Administration of Medieval Period

Administration in Bengal in the medieval period was the outcome of the development of administrative institutions of
the earlier period. The uniqueness of medieval administration lies in the fact that despite frequent changes in dynasties,
it bore the main characteristics of several centuries old institutions which the Turko-Afghans carried with them to
India. After the inception of the Muslim principality in Bengal by Ikhtiyaruddin Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji in early
13th century (c 1204), it was ruled as a province of the Delhi Sultanate till an independent Sultanate was established
over the major parts of Bengal in 1338. gaur or Lakhnuti, the capital, followed the broad principles of the Delhi
Sultanate, and the administrative system was a copy of the House of Iltutmish - a hierarchy of decentralised mir
sovereignties bearing a feudal character. However, some improvements were made under the Iliyas Shahi (1342-1415
and 1442-1487) and the Husain Shahi (1494-1538) rulers. With the Mughal conquest of Bengal (1576), the kingdom
of Gaur turned again into a province of the vast Mughal Empire. The Mughal system of administration, which was
more or less a continuation of the Sultanate period with some alterations and improvements made during the brief rule
of the Afghan chief Sher Shah, became operative in Bengal.
In the absence of contemporary historical literature on the details of administration, it is difficult to build up a
comprehensive account of the early medieval administrative institutions of Bengal. The imperial chronicles do t
provide much information about the administrative set-up of a distant region like Bengal, although the gap has to some
extent been filled in by travelers' accounts and other sources. However, these sources can be used only to capture the
spirit and ethos of the age and do t produce the details of the system. On the other hand, contemporary numismatic
and epigraphic sources provide important information. All these pieced together give us an idea about the structure of
the medieval administration of Bengal.

The Khalji Maliks

Though the credit of establishing the first Muslim kingdom in Bengal lies with Bakhtiyar Khalji, he did t assume the
title of sultan or strike coins in his own name, for this was a prerogative he left to his overlord, Muizuddin Muhammad-
bin-Sam of Ghor. However, as Malik-ush Sharq (Lord of the East), he divided the territory into iqtas (provinces) most
of which were put under his fellow Turk and Khalji fortune seekers in India. Through the creation of goverrships in
frontiers and the placement of leading military personnel in them, he gave the installed government the character of a
Khalji oligarchy. The muktas (goverrs) were also assigned with the civil administration of the iqtas.
Bakhtiyar's successors asserted their independent status by assuming the title of Sultan, but they could t hold it for
long and the kingdom of Gaur/Lakhnauti became subordinate to the Delhi Sultanate more than once. The distance of
the region from Delhi, lack of an efficient communication system and ambition of the aspirants for the throne of
Lakhnuti, however, made it difficult for the central government to hold its grip over Bengal for long. Ultimately, an
independent Sultanate was established in 1338. Two dynasties (with a short interregnum between 1415 and 1442),
namely the Iliyas Shahis and the Husain Shahis ruled for 200 years until the Afghans overthrew them in 1538. Under
Shamsuddin Iliyas Shah, the founder of the Iliyas Shahi dynasty, almost the whole of Bengal was conquered and
united under a single authority for the first time. He was called the Shah-i-Bangalah and Sultan-i-Bangalah and the
territory henceforth came to be kwn as Bangalah.
Under the Independent Sultans' As the supreme head of the state the sultans assumed lofty titles such as Sultan-ul-
Azam, Sultan-ul-Muazzam and even Sikandar-us-Sani (Alexander II). That the sultans owed their allegiance to the
Khalifah, the spiritual head of the Muslims, is apparent from the fact that some of them struck coins in the names of
the Khalifahs. Some ambitious sovereigns even went as far as to use the epithet of Yamin-al-Khilafat or Yamin-i-
Khalifatullah etc. As the fountainhead of all powers, the sultan used to appoint high officials and make laws. The state
was mainly run in accordance with the principles of Islam.
The sultans used to hold darbars (courts) in their protected palaces, where they used to meet the important bles and
officials, confer titles, present robes and give audience to foreign dignitaries. Numerous staff was necessary to
maintain the splendour of the court. In addition to a large number of troops, the royal household included eunuchs and
slaves.
Proximity to the Sultan being a source of pride and power, the court was full of dignitaries of the state. The bility, t
hereditary, was composed of heterogeneous elements like Arabs, Pathans, Mughals and Bengalis, and were given
high-sounding titles. They played an important part in the administration. It can be surmised that a section of them
were rent receiving agents enjoying jagirs (assignments of lands) like their rthern Indian counterparts. The sultani
regime in Bengal seems to have continued the somewhat feudal character of administration prevalent under the Palas
and Senas. For the proper working of the government machinery, there were several departments such as finance,
correspondence, the police, judiciary and military. Though the jurisdiction of these departments was t properly defined,
some ideas can be had of their functions from existing documents.
Next to the Sultan was the Wazir, the head of the civil administration. His special domain was the financial
organisation and administration. As the prime minister, the Wazir had, in fact, controlling authority over all the
departments. In the absence of detailed information about the finance department it may be assumed that the entire
revenue of the kingdom, its customs, and other income were placed at the disposal of this department.
The department of correspondence was perhaps an integral part of the central secretariat. It was under the charge of
dabir-i-khas (private secretary), who used to deal with all the correspondence between the sultan and his officials,
tributaries, and also the rulers of the foreign countries. There were several dabirs (secretaries).
The police department or diwan-i-kotwali was placed under the chief police officer or the kotwal-bakali. There were
a number of subordinate kotwals whose duties were to maintain peace and order and also to watch the movement of
strangers in the city. The police department was also connected with the criminal court, which was presided over by
a judge or munsif who used to try criminal cases. Records of an well-organised espionage system can also be traced.
Secret agents used to keep the ruler informed about what was happening in and around his territories.
From the scanty information extant about the judiciary, it can be surmised that the sultan was the highest judge and
justice was dispensed in accordance with the sharia. There were Qazis (judges) in towns and villages to carry out
routine justice. A learned man -the chief lawyer and an expert on traditions - called malik-ul-umara wal-wazara settled
the complicated legal cases and Muslim traditions. The sultan was t above the law and could be tried by the qazis.
Whipping and deportation were the two common modes of punishment. In the absence of proper jails, the convicts
were kept under the care of an officer.
The village Panchayets played an important role in the administration of justice in rural areas. The Hindu population
used to get justice in matters relating to social affairs in accordance with Hindu laws and tradition.
Since the very existence of Muslim rule in Bengal, as elsewhere in India, depended heavily on military strength, the
sultans had an well-organised army. The establishment of authority over the subjugated but t too submissive
population, and the threat of the expansionist policy of the Delhi sultans, necessitated the maintenance of strong armed
forces composed of cavalry, artillery, infantry and elephants and navy, of which the sultan himself was the chief.
Because of the physical features and climatic conditions, it was t feasible to use cavalry all through the year in Bengal.
Good quality horses were t available in this part and the sultans had to depend on the supply of horses from foreign
countries. The sar-i-khail was the chief of the cavalry, which was probably the weakest component of the Bengal
army.
The artillery was an important section and the Mughal ruler Babur characterised it as a very effective part of the
Bengal army. De Barros opined that the military supremacy of the Bengal army over that of Arakan and Tippera was
largely due to the efficiency of the artillery. The artillery used canns and guns of various sizes. The paiks formed the
vital part of the Bengal infantry. There were occasions when the paiks also tackled political situations. The special
battle array of the foot soldiers that used bows, arrows and guns, attracted the attention of Babur.
Elephants seemed to have played an important part in the Bengal army. Apart from carrying war materials, elephants
were also used to transship armed personnel. In riverine Bengal the elephants were especially useful.
The navy too was of prime necessity in riparian Bengal. In fact, the cavalry could ensure the hold over this country
only for a period of about six months, whereas the boats backed by the paiks could command supremacy over the
other half of the year. Since the time of Iwas Khalji, the war boats had been playing an important role in the political
affairs of the country. The chief of the admiralty, Mir Bahar, had multifarious responsibilities. His duties were (a) to
build boats of all kinds for river transport; (b) to fit out strong boats for transporting war elephants; (c) to recruit
efficient seamen; (d) to supervise the rivers and (e) to collect tolls at ferry ghats. Though an indispensable part of the
military department, the efficiency of the navy eroded towards the end of Husain Shahi Rule.
Apart from the maintenance of well-trained armed forces, the sultans depended heavily for their defence on their forts.
Impregnable fortresses like Ekdal and Basankot played important roles in protecting the sovereignty of the Bengal
kingdom from the repeated onslaughts of Delhi. The hurriedly built mud-walled fort was a common defence stratagem
in Bengal. The soldiers were paid salaries, and meals were provided. The paymaster was called ariz-i-laskar.
Though the details of the revenue administration of Medieval Bengal are lacking, it can be discerned that it was based
on the system developed by the Delhi Sultanate. The sultans of Delhi followed the system of bringing the newly
conquered territories under proper control by carving those out among military and civil personnel. It appears that the
rulers of Bengal also adopted such an assignment system with modifications as and when needed. However, the
indigeus practice of collection of state dues through local chiefs and village heads were left almost undisturbed as a
measure of expedience