HIS4B06 INDIAN HISTORY-2

Course Category: Core Course 6

No. of Credits: 4 No. of Contact Hours: 5 Hours per week

State and Society in

Medieval India

Module – I Interpreting early medieval Indian History

 Concept of early medieval
 Indian Feudal model and its critics
Essential readings
B. D. Chattopadhyaya. The Making of Early Medieval India
Irfan Habib. Medieval India; The Study of a Civilization
D. N. Jha. Early India: A Concise History
R. S. Sharma. Early Medieval Indian Society: A Study in Feudalization
Upinder Singh. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India
 Concept of Early Medieval
 What is Early Medieval?
 The concept of ‘early medieval’ is used to designate a period between early
historic and the establishment of Turkish rule in 1192 CE
 Prior to the proposition of the ‘concept of early medieval’, historians considered
this particular period as 'dark age' and an age of decline, ie, the ‘decline of the
centralized empires’ and ‘decay of urbanism’
 However, the recent studies on the socio-political and economic aspects of this
period led to characterize it as a “transitional period”
 Infact , the periodisation of Indian history as 'ancient', 'medieval' and 'modern’
is widely accepted notion among the scholars
 However, scholars keep different view on the event to mark the beginning and
end of these various periods
 Interestingly, colonial historian J. S. Mill had used Hindu, Muslim and British for
Ancient, Medieval and Modern periods respectively in his book, ‘History of
British India’ (1817)
 It was an attempt to promote the colonial interests by using the divide and rule
strategy in India
 Concept of Early Medieval
 To him the period between C. E. 600 and 1300 witnessed the invasion of Mahmud of
Ghazni, the later part of Hindu and early part of Turkish rule.
 Following J. S. Mill, V. A. Smith, the author of ‘The Oxford History of India’ (1919)
divided India's past into five phases as;
a) Ancient period
b) Hindu period
c) Period of the Hindu medieval kingdoms
d) Muslim period
e) Modern Period
 As a reaction to this Nationalist Historian R. C. Majumdar, the general editor of ‘The
History and Culture of Indian People’ (11 Vols.), rejected the colonial periodisation
and proposed the usage ancient, medieval and modern
 However, Marxist historians dismiss this chronological periodisation and they
suggested ‘the mode of production model’
 D. D. Kosambi, (Marxian) author of ‘An Introduction to the Study of Indian History’
(1956), strongly argued for a shift from dynastic interpretation of Indian history to
economic and social changes
 Concept of Early Medieval

 He rejected the Hindu Muslim periodisation as communal and inconsistent.

 This historiography marked shift from dynastic/political history to a
comprehensive analysis of history based on the mode of production and
changes in economic and social structures.
 When the specialized studies started to flourish, the periodization of Indian
history demanded little more specificity, which eventually came to be
termed as 'early medieval', 'late medieval’, ‘early modern’ and
‘contemporary history’.
 While discussing the features of transition to medieval, the Bengali historian
Niharranjan Ray in his edited work, ‘A Sourcebook of Indian Civilization’
(2002) put forwarded a multi-dimensional characterization of Indian
Medievalism.
 According to him, the process of transition starts from 7th CE and it became
more pronounced from 8th CE
 Concept of Early Medieval
 He located three sub-periods within the medieval:
a) 7th to 12th CE
b) 12th to the first quarter of the 16th CE
c) First quarter of the 16th CE to the close of the 18th CE
 Though he does not specify the major attributes of these sub periods, a list of
major traits of medievalism was presented
 According to which;
 Firstly, all dynasties in India became regional
 Secondly, the character of economy was changed from a money economy to
a natural economy
 Thirdly, there emerged a regional character to the script, language and
literature during the medieval period
 Fourthly, the religion during the time witnessed proliferation of sects and
sub sects
 Lastly, art activities were recognizable only in terms of regional schools
 His contribution had largely influenced in interpreting the early medieval concept
in Indian history
 Concept of Early Medieval

 Infact, the term 'early medieval' stands for an intermediate period in between
the Ancient and the medieval period
 However, based on the assessment of the beginning of Gupta Age and the
establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, scholars keep different opinion on fixing
the period of early medieval
 R.S. Sharma, suggest the early medieval period between C. E. 500-1200
 Irfan Habib mention it in his book ‘Medieval India, as CE 600-1200
 Some others suggested the early medieval between C.E.600- 1300

 Early Medieval Debate on Nature of Polity, Society & Economy

 The nature of the society, polity and the economy of early medieval India have
been a matter of serious debate in Indian history
 It has often been portrayed as a period of crisis, decline, decay and decadence by
advocators of the notion of ‘Indian feudalism’ and it was applied in both north
Indian and South Indian contexts
 Concept of Early Medieval

 As discussed, recent studies have brought out different interpretations on the

nature of in early medieval period
 'Segmentary state model’ of Burton Stein is another model to explain the period in
south Indian polity (The Segmentary State in South India History-1971)
 Another model of interpretation of early medieval India is known as 'Integrative
state System’, by B. D. Chattopadhyaya (The Making of Early Medieval
India.), Hermann Kulke (German) & B. P. Sahu
 According to which, the early medieval period witnessed the formation of new
regional states after the land grants
 It challenges the theory of ‘urban decay’, whereas they suggested the 'urban
change’.
 Concept of Early Medieval
 Factors influenced in the formation of ‘Early Medieval’ Phase
1. Political Decentralization:
 A new form of state against the centralized and bureaucratic state came into
existence
 It characterized by decentralization and hierarchy, the presence of semi-
autonomous rulers, samantas, mahasamantas etc. and nobles named
rajapurushas were employed in royal courts.
2. The emergence of landed Intermediaries:
 A new class of landed intermediaries which were absent in the earlier period
came into existence, (which had been considered as the hallmark of Indian feudal social
formation)
 It was linked to the disintegration and decentralization of state authority that
caused to change in the structure of agrarian relations.
3. Shift from money economy to self-sufficient villages:
 Decline of early urban economy & trade networks led to the transition from
money economy to self-sufficient rural economy
 Concept of Early Medieval

4. Practice of land grants as a substitute for cash payment

 Migration of different social groups from urban centres to villages and
subsequent agrarian expansion- Payments were made as land grants in lieu of
cash
5. Subjection of the Peasantry:
 Agriculture & peasantry witnessed immobility, forced labour and high rates of
tax, a quite different situation from the agrarian structure in early India
6. Proliferation of Castes:
 Proliferation of castes was a unique social change in the post-Gupta period
(Kayasthas)
 The practice of pollution and formation of degraded untouchable castes
7. Feudal Ideology and Culture:
 Ideology and practice of this period centred on Bhakthi
 Being based on loyalty and devotion, Bhakti promoted the feudal nature
 The urban and cosmopolitan culture that existed earlier was also declining
 Concept of Early Medieval
 This discussion prompt us to identify the period of early medieval as a
transitional phase rather than as a period of decline
 Recent studies on early Medieval India convince us about the developments that
occurred during the period rather than neglecting it as a ‘dark age’
 Change in Sources of Early Medieval India
 Literary and archaeological sources help us to reconstruct the history of early
medieval India
 By the growth of regional powers, Sanskrit sources of early Indian history (Religious
texts, epics & puranas, kavyas grammer, mathematics etc.) were replaced by royal biographies
by the court poets and other important works
 Harshacharita of Banabhatta, Bilahana's eulogistic work Vikramankadevacharita
helps us to understand the life and career of Chalukyan king Vikramaditya VI, of
Kalyani.
 Ramacharita of Sandhyakaranandi provide details on Pala king Ramapala
 Concept of Early Medieval

Padmagupta’s Navasahasankadevacharita is collection poems on quasi

historical themes, talks on Malwa king Sindhuraja Navasahasanka, and his
winning of the princess named Shashiprabha
 Prithvirajaraso written by Chand Bardai, an epic deals with exploits of the
warrior king Prithviraj Chauhan
Rajatharangini of Kalhana, a historical chronicle of the rulers of Kashmir
portrays the history from earliest times to the twelfth century
The Puranas of early medieval India are also forms as important source
materials, which elaborately speak of the increasing popularity of the
godly cults
The most prominent of which include Bhagavata Purana, Brahmavaivarta
Purana, and Kalka Purana
A large number of important Dharmasasthra compilations, digests and
commentaries were produced during this period
 Concept of Early Medieval
 The Chaturvimshatimata was a collection of the teachings of twenty four law
givers.
 Jimutavahana wrote a work on procedural law called the Vyavaharamatrika, and
a digest on laws of inheritance titled, Dayabhaga.
 There were also a number of commentaries on Smritis such as Manu Smriti and
Yanjavalkya Smriti.
 Vijnaneshvara's commentary known as Mitakshara was considered as an
authority on various aspects of Hindu law.
 There were also some Jain texts in Prakrit language written in Mahrashtri dialect.
 There were a few Pali works which were showing the influence of Sanskrit
literature.
 Apabhramsha represents the last phase of Prakrit language, out of which several
modern languages of India are emerged.
 Other literary text, Krishi-Parashara deals with agriculture of early medieval
Bengal.
 Concept of Early Medieval

Other categories of works like Jain folk tales called Dharma-kathas of western
India forms as a source on history, though which appear to be no historical
value.
There were also mathematical works such as Ganitasarasangraha of
Mahaviracharya (9 CE.) and Lilavati of Baskaracharya (12 CE)
They provide information regarding prices, weights and measure, wages and
coins
Similarly, the devotional poems of Alvars and Nayanars and hagiographic works
in Tamil are important.
 Nandikkalambakam, a poem in 80 stanzas is a eulogy on the reign of Pallava
king Nandivarman III.
There were several Kannada works, most of which associated with Jainism, and
some were written under the royal patronage of the Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas,
and the Chalukyas.
 Concept of Early Medieval
The Chinese and Arab texts are also significant to understand the historical
processes of the early medieval period
The accounts of Huang Tsang (c. 600-664 C.E.) and Itsing (c.635-713 C.E.) are
most prominent.
One of Itsing's works gives an account of Buddhist doctrines and practices in
India, while the other offers biographical sketches of 56 Chinese monks who
visited India during the 7th CE.
Arab travellers and geographers of 9 & 10th CE includes Sulaiman, Al- Masudi,
Abu Zaid, Al Biduri, and Ibn Haukul had extensively written on India
Later Arab writers include Al-Biruni, Al- Idrisi, Muhammad Lutfi, and Ibn
Battuta.
Their works provide information regarding trade and related subjects, and
some of them provide valuable accounts on the flourishing condition of
Indian states during their visits.
 Concept of Early Medieval

 The changing Nature of Political Structure in Early Medieval India

 Compared to the previous models of empires, the nature of early medieval state and
kingdoms were not with strictly defined structure and form
 Most significantly, the power and influence of state were limited to a small locality in
that period
 There emerged and disappeared several states which were relatively small and short-
lived
 The Gurjara- Pratiharas, the Gahdawalas and the Chamanas ruled over larger areas of
North India from 9th to 12 CE
 The Palas and Senas ruled over Eastern India, whereas Chalukyas in Gujarat
 In Deccan, the Chalukyas (8-9 CE were succeeded by the Rashtrakutas
 However, there were some relatively strong and long-lived states such as Cholas,
Rashtrakutas, Palas and Pratiharas
 Concept of Early Medieval

 Historians are of the view that, all these dynasties appear to have similar political
organization.
 Their mutual relations are defined by political interest based on war and conflict as
well as of military and matrimonial alliances
 Unprecedented increase of military power and its influence on the state and society
and continuous warfare were the important nature of the early medieval period
 Hiring mercenaries during the time of war in addition to the well-maintained core
army was another feature (Palas had recruited mercenaries from among the groups such as
Gaudas, Malavas, Khasa, Kulikns Hunas, Karnats and Latas)
 Existence of political hierarchies of overlords and subordinate rulers named ‘feudatory'
or ‘vassal', who were obliged to offer military service as well as allegiance to their
lords, was another feature
 Titles such as ‘Maharajadhi rai Parameshvara’, Paramabhattaraka etc. denoted the
overlord, while the titles such as ‘Maharaja’, ‘samanta’, ‘mahasamanta’, ‘ranaka’ and
‘Mahasamantadhipati’ represent vassal kings
 Concept of Early Medieval
 According to B. D. Chattopadhyaya, the samanta feudatory system has been
considered to be the hallmark of the structure of polity in early medieval India.
 It is considered to be a proliferating range of designations in use in early medieval
period
 A few rulers of the period had followed the practice of granting of land in lieu of
military service, but it was not a common practice
 Another interesting feature was the practice of queens succeeding the throne, though
the society was patriarchal in character
 In Kashmir names queens Didda, Yashovati, and Sugandha and Vijayamahadevi of
Eastern Chalukyas appears
 Another queen of Kadamba dynasty, Divabbarsi ruled over her country till her son
attained majority.
 Prominent Bhauma- Kara queens were Dandimahadevi, Dharmamahadevi and
Valkulamahadevi
 This shows that the patriarchal society of early medieval period had offered some
space to women in the political sphere