materials

Article
Effect of CO2 Partial Pressure on the Corrosion
Inhibition of N80 Carbon Steel by Gum Arabic
in a CO2-Water Saline Environment for Shale Oil
and Gas Industry
Gaetano Palumbo 1, * , Kamila Kollbek 2 , Roma Wirecka 2,3 , Andrzej Bernasik 3 and
Marcin Górny 4
1 Department of Chemistry and Corrosion of Metals, Faculty of Foundry Engineering, AGH University of
Science and Technology, 30-059 Krakow, Poland
2 Academic Centre for Materials and Nanotechnology, AGH University of Science and Technology,
Mickiewicza St. 30, 30-059 Kraków, Poland; kamila.kollbek@agh.edu.pl (K.K.);
roma.wirecka@fis.agh.edu.pl (R.W.)
3 Department of Condensed Matter Physics, Faculty of Physics and Applied Computer Science, AGH
University of Science and Technology, Mickiewicza St. 30, 30-059 Krakow, Poland; bernasik@agh.edu.pl
4 Department of Cast Alloys and Composites Engineering, Faculty of Foundry Engineering,
AGH University of Science and Technology, 30-059 Krakow, Poland; mgorny@agh.edu.pl
* Correspondence: gpalumbo@agh.edu.pl; Tel.: +48-12-888-27-63




Received: 25 August 2020; Accepted: 21 September 2020; Published: 23 September 2020


Abstract: The effect of CO2 partial pressure on the corrosion inhibition efficiency of gum arabic (GA)
on the N80 carbon steel pipeline in a CO2 -water saline environment was studied by using gravimetric
and electrochemical measurements at different CO2 partial pressures (e.g., PCO2 = 1, 20 and 40 bar)
and temperatures (e.g., 25 and 60 ◦ C). The results showed that the inhibitor efficiency increased
with an increase in inhibitor concentration and CO2 partial pressure. The corrosion inhibition
efficiency was found to be 84.53% and 75.41% after 24 and 168 h of immersion at PCO2 = 40 bar,
respectively. The surface was further evaluated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy
dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), grazing incidence X-ray diffraction (GIXRD), and X-ray photoelectron
spectroscopy (XPS) measurements. The SEM-EDS and GIXRD measurements reveal that the surface
of the metal was found to be strongly affected by the presence of the inhibitor and CO2 partial
pressure. In the presence of GA, the protective layer on the metal surface becomes more compact
with increasing the CO2 partial pressure. The XPS measurements provided direct evidence of the
adsorption of GA molecules on the carbon steel surface and corroborated the gravimetric results.

Keywords: high-pressure CO2 corrosion; corrosion inhibition; gum arabic; carbon steel N80

1. Introduction
Shale oil and gas are “unconventional” resources of natural oil and gas trapped in fine-grained
sedimentary rocks called shale. The rapid expansion of shale oil and gas exploration and the
development of a new technology (i.e., hydraulic fracturing (HF) techniques), has seen the popularity
of these natural resources to grow over the years. However, after years of exploitation, the oil and
gas production in the reservoir declines to result in a major economic challenge for the oil companies.
The injection of CO2 at high pressure into the wellbore is an effective method to increase the oil fields
lifetime [1–4]. This process is usually referred to as carbon dioxide flooding enhanced oil recovery
(CO2 -EOR). However, CO2 gas dissolves in the fluid to form the weak carbonic acid, which in turn

Materials 2020, 13, 4245; doi:10.3390/ma13194245 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2020, 13, 4245 2 of 24

dissociates into bicarbonate and carbonate anions [4,5]. The presence of this weak acid can lead to
severe corrosion attacks on the steel structures [4–6].
Another common problem encountered in the extraction of these natural resources is the use of
aggressive fluids with high concentrations of chloride ions (e.g., fracturing fluid) [7]. In the HF process,
the fluid usually injected into the wellbore is a neutral water-based chloride solution (up to 4% of
potassium chloride) with different additives (i.e., inhibitors of scaling, thickening agents, corrosion
inhibitors, etc.) [8]. The literature reports that the presence of a high concentration of chloride ions in a
CO2 -containing fluid can exponentially accelerate the dissolution of the steel [6,9].
Carbon and low-alloys steel are often used in the construction of the pipeline in the shale oil and
gas industry infrastructures, mainly due to its durability, ductility, high strength, and low cost [7,8,10].
However, due to these harsh operating conditions encountered during the exploitation of these natural
resources, the steel is prone to corrode. One practical and relatively cheap method for controlling sweet
corrosion in the shale oil and gas industry is the use of corrosion inhibitors. Corrosion inhibitors are
substances that added to the solution greatly reduce the dissolution of the metal by forming a protective
layer on its surface. The literature reports that over the last decades the use of corrosion inhibitors
as a means to mitigate CO2 corrosion that occurs inside the carbon steel pipelines has received
a wide interest. Nitrogen-based compounds such as pyridine derivatives [11] imidazolines [12],
benzimidazole derivatives [13], and amines [14] were found to be effective corrosion inhibitors against
CO2 corrosion. However, most of these compounds are reported to be toxic and their synthesis can be
very expensive [15,16]. These drawbacks and the increase in environmental awareness have led many
researchers to focus on the use of more naturally occurring substances as corrosion inhibitors. Plant
extracts substances, such as berberine extract [17], Momordica charantia [18], Gingko biloba [19] were
successfully tested as green corrosion inhibitors in CO2 -saturated saline solutions.
The last trend of research has also seen the use of many naturally occurring polymers as green
corrosion inhibitors in various corrosive environments [10,20–22]. They are abundant in nature,
environmentally sustainable, and have an appreciable solubility. Additionally, polymers, unlike small
molecules, with their multiple adsorption sites for bonding on the metal surface, are expected to show
a higher corrosion inhibition efficiency, compared to their monomer counterpart.
Umoren et al. [15] studied the corrosion inhibition effect of two naturally occurring polymers such
as carboxymethyl cellulose and chitosan for API 5 L X60 steel in a CO2 saline solution at PCO2 = 1 bar.
The results showed that both inhibitors reduced the corrosion rate of the metal due to the formation of
a protective layer on its surface. Singh et al. [23] studied the corrosion inhibition effect of a modified
natural polysaccharide (e.g., guar gum + methylmethacrylate) in a 3.5 wt% NaCl solution saturated
with CO2 (e.g., PCO2 = 1 bar) at 50 ◦ C. The authors found that this modified polysaccharide acted like a
good corrosion inhibitor for P110 steel with maximum inhibition efficiency found to be 90%. However,
most of these studies were carried out at atmospheric pressure (e.g., PCO2 = 1 bar). The CO2 -EOR
process can significantly increase the dissolution of the tube. As reported by many studies, the severity
of the CO2 corrosion attack increases with an increase in CO2 partial pressure due to the increase in
acidity of the fluid [4–6]. Therefore, understanding how the CO2 partial pressure can influence the
inhibitory action of certain corrosion inhibitors in CO2 saline environments is important and can help
to minimize the material and economic losses.
Mustafa et al. [4] studied the effect of the CO2 partial pressure (e.g., 10, 40, and 60 bar) on the
corrosion inhibition of an imidazoline-based inhibitor for X52 steel exposed to CO2 water saline
solution at 60 ◦ C. The authors reported that the inhibitor efficiency of the tested inhibitor was observed
to be strongly affected by the concentration of inhibitor and CO2 partial pressure. Ansari et al. [16]
studied the influence of a modified chitosan corrosion inhibitor on J55 carbon steel in a 3.5 wt% NaCl
solution saturated with CO2 at 60 bar and 65 ◦ C, reporting a corrosion inhibition efficiency of 95%. Yet,
all inhibitors tested so far are labeled either as toxic or are expensive to synthesize.
Gum arabic (GA) is a natural polymer obtained from the Acacia trees of the Leguminosae
family [22] and it has been reported to successfully inhibit the corrosion of the steel in different
Materials 2020, 13, 4245 3 of 24

environments [7,21,22,24–28]. Furthermore, GA is often used in the fracturing fluid as a thickening

Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 24
agent to increase the viscosity of the fluid [29]. Therefore, due to the encouraging results presented
by these studies
undertaken and the
to study thecontinuous
efficacy ofresearch
GA as of anaffordable
eco‐friendlyandcorrosion
eco-friendly corrosion
inhibitor inhibitors,high‐
to mitigate this
work was undertaken to study the efficacy of GA as an eco-friendly corrosion
pressure CO2 corrosion for carbon steel pipeline in a saline solution. This paper also aims to show inhibitor to mitigate
high-pressure
that GA not only COcan2 corrosion
be used asfora thickening
carbon steel pipeline
agent in theinmake‐up
a saline ofsolution. This paper
the fracturing fluid,also
but itaims
couldto
show
also bethat GAasnot
used an only can
active be used asina corrosion
component thickeninginhibitor
agent in inthethe
make-up of industry.
shale gas the fracturing fluid,
To this end,but it
the
could also be used as an active component in corrosion inhibitor in the shale gas
study was performed in an autoclave in the presence and absence of different concentrations of GA, industry. To this end,
the studyCO
different was performed in an autoclave in the presence and absence of different concentrations of
2 partial pressures, and different temperatures using weight loss and electrochemical
GA, different CO
measurements. SEM‐EDS, 2 partial pressures,
GIXRD, andand XPS
different temperatures
measurements using
were weight
also loss and
employed electrochemical
to characterize the
measurements. SEM-EDS, GIXRD, and XPS measurements were
corrosion product layer and to support the gravimetric and electrochemical results. also employed to characterize the
corrosion product layer and to support the gravimetric and electrochemical results.
2. Experimental Procedure
2. Experimental Procedure
2.1. Materials
2.1. Materials
The study was carried out on carbon steel (N80) with composition of (weight %): C 0.39%, Mn
The study was carried out on carbon steel (N80) with composition of (weight %): C 0.39%, Mn
1.80%, Si 0.26%, Cu 0.26%, V 0.19%, Cr 0.04%, Ni 0.04%, Al 0.03%, Mo 0.003%, Co 0.002%, Sn 0.004%,
1.80%, Si 0.26%, Cu 0.26%, V 0.19%, Cr 0.04%, Ni 0.04%, Al 0.03%, Mo 0.003%, Co 0.002%, Sn 0.004%,
S 0.001%, P 0.001% and the remainder Fe. Figure 1 shows that the microstructure of the N80 carbon
S 0.001%, P 0.001% and the remainder Fe. Figure 1 shows that the microstructure of the N80 carbon
steel pipeline is composed of perlite and ferrite (α‐Fe) phases, where the latter phase accounting for
steel pipeline is composed of perlite and ferrite (α-Fe) phases, where the latter phase accounting for
circa 41% of the total. The samples used in this study were machined from pipeline carbon steel,
circa 41% of the total. The samples used in this study were machined from pipeline carbon steel,
ground with silicon carbide abrasive paper up to 1200 grit, then were ultrasonically washed with
ground with silicon carbide abrasive paper up to 1200 grit, then were ultrasonically washed with
distilled water, dried with absolute alcohol.
distilled water, dried with absolute alcohol.

Figure 1. Optical micrographs of the N80 carbon steel microstructures.

Figure 1. Optical micrographs of the N80 carbon steel microstructures.
All experiments were carried out in 3% of potassium chloride (KCl). Potassium salt was used
All experiments were carried out in 3% of potassium chloride (KCl). Potassium salt was used in
in this study instead of the more common NaCl, because in the fracturing fluid, the potassium (K+ )
this study instead of the more common NaCl, because in the fracturing fluid, the potassium (K+) ions
ions formed a semi-permeable membrane on the shale rock and therefore, preventing the water from
formed a semi‐permeable membrane on the shale rock and therefore, preventing the water from
entering the shale.
entering the shale.
The tested solution was prepared from reagent grade material potassium chloride (Sigma-Aldrich)
The tested solution was prepared from reagent grade material potassium chloride (Sigma‐
and pure deionized water with an electrical resistivity of 0.055 µS/cm at T = 25 ◦ C. The tested inhibitor
Aldrich) and pure deionized water with an electrical resistivity of 0.055 μS/cm at T = 25 °C. The tested
was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (Warsaw, Poland). The concentrations of inhibitor solution
inhibitor was purchased from Sigma‐Aldrich (Warsaw, Poland). The concentrations of inhibitor
prepared and used for the study ranged from 0.6 up to 2.0 g L−1 .
solution prepared and used for the study ranged from 0.6 up to 2.0 g L−1.
2.2. Gravimetric Measurements
2.2. Gravimetric Measurements
The gravimetric experiments were carried out in a 1.2 L high-pressure autoclave (PARR instrument)
The gravimetric
at different CO2 partialexperiments
pressures (1, were carried
20, and 40 bar).out
Theincoupons
a 1.2 Lwere
high‐pressure
suspended autoclave (PARR
in a 1.0 L solution
instrument) at different CO2 partial pressures (1, 20, and 40 bar). The coupons were suspended in a
1.0 L solution in the presence and absence of different concentrations of the inhibitor (i.e., from 0.6
up to 2.0 g L−1) at 25 and 60 °C. Before each experiment, the tested solution was deaerated with CO2
for 2 h under atmospheric pressure and then CO2 was purged for another 2 h at the tested pressure
Materials 2020, 13, 4245 4 of 24

in the presence and absence of different concentrations of the inhibitor (i.e., from 0.6 up to 2.0 g L−1 )
at 25 and 60 ◦ C. Before each experiment, the tested solution was deaerated with CO2 for 2 h under
atmospheric pressure and then CO2 was purged for another 2 h at the tested pressure after the
introduction of the samples. After saturation, the pH and conductivity of the tested solution were 4.5
and 60.30 mS cm−1 at 1 bar and 25 ◦ C, respectively. To ensure homogeneous mixing, a Teflon-coated
blade agitator was used (e.g., 200 rpm). The weight loss was determined by retrieving the coupons
after 24 h of immersion by means of an analytical balance with an accuracy of ±0.1 mg. To assess the
effect of time, the samples were immersed for 168 h in the presence and absence of 1.0 g L−1 of GA at
different CO2 partial pressures (1, 20, and 40 bar). The corrosion products were removed according to
the ASTM G1-90 [30], then the specimens were ultrasonically washed with distilled water, dried with
absolute alcohol, and reweighed. In each case, the experiment was conducted thrice and the corrosion
rate (CR) in mm y−1 was obtained from the following equation:

87.6 ∆m
CR (mm y−1 ) = (1)
dAt
where, ∆m is the weight loss calculated form the difference between the initial (W i ) and the final (W f )
weight (mg). d is the density (7.87 g cm−3 ), A is the surface of the sample (cm−2 ) and t is the immersion
time (h). The inhibition efficiency (IE%) was determined using the following equation [20,22,26]:

CR − CRinh
IE% = × 100 (2)
CR

where CRinh and CR are the corrosion rates of the steel with and without the inhibitor, respectively.

2.3. Electrochemical Experiments

The electrochemical experiments were carried out in a 1.2 L high-pressure autoclave (PARR
instrument) at different CO2 partial pressures (1, 20, and 40 bar) with a conventional three-electrode
system. N80 carbon steel specimen was used as a working electrode, a platinum foil as a counter
electrode (CE), and a high-pressure 0.1 M KCl Ag/AgCl probe was used as a reference electrode.
To ensure homogeneous mixing, a Teflon-coated blade agitator was used (200 rpm). The electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and potentiodynamic polarization (PDP) measurements were carried in
a Gamry reference 600 potentiostat/galvanostat electrochemical system after the sample was exposed
for 24 h in the tested solution, with and without the presence of 1.0 g L−1 of GA. The EIS tests were
performed over the frequency range of 100 kHz to 10 mHz and amplitude of 10 mV at open circuit
potential. The data were then fitted by means of Echem Analyst 5.21 software using the opportune
equivalent circuit. The IE% was calculated from the polarization resistances (Rp ) determined from the
fitting process using the following equation [21,26]:

Rinh
p − Rp
IE% = × 100 (3)
Rinh
p

where Rp inh and Rp are the values of the polarization resistances in the presence and absence of the
inhibitor, respectively. The PDP measurements were carried out at a potential of ±−0.3 V from the
OCP and a scan rate of 1 mV s−1 . The potentiodynamic parameters were determined by means of
Echem Analyst 5.21 software. The values of IE% were calculated from the measured icorr values using
the relationship [21,26]:
icorr − iinh
corr
IE% = × 100 (4)
icorr
where icorr and iinh
corr represent the values of the corrosion current densities without and with
inhibitor, respectively.
Materials 2020, 13, 4245 5 of 24

2.4. Surface Analysis

The surface of the samples, prepared as described above, were analyzed in the presence and
absence of 1.0 g L−1 of GA. After the immersion, the samples were removed and rinsed with deionized
water and
Materials 2020,dried. The
13, x FOR surface
PEER REVIEW analysis was carried out by means of different techniques such as24a
5 of
scanning electron microscopy combined with an energy dispersive spectroscopy, grazing incidence
were
X-raycarried out by
diffraction using a and
(GIXRD), JEOL anscanning electron microscope.
X-ray photoelectron The GIXRD
spectroscopy (XPS). Theanalysis
SEMwas carried out
measurements
to further determine the composition of the corrosion products film.
were carried out by using a JEOL scanning electron microscope. The GIXRD analysis was carried Grazing incident X‐ray
out
diffraction (GIXRD) with
to further determine an incident of
the composition angle of 3° was products
the corrosion applied tofilm.
study samples
Grazing phaseX-ray
incident composition.
diffractionA
Panalytical
(GIXRD) with Empyrean
an incidentX‐ray
anglediffractometer
of 3◦ was appliedin theto parallel beam phase
study samples geometry (Goebel mirror
composition. in the
A Panalytical
incident
Empyrean beamX-rayoptics and parallelinplate
diffractometer collimator
the parallel in the
beam secondary
geometry beammirror
(Goebel optics)inwith
the Co lamp (Kα
incident beam =
1.7902 Å) was
optics and usedplate
parallel to perform measurements.
collimator in the secondary The beam
samples werewith
optics) scanned
Co lamp with(Kα = 1.7902
a 0.02° stepÅ)in was
the
range of 20°– 70° at room temperature. The XPS analysis was carried out
◦ in a PHI
used to perform measurements. The samples were scanned with a 0.02 step in the range of 20 – 70 at 5000 VersaProbe
◦ ◦ II
spectrometer with an Al Kα monochromatic X‐ray beam. The X‐ray source was
room temperature. The XPS analysis was carried out in a PHI 5000 VersaProbe II spectrometer with anoperated at 25 W and
15
Al kV
Kα beam voltages. Dual‐beam
monochromatic X-ray beam.charge compensation
The X-ray source waswith 7 eV at
operated Ar25+ ions and 1 eV electrons was
W and 15 kV beam voltages.
used maintain a constant sample surface +
Dual-beam charge compensation with 7 eV Ar ions and 1 eV electrons was usedconductivity.
to potential regardless of the sample to maintain aThe pass
constant
energy
sample of the hemispherical
surface analyzer
potential regardless of for
the the ironconductivity.
sample (Fe 2p) spectra Thewas
passfixed at 23.5
energy eV hemispherical
of the and for other
elements
analyzer forat 46.95 eV.(Fe
the iron The2p)
spectra
spectrawere
wascharge
fixed atcorrected
23.5 eV andto the
for mainline of the at
other elements carbon
46.95 CeV.1 The
s spectrum
spectra
set to 284.8 eV.
were charge corrected to the mainline of the carbon C 1 s spectrum set to 284.8 eV.

3. Results
Results and
and Discussion
Discussion

3.1. Effect
3.1. Effect of
of Pressure
Pressure and
and Temperature
Temperature

3.1.1. Gravimetric
3.1.1. Gravimetric Experiments
Experiments
Figure 22 and
Figure and Table
Table S1
S1 show
show the
the corrosion rate and
corrosion rate and the
the variation
variation of
of the
the inhibition
inhibition efficiency
efficiency
obtained at
obtained at different
differentconcentrations
concentrationsofofGA
GAandandCO
CO2 partial pressures. It follows from the data that CR
2 partial pressures. It follows from the data that
increases with an increase of CO 2 partial pressure, going from
CR increases with an increase of CO2 partial pressure, going from 1.281.28
to 10.95 mmmm
to 10.95 y−1 at
y−1Pat
COP = 1 bar
2
CO2 = 1
and PCO2 = 40 bar at 25 C, respectively.
◦
bar and PCO2 = 40 bar at 25 °C, respectively.

Figure 2. Corrosion inhibitor efficiency at different concentrations of gum arabic (GA) and CO2 partial
Figure 2. Corrosion inhibitor efficiency at different concentrations of gum arabic (GA) and CO2 partial
pressures after 24 h of immersion.
pressures after 24 h of immersion.
The solubility of CO2 in water increases sharply with increasing the pressure of the system [31].
The solubility
The high of CO
corrosion rate 2 in water increases sharply with increasing the pressure of the system [31].
observed at higher CO2 partial pressures can be explained with the increase of
The high corrosion rate observed at higher CO2 partial pressures can be explained with the increase
of the acidity of the solution. In fact, in the presence of CO2, the weak carbonic acid is formed, which
in turn dissociates in HCO‐3 and in CO3 ‐ , according to the following reactions:
CO2 + H2 O ↔ H2 CO3 (5)

H2 CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO‐3 (6)

HCO‐3 ↔ H+ + CO2‐
3 (7)
Materials 2020, 13, 4245 6 of 24

the acidity of the solution. In fact, in the presence of CO2 , the weak carbonic acid is formed, which in
turn dissociates in HCO− 2−
3 and in CO3 , according to the following reactions:

CO2 + H2 O ↔ H2 CO3 (5)

H2 CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO−
3 (6)
+
HCO− 2−
3 ↔ H + CO3 (7)

The corrosion process in a CO2 containing solution is controlled by the anodic reaction (Equation (8))
and the three cathodic reactions (Equation (9)–(11)) [4,5]:

Fe → Fe2+ + 2e− (8)

2H2 CO3 + 2e− → H2 + 2HCO−

3 (9)

2HCO− − 2−
3 + 2e → H2 + 2CO3 (10)

2H+ + 2e− → H2 (11)

The pH of the solution plays an important role in determining the corrosion rate of carbon steel
in a CO2 environment. As the CO2 partial pressure increases, its solubility also increases, resulting
in an increase of the carbonic acid concentration in the solution (Equation (5)). Nesic’ predicted that
the concentrations of H2 CO3 in the solution would increase of about 40 times with changing the
pressure from PCO2 = 1 bar to PCO2 = 40 bar [31]. Increasing the concentration of carbonic acid leads
to an increase in the rate of reduction of carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions (Equations (9) and (10)),
and ultimately the anodic dissolution of the steel (Equation (8)) as reported by several studies [4,5,31].
After the addition of the inhibitor, it can be seen that the corrosion rate of the metal is greatly
reduced going from 1.28 to 0.37 mm y−1 , with a maximum corrosion inhibition efficiency found to be
71.09% at PCO2 = 1 bar, after 24 h of immersion. The data shows that in contrast to the uninhibited
solution, an increase in CO2 partial pressure has a favorable effect on the corrosion rate of the metal
in the presence of the inhibitor. It follows from Figure 2 that IE, which varies inversely with CR,
significantly increased after the addition of GA and with CO2 partial pressure, with a maximum
corrosion inhibition efficiency of 78.77% and 84.53% at PCO2 = 20 bar and PCO2 = 40 bar, after 24 h of
immersion, respectively [4].
The literature reports that GA [7,21], and in general polysaccharides-like inhibitors [15,20],
is mainly adsorbed on the metal surface in acidic condition by weak electrostatic interaction between
the protonated inhibitor molecules and the chloride ions adsorbed on the metal surface. In a weak acid
solution GA molecules are in equilibrium with their protonated molecules according to the following
reaction (see also Section 3.5.1) [7]:
+
GA + xH+ ↔ [GAHx ]x(sol )
(12)

+
where [GAH x ]x(sol )
is the protonated inhibitor in the solution. As mentioned before, an increase in CO2
partial pressure leads to an increase in the acidity of the solution [32]. The higher value of IE observed
at higher CO2 partial pressures can be ascribed to the higher concentration of H+ ions present in the
solution, which in turn leads to an increase in the number of protonated inhibitor molecules that can
be adsorbed on the metal surface. Moreover, Figure 2 also reveals that IE varies with the concentration
of the inhibitor until the system reached a state (e.g., 1.0 g L−1 of GA), in which it can be said that the
inhibitor molecules are in equilibrium with their protonated counterpart. For further increase in GA
concentration, IE remains almost stable. The results clearly demonstrate that GA has greatly reduced
the CR of the metal in the tested environment, and the high corrosion inhibition activity of GA was
influenced by both its concentration and CO2 partial pressure. The lower values of CR observed in the
Materials 2020, 13, 4245 7 of 24

presence of the inhibitor can be ascribed to its adsorption on the metal surface, covering the metal
surface and thereby, blocking the active corrosion sites on its surface [4,7,28]. The gravimetric results
are also supported by the SEM analysis presented from Figures 7–9, where it can be seen that the
surface coverage increases and the protective layer becomes more compact in the presence of GA and
with increasing CO2 partial pressure.
As the temperature rises, IE slightly decreased. This decrease may be due to the combination of
two different reasons. For instance, the solubility of CO2 decreases with increasing the temperature of
the solution [31], which can lead to a less acid environment. The pH of the solution increases slightly
and therefore shifting the equilibrium reaction Equation (12) to the left. At higher pH, the concentration
of H+ ions in the solution is smaller, which would result in the formation of fewer protonated inhibitor
molecules available for the absorption process. Another possible reason may be due to the fact that
these types of inhibitors get absorbed via electrostatic interactions (e.g., van der Waal forces) onto
the surface of the metal, and it is known that this types of interaction generally grow weaker with an
increase in temperature due to larger thermal motion [3,20]. Consequently, an increase in temperature
will increase the metal surface kinetic energy, which has a detrimental effect on the adsorption process
and encourages desorption processes [15,20].
Table S2 lists the inhibition efficiency of various corrosion inhibitors used to mitigate sweet
corrosion obtained at different immersion times and temperatures. It is worth mentioning that most of
these inhibitors are labeled either as toxic or are expensive to synthesize. Umoren et al. [15] reported the
corrosion inhibition efficiency of a commercial inhibitor to be 87 and 88% at 25 and 60 ◦ C, respectively
after 24 h of immersion. The table shows that GA, compared to other studied corrosion inhibitors,
and the commercial corrosion inhibitor, can be considered a good environmentally friendly corrosion
inhibitor for carbon steel in a CO2 -saturated saline solution. Moreover, since GA is already used as
a thickening agent in the make-up of the fracturing fluid, can also work as an active component in
corrosion inhibitor in the shale gas industry.

3.1.2. Electrochemical Experiments

The electrochemical experiments such as electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and
potentiodynamic polarization (PDP) were also employed as a means to support the gravimetric
findings. These experiments were carried out at 1.0 g L−1 of GA at different CO2 partial pressures after
24 of immersion. 1.0 g L−1 is the concentration in which the tested inhibitor exhibited a maximum in
the concentration-efficiency curve.
The EIS measurements were used to evaluate the resistance of the protective layer from the
electrochemical angle and are presented in Figure 3. It can be seen from the Bode (Figure 3b) and phase
angle plots (Figure 3c) that the system is characterized by two-time constants at low (LF) and high
frequencies (HF). The presence of these two-time constants suggests that the electrochemical reaction
process of the N80 carbon steel in a CO2 saturated saline solution is affected by two state variables i.e.,
the corrosion products layer and/or the protective adsorptive layer, and electric double-layer, as also
reported by Dong et al. [33]. For this reason, the EIS plots presented in Figure 3 were fitted with the
help of the equivalent circuit (EC) presented in Figure 3d, consisting of the following elements: Rs is the
electrolyte resistance. CPEl and Rl are the constant phase element and the resistance of the layer formed
on the metals surface, respectively. CPEdl and Rct are the constant phase element representing the
double-charge layer capacitance and the charge transfer resistance, respectively. The EIS parameters
are listed in Table 1 and from the small values of χ2 (i.e., the goodness of fit) it can be said that the EC
used to fit the system under investigation was the most appropriate one.
 layer, as also reported by Dong et al. [33]. For this reason, the EIS plots presented in Figure 3 were
fitted with the help of the equivalent circuit (EC) presented in Figure 3d, consisting of the following
elements: Rs is the electrolyte resistance. CPEl and Rl are the constant phase element and the resistance
of the layer formed on the metals surface, respectively. CPEdl and Rct are the constant phase element
representing the double‐charge layer capacitance and the charge transfer resistance, respectively. The
EIS2020,
Materials parameters
13, 4245 are listed in Table 1 and from the small values of χ (i.e., the goodness of fit) it can be 8 of 24
2

said that the EC used to fit the system under investigation was the most appropriate one.

Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 24

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
3. EIS3.plot
FigureFigure EIS recorded in the
plot recorded presence
in the and
presence and absence
absenceofof11 gg LL−1 ofGA
−1 of GAafter
after2424 h of
h of immersion
immersion at at
different
different CO2‐partial
CO2 -partial pressures.
pressures. (a) (a) Nyquist;
Nyquist; (b)(b)Bode;
Bode;(c)
(c)phase
phase angle;
angle;(d)
(d)equivalent
equivalent circuit
circuit

1. Electrochemical impedance −1
Table Table 1. Electrochemical impedanceparameters
parameters with
with and without the
and without thepresence
presenceof of
1.01.0
g Lg−1 L
concentrations of GA
concentrations ofafter 24 h24ofhimmersion.
GA after of immersion.

Rs CPE CPE
f f Rf CPE CPE dl dl Rct RRpp==RRff + χ2 2
C Rf Rct χ IE
C (g L−1 ) Rs (Ω(Ω 2
(Ω (Ω R
cm ) Yff (mΩ
(mΩ s −1
−1 n
n (Ω cm )YdlYdl
2 (mΩ
(mΩ −1
−1
n (Ω cm ) + Rctct 2
2 (x 10−3 ) IE (%)
(×
(g L−1) cm−2−2))
n f f n −2 n dl dl (Ω cm ) (%)
cm2) sn cm cm2) snscmcm−2) ) cm2) (Ω cm2) 10−3)
1 bar Blank
1 bar 7.13 1.24 0.66 11.59 1.68 0.79 217.90 229.49 1.12 -
1 bar Ga 7.13
7.39 1.24
0.34 0.66
0.61 11.59
30.29 1.68
0.68 0.79
0.81 217.90
730.60 229.49
760.89 1.12
1.50 ‐69.83
Blank
20 bar Blank 6.92 1.28 0.68 12.18 1.85 0.76 95.07 107.25 1.34 -
1 bar
20 bar GA 7.32 0.10 0.78 38.89 0.55 0.82 469.90 507.79 1.28 78.68
40 bar Blank 7.39
7.49 0.34
0.15 0.61
0.70 30.299.44 0.68
3.99 0.81
0.78 730.60
43.87 760.89
53.31 1.50
1.11 69.83-
Ga
40 bar GA 7.56 0.01 0.71 50.11 0.28 0.81 374.50 424.61 1.99 87.44
20 bar
6.92 1.28 0.68 12.18 1.85 0.76 95.07 107.25 1.34 ‐
Blank
The20 presence
bar of a time constant at HF is reported in several studies [34,35] and it is often observed
7.32 0.10 0.78 38.89 0.55 0.82 469.90 507.79 1.28 78.68
in a Fe/waterGA system. This time constant may be due to the capacity of a porous thin layer formed
onto the40 bar surface. In this study, and without the inhibitor, the presence of this time constant at
metal 7.49 0.15 0.70 9.44 3.99 0.78 43.87 53.31 1.11 ‐
Blank
HF is due to the formation of a thin layer of Fe3 C onto the metal surface. As mentioned before, the
40 bar of the tested carbon steel is composed of circa 41% of a ferritic phase and the remaining
microstructure 7.56 0.01 0.71 50.11 0.28 0.81 374.50 424.61 1.99 87.44
GA
of a perlitic phase (Figure 1). The ferritic phase is more active than the Fe3 C contained in the perlitic
phase [7], in this case, the former phase will act as an anode and the latter one as a cathode. This will
The presence of a time constant at HF is reported in several studies [34,35] and it is often
generate a micro-galvanic
observed in a Fe/watereffect,
system.which willconstant
This time eventually
may lead
be dueto to
the
theformation
capacity ofofa aporous
thin layer of Fe3 C
thin layer
onto the metalonto
formed surface. However,
the metal surface.itInfollows fromand
this study, thewithout
data that
theboth the values
inhibitor, of Rf and
the presence Rcttime
of this greatly
increased in the
constant atpresence
HF is dueoftothe
the inhibitor,
formation which
of a thinindicated that
layer of Fe the GA
3C onto the molecules were
metal surface. Asadsorbed
mentionedonto
before,
the metal the microstructure
surface leading to the of formation
the tested carbon steel is composed
of a protective layer that of circa 41%
covers of surface,
the a ferritic phase and
as confirmed
the remaining
also from of a perlitic analysis
the morphological phase (Figure
(e.g.,1).SEM-EDS
The ferriticand
phase is more
XPS). active than
Moreover, thethe Fe3C contained
difference between
in the
these two perlitic
values phase [7],
obtained in this
in the case, the
absence andformer phase will
the presence act as
of GA an anodeeven
increased and more
the latter
withone as a
increasing
cathode. This will generate a micro‐galvanic effect, which will eventually lead to the formation of a
CO2 partial pressure, suggesting that this protective layer becomes more stable and compact, with
thin layer of Fe3C onto the metal surface. However, it follows from the data that both the values of Rf
and Rct greatly increased in the presence of the inhibitor, which indicated that the GA molecules were
adsorbed onto the metal surface leading to the formation of a protective layer that covers the surface,
as confirmed also from the morphological analysis (e.g., SEM‐EDS and XPS). Moreover, the difference
between these two values obtained in the absence and the presence of GA increased even more with
increasing CO2 partial pressure, suggesting that this protective layer becomes more stable and
Materials 2020, 13, 4245 9 of 24

the corrosion inhibition efficiency going from 69.83% up to 87.44% at PCO2 = 1 bar and PCO2 = 40 bar,
respectively. The increase in IE observed with an increase in CO2 partial pressure agrees with the
results obtained
Materials with
2020, 13, x FORthePEER
gravimetric
REVIEW measurements and is in agreement with the ones reported 9 of 24in the
literature [4]. It is evident that the addition of GA had a remarkable effect on the corrosion process of
corrosion
the metal process
and that of the metal
its inhibition notand that
only its inhibition
depends on thenot only dependsofon
concentration GAthebut
concentration
also from CO of GA
2 partial
but also from CO 2 partial pressure. The results show that the coverage and thickness of the formed
pressure. The results show that the coverage and thickness of the formed protective layer increased
protective
with CO layer increased with CO2 partial pressure, acting both as a barrier against the charge and
2 partial pressure, acting both as a barrier against the charge and the mass transfer processes
the mass transfer processes that occur onto the metal surface owing to the corrosive attack of the
that occur onto the metal surface owing to the corrosive attack of the aggressive electrolyte.
aggressive electrolyte.
Figure 4 and Table 2 show the potentiodynamic polarization measurements and the corrosion
Figure 4 and Table 2 show the potentiodynamic polarization measurements and the corrosion
kinetic parameters
kinetic parameters obtained
obtainedfrom
fromthe polarization
the polarization plots inthe
plots in thepresence
presence andand absence
absence of GA
of GA at different
at different
CO2 partial pressures,
CO2 partial pressures, respectively.
respectively.AsAscan
canbebeseen fromFigure
seen from Figure4,4,the
the anodic
anodic polarization
polarization curvecurve
of theof the
blankblank
solution doesdoes
solution notnotshow
showthe typical
the typicalTafel
Tafel behavior consequently,
behavior consequently, thethe corrosion
corrosion current
current densities
densities
were were
calculated fromfrom
calculated the the
extrapolation
extrapolationofofthe
thecathodic
cathodic Tafel region.
region.

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure
Figure 4. Potentiodynamic
4. Potentiodynamic polarizationparameters
polarization parameters obtained
obtained in
inthe
theabsence
absenceand presence
and of 1.0
presence L−1g L−1
of g1.0
of GA at different CO 2‐partial pressures, after 24 h of immersion. (a) PCO = 1 bar, (b) PCO = 20 bar
of GA at different CO2 -partial pressures, after 24 h of immersion. (a) PCO 2 = 1 bar, (b) P
2 CO = 20 bar
2 2
and
and (c) (c) P=CO40
PCO = 40 bar.
2 bar.
2

TableTable 2. Potentiodynamic
2. Potentiodynamic polarizationparameters
polarization parameters obtained
obtained after
after2424h h
ofof
immersion without
immersion and with
without and with
1.0 g L −1gof
1.0 L−1GA.
of GA.

C (g LC
−1 )(g L ) EcorrE(V)
corr (V)
iicorr
corr (μA cm
(µA cm−2 )) βcβ(V(Vdec
−1 −2 −1) IE (%)
c dec−1 ) IE (%)
1 bar Blank −0.673 17.98 0.286 ‐
1 bar Blank −0.673 17.98 0.286 -
1 bar 1
GAbar GA −0.676
−0.676 5.54
5.54 0.334
0.334 69.2369.23
20 bar20 bar Blank−0.696
Blank −0.696 99.90
99.90 0.311
0.311 ‐ -
20 bar20GAbar GA −0.736
−0.736 24.09
24.09 0.391
0.391 75.8875.88
40 bar40 bar Blank−0.600
Blank −0.600 647.05
647.05 0.316
0.316 ‐ -
40 bar GA −0.634 84.90 0.312 86.76
40 bar GA −0.634 84.90 0.312 86.76
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 24
Materials 2020, 13, 4245 10 of 24
The data shows that in absence of GA, the corrosion current density of the steel increased with
an increase in CO2 partial pressure, which is linked with the increased acidity of the solution, in
The data shows that in absence of GA, the corrosion current density of the steel increased with an
agreement with the gravimetric experiments. However, it is evident from the data that the corrosion
increase in CO2 partial pressure, which is linked with the increased acidity of the solution, in agreement
current density of the steel was prominently reduced after the addition of GA to the solution.
with the gravimetric experiments. However, it is evident from the data that the corrosion current
Furthermore, both the cathodic and anodic curves of the polarization curves were shifted towards
density of the steel was prominently reduced after the addition of GA to the solution. Furthermore,
lower current densities after the addition of GA. The result suggests that the inhibitor impeded both
both the cathodic and anodic curves of the polarization curves were shifted towards lower current
the rate of the anodic dissolution (Equation (8)) and the cathodic reactions (Equations (9)–(11)), by
densities after the addition of GA. The result suggests that the inhibitor impeded both the rate of the
either covering part of the metal surface and/or blocking the active corrosion sites on the steel surface.
anodic dissolution (Equation (8)) and the cathodic reactions (Equations (9)–(11)), by either covering
The dominant cathodic reaction depends on the pH value of the solution. At lower pH (e.g., less than
part of the metal surface and/or blocking the active corrosion sites on the steel surface. The dominant
4) the reduction of H+ ions would be the dominant cathodic reaction (Equation (11)). At pH > 4 the
cathodic reaction depends on the pH value of the solution. ‐At lower pH (e.g., less than 4) the reduction
dominant cathodic reaction will be the reduction of HCO3 ions and H2CO3 (Equations (9)– (10)). At
of H+ ions would be the dominant cathodic reaction (Equation (11)). At pH > 4 the dominant cathodic
higher values of CO2 partial pressure, GA suppresses the Equation (11) (e.g., the pH of the solution
reaction will be the reduction of HCO− 3 ions and H CO3 (Equations (9) and (10)). At higher values
is circa 3.5 at PCO2 = 40 bar), through the formation2 of H‐bonding between the hydroxyl groups of
of CO2 partial pressure, GA suppresses the Equation (11) (e.g., the pH of the solution is circa 3.5 at
the inhibitor units and the H ions, adsorbed onto the steel surface, as discussed in more detail in
+
PCO2 = 40 bar), through the formation of H-bonding between the hydroxyl groups of the inhibitor
section 0.
units and the H+ ions, adsorbed onto the steel surface, as discussed in more detail in Section 3.5.2.
Moreover, after the addition of GA, the Ecorr can be seen to shift with no definite trend toward
Moreover, after the addition of GA, the E can be seen to shift with no definite trend toward
both the anodic and cathodic regions. This resultcorr
suggested that GA behaves as a mixed type inhibitor
both the anodic and cathodic regions. This result suggested that GA behaves as a mixed type inhibitor
as also reported by other studies for this inhibitor [7,21,27,28].
as also reported by other studies for this inhibitor [7,21,27,28].
3.2. Effect of Time
3.2. Effect of Time
The effect of immersion time on the corrosion inhibition efficiency of the tested inhibitor was
The effect of immersion time on the corrosion inhibition efficiency of the tested inhibitor was also
also assessed in this paper. Figure 5 and Table S3 show the corrosion rate and the corrosion inhibition
assessed in this paper. Figure 5 and Table S3 show the corrosion rate and the corrosion inhibition
efficiency after 168 h of immersion in the presence and absence of 1.0 g L−1 −1 of GA at different CO2
efficiency after 168 h of immersion in the presence and absence of 1.0 g L of GA at different CO2
partial pressures at 25 °C. It follows from the table that GA still shows a very high IE even after a
partial pressures at 25 ◦ C. It follows from the table that GA still shows a very high IE even after a
longer immersion time. However, it should be noted that IE slightly decreases after 168 h of
longer immersion time. However, it should be noted that IE slightly decreases after 168 h of immersion,
immersion, compared to the one observed after 24 h of immersion.
compared to the one observed after 24 h of immersion.

Figure 5. Corrosion inhibitor efficiency obtained at different CO2 partial pressures after 24 and 168 h of
Figure 5. Corrosion inhibitor efficiency obtained at different CO2 partial pressures after 24 and 168 h
immersion at 25 ◦ C.
of immersion at 25 °C.
This behavior has also been reported by several studies [36,37]. The decrease in IE may be due
This behaviorofhas
to the desorption thealso been reported
inhibitor from the by several
metal studies
surface, [36,37].
which makes The
thedecrease in IE
protective mayunstable.
layer be due
to
In the
thisdesorption of the inhibitor
study, the desorption of GAfrom the metal
is likely surface,
ascribed to itswhich makes thedue
deprotonation protective layer unstable.
to the consumption of
In this study, the desorption of GA is likely ascribed to its deprotonation due to the consumption
CO2 from the tested solution because of the electrochemical reactions occurring into the system [5,38]. of
CO
This 2 from the tested solution because of the electrochemical reactions occurring into the system [5,38].
leads to a decrease in the acidity of the solution and shifting the Equation (12) towards the
This leads to aofdecrease
deprotonation in the acidity of the solution and shifting the Equation (12) towards the
the inhibitor.
deprotonation of the inhibitor.
Materials 2020, 13, 4245 11 of 24

Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 24

These results confirm that GA is effectively able to protect the steel surface from sweet corrosion
These
at high COresults confirm that GA is effectively able to protect the steel surface from sweet corrosion
2 partial pressures even after a prolonged immersion time, reflecting a strong molecular
at high CO2of
adsorption partial
GA on pressures
the metaleven afterand
surface a prolonged
the formationimmersion time,
of a stable reflecting
protective a strong molecular
layer.
adsorption of GA on the metal surface and the formation of a stable protective layer.
3.3. Adsorption Study and Standard Adsorption Free Energy
3.3. Adsorption Study and Standard Adsorption Free Energy
The corrosion inhibition adsorption process of the tested inhibitor on the N80 carbon steel surface
The
was carried corrosion
out by inhibition adsorptionisotherms,
several adsorption process ofsuch the as
tested inhibitor
Temkin’s, on the N80
Frumkin’s, carbon steel
Langmuir’s, and
surface
El-Awady’swas carried out by
adsorption several adsorption
isotherms. The Temkin’sisotherms, such as
adsorption Temkin’s,
isotherm wasFrumkin’s, Langmuir’s,
found to give the best
and El‐Awady’s
description adsorption
of the adsorption isotherms.
behavior The Temkin’s
of the studiedadsorption
inhibitor. Theisotherm wasadsorption
Temkin’s found to give the best
isotherm is
description
defined by the of the adsorption
following behavior of the studied inhibitor. The Temkin’s adsorption isotherm is
equations:
defined by the following equations:
−2.303 logKads 2.303 log C
θ = -2.303 log Kads −2.303 log C (13)
θ= 2a 2a (13)
2a 2a
where θ is the surface coverage (θ = IE%/100), K ads the adsorption-desorption
where θ is the surface coverage (θ = IE%/100), Kads the adsorption‐desorption equilibrium equilibriumconstant,
constant,
C is the inhibitor concentration, a is the molecules interaction parameter. Positive values of aa imply
C is the inhibitor concentration, a is the molecules interaction parameter. Positive values of imply
attractive forces
attractive forces between
between the the inhibitor
inhibitor molecules,
molecules, while
while negative
negative values
values indicate
indicate repulsive
repulsive forces
forces
between
between them.them.
KKads
adsisisrelated
relatedtotothe
thefree
freeenergy
energyof ofadsorption
adsorptionby by the
the following
following equation:
equation:
◦°
∆G
∆Gads
ads == −RT
RT Ln(K
Ln(Kads
ads ) (14)
(14)

where
where RR is
is the
the gas constant (8.314
gas constant (8.314 JJ K
K−1
−1 mol−1), T is the absolute temperature (K). The plot of surface
mol−1 ), T is the absolute temperature (K). The plot of surface
coverage
coverage (θ) as a function of the logarithm of
(θ) as a function of the logarithm of the
the inhibitor
inhibitor concentration
concentration at
at different
different CO
CO22 partial
partial
pressures is shown in Figure
pressures is shown in Figure 6. 6.

Figure 6. Temkin’s adsorption isotherm for carbon steel (N80) pipeline steel in CO2 -saturated chloride
Figure 6. Temkin’s adsorption isotherm for carbon steel (N80) pipeline steel in CO2‐saturated chloride
at different pressures.
at different pressures.
The plot of θ vs. log C yields a straight line and the regression coefficient ranges from 0.985
to 0.996. plot
The Theof θ vs. log values
calculated C yieldsofaadsorption
straight lineparameters
and the regression
∆G◦ ads , acoefficient ranges from
and K at different CO20.985 to
partial
0.996. The calculated values of adsorption parameters ΔG ◦ads, a and K at different CO2 partial pressures
pressures are presented in Table 3 and the following notes can be written: (i) The values of ∆G ads ◦
are
are presented
negative for in Table
all three3 and the following
pressures, notesthat
indicating canthe
be adsorption
written: (i) The of GAvalues of ΔG
on the
◦ are negative
steeladssurface in the
for all three pressures, indicating that the adsorption of GA on the steel surface in
tested solution is a spontaneous process [7,21,22,28]. Furthermore, the value of ∆G ads ranges between◦the tested solution
is a spontaneous
−10.64 to −8.37 kJprocess
mol−1 [7,21,22,28].
indicating thatFurthermore, the value
the adsorption of GA ofon
ΔGthe
◦ads ranges between −10.64 to −8.37
steel occurs through a physical
kJ mol indicating
−1
adsorption process that the adsorption
[7,21,22,28]; of GA of
(ii) The values on“a”
theare
steel occursfor
negative through
all threea pressures,
physical adsorption
indicating
process [7,21,22,28]; (ii) The values of “a” are negative for all three pressures,
that repulsion forces exist between the adsorbed inhibitor molecules in the adsorption layer, indicating that repulsion
as also
forces exist between the adsorbed inhibitor molecules in the adsorption layer, as also reported by
other studies for the same tested inhibitor [7,22]; (iii) The values of Kads increases with an increase in
CO2 partial pressure. It should be noted that Kads denotes the strength between adsorbate and
Materials 2020, 13, 4245 12 of 24

Materials 2020,
reported 13, x FOR
by other PEER REVIEW
studies 12 ofan
for the same tested inhibitor [7,22]; (iii) The values of Kads increases with 24

increase in CO2 partial pressure. It should be noted that Kads denotes the strength between adsorbate
adsorbent.
and It can
adsorbent. It be
caninferred that that
be inferred a large value
a large of Kof
value ads implies a more efficient adsorption process and
Kads implies a more efficient adsorption process
thus,thus,
and a better corrosion
a better inhibition
corrosion efficiency
inhibition [21,22].
efficiency The The
[21,22]. results suggest
results that that
suggest the adsorption of GA
the adsorption of
increases with an increase of the environment pressure, leading to a greater surface
GA increases with an increase of the environment pressure, leading to a greater surface coverage and coverage and
consequently, a better protection performance.
consequently, a better protection performance.

Table3.3. Parameters
Table Parameters of
of the
the Temkin’s
Temkin’sadsorption
adsorption isotherm
isotherm calculated
calculated from
from weight
weight loss
loss measurements
measurements
after 24 h of immersion time.
after 24 h of immersion time.
Pressure ΔGads
Pressure ∆Gads
R2 R Slope Intercept
Intercept aa K
2
(bar) Slope Kads (kJ(kJ
molmol)−1 )
ads −1
(bar)
1
1 0.985
0.985
0.483
0.483
0.708
0.708
−2.38
−2.38
29.10
29.10
−8.37
−8.37
20 20 0.995 0.478
0.995 0.478 0.786
0.786 −2.41
−2.41 44.09
44.09 −9.39
−9.39
40 40 0.996 0.453
0.996 0.453 0.844
0.844 −2.50
−2.50 72.97
72.97 −10.64
−10.64

3.4. Surface
3.4. Surface Analysis
Analysis
The surface
The surface morphology
morphology of of the
the samples
samples exposed
exposed for
for 24
24 hh at
at different
different COCO22 partial
partial pressures
pressures in in the
the
absence and
absence and presence
presenceofof1.0
1.0ggLL−1 of
−1
of GA
GA are
are presented
presented inin Figures
Figures 7–9.
7–9. For instance, it
For instance, it can
can be
be seen
seen that
that
the surface morphology of the samples exposed to the blank and inhibited
the surface morphology of the samples exposed to the blank and inhibited solution differs significantly.solution differs
significantly.
For the blank For the blank
solution, solution,
at PCO at Pthe
= 1 bar, = 1 bar, the microstructure
CO2microstructure of the sampleofisthe sample
clearly is clearly
visible visible
(Figure 7a).
2
(Figure 7a). The metal surface appears corroded resulting from the selective dissolution
The metal surface appears corroded resulting from the selective dissolution of the ferritic phase over of the ferritic
phase
the over thecontained
cementite cementiteincontained in the
the perlitic perlitic
phase. phase. ByFigure
By contrast, contrast,7c,dFigure
show7c,dthatshow
after that after the
the addition
addition
of of the inhibitor
the inhibitor the metalthe metalbecomes
surface surface becomes much smoother.
much smoother. It is
It is clear clear
from from
the the that
image image thethat the
metal
metal surface was partially covered by a protective layer, although some areas of
surface was partially covered by a protective layer, although some areas of the surface still show signsthe surface still
show
of signs of
corrosion corrosion attacks.
attacks.

(a) (b)
Figure 7. SEM
Figure SEMimages
imagesofofthe theN80
N80carbon
carbonsteel surface
steel surfacemorphology
morphology after 24 24
after h ofh immersion in the
of immersion in
uninhibited
the ((a) ((a)
uninhibited a lower
a lower and b b
and higher
highermagnification)
magnification)and
andinhibited
inhibited((b)
((b)cc lower
lower and higher
and d higher
magnification) solution
magnification) solution at 25 ◦°C
at 25 CO22 ==11bar
and PPCO
C and barCOCO22..
Materials 2020, 13,
Materials 2020, 13, 4245
x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of
13 of 24
24
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 24

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 8. SEM images of the N80 carbon steel surface morphology after 24 h of immersion in the
SEMimages
Figure 8. SEM imagesofofthetheN80
N80carbon
carbon steel
steel surface
surface morphology
morphology after
after 24 24
h ofh immersion
of immersion in
in the
uninhibited ((a) a lower and b higher magnification) and inhibited ((b) c lower and d higher
the uninhibited
uninhibited ((a) ((a) a lower
a lower andand b higher
b higher magnification)and
magnification) andinhibited
inhibited((b)
((b)cc lower
lower and
and d higher
magnification) solution at 25 ◦°C and PCO2 = 20 bar CO2.
magnification) solution
solution at
at 25 CO22 == 20
C and PPCO
25 °C 20 bar
bar CO
CO22.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 9. SEM
SEMimages
imagesofofthe
theN80
N80carbon
carbon steel surface
steel morphology
surface morphologyafter 24 h
after 24ofh immersion in the
of immersion in
Figure 9. SEM images of the N80 carbon steel surface morphology after 24 h of immersion in the
the uninhibited
uninhibited ((a) ((a) a lower
a lower andand b higher
b higher magnification)and
magnification) andinhibited
inhibited((b)
((b)c clower
lower and
and d
d higher
uninhibited ((a) a lower and b higher magnification) and inhibited ((b) c lower and d higher
C and PPCO22 == 40
magnification) solution at 25 ◦°C 40 bar
bar CO
CO22.
magnification) solution at 25 °C and PCOCO2 = 40 bar CO2.

The
The severity
severity of of the
the corrosion
corrosion attack attack increases
increases with with an an increase
increase in in CO partial pressure
CO22 partial pressure in in the
the
blank The severity
solution, as of the corrosion
shown in Figure attack
8a,b andincreases
Figure withrespectively
9a,b an increasecarried
in COout 2 partial pressure in the
at P = 20 bar and
blank solution, as shown in Figure 8a,b and Figure 9a,b respectively carried out at PCO CO22 = 20 bar and
blank=solution,
P as shownitincan
40 bar. However, Figure
be seen8a,bthat
andinFigure 9a,b respectively
the presence of GA, an carried
increaseout in at
COP2CO = 20pressure
partial
2
bar and
CO22 = 40 bar. However, it can be seen that in the presence of GA, an increase in CO2 partial pressure
PCO
P
led
COto = 40 bar. However, it can be seen that in the presence of GA, an
2 a gradual increase in the surface coverage on the metal surface, as a result of an increase of
increase in CO 2 partial pressure
led to a gradual increase in the surface coverage on the metal surface, as a result of an increase of GA
led to
GA a gradualadsorbed
molecules increase in thethe surface coverage on the metal surface, as 9c,d).
a resultAtofhigher
an increase of GA
molecules adsorbed ontoonto the metal metal surface
surface (Figure
(Figure 8c,d8c,dand
and Figure
Figure 9c,d). At higher CO
CO22 partial
partial
molecules
pressure adsorbed
(e.g., P PCO2 ==40 onto
40bar, the metal
bar,Figure surface
Figure9)9)the the (Figure
protective 8c,d and
action Figure
of the 9c,d).
inhibitor At higher
is even CO 2 partial
pressure (e.g., protective action of the inhibitor is even moremore evident.
evident. The
pressure
The images (e.g.,
show PCO
CO
2 = 40 bar, Figure 9) the protective action of the inhibitor is even more evident. The
that
2 for the uninhibited solution, the surface of the metal appears severely corroded,
images show that for the uninhibited solution, the surface of the metal appears severely corroded,
images show
while that for the uninhibited solution, the surface of the the metal appears severely corroded,
while thethe one
one obtained
obtained in in the
the presence
presence of of the
the inhibitor
inhibitor showsshows the formation
formation of of aa uniform
uniform protective
protective
while
layer the one obtained in the presence of the inhibitor shows the formation of a uniform protective
layer over
over its
its entire
entire metal
metal surface.
surface. The The results
results indicate
indicate that that in
in the
the presence
presence of of GA and with
GA and with aa gradual
gradual
layer over
increase in its
CO entire metal
partial surface.
pressure, the The results
protective indicate
layer that
gradually in the presence
becomes more of GA and
compact with
and a gradual
thicker [4].
increase in CO22 partial pressure, the protective layer gradually becomes more compact and thicker
increase
As in CO partial pressure, the protective layer gradually becomes more compact and thicker
[4].discussed in Section 3.1, 0,
thethe
solubility of of
COCO 2 increases with its partial pressure, and as a result of
2
As discussed in section solubility 2 increases with its partial pressure, and as a result
[4]. As
this, discussed in section +
0,ions
the solubility of CO 2 increases with its partial pressure,of and asinhibitor
a result
of this, the concentration of H++ ions into the solution also increases,hence
the concentration of H into the solution also increases, hencethe the number
number of the the inhibitor
of this, the concentration
molecules of H ions into the solutiononto also increases, hencealsothe numberaccording
of the inhibitor
molecules that that can
can bebe protonated
protonated and
and adsorbed
adsorbed onto the metal
the metal surface
surface also increases
increases according to the
to the
molecules
Equation that can be protonated and adsorbed onto the metal surface also increases according to the
Equation (12),(12), leading
leading to to aa substantial
substantial reduction
reduction of of the
the corrosion
corrosion raterate ofof the
the metal.
metal.
Equation
The (12), leading to a substantial reduction of the corrosion rate of the metal.
The morphology
morphology of of the
the metal
metal surface
surface waswas also
also analyzed
analyzed with with the
the help
help of of an
an energy-dispersive
energy‐dispersive
The morphology
spectroscopy with the of thelisted
result metalinsurface
Table 4.was
In also
the analyzed
absence of with
GA, thethe helpsurface
metal of an energy‐dispersive
was characterized
spectroscopy with the result listed in Table 4. In the absence of GA, the metal surface was
spectroscopy
by a corrosion by with
product the result
layer mainly listed in Table
consisting 4. In
of carbon, the absence
iron, and of GA,
a smalliron, the
amount metal surface was
characterized a corrosion product layer mainly consisting of carbon, andofa oxygen elements,
small amount of
characterized by a corrosion product layer mainly consisting of carbon, iron, and a small amount of
oxygen elements, indicating that this corrosion layer is mainly composed of Fe3C. These results are
oxygen elements, indicating that this corrosion layer is mainly composed of Fe3C. These results are
Materials 2020, 13, 4245 14 of 24

Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 24

indicating that this corrosion layer is mainly composed of Fe3 C. These results are in agreement with
in agreement
that previously with that previously
observed observed
in the literature in the literature
[5,7,39,40]. [5,7,39,40].
Other researchers Other researchers
reported reported
that at a temperature
that
belowat40 ◦
a temperature below
C, the corrosion 40 ᵒC,layer
product the corrosion
is generallyproduct layerofisFegenerally
composed composed of Fe
of3C, and3
3 C, and only little traces FeCO
only little
were traces
observed onofthe
FeCO 3 were
metal observed
surface on the
[4,7,39,40], metal
as also surface [4,7,39,40],
confirmed by the GIXRDas also confirmed shown
measurements by the
GIXRD
in Figuremeasurements
10. The presence shown in3 CFigure
of Fe on the10. The surface
metal presence of Feto
is due 3Cthe
onanodic
the metal surface is
dissolution ofdue to the
the ferrite
anodic dissolution
phase over of theinferrite
the cementite phasephase,
the perlitic over the cementite
which leads toin
anthe perlitic phase,
accumulation of thewhich leadson
cementite to the
an
accumulation
metal surface. of the cementite on the metal surface.

Table 4.
Table Weight percentage
4. Weight percentage of
of the
the elements
elements calculated
calculated from
from EDS
EDS analyses.
analyses.

Weight%
Weight%
Element
Element
CC O
O Fe Total
Total
Polished
Polished 0.70
0.70 -‐ 99.30
99.30 100
100
Blank
Blank (1(1 bar)
bar) 1.18
1.18 -‐ 98.82
98.82 100
100
1.0 g−1
1.0g L L−1(1(1
bar)
bar) 4.06
4.06 3.51
3.51 92.43
92.43 100
100
Blank (20 bar)
Blank (20 bar) 7.28
7.28 0.83
0.83 91.89
91.89 100
100
1.0 g L−1 −1(20 bar) 8.00 21.98 70.02 100
1.0 g L (20 bar)
Blank (40 bar)
8.00
4.99
21.98
2.05
70.02
92.96
100
100
Blank (40bar)
1.0 g L−1 (40 bar) 4.99
9.90 2.05
16.21 92.96
73.89 100
100
1.0 g L (40 bar)
−1 9.90 16.21 73.89 100

Figure 10. XRD spectra of corrosion product film formed on the metal surface after been exposed for
Figure 10. XRD
24 h without andspectra of corrosion
with the product
presence of film
1.0 g L−1 offormed on the metal
GA at different CO2 surface after beenatexposed
partial pressures 25 ◦ C. for
24 h without and with the presence of 1.0 g L−1 of GA at different CO2 partial pressures at 25 °C.
It is worth mentioning that in the presence of GA the content of carbon and oxygen was found
to beIthigher
is worth mentioning
than that infor
those observed thethe
presence of GA the
blank solution. It content
should beof carbon
noted thatandcarbon
oxygenandwasoxygen
found
to
arebe higher
also than constituents
the main those observed fortested
of the the blank solution.
inhibitor and It should be
therefore, noted
their thatconcentration
higher carbon and oxygen
on the
are also the main constituents of the tested inhibitor and therefore, their higher
protective layer formed in the presence of the inhibitor can be attributed to its adsorption onto the concentration on the
protective
metal surface,layer
as formed in theby
also reported presence of the[4,7,20].
other studies inhibitorMoreover,
can be attributed
it can be seento itsfrom
adsorption
the tableonto
that the
the
metal surface,
percentage asdecreased
of Fe also reported
in thebypresence
other studies
of GA,[4,7,20]. Moreover,
likely due it can be
to the overlying seenoffrom
effect the tablelayer.
the inhibitor that
the percentage
The GIXRD of Fe decreased
analysis for in
thethesamples
presencecorroded
of GA, likely
in andue to the overlying
inhibited effect of the
and uninhibited inhibitor
solution at
layer.
PCO2 = 40 bar and at 25 C (Figure 10) shows the presence of cementite on the metal surface, although
◦

in theThe GIXRDofanalysis
presence GA thefor the samples
intensity corroded
of these peaks isinmuch
an inhibited
weaker.andThisuninhibited
result cansolution at PCO
be explained as2
=follows:
40 bar and at 25 °C (Figure 10) shows the presence of cementite on the metal surface,
Fe3 C accumulates on the metal surface after the dissolution of the ferritic phase. However, although in
the presence
in the presence ofofGAthethe intensity
inhibitor, of these
it only peaks isinmuch
accumulates smallweaker.
amountsThison theresult
barecan be surface
metal explained as
at the
follows: Fe C accumulates on the metal surface after the dissolution of the ferritic
early stage of the experiment, since the dissolution of the ferritic phase is quickly suppressed by the
3 phase. However,
in the presence
absorption of inhibitor
of the the inhibitor,
on the it only accumulates
surface in small amounts on the bare metal surface at the
of the metal.
early stage of the experiment, since the dissolution of the ferritic phase is quickly suppressed by the
absorption of the inhibitor on the surface of the metal.
Figure 11a,b show the surface morphology for specimens corroded in the blank and inhibited
solution carried out at 60 °C and PCO2 = 40 bar, after immersion the samples for 24 h in the tested
Materials 2020, 13, 4245 15 of 24

Figure
Materials 2020, 11a,b show
13, x FOR PEERthe surface morphology for specimens corroded in the blank and inhibited
REVIEW 15 of 24
solution carried out at 60 ◦ C and PCO2 = 40 bar, after immersion the samples for 24 h in the tested
solution, without and with the presence of GA, respectively.
respectively. The corrosion product layer appears to
be different forfor the
the inhibited
inhibited solution
solution compared to one observed in the presence of GA. Figure 11a
shows the presence of a porous corrosion product layer formed onto the metal surface corroded in a
free-inhibitor
free‐inhibitor solution, pores which create paths for the solution to penetrate it and thereby leading
to the dissolution
dissolution of the the underlying
underlying metal. On the other hand, the surface of the metal corroded in
the presence of GA (Figure 11b) shows the formation of a more compact layer, which forms a better
protective
protective barrier
barrier andand thereby
thereby greatly
greatly reducing
reducingthe
thecorrosion
corrosionrate
rateof
ofthe
themetal.
metal.

(a) (b)
11. SEM
Figure 11. SEM images
images of the N80 carbon steel morphology after 24 h of immersion in the tested
CO22 == 40
solution at PPCO 40 bar
bar and
and at 60 ◦°C,
at 60 without (a)
C, without (a) and
and with
with (b)
(b) the
the presence
presenceof
ofGA.
GA.

EDS
EDS analysis
analysis reports
reports highhigh content
content of carbon, oxygen,
of carbon, oxygen, and and iron
iron elements
elements in in both
both layers
layers (C:11.11%,
(C:11.11%,
O:6.02%
O:6.02% and C:13.69%, O:11.0%, in the blank and inhibited solution, respectively). The GIXRD
and C:13.69%, O:11.0%, in the blank and inhibited solution, respectively). The GIXRD
measurements
measurements presented
presented in in Figure
Figure 12 12 show
show the the characteristic
characteristic XRD XRD diffraction
diffraction patterns
patterns associated
associated
with
with FeCO
FeCO33.. By
By contrast,
contrast, thethe intensity
intensity of of the
the iron
iron carbonate
carbonate peaks
peaks observed
observed in in the
the presence
presence of of GA
GA isis
almost negligible. These results suggest that the layer observed for the uninhibited
almost negligible. These results suggest that the layer observed for the uninhibited solution is mainly solution is mainly
composed
composed of of Fe
Fe3CC and
and FeCO
FeCO33,, while
while in in the
the presence
presence of of GA
GA isis mainly
mainly composed
composed of of Fe
Fe33C
C with
with little
little
traces
traces of FeCO3 [4]. Similar behavior was also reported by Ding et al. [41] related to the study of the
of FeCO [4]. Similar behavior was also reported by Ding et al. [41] related to the study of the
effect of an
effect of an imidazoline‐type
imidazoline-typeinhibitorinhibitoragainst
againstCO CO 2 corrosion
2 corrosion of of
mild mild steel.
steel. TheThe authors
authors suggested
suggested that
that the formation
the formation of theof the corrosion
corrosion inhibitor
inhibitor layer was layer
ablewas able to suppress
to suppress the formation the formation
of the ironof the iron
carbonate.
carbonate. The precipitation of FeCO depends on the concentration of the Fe 2+ and 2‐ CO2− ions, pH,
The precipitation of FeCO3 depends3 on the concentration of the Fe and CO3 ions, 2+
3 pH, and
2+ 2−
and temperature.
temperature. When When the concentrations
the concentrations of Feof2+ Fe
and and
CO2‐ COions
3 ions
exceed exceed
the the solubility
solubility limit,limit,
FeCO FeCO
3 will3
3
will precipitate on the surface [9,40,42]. At higher temperatures, its solubility
precipitate on the surface [9,40,42]. At higher temperatures, its solubility decreases, and therefore the decreases, and therefore
the likelihood
likelihood of its
of its precipitation
precipitation will
will bebe also
also higher.InIna afree‐inhibitor
higher. free-inhibitorsolution,
solution,the the dissolution
dissolution of of the
the
ferrite 2+
ferrite phase
phase may
may lead
lead toto an
an increase
increase in in the
the concentration
concentrationof ofFe ions in
Fe2+ ions in the
the bulk
bulk solution
solution and
and thereby
thereby
favoring
favoring thethe precipitation
precipitation of of FeCO onto the
FeCO33 onto the surface
surface of of the
the metal. Conversely, in
metal. Conversely, in the
the presence
presence of of the
the
inhibitor, the protective layer formed onto the surface of the metal slows
inhibitor, the protective layer formed onto the surface of the metal slows down the corrosion down the corrosion processes,
and thereby
processes, reducing
and therebythe concentrations
reducing of Fe2+ ionsofavailable
the concentrations Fe2+ ionsfor the formation
available of FeCO3 . of FeCO3.
for the formation
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 24
Materials 2020, 13, 4245 16 of 24
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 24

Figure 12.
Figure 12. XRD
XRD spectra
spectra of
of corrosion
corrosion product
product film formed on
film formed on the
the metal
metal surface
surface after
after been
been exposed
exposed for
for
Figure
24 h 12. XRD
without spectra
and with of corrosion
the presence product
of 1.0 g Lfilm
−1 of formed
GA at Pon the= metal
40 bar surface
and at after
60 °C. been exposed for
24 h without and with the presence of 1.0 g L−1 of GA at PCO CO22 = 40 bar and at 60 C.
◦
24 h without and with the presence of 1.0 g L−1 of GA at PCO2 = 40 bar and at 60 °C.
Figure 13a–d
Figure 13a–d show show the the SEM
SEM analysis
analysis of of the
the metal
metal surface
surface after
after 168
168 h h of
of immersion
immersion in in the
the absence
absence
and Figure
presence 13a–d
of 1.0show
g L −1the
GA SEM
at P analysis= 40 of the
bar, metal surface
respectively. It after
is 168
apparent h of
fromimmersion
the in
figures the
that absence
a thick
CO22 = 40 bar, respectively. It is apparent from the figures that a thick
and presence of 1.0 g L GA at PCO −1
and presence of 1.0 g L −1 GA at P
porous layer covers both surface CO =
samples;
2
40 bar,
although it seems that in the presence of the GA, this thick
respectively. It is apparent from the figures that a layer
porous
appearslayer covers
denser, thus both surface samples;
providing a higher although
higher level of it seems
protection.
of protection. thatTo in the
analyze presence
the of
conditionthe GA,of this
the layer
metal
appears denser,
surface, these thus providing
porous layers werea removedhigher level withofthe protection.
help of To analyze
of Clark’s
Clark’s solution.
solution. the Itcondition
can be seen of thethatmetal
both
surface,
surfacesthese
surfaces showporous
show clearsigns
clear layers
signs were
ofofcorrosionremoved
corrosion with
attacks
attacks the help
(Figure
(Figure 13b; of however,
13b; Clark’sitsolution.
however, isitalso
is also It clear
clear can
from be seen
from
the thethat
figures both
figures
that
surfaces
that in theshow clear
presence signs
of the of corrosion
inhibitor attacks
(Figure 13d)(Figure
the 13b;
surface however,
of the metal
in the presence of the inhibitor (Figure 13d) the surface of the metal appears to be less damaged and it is also
appears clearto from
be lessthe figures
damaged
that
and in
smoother,the with
smoother,presence
with of
thethe
the ground inhibitor
ground (Figure
scratches
scratches 13d)
still
still visible thethe
visible
on surface
on theofsurface.
surface. the metal
This This
result appears
result
was alsoto confirmed
was bealso
lessconfirmed
damaged
by the
and smoother,
by the
atomic atomic with microscopy
force
force microscopy the ground scratches
experiments
experiments stillperformed
performed visible on by
theAzzaoui
by Azzaoui surface.
et al. [28] This
et al. result was thealso
[28] concerning
concerning use confirmed
the
of GA useasofa
by
GA the
as atomic
a force
corrosion microscopy
inhibitor in experiments
a 1 M HCl performed
solution. Theby Azzaoui
authors et al.
reported
corrosion inhibitor in a 1 M HCl solution. The authors reported that in the uninhibited solution the [28] concerning
that in the the use
uninhibited of
GA as aofthe
solution
surface corrosion
metal inhibitor
thesurface of the
was found intoa be
metal 1M
was more HCl
found solution.
to be more
corroded The
with authors
corroded
an averagewithreported that
an average
roughness of 1.3in roughness
the uninhibited
µm, while in of the
1.3
solution
μm, while theinsurface
the of
presence the metal
of GA was
the found
average to be more
roughness corroded
was reduced
presence of GA the average roughness was reduced to 500 nm. The authors justified this behavior with to an
500 average
nm. The roughness
authors of 1.3
justified
μm,
this while
due to the in
behavior the
due
formationpresence
to of of
thea more GAcompact
formationthe average roughness
of aprotective
more compact
layer was reduced
protective
on the metal tosurface
layer500on nm.theThe
that authors
metal surface
strongly justified
reducedthat
this
the behavior
strongly reduced
diffusion due
of the toaggressive
the the formation
diffusion of theofaggressive
substances a more
to thecompact
substancesprotective
metal, and to layer
the metal,
thereby on
reducingandthe metal
thereby
the surface
reducing
corrosion that
rate the
of
strongly
corrosion
the metal. reduced
rate of the
the diffusion
metal. of the aggressive substances to the metal, and thereby reducing the
corrosion rate of the metal.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 13. SEM images of the N80 carbon steel morphology after 168 h of immersion in the tested
Figure
solution13.in SEM images of
the presence of 1.0 L−1
the gN80 carbon
ofGA
−1 of GAat steel
at PCO 22
=
COmorphology
40 bar.
= 40 after 168
bar. Without
Without h of
(a,b)
(a,b) immersion
and in the tested
with the inhibitor (c,d)
◦
solutionC. in the presence of 1.0 g L−1 of GA at PCO2 = 40 bar. Without (a,b) and with the inhibitor (c,d)
at 25 °C.
at 25 °C.
Materials 2020, 13, 4245 17 of 24
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 24

The
TheSEM-EDS
SEM‐EDSand andGIXRD
GIXRDresult
resultconfirm
confirmthatthatGA GAprovides
providesadequate
adequateprotection
protectiontotothe themetal
metal
surface
surfacefromfromsweet
sweet corrosion
corrosion even at at high
highCO CO2 2partial
partialpressures
pressures andand after
after longlong immersion
immersion times.
times. The
The results
results arearein in agreement
agreement withthe
with thefindings
findingsobtained
obtainedwith with the
the weight loss measurements,
measurements,confirming
confirming
the
thehigh
highinhibition
inhibitionefficiency
efficiencyvalue
valueobserved
observedafteraftera along
longimmersion
immersiontime. time.
X-ray
X‐rayphotoelectron
photoelectronspectroscopy
spectroscopy analysis was
analysis wasemployed
employed as aasmeans
a means to confirm
to confirm the the
adsorption
adsorptionof
the tested
of the testedinhibitor
inhibitoron the carbon
on the carbonsteel surface.
steel surface.TheTheanalysis
analysis was
was carried
carried out
outononthe
thenative
nativeinhibitor
inhibitor
and
andthethesteel
steelsurface
surface after
after2424
h of immersion
h of immersion in the tested
in the solution
tested in the
solution presence
in the of 1.0
presence L−1
of g1.0 g of
L−1GA at
of GA
CO2P=
Pat ◦
CO40
2
=bar40and
bar atand
25 atC.25The°C.XPS
The results
XPS presented in Figurein14a
results presented showed
Figure 14aevidence
showed of the presence
evidence of the
ofpresence
O, C, N,ofand O, C,Fe N,
on and
the carbon
Fe on thesteel surface,
carbon steelwhere
surface,thewhere
O andthe C contents
O and C displayed the highest
contents displayed the
amount, while the signal of N was detected with small intensity. The high-resolution
highest amount, while the signal of N was detected with small intensity. The high‐resolution peaks peaks core levels
were
coreanalyzed
levels were through a deconvolution
analyzed through a fitting of the complex
deconvolution fitting spectra. The binding
of the complex energies
spectra. The and the
binding
corresponding
energies and the quantification
corresponding (%) quantification
of each peak component
(%) of eachare peakpresented
component in Table S4.
are presented in Table S4.

Figure 14. Cont.

Materials 2020, 13, 4245 18 of 24
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 24

Figure
Figure 14.14.XPS
XPSspectra
spectraofofthe
thenative
nativegum
gum Arabic: (a,c,e,g). XPS
Arabic: (a,c,e,g). XPSspectra
spectraofofthe
thefilm
film formed
formed onon
thethe
N80
N80 carbon steel after 24 h exposure in CO at P = 40 bar in the presence of 1.0 g
carbon steel after 24 h exposure in CO2 at PCO2 = 240 bar in the presence of 1.0 g L of GA at 25 °C:
2 CO −1 L −1 of GA at
◦ C: (b,d,f,h).
25(b,d,f,h).

The deconvoluted Fe2p3/2 peaks (Figure 14b) at 710.5 and 713.0 eV could be associated with the
The deconvoluted Fe2p3/2 peaks (Figure 14b) at 710.5 and 713.0 eV could be associated with the
α-Fe2 O3 or/and γ- Fe2 O3 [13]. The presence of these species is likely due to the partial decomposition
α‐Fe2O3 or/and γ‐ Fe2O3 [13]. The presence of these species is likely due to the partial decomposition
of iron carbonate. The literature reported that FeCO3 begins decomposing at temperatures below
of◦iron carbonate. The literature reported that FeCO3 begins decomposing at temperatures below 100
100 C according to the following reaction [5,42]:
°C according to the following reaction [5,42]:
FeCO 3 →
FeCO 3 →
FeO + CO
FeO + CO
2 2 (15)
(15)
In the presence of CO2 or water vapor, FeO transforms into Fe3O4 [5,42].
In the presence of CO2 or water vapor, FeO transforms into Fe3 O4 [5,42].
3FeO + CO2 → Fe3 O4 + CO (16)
3FeO + CO2 → Fe3 O4 + CO (16)
3FeO + H2 O → Fe3 O4 + H2 (17)
3FeO + FeO
However, in the presence of oxygen, → Fe
H2 Oand O44 +
Fe33O H2
transform into Fe2O3 [5,42]. (17)

However, in the presence of oxygen, FeO andOFe→

4FeO+ 3 O2Fe
4 transform
O into Fe2 O3 [5,42]. (18)
2 2 3

In the air:+4Fe
4FeO O42Fe
O2 3→ +O 2 →
2O 3
6Fe2 O3 (19)
(18)
The C1s spectra of the native gum arabic and the adsorbed one (Figure 14c,d, respectively) show
In the air : 4Fe O4 + O2 → 6Fe2 O3 (19)
three main peaks. The C1s peak with binding 3energy at 284.8 eV could be attributed to the C–C/C–H
bonds
The [26,28]. The of
C1s spectra C1sthepeak at 286.2
native eV could
gum arabic andbe theattributed
adsorbed to onethe C–OH/C=O
(Figure bonds relatedshow
14c,d, respectively) to the
different groups of GA [26,43]. This peak may also be assigned to the carbon
three main peaks. The C1s peak with binding energy at 284.8 eV could be attributed to the C–C/C–H atom bonded to nitrogen
in C–N
bonds bondThe
[26,28]. [13,44]
C1sand
peakcould be related
at 286.2 eV could to be
theattributed
glycoprotein and/or
to the to the arabinogalactan‐protein
C–OH/C=O bonds related to the
fractions
different of theofinhibitor
groups (Figure
GA [26,43]. This15b,c,
peak respectively). The lastto
may also be assigned C1sthepeak withatom
carbon a binding
bonded energy of 287.7
to nitrogen
in eV
C–N could
bond be[13,44]
associated with the
and could presence
be related to of
thecarbonyl
glycoprotein type groups
and/or to O–C=O/N–C=O that result from
the arabinogalactan-protein
the protonation
fractions of the GA
of the inhibitor molecule
(Figure in respectively).
15b,c, the acid environment The last[28].
C1s peak with a binding energy of
287.7 eV It could
is worth mentioningwith
be associated thatthe
nopresence
peaks assigned
of carbonyl to Fetype
3C were
groupsfound with the XPSthat
O–C=O/N–C=O analysis
result in
contrast
from to the results
the protonation reported
of the from theinGIXRD
GA molecule the acidanalysis,
environmentwhere[28].the characteristic peaks assigned to
thisIt compound can be seen
is worth mentioning in no
that thepeaks
presence of GAto(Figure
assigned 10). Fe
Fe3 C were 3C cannot
found with the be detected
XPS analysissinceinthe
average depth of analysis for an XPS measurement is approximately 5 nm
contrast to the results reported from the GIXRD analysis, where the characteristic peaks assigned to this however, the cementite
formed on
compound canthe
bemetal
seen in surface at the early
the presence of GAstage
(Figure of 10).
the experiment
Fe3 C cannotisbecovered
detectedbysincea thicker layer of
the average
inhibitor (Figure 9c,d).
depth of analysis for an XPS measurement is approximately 5 nm however, the cementite formed on the
The deconvoluted
metal surface O1s spectra
at the early stage of the native
of the experiment is and adsorbed
covered inhibitor
by a thicker layerareofdisplayed
inhibitor in Figure
(Figure 14e,f,
9c,d).
respectively. The peaks
The deconvoluted O1satspectra
531.2 and 532.7
of the eV could
native be attributed
and adsorbed to the
inhibitor aresingle bonded
displayed oxygen14e,f,
in Figure in C–
O and the double
respectively. The peaksbonded oxygen
at 531.2 andC=O and/or
532.7 to the be
eV could single bondedtooxygen
attributed in O–C–O
the single bonded respectively
oxygen
in [4,13,26,28].
C–O and the Thedouble
latter peak
bondedmayoxygen
correspond
C=Otoand/orthe carbonyl
to the type
singlegroups
bonded and/or
oxygento the
in glycosidic
O–C–O
C(1)‐O‐C(4)/C(1)‐O‐C(6)
respectively [4,13,26,28]. The linkages
latter of the may
peak GA molecules
correspond(Figure to the 15a), as well
carbonyl typeas,groups
in the and/or
case oftothe
sample exposed to the tested solution, to FeCO
the glycosidic C(1)-O-C(4)/C(1)-O-C(6) linkages of the GA molecules (Figure 15a), as well[4,26,28].
3 formed on the metals surface, respectively as, in
Moreover, some authors reported that the peak at 231.2 eV could also be attributed to the oxygen of
the hydroxyl groups (–OH) [5,43], likely due to the hydroxyl groups of the tested polysaccharide. The
Materials 2020, 13, 4245 19 of 24

the case of the sample exposed to the tested solution, to FeCO3 formed on the metals surface,
respectively [4,26,28]. Moreover, some authors reported that the peak at 231.2 eV could19 also
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 24
be
attributed to the oxygen of the hydroxyl groups (–OH) [5,43], likely due to the hydroxyl groups of
theO1s
tested polysaccharide.
spectrum The inhibitor
of the adsorbed O1s spectrum of14f)
(Figure the displays
adsorbedaninhibitor (Figure
extra peak 14f)
at 529.7 eVdisplays an extra
corresponding
peak at 529.7 eV corresponding to O 2− related to the oxygen atoms bonded with Fe 3+ in the Fe O
to O related to the oxygen atoms bonded with Fe in the Fe2O3 oxide [4,43,44]. The O1s results are2 3
2− 3+

oxide [4,43,44].
in good The O1s
agreement withresults are in of
the findings good
the agreement with the findings of the Fe2p spectrum.
Fe2p spectrum.

(a) (b) (c)

FigureFigure 15. Structure

15. Structure of gum
of gum arabic:
arabic: (a) arabinogalactan;
(a) arabinogalactan; (b) (b) glycoprotein;
glycoprotein; (c)(c) arabinogalactan‐
arabinogalactan-protein.
protein.
The presence of N1s peak in the survey for the adsorbed GA on the carbon steel surface (Figure 14a)
providesThe presencethat
evidence of N1s
gum peak in the
arabic wassurvey for theadsorbed
effectively adsorbed on GAthe
on tested
the carbon steel surface
substrate surface(Figure
since the
14a) provides evidence that gum arabic was effectively adsorbed on the tested substrate
N80 carbon steel substrate does not contain nitrogen in its chemical composition. The N1s spectra surface since of
the N80 carbon steel substrate does not contain nitrogen in its chemical composition.
the native and adsorbed inhibitor are presented in Figure 14g,h. Both images show the presence of aThe N1s spectra
of the
peak native
at 400 andand adsorbed
399.8 inhibitortoare
eV attributed thepresented
nitrogen in Figure
atom 14g,h.with
bonded Boththe
images show
carbon the presence
atom, of
for the native
a peak at 400 and 399.8 eV attributed to the nitrogen atom bonded with the carbon
and adsorbed inhibitor. However, as it can be seen that the high-resolution N1s spectrum of the testedatom, for the
native and adsorbed inhibitor. However, as it can be seen that the high‐resolution N1s spectrum of
substrate sample after the addition of GA depicts an extra peak at 397.6 eV. This extra peak can be
the tested substrate sample after the addition of GA depicts an extra peak at 397.6 eV. This extra peak
ascribed to the coordinated nitrogen atom of the amino group with the metal surface (N–Fe bond) [44].
can be ascribed to the coordinated nitrogen atom of the amino group with the metal surface (N–Fe
Other authors also suggested that this peak could be attributed to the bond between the nitrogen of
bond) [44]. Other authors also suggested that this peak could be attributed to the bond between the
the amino groups and the oxide layer on the metal surface (FeOx ) [45].
nitrogen of the amino groups and the oxide layer on the metal surface (FeOx) [45].
3.5. Mechanism of Inhibition
3.5. Mechanism of Inhibition
Given all the observed results, it can be inferred that the GA was effectively adsorbed on the metal
Given all the observed results, it can be inferred that the GA was effectively adsorbed on the
surface, providing good protection to the metal surface against sweet corrosion. However, the complex
metal surface, providing good protection to the metal surface against sweet corrosion. However, the
chemical
complexstructure
chemicalofstructure
this inhibitor
of thismakes it difficult
inhibitor makes it todifficult
determine the exact adsorption
to determine mechanism
the exact adsorption
involved. Gum arabic is a heterogeneous mixture of different compounds
mechanism involved. Gum arabic is a heterogeneous mixture of different compounds consisting consisting of three main
of
fractions: 80%fractions:
three main of arabinogalactan (AG), 10.4% (AG),
80% of arabinogalactan of arabinogalactan-protein (AGP) and (AGP)
10.4% of arabinogalactan‐protein 1.2% glycoprotein
and 1.2%
(GP) (Figure 15).
glycoprotein (GP)Each of these
(Figure 15). fractions contains
Each of these a range
fractions of different
contains a range molecular
of differentweight components
molecular weight
and different protein contents. Therefore, some of these compounds can be
components and different protein contents. Therefore, some of these compounds can be physicallyphysically and others
chemically
and othersadsorbed.
chemically Nevertheless, based on thebased
adsorbed. Nevertheless, results
onreported in reported
the results this study,
in itthis
canstudy,
be assumed that
it can be
theassumed
following three
that the types of adsorption
following three types mechanisms
of adsorption or likely a combination
mechanisms or likelyof
a them may take
combination of place
them in
themay take place
inhibiting in the inhibiting
phenomena involvingphenomena
GA on the involving GA on the steel surface.
steel surface.

3.5.1. Adsorption
3.5.1. Adsorptionvia
viaElectrostatic
ElectrostaticInteraction
Interaction
TheThefunctional
functionalgroups
groups such as as hydroxyl,
hydroxyl,carboxyl,
carboxyl,and amino
and present
amino in the
present inGA
themolecules, by
GA molecules,
virtue of the presence of lone pair of electrons, can be easily protonated in acid solutions
by virtue of the presence of lone pair of electrons, can be easily protonated in acid solutions such such that
thethe
that newly
newly formed
formedpolycations
polycations areare
in in
equilibrium
equilibriumwith their
with neutral
their neutralcounterpart
counterpart according
accordingto the
to the
Equation(12).
Equation (12).The
Thehigh
high corrosion
corrosion inhibition
inhibition activity
activityshowed
showedbybyGA GAisislikely
likelydue
dueto to
a synergistic
a synergistic
electrostaticinteraction
electrostatic interaction between
between the the protonated
protonatedGA GAmolecules
moleculeswith
withthe the
adsorbed chloride
adsorbed ions, as
chloride ions,
shown in Figure 16a. As reported by several studies [7,20–22,28] chloride ions are strongly
as shown in Figure 16a. As reported by several studies [7,20–22,28] chloride ions are strongly adsorbed adsorbed
ononthethe positivelycharged
positively chargedmetal
metalsurface,
surface, thereby
thereby creating
creatingananexcess
excessofofelectrons
electronssosothat thethe
that metal will
metal will
be negatively charged. These adsorbed chloride ions can act as an intermediate bridge between the
be negatively charged. These adsorbed chloride ions can act as an intermediate bridge between the
surface and the protonated inhibitor molecules and therefore, assisting the adsorption of GA on the
metal surface. This type of adsorption mechanism is likely the one that accounts for the most
inhibition action of the inhibitor. In fact, the results presented in this manuscript have demonstrated
Materials 2020, 13, 4245 20 of 24

surface and the protonated inhibitor molecules and therefore, assisting the adsorption of GA on the
metal surface. This type of adsorption mechanism is likely the one that accounts for the most inhibition
actionMaterials
of the2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
inhibitor. In fact, the results presented in this manuscript have demonstrated 20 of 24
clearly
that the corrosion inhibition action of GA was strongly influenced by both the concentration
clearly that the corrosion inhibition action of GA was strongly influenced by both the concentration of the
inhibitor, CO 2 partial
of the inhibitor, CO2 partial pressure, and temperature. A change in one of these two factors has agreat
pressure, and temperature. A change in one of these two factors has a
effectgreat
on the equilibrium
effect reaction (Equation
on the equilibrium (12)), shifting
reaction (Equation (12)), the equilibrium
shifting towardstowards
the equilibrium the protonated
the
or theprotonated
deprotonated or theform of the inhibitor.
deprotonated form of theA inhibitor.
shift to the righttoimplies
A shift the rightan increase
implies in the number
an increase in the of
numbermolecules
protonated of protonated molecules
of GA of GA
available availablewith
to interact to interact with theions
the chloride chloride ions adsorbed
adsorbed on the and
on the surface
surface and thus, an increase
thus, an increase in IE of the system. in IE of the system.

Figure 16. Schematic

Figure representation
16. Schematic ofofthe
representation thecorrosion inhibitionmechanism
corrosion inhibition mechanismof of
thethe
N80N80 carbon
carbon steelsteel
by by
GA. (a)
GA.electrostatic; (b) (b)
(a) electrostatic; H-bond
H‐bondformation;
formation;(c)
(c)chemical adsorption.
chemical adsorption.

3.5.2. 3.5.2.
Adsorption via via
Adsorption Hydrogen Bond
Hydrogen BondFormation
Formation Interaction
Interaction
At higher CO2CO
At higher partial pressure
2 partial pressure(i.e.,
(i.e.,40
40 bar)
bar) the
the pHpHof ofthe
thesolution
solution is around
is around 3 [32],
3 [32], and and
among among
the three possible
the three occurring
possible occurringcathodic
cathodicreactions
reactions (Equations (9)–(11)),the
(Equations (9)–(11)), the reduction
reduction of hydrogen
of hydrogen ions ions
to hydrogen gas gas
to hydrogen is the dominant
is the dominantcathodic reaction.It It
cathodic reaction. is generally
is generally accepted
accepted thatreaction
that this this reaction
can be can
describedusing
be described usingthree
three steps
steps [46].
[46]. The
The first
firststep
stepisisthetheelectrochemical
electrochemical adsorption
adsorptionof the H+ ions
H+ ions
of the
(Equation
(Equation (20))(20)) followed
followed by by eitherthe
either theelectrochemical
electrochemical desorption
desorption(Equation
(Equation (21)) or the
(21)) chemical
or the chemical
desorption (Equation (22)).
desorption (Equation (22)).
H+ H+(aq)++ee−‐ →
→HHads ads (20) (20)
(aq)
H + H+ →H (21)
+ H+
Hadsads (aq)
(aq)
→ H2(g)
2(g) (21)
Hads +Hads →H2(g) (22)
Hads + Hads → H2(g) (22)
The potentiodynamic measurements presented in Figure 5 showed that the cathodic current
The potentiodynamic
density of the system was measurements
greatly reducedpresented in Figure
after the addition 5 showed
of GA that the
in the solution, cathodicthat
suggesting current
density
GAofwastheable
system was greatly
to suppress reduced after
the hydrogen the addition
evolution reaction of GA in the
(Equation solution,
(11)) to somesuggesting that GA
extent. Similar
results
was able were also confirmed
to suppress the hydrogenby other authorsreaction
evolution [21,26–28]. This assumption
(Equation (11)) towas
some also confirmed
extent. by FT‐
Similar results
IR and Raman measurements performed on GA [7,26] and other gum‐like [20,36,47]
were also confirmed by other authors [21,26–28]. This assumption was also confirmed by FT-IR and compounds. The
Ramanresults showed thatperformed
measurements the characteristic
on GA peak assigned
[7,26] to thegum-like
and other hydroxyl groups of the
[20,36,47] carbohydrate
compounds. Theunits
results
narrowed down and/or shifted after its adsorption on the metal surface. The authors agreed that this
showed that the characteristic peak assigned to the hydroxyl groups of the carbohydrate units narrowed
change in shape was likely due to a possible interaction of the hydroxyl groups of the GA molecules
down and/or shifted after its adsorption on the metal surface. The authors agreed that this change in
with the H adsorbed on the cathodic sites of the metal surface via H‐bond formation (Figure 16b).
shapeTherefore,
was likely thedue
hightovalue
a possible interaction
of IE observed of the
in this hydroxyl
study groups
at different of the GA
CO2 partial molecules
pressure can be with
also the
H adsorbed on the cathodic sites of the metal surface via H-bond formation (Figure
ascribed to the ability of GA to suppress one of these reactions (Equations (20)–(22)) via H‐bonds16b). Therefore,
the high value of IE observed in this study at different CO2 partial pressure can be also ascribed
Materials 2020, 13, 4245 21 of 24

to the ability of GA to suppress one of these reactions (Equations (20)–(22)) via H-bonds formation,
thus suppressing Equation (11) and consequently the dissolution of the steel (Equation (8)).
The adsorption of GA may also be promoted by the presence of the oxide layer on the metal surface
via hydrogen bonding (Figure 16b). Studies concerning the adsorption of GA on oxide nanoparticles
(i.e., iron oxide nanoparticles [48] and zinc or aluminum oxide nanoparticles [49]) reported that GA
showed a strong affinity toward these oxide nanoparticles. The authors suggested that the adsorption
of GA on these oxide nanoparticles surface might be due to the formation of hydrogen bonds between
the functional groups of the GA molecules (e.g., hydroxyl, carboxylate, and amino) with the oxidized
surface. The XPS analysis presented in this study showed that the metal surface after 24 h of exposure
is covered by different oxide species such as Fe2 O3 and/or Fe3 O4 , (e.g., Equations (15)–(19)). Therefore,
the adsorption of GA assisted by the presence of oxide species formed on the metal surface via H-bonds
formation is an adsorption mechanism that must be also taken into account.

3.5.3. Chemical Adsorption

The heteroatoms (i.e., O, N) present on the GA molecules by virtue of the presence of lone pair
of electrons may promote the adsorption of the inhibitor via the formation of coordinate bonds with
the iron from the metal surface and/or with iron from the oxide species formed on the surface [45]
(Figure 16c). The XPS measurements observed in this study showed a peak at 397.6 eV likely ascribed
to the coordinated nitrogen atom of the amino group with the Fe (N–Fe bond) [44]. This result
suggests that although the inhibitor is mainly physically adsorbed on the surface of the metal, a small
contribution of the chemical adsorption process cannot be ignored.

4. Conclusions
The corrosion inhibition effect of gum Arabic on the corrosion of carbon steel (N80) exposed in a
high-pressure CO2 -saline environment has been studied and the following conclusion can be drawn:

• The weight loss results showed that the thickening agent gum arabic was found to be an efficient
corrosion inhibitor for carbon steel in a high-pressure CO2 -saline environment. The Inhibition
efficiency increased with an increase in inhibitor concentration and CO2 partial pressure with the
maximum value of IE found to be 84.53% at PCO2 = 40 bar after 24 h of immersion. Moreover,
the weight loss results also showed that GA was effectively able to protect the steel surface from
sweet corrosion at high CO2 partial pressures (i.e., 40 bar) even after a prolonged immersion time
(i.e., 168 h) with a corrosion inhibition efficiency found to be 74.41%.
• The adsorption of GA on the carbon steel surface follows the Temkin’s adsorption isotherm model.
The negative free energy of adsorption ∆G◦ ads indicates a strong and spontaneous adsorption of
GA on the carbon steel surface. Furthermore, the value of ∆G◦ ads indicates that the GA adsorbs
mainly via physical adsorption on the metal surface.
• The SEM analysis revealed that in the presence of GA the protective layer on the metal surface
becomes more compact and dense with an increase in CO2 partial pressure. Also, the SEM analysis
revealed that after 168 h of immersion, in the presence of GA, the metal surface appeared to be
less damaged and smother.
• The XPS results confirmed the formation of a protective layer containing GA molecules and iron
oxides on the metal surface.

Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/13/19/4245/s1,

Table S1: Corrosion rate and inhibition efficiency obtained from weight loss measurements for the N80 carbon steel
at various concentrations of GA and CO2 partial pressures after 24 h of immersion time, Table S2: Comparison of
reported inhibition efficiency of some other corrosion inhibitors used in a CO2 saturated saline solution (3.5 wt.%
NaCl), Table S3: Corrosion rate and inhibition efficiency obtained from weight loss measurements for the carbon
steel (N80) carried out at 1.0 g L−1 of GA and CO2 partial pressures after 168 h of immersion time at 25 ◦ C,
Table S4: XPS analysis of sample steel surface after 24 h of immersion in test solution at PCO2 = 40 bar and at 25 ◦ C
in the presence of 1.0 g L−1 of GA.
Materials 2020, 13, 4245 22 of 24

Author Contributions: G.P. conceived, designed, and performed the measurements, analyzed the experimental
data, wrote and edited the manuscript; K.K. performed the XRD analysis; R.W. and A.B. performed the XPS.
analysis; M.G. performed the SEM-EDS analysis. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: RW has been partly supported by the EU Project POWR.03.02.00-00-I004/16.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Sheng, J.J. Enhanced oil recovery in shale reservoirs by gas injection. J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng. 2015, 22, 252–259.
[CrossRef]
2. Bai, H.; Wang, Y.; Ma, Y.; Zhang, Q.; Zhang, N. Effect of CO2 Partial Pressure on the Corrosion Behavior of
J55 Carbon Steel in 30% Crude Oil/Brine Mixture. Materials 2018, 11, 1765. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
3. Bai, H.; Wang, Y.; Ma, Y.; Ren, P.; Zhang, N. Pitting Corrosion and Microstructure of J55 Carbon Steel Exposed
to CO2 /Crude Oil/Brine Solution under 2–15 MPa at 30–80 ◦ C. Materials 2018, 11, 2374. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
4. Mustafa, A.H.; Ari-Wahjoedi, B.; Ismail, M.C. Inhibition of CO2 Corrosion of X52 Steel by Imidazoline-Based
Inhibitor in High Pressure CO2 -Water Environment. J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 2012, 22, 1748–1755. [CrossRef]
5. Islam, A.; Farhat, Z.N. Characterization of the Corrosion Layer on Pipeline Steel in Sweet Environment.
J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 2015, 24, 3142–3158. [CrossRef]
6. Aristia, G.; Hoa, L.Q.; Bäßler, R. Corrosion of Carbon Steel in Artificial Geothermal Brine: Influence of
Carbon Dioxide at 70 ◦ C and 150 ◦ C. Materials 2019, 12, 3801. [CrossRef]
7. Palumbo, G.; Górny, M.; Banaś, J. Corrosion Inhibition of Pipeline Carbon Steel (N80) in CO2 -Saturated
Chloride (0.5 M of KCl) Solution Using Gum Arabic as a Possible Environmentally Friendly Corrosion
Inhibitor for Shale Gas Industry. J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 2019, 28, 6458–6470. [CrossRef]
8. Palumbo, G.; Banas, J.; Bałkowiec, A.; Mizera, J.; Lelek-Borkowska, U. Electrochemical study of the corrosion
behaviour of carbon steel in fracturing fluid. J. Solid State Electrochem. 2014, 18, 2933–2945. [CrossRef]
9. Linter, B.; Burstein, G. Reactions of pipeline steels in carbon dioxide solutions. Corros. Sci. 1999, 41, 117–139.
[CrossRef]
10. Palumbo, G.; Banaś, J. Inhibition effect of guar gum on the corrosion behaviour of carbon steel (K-55) in
fracturing fluid. Solid State Phenom. 2015, 227, 59–62. [CrossRef]
11. Tang, J.; Hu, Y.; Han, Z.; Wang, H.; Zhu, Y.; Wang, Y.; Nie, Z.; Wang, Y. Experimental and Theoretical Study on
the Synergistic Inhibition Effect of Pyridine Derivatives and Sulfur-Containing Compounds on the Corrosion
of Carbon Steel in CO2 -Saturated 3.5 wt.% NaCl Solution. Molecules 2018, 23, 3270. [CrossRef]
12. Ortega-Toledo, D.; Gonzalez-Rodriguez, J.G.; Casales, M.; Martinez, L.; Martinez-Villafañe, A. Co2 corrosion
inhibition of X-120 pipeline steel by a modified imidazoline under flow conditions. Corros. Sci. 2011, 53,
3780–3787. [CrossRef]
13. Singh, A.; Ansari, K.R.; Quraishi, M.A.; Lgaz, H. Effect of Electron Donating Functional Groups on Corrosion
Inhibition of J55 Steel in a Sweet Corrosive Environment: Experimental, Density Functional Theory, and
Molecular Dynamic Simulation. Materials 2018, 12, 17. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
14. Ghareba, S.; Omanovic, S. The effect of electrolyte flow on the performance of 12-aminododecanoic acid
as a carbon steel corrosion inhibitor in CO2 -saturated hydrochloric acid. Corros. Sci. 2011, 53, 3805–3812.
[CrossRef]
15. Umoren, S.; Alahmary, A.A.; Gasem, Z.M.; Solomon, M. Evaluation of chitosan and carboxymethyl cellulose
as ecofriendly corrosion inhibitors for steel. Int. J. Boil. Macromol. 2018, 117, 1017–1028. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
16. Ansari, K.; Chauhan, D.S.; Quraishi, M.; Mazumder, M.A.; Singh, A. Chitosan Schiff base: An environmentally
benign biological macromolecule as a new corrosion inhibitor for oil & gas industries. Int. J. Boil. Macromol.
2020, 144, 305–315. [CrossRef]
17. Lin, Y.; Singh, A.; Ebenso, E.E.; Quraishi, M.A.; Zhou, Y.; Huang, Y. Use of HPHT Autoclave to Determine
Corrosion Inhibition by Berberine extract on Carbon Steels in 3.5% NaCl Solution Saturated with CO2 .
Int. J. Electrochem. Sci. 2015, 10, 194–208.
18. Singh, A.; Lin, Y.; Liu, W.; Ebenso, E.E.; Pan, J. Extract of Momordica charantia (Karela) Seeds as Corrosion
Inhibitor for P110SS Steel in CO2 Saturated 3.5% NaCl Solution. Int. J. Electrochem. Sci. 2013, 8, 12884–12893.
Materials 2020, 13, 4245 23 of 24

19. Singh, A.; Lin, Y.; Ebenso, E.E.; Liu, W.; Pan, J.; Huang, B. Gingko biloba fruit extract as an eco-friendly
corrosion inhibitor for J55 steel in CO2 saturated 3.5% NaCl solution. J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 2015, 24, 219–228.
[CrossRef]
20. Palumbo, G.; Berent, K.; Proniewicz, E.; Banaś, J. Guar Gum as an Eco-Friendly Corrosion Inhibitor for Pure
Aluminium in 1-M HCl Solution. Materials 2019, 12, 2620. [CrossRef]
21. Bentrah, H.; Rahali, Y.; Chala, A. Gum Arabic as an eco-friendly inhibitor for API 5L X42 pipeline steel in
HCl medium. Corros. Sci. 2014, 82, 426–431. [CrossRef]
22. Umoren, S. Inhibition of aluminium and mild steel corrosion in acidic medium using Gum Arabic. Cellulose
2008, 15, 751–761. [CrossRef]
23. Singh, A.; Ansari, K.; Quraishi, M. Inhibition effect of natural polysaccharide composite on hydrogen evolution
and P110 steel corrosion in 3.5 wt% NaCl solution saturated with CO2 : Combination of experimental and
surface analysis. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2020, 45, 25398–25408. [CrossRef]
24. Umoren, S.; Ogbobe, O.; Igwe, I.; Ebenso, E. Inhibition of mild steel corrosion in acidic medium using
synthetic and naturally occurring polymers and synergistic halide additives. Corros. Sci. 2008, 50, 1998–2006.
[CrossRef]
25. Mobin, M.; Alam Khan, M. Investigation on the Adsorption and Corrosion Inhibition Behavior of Gum
Acacia and Synergistic Surfactants Additives on Mild Steel in 0.1 MH2 SO4 . J. Dispers. Sci. Technol. 2013, 34,
1496–1506. [CrossRef]
26. Abu-Dalo, M.A.; Othman, A.A.; Al-Rawashdeh, N.A.F. Exudate gum from acacia trees as green corrosion
inhibitor for mild steel in acidic media. Int. J. Electrochem. Sci. 2012, 7, 9303–9324.
27. Shen, C.; Alvarez, V.; Koenig, J.D.B.; Luo, J.-L. Gum Arabic as corrosion inhibitor in the oil industry:
Experimental and theoretical studies. Corros. Eng. Sci. Technol. 2019, 54, 444–454. [CrossRef]
28. Azzaoui, K.; Mejdoubi, E.; Jodeh, S.; Lamhamdi, A.; Rodríguez-Castellón, E.; Algarra, M.; Zarrouk, A.;
Errich, A.; Salghi, R.; Lgaz, H. Eco friendly green inhibitor Gum Arabic (GA) for the corrosion control of
mild steel in hydrochloric acid medium. Corros. Sci. 2017, 129, 70–81. [CrossRef]
29. Spellman, F.R. Environmental Impacts of Hydraulic Fracturing; Informa UK Limited: London, UK, 2012.
30. ASTM-G1-90, Standard Practice for Preparing, Cleaning, and Evaluation Corrosion Test Specimens; ASTM
International: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 1999.
31. Choi, Y.-S.; Nešić, S. Determining the corrosive potential of CO2 transport pipeline in high pCO2 –water
environments. Int. J. Greenh. Gas. Control 2011, 5, 788–797. [CrossRef]
32. Li, X.; Peng, C.; Crawshaw, J.; Maitland, G.; Trusler, J.M. The pH of CO2 -saturated aqueous NaCl and
NaHCO3 solutions at temperatures between 308 K and 373 K at pressures up to 15 MPa. Fluid Phase Equilibria
2018, 458, 253–263. [CrossRef]
33. Dong, B.; Liu, W.; Zhang, Y.; Banthukul, W.; Zhao, Y.; Zhang, T.; Fan, Y.; Li, X.; Wei, L.; Yonggang, Z.; et al.
Comparison of the characteristics of corrosion scales covering 3Cr steel and X60 steel in CO2 -H2S coexistence
environment. J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng. 2020, 80, 103371. [CrossRef]
34. Bousselmi, L.; Fiaud, C.; Tribollet, B.; Triki, E. Impedance spectroscopic study of a steel electrode in condition
of scaling and corrosion. Electrochim. Acta 1999, 44, 4357–4363. [CrossRef]
35. Bousselmi, L.; Fiaud, C.; Tribollet, B.; Triki, E. The characterisation of the coated layer at the interface carbon
steel-natural salt water by impedance spectroscopy. Corros. Sci. 1997, 39, 1711–1724. [CrossRef]
36. Roy, P.; Karfa, P.; Adhikari, U.; Sukul, D. Corrosion inhibition of mild steel in acidic medium by polyacrylamide
grafted Guar gum with various grafting percentage: Effect of intramolecular synergism. Corros. Sci. 2014, 88,
246–253. [CrossRef]
37. Saha, S.K.; Dutta, A.; Sukul, D.; Ghosh, P.; Banerjee, P. Adsorption and corrosion inhibition effect of Schiff
base molecules on the mild steel surface in 1 M HCl medium: A combined experimental and theoretical
approach. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2015, 17, 5679–5690. [CrossRef]
38. Outirite, M.; Lagrenée, M.; Lebrini, M.; Traisnel, M.; Jama, C.; Vezin, H.; Bentiss, F. Ac impedance, X-ray
photoelectron spectroscopy and density functional theory studies of 3,5-bis(n-pyridyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazoles as
efficient corrosion inhibitors for carbon steel surface in hydrochloric acid solution. Electrochim. Acta 2010, 55,
1670–1681. [CrossRef]
39. Paolinelli, L.; Perez, T.; Simison, S. The effect of pre-corrosion and steel microstructure on inhibitor
performance in CO2 corrosion. Corros. Sci. 2008, 50, 2456–2464. [CrossRef]
Materials 2020, 13, 4245 24 of 24

40. Mora-Mendoza, J.; Turgoose, S. Fe3C influence on the corrosion rate of mild steel in aqueous CO2 systems
under turbulent flow conditions. Corros. Sci. 2002, 44, 1223–1246. [CrossRef]
41. Ding, Y.; Brown, B.; Young, D.; Singer, M. Effectiveness of an Imidazoline-Type Inhibitor Against CO2
Corrosion of Mild Steel at Elevated Temperatures (120 ◦ C–150 ◦ C). In Proceedings of the CORROSION 2018,
Phoenix, AZ, USA, 15–19 April 2018; p. 22.
42. Heuer, J.; Stubbins, J. An XPS characterization of FeCO3 films from CO2 corrosion. Corros. Sci. 1999, 41,
1231–1243. [CrossRef]
43. Boumhara, K.; Tabyaoui, M.; Jama, C.; Bentiss, F. Artemisia Mesatlantica essential oil as green inhibitor for
carbon steel corrosion in 1M HCl solution: Electrochemical and XPS investigations. J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 2015,
29, 146–155. [CrossRef]
44. Bouanis, M.; Tourabi, M.; Nyassi, A.; Zarrouk, A.; Jama, C.; Bentiss, F. Corrosion inhibition performance
of 2,5-bis(4-dimethylaminophenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole for carbon steel in HCl solution: Gravimetric,
electrochemical and XPS studies. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2016, 389, 952–966. [CrossRef]
45. Hashim, N.Z.N.; Anouar, E.H.; Kassim, K.; Zaki, H.M.; Alharthi, A.I.; Embong, Z. XPS and DFT investigations
of corrosion inhibition of substituted benzylidene Schiff bases on mild steel in hydrochloric acid. Appl. Surf. Sci.
2019, 476, 861–877. [CrossRef]
46. Barker, R.; Burkle, D.; Charpentier, T.; Thompson, H.; Neville, A. A review of iron carbonate (FeCO3 )
formation in the oil and gas industry. Corros. Sci. 2018, 142, 312–341. [CrossRef]
47. Messali, M.; Lgaz, H.; Dassanayake, R.; Salghi, R.; Jodeh, S.; Abidi, N.; Hamed, O. Guar gum as efficient
non-toxic inhibitor of carbon steel corrosion in phosphoric acid medium: Electrochemical, surface, DFT and
MD simulations studies. J. Mol. Struct. 2017, 1145, 43–54. [CrossRef]
48. Williams, D.N.; Gold, K.A.; Holoman, T.R.P.; Ehrman, S.H.; Wilson, O.C. Surface Modification of Magnetic
Nanoparticles Using Gum Arabic. J. Nanopart. Res. 2006, 8, 749–753. [CrossRef]
49. Leong, Y.; Seah, U.; Chu, S.; Ong, B. Effects of Gum Arabic macromolecules on surface forces in oxide
dispersions. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 2001, 182, 263–268. [CrossRef]

© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).