HIS4B06 INDIAN HISTORY-2

Module II- Delhi Sultanate, Vijaya Nagara empire and Bhamani Kingdom
 Arab conquest of Sind- the Sultanate ascendancy in India- Battle of Tarain- Political
consolidation under early Turkish Sultans- Reforms under Iltutmish and Balban
 Delhi Sultanate under Khaljis and Thuglaqs; Alauddin Khalji- military measures and
economic reforms –Administrative reforms and military experiments of Muhammad
bin Thuglaq- Firozshah Thuglaq and welfare measures
 Administrative system and institutions under Delhi sultanate- kingship-
Administration- nobility – slavery-land revenue and forms of distribution- Iqta system
 The Vijaya nagara Empire- Bahmani Kingdom : Nature of Polity and cultural
contributions
Essential Readings
Farooqui SalmaAhmed. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India Satish Chandra.
Medieval India:From Sultanate to the Mugals(1206-1526) Sunil Kumar.The Emergence of
Delhi Sultanate,1192-1286
I.H. Quereshi. Administration of the Sultanate of Delhi
Satish Chandra. History of Medieval India
 HIS4B06 INDIAN HISTORY-2
Mohammad Habib and KA Nizami (eds.). A Comprehensive History of India:The Delhi
Sultanate(1206-1526)
Burton Stein. Vijayanagara
H.K.Sherwani.The Bahmanis of the Deccan Deccan
References
S.A.A. Rizvi. The Wonder that was India, Part II
K.A. Nizami, State and Culture in Medieval India
Ashraf .K.M. Life and Conditions of the people of Hindustan
Stewart Gordon, The Marathas 1600 - 1818.
 Reforms and Achievements under Iltutmish and Balban
Iltutmish - Reforms and Achievements
 Early Life
 At the time of the death of Aibak, Shamsuddin Iltutmish was the Governor of Badaun (UP)
 He came on throne after defeating Aram Shah, the son of Qutbuddin Aibak , in 1210 A.D
and ruled till 1236 AD
 His father Ilam Khan was a leader of the ‘Ilbari’ Turkish tribe. According to Mihaj-us- Siraj -
Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, he was a handsome and intelligent boy, that made his brothers jealous on
him
 They sold him to a slave dealer and after a series of sale and re-sale at Baghdad , Bukhara
and Ghazni, finally he was purchased by Qutab-uddin-Aibak and later married his daughter
to him
 “Iltutmish” means “holder of the realm” or “conqueror” but unfortunately his name has
been mis-spelt throughout the history variously as “Altamish”, “Altamash”, “Iyaltimish”,
and “Iletmish but contemporary account by Tajul-Ma’asir confirms that “Iltutmish” is the
correct spelling of the name
 He had to face many problems during his rule but he overcome them all with his wisdom
and is regarded as the “real founder of Delhi Sultanate” (Satish Chandra)
 Reforms and Achievements under Iltutmish and Balban
Iltutmish - Reforms and Achievements
 The reforms and achievements of Sultan Iltutmish is noted for the upholding
the sovereignty and redefining the statecraft.
 He introduced the following reforms;
1) One of the remarkable administrative measures of Iltutmish was the
shifting of his capital from Lahore to Delhi (1211 AD); and for the first time
Delhi became the capital of India
2) With the help of Fakh-ud-din Usmani, an experienced Wazir of Baghdad,
Iltutmish organised his administrative system based on the ‘Iqta system’
 It was introduced in order to reduce the power of hereditary feudal
lords
 It was basically grant of revenue from a territory/iqta- ‘piece of land’
instead of a salary
 Under this system he divided the land into iqtas and the officers were
paid in land grants/Iqtas in lieu of their salary
 They were given the right to collect revenues from those specific lands
 Reforms and Achievements under Iltutmish and Balban
3. Uniform Coinage:
 The reign of Iltutmish stands out as a
landmark in the coinage system of Delhi
 He introduced a new bimetallic coinage
system (1211 AD) in Northern India
consisting of an 11 grams silver Tanka and
the Copper Jital
 The new system served as the basis for
coinage for much of the Sultanate period Silver Tanka
and even beyond, though periodic
shortages of silver caused further
debasement.
 The Tanka is a forerunner to the Rupee.
 According to Thomas, “Iltutmish instituted
the veritable commencement of the silver
Copper Jital
coinage of the Delhi Sultanate.”
 Reforms and Achievements under Iltutmish and Balban
4. Organisation of a Long standing Centralised Army
 Organised a long standing centralized army for the first time under the
Sultanate, that had largely contributed in the expansion and consolidation
of the Delhi Sultanate
 Indian army was based on ‘feudal levies’ and maintained under the feudal
lords and they were loyal to their immediate masters thus causing to the
weakness of central authority
5. Creation of the group of nobility known ‘forty’ (Chalisa) or Turkan-i-
Chihalgani
 He constituted a group of forty loyal slaves known as Turkan-i-Chihalgani
 All these nobles were purchased by him as slaves and were given
respectable assignments
 Being dependent on Iltutmish these nobles always remained loyal to him
and he no more remained dependent on Qutbi and Muizzi nobles
 They formed very powerful section in nobility and they kept a watch on
the activities of nobles
 Reforms and Achievements under Iltutmish and Balban
6. Defeated Rebellions of Yelduz and Qubacha
 Iltutmish had to face serious opposition from Yaldauz, Qubacha two fellow
commanders of Muhammad Ghori
 Iltutmish behaved most diplomatically and avoided conflict with Yelduz (Ghazni) till
he consolidated his position as far as Banaras.
 Example: When he ascended the throne, Yelduz sent him a chatra (canopy) and a
durbash (baton). Iltutmish accepted them and, thus, pretended to recognize his
suzerainty.
 During his campaign in North West in 1215, Yelduz was driven out of Ghazni by
Khwarizm Shah. He came to Lahore and occupied the territories of Punjab up to
Thaneswar
 While Yelduz still claimed overlordship over Iltutmish and asked him to send
military help, Iltutmish marched against him to settle his score finally with Yelduz
 He defeated Yelduz (Lahore) in AD 1215 in the 3rd battle of Tarain and annexed the
North Western part of the empire
 He was imprisoned and was first sent to Badaun and afterwards killed
 Reforms and Achievements under Iltutmish and Balban

 The Defeat of Qubacha:

 The threat of Mangol had forced the Khwarizmi Prince, Jalal-ud-din Mangbarni
to flee and settle in Panjab.
 Jalal-ud-din’s presence and activities had weakened the power of Qabacha as
the governor of North west , who was now left only with Multan and Sindh.
 Iltutmish took advantage of it and easily occupied Bhatinda, Kuhram, Sarsuti
and then Lahore and decided to finish the power of Qabacha for once and all
and simultaneously planned attacks on Multan and Sindh
 Qubacha fled to the fort of Bhakkar on the lower Indus and offered negotiation.
 Iltutmish asked for an unconditional surrender and when refused attacked the
fort. Qubacha felt desperate, threw himself into the river Indus and was
drowned in 1217AD
 Both Multan and Uch were occupied by Iltutmish. Thus, another strong enemy
of the Delhi Sultanate was finished by Iltutmish
 Reforms and Achievements under Iltutmish and Balban

7. The Impending/delaying Mongol Invasion

 When Chenghiz Khan occupied the Khawarizimi empire, Prince Jalal-ud-
din Mangbarni fled to the Panjab
 Pursuing the fleeing prince Mangols stopped at the banks of the river
Indus
 Jalal-ud-din asked for shelter from Iltutmish, so he refused to provide
shelter to Jalal-ud-din, much against the rules of hospitality
 But, it was wise decision on his part and it saved Iltutmish from the wrath
of Chenghiz Khan, who returned after leaving the task of capturing Jalal-
ud-din to his officers.
 Iltutmish was determined to check Jalal-ud-din from proceeding further
forcing him to return to Persia in 1224 A.D
 Thus the diplomacy of Iltutmish had saved his kingdom from the Mongol
invasion and other difficulties from Central Asia
 Reforms and Achievements under Iltutmish and Balban
8 The Conquest of Bengal
 After the death of Qutb-ud-din Aibak, the Governer, Ali Mardan Khan had declared himself
independent
 After he was murdered by Khalji nobles and Husam-ud-din Ewaz declared as Sultan Ghiyas-ud-
din, and he occupied Bihar and collected tribute from the neighbouring kingdoms of Jajnagar,
Tirhut and Kamarupa
 Iltutmish, being busy in the north-west, could not pay attention towards the affairs in Bengal,
but after settling, Iltutmish turned towards Bengal.
 However, Ghiyas-ud-din accepted his suzerainty without fighting and gave him present, so
Iltutmish came back after appointing Malik Jani as governor of Bihar
 But as soon as Iltutmish turned back, Ghiyas-ud-din reasserted independence and turned out
Malik Jani from Bihar
 Iltutmish asked his son Nasir-ud-din Mahmud, governor of Avadh, to punish Ghiyas-ud-din.
Nasir-ud-din captured Lakhnauti in 1226 A.D. and killed Ghiyas-ud-din
 But Nasiruddin’s death in 1229 A.D, resulted in declaring independence of Bengal under Malik
Ikhtiyar-ud-din Balka Khalji
 In the same year, Iltutmish himself marched to Bengal and after killing Balka Khalji reannexed
Bengal and Bihar to the Delhi Sultanate, and they remained so till the death of Iltutmish
 Reforms and Achievements under Iltutmish and Balban
9. Fight against Hindu Chiefs
 During Qutubuddin Aibek, the Hindu chiefs in Rajputana and Uttar
Pradesh had succeeded in recovering some places from the Turks
 When Iltutmish ascended the throne they pursued a more aggressive
policy and many of them became independent.
 The Chandelas recovered Kalinjar and Ajaigarh; the Pratiharas occupied
Gwalior, Narwar and Jhansi; the Chauhanas under Govindaraja turned out
the Turks from Ranthambhor and occupied Jodhpur and its nearby places;
the Chauhanas of Jalor recovered most of the territories of the south-west
Rajputana; and the Bhatti-Rajputs occupied Ajmer and its nearby places.
 Many other places also witnessed successful revolts of the Rajputs. In
Uttar Pradesh, the Hindus revolted and asserted independence at Badaun,
Kannauj, Banaras, Katehar, Bareilly and Farukhabad
 Iltutmish adopted an aggressive policy towards these rebellious chiefs and
attacked Ranthambhor and occupied in 1226 A.D. Mandor, the capital of
the Parmaras, was also recovered; in 1228-29 AD
 Reforms and Achievements under Iltutmish and Balban
 Udai Singh, the ruler of Jalor was forced into submission; and, then Bayana, Thangir,
Ajmer, Nagaur and nearby places were conquered
 Gwalior was attacked in 1231 A.D. and occupied after a year of resistance.
 Malik Nusratuddin Taisi, the governor of Gwalior was then asked to attack Kalinjar. He
succeeded in plundering Kalinjar in 1233-34 A.D. but had to retreat because of the fierce
resistance of the people
 Iltutmish attacked Nagada and Gujarat but suffered defeat from the Guhilots and the
Chalukyas
 In 1234-35 A.D, Iltutmish attacked Malwa and plundered Bhilsa and Ujjain but failed to
occupy any territory
 In Uttar Pradesh, Iltutmish succeeded in recovering Badaun, Kannauj, Banaras, Katehar
and Baheraich.
 The territories of Avadh too were brought under control, though the local tribes
continued to resist till the death of their brave leader Bartu or Pirthu
 Though Iltutmish succeeded in recovering most of the lost territories of the Turkish
empire, He, certainly, could not subdue the power of the Rajputs yet broke their
aggressive strength.
 Besides, he established a firm administration in these recovered territories
 Reforms and Achievements under Iltutmish and Balban
10. Investiture from the Caliph
 Iltutmish requested the Caliph of Baghdad to grant him the title of Sultan.
 The request was accepted and emissaries from the Khalifa reached Delhi
with a deed of investiture for Iltutmish in 1229 A.D
 Iltutmish, thereafter assumed the title of ‘Amir-ul- Mommin or
‘Commander of the Faithful's and had the name of Khalifa inscribed on his
coins.
 As a result of recognition by Khalifa, Iltutmish’s power and status were
enhanced.
 According to Prof. S.R. Sharma, “It is for this reason that Iltutmish has
been considered as the real founder of the Muslim Kingdom of Delhi,
though it is too much an exaggeration to call him the greatest of all slave
kings.”
 This gave Iltutmish legal claim over the Delhi Sultanate
 It also helped him in making his rule hereditary which secured the
succession of his children on the throne.
 Reforms and Achievements under Iltutmish and Balban
 Important Reforms and Achievements of Balban
 Balban’s Theory of Kingship and Restoration of the Prestige of the
Sultan
 The Destruction of ‘The Forty’
 The reorganization of Army
 The Administration and the Spy-System
 The Suppression of Revolts
 The Conquest of Bengal.
1) Balban’s Theory of Kingship and Restoration of the Prestige of the Sultan
 Balban was the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate who expressed clear
and firm opinion regarding the powers of the Sultan
 Prof. K.A. Nizami has expressed that it was necessary for restoring not
only the dignity of the Sultan and eradicating the possibility of conflict
with the nobility but also the result of an inferiority complex and guilty
conscience.
 Reforms and Achievements under Iltutmish and Balban
 Important Reforms and Achievements of Balban
 Balban wanted to impress upon his nobles that he got the throne because of
Divine will and not by the poisoned cup or the assassin’s dagger
 Balban, primarily, emphasized two points regarding the theory of kingship.
Firstly, that the monarchy was divinely ordained and, secondly, that it was
necessary for the Sultan to be a despot
 He expressed that Kingship was the vice-regency of God on earth (niyabat-i-
khudai) and it was next only to prophethood and therefore, his actions could
not be judged by nobles or the people
 He said to his son Bughra Khan that “Kingship is the embodiment of
despotism” On another occasion he declared that it was the “King’s super-
human awe and status” which could ensure the people’s obedience
 He claimed descent from the mythical Iranian hero, Afrasiyab of Turan
(Samarkhand) ,
 Gave up drinking wine and pleasure-parties, kept himself aloof, maintained
dignified reserve and stopped meeting not only the people but also the nobles
 Reforms and Achievements under Iltutmish and Balban
 Important Reforms and Achievements of Balban
 He never expressed unusual joy or sorrow in public.
 Even when the news of the death of his eldest son, Muhammad was
conveyed to him, he remained unmoved and carried on the routine
administration though in his private apartment he wept bitterly.
 He never came to the court without complete regal dress/ paraphernalia
and never laughed or gave a smile
 He framed certain rules for court-behaviour and enforced them strictly
 He adopted many ceremonies of the Persian court. He introduced the
practices of Sajads and Paibos (prostrating before and kissing the king’s
feet on the throne)
 Appointed tall and fearsome guards who were to stand round the king’s
person with naked swords and, except high nobles, ordered the rest to
remain standing in the court
 The court-dress was fixed up for the nobles also and drinking of wine was
prohibited for them. Nobody could smile or laugh in the court
 Reforms and Achievements under Iltutmish and Balban
 Important Reforms and Achievements of Balban
 The Iranian yearly festival of Naurauz was celebrated in his court
with great pomp and show
 The foreigners were simply stunned by the glamour of his court
 Whenever Balban used to go outside the palace, his fierce
bodyguards marched with him with naked swords and shouting
‘Bismillah-Bismillah’. All these measures, certainly, helped in
restoring the prestige of the Sultan and added glamour to his
personality
 Besides, Balban gave shelter to all foreign scholars and nobles and
named their residences in the name of their country or family
because of which he was regarded as the protector of Muslim culture
 This gave him a respectable position even in foreign countries of the
Muslim world
 Reforms and Achievements under Iltutmish and Balban
 Important Reforms and Achievements of Balban
2) The Destruction of ‘The Forty’
 Even when Balban worked as the Naib of Sultan Nasir-ud-din, he tried to
break up the power of the group of ‘the forty’ (Turkan-i-Chihalgani) as he
regarded it necessary to restore the powers of the Sultan.
 By the time Balban ascended the throne, most of these nobles had either
died by themselves or were destroyed by Balban.
 The rest who remained were now killed or deprived of power
 The governor of Badaun, Malik Baqbaq, who had beaten one of his slaves
to death, was flogged publicly
 Another influential noble and the governor of Avadh, Haibat Khan was
flogged with 500 stripes and then delivered to the widow of the slave
whom he had murdered while he was drunk.
 Haibat Khan felt so much ashamed that he never came out of his palace
till his death
 Reforms and Achievements under Iltutmish and Balban
 Important Reforms and Achievements of Balban
 The same way Amin Khan, governor of Avadh was hanged at the gate of
the city of Ayodhya when he failed to suppress the revolt of Tughril Khan
of Bengal
 Another member of ‘the forty’ and cousin of Balban, Sher Khan was
poisoned as Balban became jealous of his ability and suspicious of his
ambition
 That marked the end of “the forty’ as there remained no powerful noble
to rival him or challenge his despotism
 Balban, of course, raised his own loyal nobles to higher ranks once he had
finished the previous powerful ones but none of them was in a position to
claim equality with him (Balbani Nobles)
 Thus, Balban, a member of ‘the forty’ himself brought about the
destruction of that group which had grabbed the power of the state from
the weak hands of the successors of Iltutmish
 Reforms and Achievements under Iltutmish and Balban
 Important Reforms and Achievements of Balban
 Professor Habibullah has praised the sense of justice of Balban very much.
He has described instances of punishment of highly placed nobles as
examples of upholding justice by Balban
 But, it has also not to be forgotten that Balban made justice a tool in his
hands to destroy the power and prestige of ‘the forty’
 Besides, while destroying the power of the Turkish nobles, Balban also
doomed the fate of the Turkish race in India
 Prof. K.A. Nizami writes: “Anxious to secure his personal and family
interests, he completely ignored the interests of the Turkish governing
class. He destroyed the talent amongst the Turkish nobles so ruthlessly
that when the Khaljis entered the field as competitors for the throne
against them, they were completely outmanoeuvred and defeated.
Balban’s responsibility for the fall of the Turks’ power in India cannot be
denied.”
 Reforms and Achievements under Iltutmish and Balban
 Important Reforms and Achievements of Balban
3) The Army:
 A strong army was a necessity for a powerful monarchy. Balban
realised the importance of army in making his despotism effective, to
safeguard his empire from the invasion of the Mongols and to suppress
rebellions
 So, he increased the number of officers and soldiers of his army, paid
them good salaries and took personal interest in their training.
 During winter, he used to go up to Rewari every day with one thousand
horsemen to provide them training in exertion
 He appointed Imad-ul-mulk as his Diwan-i-ariz to look after the
recruitment, salary and equipment of his troops and made him free
from the control of the Wazir so that he felt no shortage of funds
 Imad-ul-mulk proved a competent and loyal officer and he, certainly,
provided Balban useful service in organising an efficient and well-
equipped army
 Reforms and Achievements under Iltutmish and Balban
 Important Reforms and Achievements of Balban
 Besides, Balban did not engage himself in unnecessary military activities
which could spoil his military resources
 He personally planned his every military campaign and kept it secret till
the operation day
 His soldiers were ordered not to trouble the poor and the weak.
 Balban instructed to have an inquiry about the lands and jagirs which
were given to different people by previous Sultans in return of their
military services and came to know that many of them were kept by those
old men, widows and orphans who performed no service to the state.
 So, he ordered to confiscate all such lands and jagirs to the state and
arranged cash pensions for them
 Even the land and jagirs of those people who were serving the state were
handed over to the care of state officers and arrangements were made for
cash payments to them
 Reforms and Achievements under Iltutmish and Balban
 Important Reforms and Achievements of Balban
 However, when many old men and widows appealed for mercy to
his friend Fakhr-ud-din, the Kotwal of Delhi for mercy who, in turn,
pleaded mercy for them to Balban
 On his plea, Balban cancelled his orders concerning the aged, the
widows and the orphans and, thus, a useful measure was
dropped.
 Balban did not attempt to centralize the army and the nobles and
the governors were free to organise their own armies
independently
 There was no arrangement for cash payment to the soldiers.
Instead like previous rulers, they were assigned lands. Therefore,
certain serious defects remained in the organisation of the army.
Yet, Balban succeeded in increasing the strength and efficiency of
the army.
 Reforms and Achievements under Iltutmish and Balban
 4) The Administration and the Spy-System:
 The administration of Balban was half-military and half-civil. All his officers were
supposed to perform both administrative and military duties
 Balban himself kept control over the entire administration. There was no post of
naib during his reign and the position of the Wazir too had become quite
insignificant.
 Balban himself supervised the appointment of all officers and was particular
that only people of noble birth were appointed to higher posts.
 Balban, certainly, succeeded in providing peace and justice to his subjects.
 Balban owed his success largely due to an efficient organisation of his spy-
system. He appointed spies (Barids) to watch the activities of his governors,
military and civil officers and even that of his own sons
 Balban appointed them personally and they were well-paid
 They were expected to provide every important information to the Sultan and
those who failed were punished severely. Every spy had direct access to the
Sultan though none met him in the court. Balban’s spy-system proved quite
effective and was responsible for his success in administration.
 Reforms and Achievements under Iltutmish and Balban
Important Reforms and Achievements of Balban
5) The Suppression of Revolts:
 Balban took immediate measures to provide security to the city of Delhi.
The forests around Delhi were cleared, four forts were built on the four
corners of Delhi and ferocious Afghan troops were placed in them. The
robbers and freebooters around Delhi were constantly attacked and killed
brutally.
 Within a year, Delhi became free from the menace of those people who had
made the life of the citizens unsafe in the capital
 Next year, Balban suppressed the revolts in Doab and Oudh.
 He divided the area into several military commands, established military
check-posts at several places, cleared the jungles and pursued the rebellious
people from one place to another. His measures succeeded and peace was
restored in these areas.
 Next, Balban went to Katehar, which witnessed frequent rebellions
 There he adopted semi-barbaric measures to strike terror among the people
 Reforms and Achievements under Iltutmish and Balban
 Important Reforms and Achievements of Balban

 Even innocent women and children were not spared

 He ordered his soldiers to slay the entire male population, burn their
fields and villages and take women and children to slavery
 This policy succeeded. Barani wrote that the people of Katehar never
attempted rebellion afterwards.
 Balban also constructed roads, cleared the jungles and took measures
for the safety of the travellers. All these measures ensured peace within
his kingdom. Within some years of his accession to the throne, Balban
not only succeeded in suppressing the revolts but also in bringing about
peace and security to his subjects.
 Reforms and Achievements under Iltutmish and Balban
6) The Conquest of Bengal:
 Bengal was lost to the Delhi Sultanate during the reign of Sultan Nasir-
ud-din when Arsalan Khan had declared himself independent
 However, when Balban ascended the throne, Tatar Khan, the son of
Arsalan Khan avoided open declaration of sovereignty and even sent
sixty- three elephants as a mark of respect to Balban.
 But Tatar Khan either died or was removed from the position of governor
and Balban appointed Tughril Khan as governor of Bengal.
 But Tughril Khan revolted in 1279 A.D., declared himself independent
and assumed the title of Sultan Mughis-ud-din
 The rebellion gave a rude shock to Balban’s authority. It was the first
revolt of a slave-noble and had it been allowed to succeed, it would have
damaged the entire structure of awe and fear created by Balban
 Therefore, Balban immediately ordered Amin Khan, governor of Oudh,
to attack Bengal.
 Amin Khan, however, was defeated and he was killed by Balban
 Reforms and Achievements under Iltutmish and Balban
 The next two succeeding expeditions, also met with a similar fate.
 This infuriated Balban. He vowed never to return without the head of
the rebel and proceeded towards Bengal personally with a large army.
 He added his strength further by additional troops of Avadh and reached
Bengal with two lakh soldiers and his son, Bughra Khan.
 Tughril Khan fled away from Lakhnauti. Balban pursued him and,
ultimately, succeeded in killing him at Hajinagar in East Bengal
 Balban then returned to Lakhnauti and inflicted a terrible punishment
upon Tughril’s followers.
 Barani wrote:
 “On either side of the principal bazar, in a street more than two miles in
length, a row of stakes was set up and the adherents of Tughril were
impaled upon them. None of the beholders had ever seen a spectacle so
terrible, and many swooned with terror and disgust.” Balban appointed
his son, Bughra Khan as governor of Bengal and advised him to remain
loyal to the Delhi Sultanate. Then he came back to Delhi