axes
and acting parallel to the y, z, and x axes
t x1y1 shear stress on a plane perpendicular to the x1 axis and acting
parallel to the y1 axis (rotated axes)
tu shear stress on an inclined plane
t allow allowable stress (or working stress) in shear
t U , tY ultimate stress in shear; yield stress in shear
f angle, angle of twist of a bar in torsion
c angle, angle of rotation
v angular velocity, angular frequency (v 5 2p f )
Another random document with
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Educated
working women: Essays on the economic
position of women workers in the middle classes
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and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
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Title: Educated working women: Essays on the economic position of

women workers in the middle classes
Author: Clara E. Collet
Release date: July 28, 2022 [eBook #68623]
Language: English
Original publication: United Kingdom: P. S. King & Son, 1902
Credits: The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at

https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
generously made available by The Internet Archive)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EDUCATED

WORKING WOMEN: ESSAYS ON THE ECONOMIC POSITION OF
WOMEN WORKERS IN THE MIDDLE CLASSES ***
Educated Working Women
ESSAYS ON THE ECONOMIC POSITION OF
WOMEN WORKERS IN THE MIDDLE CLASSES.
BY
CLARA E. COLLET, M.A.,
Fellow of University College London.
LONDON:
P. S. KING & SON,
ORCHARD HOUSE, WESTMINSTER.
1902.
BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO. LD., PRINTERS,
LONDON AND TONBRIDGE.
In Memoriam.
FRANCES MARY BUSS.

CONTENTS.
PAGE
The Economic Position of Educated Working Women. Read to
1
the South Place Ethical Society, February, 1890
Prospects of Marriage for Women. The Nineteenth Century,
27
April, 1892
The Expenditure of Middle Class Working Women. The
66
Economic Journal, December, 1898
The Age Limit for Women. The Contemporary Review, December,
90
1899
Mrs. Stetson’s Economic Ideal. The Charity Organization Review,
114
March, 1900
Through Fifty Years: The Economic Progress of Women.
134
Frances Mary Buss Schools’ Jubilee Magazine, November, 1900
“Because precisely, I’m an artist, sir,
And woman, if another sate in sight,
I’d whisper,—Soft, my sister! not a word!
By speaking we prove only we can speak,
Which he, the man here, never doubted. What
He doubts is, whether we can do the thing
With decent grace, we’ve not yet done at all.
Now, do it; bring your statue,—you have room!
He’ll see it even by the starlight here;
And if ’tis e’er so little like the god
Who looks out from the marble silently
Along the track of his own shining dart
Through the dusk of ages, there’s no need to speak;
The universe shall henceforth speak for you,
And witness, ‘She who did this thing, was born
To do it,—claims her license in her work.’
And so with more works. Whoso cures the plague,
Though twice a woman, shall be called a leech:
Who rights a land’s finances is excused
For touching copper, though her hands be white,—
But we, we talk!”
“It is the age’s mood”

He said; “we boast, and do not.”
E. B. Browning.—“Aurora Leigh,” Book viii
PREFACE.
The six essays brought together in this small volume, in the order
in which they were written, leave many questions, still warmly
debated with regard to working women, almost untouched. The point
of view of the writer is circumscribed by the conditions set forth in the
first two chapters, which, true in 1891, may have a narrower or a
wider application as time goes on. The position of women in the
small section of the community known as the middle classes is there
shown to be exceptional. The great majority of women belong to the
working classes and spend their youth as wage-earners, in many
cases under conditions injurious to mind and body, although the real
work of their lives is eventually to be found in their own homes. With
middle-class women the position is reversed. To those who have
once realised what a large number of them may have to be self-
supporting, the constant problem henceforth is to discover how the
lives of educated women may be made of more value to themselves
and others. The cost and reward of efficiency are therefore the two
factors which in this little book are treated as being of primary,
although not necessarily of greatest, importance.
The author begs to express her thanks to the Editors of the
Nineteenth Century, Economic Journal, Contemporary Review, and
Charity Organization Review, for permission to republish the articles
which appeared in their magazines.
C. E. C.
THE ECONOMIC POSITION
OF
EDUCATED WORKING WOMEN.
February, 1890.
Mrs. Browning’s advice to women, much needed as it is at the

present time, was somewhat harsh and unpractical at the time she
gave it, more than thirty years ago. At that time it would not have
been possible for a woman “to prove herself a leech and cure the
plague”; for on the one hand she was debarred from obtaining the
necessary qualifications, and on the other she was prohibited from
practicing without them. The hospitals and lecture rooms were
closed to her by prejudice, and practice was therefore forbidden her
by Act of Parliament. Even had she obtained admittance to the
dissecting room and hospital by quiet perseverance and tried ability,
she could not have hoped by such means alone to remove the
obstacles which were placed in her path by legislation. The charters
necessary to empower the Universities to confer degrees on women
could never have been obtained, except through determined
agitation; and if the agitators themselves did not seem competent to
exercise the powers which they wished conferred on women, they
performed the work for which they were most competent and made
the path clear for those who could not have removed the obstacles
themselves. The poet and the novelist had no such difficulties to
contend with. Such women had no greater hardships to endure than
men. If men disbelieved that a woman could write a powerful novel,
she had only to do it to convince them of the contrary. But, generally
speaking, women were prohibited from doing what they could, on the
ground that they could not if they would. It was not universally so; in
many cases girls who showed mathematical or logical power, for
instance, were discouraged from exercising it, because reasoning
power was considered undesirable in women and likely to hinder
their chances of marriage. But, on the whole, women’s incapacity for
intellectual work was put forward as a reason for forbidding them to
attempt it. The futility of forbidding women to do what they were
incapable of doing was never perceived by the opponents of the
movement for the higher education of women, who based their
opposition on this ground. Nor did it avail much to point this out.
Behind this asserted disbelief in the power of the educated woman to
compete even with the average schoolboy, lay a real conviction, that
if she could do so successfully, the more desirable it was to prevent
her having the chance of proving it. It is on record that in the days of
King Ahasuerus, more than 2,000 years ago, great terror was
excited lest “the deed of Vashti should come abroad unto all women,
so that they should despise their husbands in their eyes, when it
should be reported that the King Ahasuerus commanded Vashti, the
queen, to be brought in before him, but she came not. And in order
that all wives should give to their husbands honour, both to great and
small, Ahasuerus sent letters into all the King’s provinces, that every
man should bear rule in his own house.” As in the days of King
Ahasuerus, so thirty years ago it was felt that humility in women
should be cultivated at all costs, and if they became aware that all
men were not necessarily their intellectual superiors they would
break out into open revolt. Women had been told that they should
obey their husbands because the latter knew best. If that were
denied, the claim to obedience would have to rest on the possession
of might instead of right.
This reiterated assertion of their inferiority has rankled in women’s
hearts. For the last forty years it has been the source of most of the
bitterness expressed openly on the platform, and the cause of
invidious comparisons leading to mutual and undignified
recriminations. It has affected the direction towards which the efforts
of educational enthusiasts have been turned. Their one aim and
object has been to show that capacities supposed to be essentially
masculine are possessed by women also; to make it possible for
women to compete on equal terms with men and to prove that they
are not always the last in the race.
That the question of equality or inferiority was a wholly irrelevant
one was not their fault; they had to answer the arguments of those
who held the keys, and they were not to blame if these arguments
were foolish. We owe much to the women who, at the risk of great
unpopularity and much social loss, fought the battles by which the
doors were opened, through which others passed without one effort
of their own. It is because their work has been successful, not from
any depreciation of its value, that I maintain that it is time to review
the outcome of the last ten or twelve years, during which women
have been free to compete with men in the College and the
University, and to take a new departure. London and Cambridge
have admitted them to examinations on equal terms, although the
latter still refuses them the hall-mark of the degree. Newnham and
Girton have had to extend their premises; Lady Margaret and
Somerville have been established and have obtained some
concessions from Oxford; University College, London, Mason’s
College, Birmingham, the Welsh Colleges, and other men’s colleges,
admit women to their class rooms on equal terms with men. London,
Ireland, and Edinburgh admit them to their medical degrees; the
Women’s School of Medicine is prosperous, and they have
admission to a few hospitals. At London and Cambridge they have
done themselves credit in every branch. So far as receptive power is
concerned, it is now at least admitted that the rather-above-the-
average woman is quite on a level with the average man. So far, so
good. But although our self-respect may be considerably increased,
what is our economic position? There are not yet 800 women
graduates of London and Cambridge. Of these the majority are
assistant mistresses in public or private schools, visiting teachers,
lecturers, or head mistresses. There were in 1881, according to the
census of that year, 123,000 women teachers, and over 4,000,000
girls between the ages of five years and twenty; and yet already this
little handful of graduates is told that it is in excess of the demand
and that it must take lower salaries in consequence. In our public
high schools not one in four teachers is a graduate; in private
schools the proportion is much smaller. I do not propose to discuss
this question, and will only make two remarks on it. The first, that
after an expensive college course, which is only less expensive than
that of a man because a woman is less extravagant in her personal
expenditure, a Girton or Newnham student who has taken a good
degree may hope for an initial salary of £105 to £120 non-resident,
rising by very slow degrees to about £140 to £150 a year. Secondly,
that every graduate should remember that when she accepts a lower
rate still, she is making it easier to lower the salaries of the great
majority below her. If all women graduates, and they are not many,
agreed to a minimum, less than which they would not accept, the
mass of teachers, already underpaid, could not be told as they are at
present, that graduates could easily be obtained for the sum they
ask. The teacher with a higher local certificate could hold out for her
£90 a year, little enough in all conscience, because she would know
that no graduate would take less than £100.
But the head mistress engages so few graduates, not merely
because of the higher salary demanded, but because she is quite
content, or rather because the British parent is quite content, that his
daughter should be taught by less competent persons. If we look for
the cause of this indifference, we shall find that he does not attach
the slightest value to the education which she is receiving. For some
unknown reason girls seem to think it absolutely necessary to learn
Latin; he does not wish his daughter to be at any disadvantage with
other girls; therefore he lets her learn Latin. If other girls are taught
well, his daughter must be taught well; but if other girls are taught
badly, he is quite content that his daughter should be so also. He
perhaps learned Latin himself for some similar reason at school, and
so far as he knows he derived no benefit from it, and he is quite
certain he derived no enjoyment from it. The mass of parents do not
wish their daughters to be teachers; and they pertinently ask, what
good are classics and the higher mathematics and advanced natural
science to girls unless they intend to teach? A few can answer
honestly, “We enjoy the study. It is delight to us. Plato, Sophocles,
Æschylus speak to us with a more living voice than any of our
modern thinkers. Mathematics is not merely a discipline to us but an
absorbing occupation, taking us completely out of ourselves for the
time being. A natural science is to us not a mere mass of
ascertained facts unrelated to each other, but a system of
interdependent laws giving a new meaning to life; its very
incompleteness is a charm, for it gives us the opportunity of being
ourselves discoverers.” A few can say this honestly; several, under
the influence of a teacher whom they adore with that schoolgirl
devotion so common in our high schools, persuade themselves that
they feel some of the enjoyment that a properly-constituted mind
would feel. What they really enjoy is the teacher’s enjoyment, which
is infectious. There is no subject so dry or so useless that a living,
healthy, human teacher cannot persuade girls to think it interesting
for the time being. But the majority of girls—and boys too for that
matter—are Philistines and care for none of these things. They do
their work conscientiously enough, because it is their work. They
derive benefit from it as from a kind of mental gymnastics, and so far
as their school days are concerned no harm is done, and they have
benefited by the mental discipline.
When a girl or boy is about seventeen, the future career is
considered. In the case of a son, the father to some extent takes into
account the boy’s natural bent, and also the chances of obtaining a
post for him. Thenceforth his education takes a definite direction. If
intended for one of the professions, the course is easily mapped out.
In other cases the boy may be sent to the University, not so much for
an academic as for a social training; very frequently he leaves school
and at once begins his training for business or mercantile pursuits. If
his father is a merchant, or large employer of labour, he will perhaps
be sent elsewhere to learn all parts of his business and then take
some responsible post in his father’s firm. If this is impossible,
relatives or friends or business connections may be able to offer him
a post, and no stone is left unturned. There is no question either of
his being content to have a low salary because he can live at home.
Nor does he, if he has any sense, deliberately choose to enter an
overstocked market, merely because the men who succeed in it are
admitted to be men of high intelligence. If he has a high opinion of
his own talents, or if he prefers shining by reflected light to earning
an income, he does perhaps become a barrister or a doctor, without
much fitness for the profession. But at least those who take up
business prefer to enter a labour market where there are
comparatively few men of ability yet to be found, and where the
supply of them is not so great as the demand.
The girl of seventeen is never helped in the same way, in many
cases because it has never occurred to men that girls could be so
assisted. There are many other reasons, which I do not propose to
dwell on here. I am not addressing myself to those who do not wish
women to earn their living, but to those who, having accepted the
fact that many girls must work for a living, would be glad to help
them in any way that might be suggested; and I am also speaking to
those women who prefer, no matter what their private resources may
be, to be trained for some occupation which will call for the exercise
of mental powers which they know they possess. I am also confining
my remarks to working women educated for their work in life, and am
not referring to the large numbers of women who take up work
without any other training than the general education acquired at
school. If the woman, who from seventeen to twenty-two has been
trained for her profession, cannot obtain the salary which, as Mr.
Pollard has shown, is necessary to keep her in good health and
provide for her old age, there is no need to say that the untrained
schoolgirl enters the labour market at a greater disadvantage. Now,
on what principles is a girl’s career determined? In a large number of
cases the parents take it for granted that she will be married in a few
years, and they feel they can support her at home in comfort until
then. Fortunately the girl herself does not always take this view; she
thinks it quite possible that she never will be married, and she also
sees that in that case she may in middle life be left with an income
quite inadequate and necessitating a total change in her habits of
living. If she has any public spirit, she will not undersell her poorer
competitors, and will see no reason why she should not be paid the
full worth of her services; she will be glad to know that her services
are really worth her living. But all that she sees before her, unless
she has exceptional talent, is teaching. It is the same with girls who
have to earn their living and whose parents can only afford to give
them an expensive training in the hope that a remunerative income
may afterwards be obtained. They also must be teachers; it is the
only brain-work offered them, and badly paid as it is, it is better paid
than any other work done by women. The result is that we see girls
following the stream and entering the teaching profession; after a
few years, growing weary and sick of it, tired of training intellects,
and doubtful about the practical value of the training, or altogether
careless of it; discontented with a life for which they are naturally
unsuited, and seeing no other career before them. We see others,
who have a strong practical bent, giving themselves up to purely
intellectual studies, because they are the only ones possible to them;
and, on the other hand, clever girls, who have no scholastic
ambitions, are left to fritter away their talents or exercise them with
no aid but rule-of-thumb principles to guide them. The prizes, the
exhibitions, the glory are all given to encourage scholarship. Brain-
power is worshipped, and as people with brains are not encouraged
to exercise them in a practical direction, the possession of brain-
power is not ascribed to those who do not display capacity or liking
for classics or mathematics or the abstract sciences. And the whole
tendency is to compete with men where men are strongest. And
here, socially, morally, and economically, we are making a great
mistake. We are narrowing women to one kind of education, which
would cut off the majority of them from sympathy with the men in
their own class; they imbibe a false idea that culture means the
possession of useless knowledge; and because men in the
commercial world have a knowledge which enables them to perform
services for which others are willing to pay, they are regarded as
necessarily uncultured and mercenary. The leisured and professional
classes take the precedence in the girl-graduate’s eyes as being
better educated and having less sordid aims. But, fortunately for
England, the majority of men are neither leisured nor professional,
and the organisation of industry and the extension of commerce give
scope for the exercise of the highest powers. Socially, therefore, the
educated woman at present is isolated from her class and suffers in
consequence. Morally she suffers, for she is not developing her
natural powers. A woman’s emotional nature is different from a
man’s, her inherited experience is different, her tastes are different,
and—greatest heresy of all nowadays—her intellect is different. It is
a common thing to say that there is no sex in intellect. If the
upholders of this theory mean that from two given premisses the
same conclusion must be drawn by men and women whenever they
think rightly, of course no one can deny it. But this purely deductive
work can be done by machinery. The real work of intelligence is the
induction which supplies the premisses, the selection of premisses
suitable to the purpose in view and the application of the conclusion.
The working of intelligence is prompted, strengthened, and directed
by interest and emotion; and here it is that men and women differ,
and always will differ, a woman inheriting as she does, with a
woman’s nervous organization, a woman’s emotional nature. It is on
this difference between men and women, amidst much which is
common to both, that I build my hopes of women’s success in the
future. I do not urge women to compete with men because they can
do what men can, but because I believe they can do what men
cannot; and I believe that those branches in which men have
attained the highest pitch of excellence are those in which women
are least likely to find pleasure or excel. Creditable as have been
their performances in the Mathematical Tripos, I am glad to see that
their success in the Natural Science Tripos is much greater. Instead
of glorying in having once in a score of years a Senior Classic, I take
pride in the fact that in the four years since the Mediæval and
Modern Language Tripos was instituted, women have always been
in the front rank, and I notice with fear and trembling that, although
during the first three years there was always a woman in the first
class, and no men, last year, although there was no deterioration in
the women’s work, they did not have the first class all to themselves.
I look forward to the day, but I hope it will be long before it comes,
when the men’s colleges shall rejoice because they have a man in
the first class without a woman to share the honours. There are
many things which men are doing alone, which could be done
infinitely better if educated women helped them; and nowhere is this
more obvious to me, although probably not to them, than in
business. While there is much that can be done well by the human
being, indifferently, whether man or woman, there is much that can
only be done well by the male human being, much that can only be
done well by the female human being, and much that can only be
done well by the two in conjunction. And if men in business only
considered their daughters’ future in the same light as that of their
sons, they would find many branches of business in which they could
be most useful, and earn a good income. Girls inherit, to some
extent, their intellectual capacities from their fathers, just as boys do
from their mothers. And many a bright, clever, lazy girl would
suddenly develop a most unexpected taste for study, if she had
before her the prospect of doing practical, and to her most
interesting work, as one of her father’s managers, or as foreign
correspondence clerk, or as chemist or artistic designer in a large
manufactory; or as assistant steward on her father’s property, or as a
farmer on her own freehold, if (rents having gone down) he is unable
to leave her an income. For all these a course of hard mental training
is necessary or at least desirable; and the girl would be receiving
culture on the one hand, and would have a chance of developing her
natural gifts on the other. Many a girl, accustomed to a country life,
would much prefer the occupations and life of a farmer to that of a
teacher, provided she is allowed to have the college life and the free
intercourse with other girls which is the main attraction of Girton and
Newnham. The work would be far more interesting to her if she
came to it with the enthusiasm of a scientist with theories to be
tested. What is drudgery to an uneducated person may often be
pleasurable to an educated one.
No one can study the organisation of industry at the present time
without noticing that there is great room for improvement. Good
organisers are extremely rare; and even in the internal management
of a factory, perhaps the least important part of the work of a great
manufacturer, much could be done which is rarely done at present.
The admittance of educated women to a share in factory
management should really be regarded in the light of co-operation
with men, not competition with them. A man and a woman looking at
a work-room are struck by different features, and each can be
suggestive to the other. This is especially the case wherever women
are employed.
The question of capacity is a more difficult one for me to answer,
but an easier one for the individual girl, if she is not afraid of ridicule.
And it is at this point that I would reiterate Mrs. Browning’s advice. To
any really clever girl who asked me for advice as to her future work I
should say, “What do you think you could do best if it were possible
for you to do it? Whatever that is, do your very best to get training in
it, to show by capacity at one stage that you could master the next if
you had the chance. If you do this, you will find that the men who
laughed at women for thinking of doing such work will frequently be
the very ones to make an exception in your favour and to help you
over the next difficulty. If you wish to be a farmer, and to study every
department of your work and be thoroughly grounded in agricultural
science, make the best of your opportunities where you are, attend
classes if possible in the technological department of a good college;
and if the agricultural colleges are closed to women, when you have
done everything you can without them, get one of them to make an
exception in your favour. Whatever it may be that you wish to do,
prepare yourself for it, and, instead of bemoaning the ill-treatment of
women in general, persuade those in authority of your fitness in
particular. And when you have gained your end help every girl you
can who shows similar capacities.”
One effect on the economic position of educated working women
of such an extension of employment would be to enable them to
measure their value. Teachers are paid out of fixed income, and their
salaries are almost entirely determined by standard of living. If
employed in business they would be employed for profit, and if they
increased profits their value would rise, and could be measured; they
would be paid according to their worth and not according to their
standard of living. Education would be better adapted to practical
needs, and teachers would be held in higher honour accordingly.
Large numbers of clever girls would be spurred to exertion, whose
intellectual powers have hitherto lain in abeyance, because no
education was offered them corresponding to their needs. There are
other arts, which women already practise, which it would be well for
them to study on a scientific basis. Not only the future wife, mother,
and housekeeper needs a knowledge of physiology, the laws of
health, and domestic economy, but to a still greater extent the future
Poor Law guardian, Board School manager, factory and workshop
inspector, and sanitary officer; and both household manager and
public officer should study the relation between domestic and
national economics. Nor can any man do a greater injury to women
in this respect than by placing a woman in a responsible post for
which she has not been proved competent. The incapacity of a man
is referred to the man himself; that of a woman is credited to the sex.

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Mechanics of Materials is a basic engineering subject that, along with statics,

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Importance of example Problems

example 1-1 In many cases, the problem

θB = 40° dimensions and loadings.

c 5 (6.527 ft)2 1 (8.794 ft)2 2 2(6.527 ft)(8.794 ft) cos(808 ) 5 10 ft

List the major steps in the Finalize step,

S.P. Timoshenko (1878–1972)

Erian Armanios, University of Texas at Arlington

Aaron S. Budge, Minnesota State University, Mankato

Virginia Ferguson, University of Colorado, Boulder

James Giancaspro, University of Miami

Paul Heyliger, Colorado State University

Eric Kasper, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo

Richard Kunz, Mercer University

David Lattanzi, George Mason University

Gustavo Molina, Georgia Southern University

Suzannah Sandrik, University of Wisconsin—Madison

Morteza A.M. Torkamani, University of Pittsburgh

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n factor of safety, integer, revolutions per minute (rpm)

Title: Educated working women: Essays on the economic position of

Author: Clara E. Collet

Release date: July 28, 2022 [eBook #68623]

Original publication: United Kingdom: P. S. King & Son, 1902

Credits: The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EDUCATED

FRANCES MARY BUSS.

“It is the age’s mood”

Mrs. Browning’s advice to women, much needed as it is at the

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