(eBook PDF) A Brief History of Modern

Psychology, 2nd Edition

Go to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-a-brief-history-of-modern-psychology-2nd
-edition/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

(eBook PDF) A History of Modern Psychology 11th Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-a-history-of-modern-
psychology-11th-edition/

A History of Modern Psychology 11th Edition (eBook PDF)

http://ebooksecure.com/product/a-history-of-modern-
psychology-11th-edition-ebook-pdf/

A History of Modern Psychology 5th Edition (eBook PDF)

http://ebooksecure.com/product/a-history-of-modern-
psychology-5th-edition-ebook-pdf/

(eBook PDF) India: Brief History of a Civilization 2nd

Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-india-brief-history-of-
a-civilization-2nd-edition/
(eBook PDF) A Brief History of the Romans 2nd Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-a-brief-history-of-the-
romans-2nd-edition/

(eBook PDF) Annotated Readings in the History of Modern

Psychology

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-annotated-readings-in-
the-history-of-modern-psychology/

(eBook PDF) Europe in the Modern World: A New Narrative

History 2nd Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-europe-in-the-modern-
world-a-new-narrative-history-2nd-edition/

(eBook PDF) Patterns of Modern Chinese History by

Charles A. Desnoyers

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-patterns-of-modern-
chinese-history-by-charles-a-desnoyers/

(eBook PDF) America: A Narrative History (Brief Tenth

Edition) (Vol. 2) Brief Tenth Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-america-a-narrative-
history-brief-tenth-edition-vol-2-brief-tenth-edition/
vi Contents

̈
Wundt’s Volkerpsychologie 46
Wundt’s Students 47
Hermann Ebbinghaus and the Study of Memory 48
Franz Brentano’s Act Psychology 51
Carl Stumpf and the Psychology of Music 52
Georg Elias M̈uller and Memory 54
Oswald K̈ulpe and Thinking 55

4 Origins of Scientific Psychology in America 58

William James as Psychologist 60
James’s Principles 61
James’s Student: Mary Whiton Calkins 64
G. Stanley Hall and the Professionalization of Psychology 66
The Child Study Movement 67
Adolescence and Hall’s Genetic Psychology 68
Psychoanalysis, Religion, Aging 70
James McKeen Cattell: Psychology’s Ambassador 71
Cattell’s Mental Tests 72
Cattell as Editor of Science 74
Getting the Word out about a New Science 75

5 The Early Schools of American Psychology 77

The Early North American Psychology Laboratories 78
Structuralism 81
Introspection 83
Studies of Sensation: Psychology’s Periodic Table 84
The Laboratory Manuals 85
The Experimentalists 86
Titchener’s First Doctoral Student: Margaret Floy
Washburn 87
Functionalism 89
British Influences 89
Chicago: Angell’s Functional Psychology 90
Columbia: Woodworth’s Dynamic Psychology 92
Woodworth’s Textbooks 94
The Psychological Work of the Functionalists 95
The Legacies of Structuralism and Functionalism 96

6 The Birth of the New Applied Psychology in America 98

The Beginnings of Clinical Psychology 100
Lightner Witmer’s Psychological Clinic 101
A Psychology of Business 105
The Psychology of Advertising 106
 Contents vii

M̈unsterberg and Industrial Efficiency 109

Lillian Gilbreth’s Engineering Psychology 110
Business Psychology outside the Academy 112
Vocational Guidance 112
Intelligence Testing 113
M̈unsterberg and the Psychology of Law 115
The New Profession of Psychology 116

7 Psychoanalysis 118
Freud’s Early Training 119
Josef Breuer and the Case of Anna O. 121
Psychoanalysis as a Theory of the Normal Mind 123
Psychoanalysis as a Theory of the Neuroses 124
Anxiety and Defense Mechanisms 124
Childhood Sexuality 125
Psychoanalysis as Method 127
Psychoanalysis in America 129
The Neo-Freudians 133
Alfred Adler’s Individual Psychology 133
Carl Jung’s Analytical Psychology 135
Karen Horney: A Feminist View of Psychoanalysis 136
The Continued Popularity of Psychoanalysis 138

8 Behaviorism 139
John Watson and the Founding of Behaviorism 140
Beginnings of Comparative Psychology 141
Watson’s Behaviorism 145
Conditioned Emotions: Little Albert 146
Watson at Johns Hopkins University 147
Watson as Behaviorism’s Founder 149
The Growth of Behaviorism 149
Neobehaviorism 150
Tolman’s Cognitive Behaviorism 150
Hull’s Hypothetico-Deductive Behaviorism 152
Skinner’s Radical Behaviorism 155
Behaviorism: A Final Note 159

9 The New Profession of Psychology 160

A Profession Defined 161
Experiences in World War I 162
Early Organizational Efforts in Professional Psychology 165
The Role of Psychological Assessment 168
Clinical Psychology 169
viii Contents

Industrial-Organizational Psychology 172

School Psychology 175
Counseling Psychology 177
The Modern Profession 180

10 A Psychology of Social Action and Social Change 182

The Psychology of Sex Differences 184
Helen Bradford Thompson (Woolley) 185
Leta Stetter Hollingworth 187
Kurt Lewin’s Action Research 190
The Psychology of Race 194
Race Differences in Intelligence 195
Psychology and School Desegregation 198
A Final Note 202

11 Cognitive Psychology 203

Gestalt Psychology 205
Frederic Bartlett and the Constructive Mind 210
The Rise of Modern Cognitive Psychology in America 213
Karl Lashley and the Hixon Symposium 213
Computer Metaphors 215
Pioneers of the 1950s 217
Naming the Field: Ulric Neisser 222

Epilogue 224
References 229
Index 244
 Benjamin f03.tex V2 - 12/13/2013 12:36 A.M. Page ix

Illustrations

1.1 Chicago School of Psychology 3

1.2 Phrenology bust and Self-Instructor manual 6
1.3 Physiognomy face map 9
1.4 Thomas Upham 19
2.1 Bosch’s Extracting the Stone of Madness 21
2.2 Paul Broca 25
2.3 Herman von Helmholtz 29
2.4 Gustav T. Fechner 35
3.1 Wilhelm Wundt in his Leipzig laboratory 44
3.2 Hermann Ebbinghaus and cover of his 1885 book on memory 49
3.3 Map of Germany and surrounding regions 53
4.1 Chicago World’s Fair, 1893 59
4.2 William James home 60
4.3 William James and Mary Whiton Calkins 65
4.4 G. Stanley Hall and James McKeen Cattell 71
5.1 Charles Darwin home 78
5.2 Floor plan of Titchener’s Cornell University 85
laboratory
5.3 Edward B. Titchener and Margaret Floy Washburn 88
5.4 James R. Angell and Robert S. Woodworth 92
6.1 Coca-Cola advertisement circa 1910 99
6.2 Watertown Insane Asylum 101
6.3 Lightner Witmer and cover of first issue of The 103
Psychological Clinic
6.4 Advertisement for Scott Company and photo of Harry Hollingworth 108
6.5 Hugo Münsterberg and Lillian Gilbreth 111
6.6 Henry Herbert Goddard and women’s building at Vineland School 115
7.1 Freud’s homes in Vienna and London 120
7.2 Freud on 50 schilling Austrian note and Bertha Pappenheim stamp 122
7.3 SS George Washington 130
7.4 Clark University Conference, 1909 131
7.5 Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, and Karen Horney 136
8.1 Edward Thorndike and Ivan Pavlov 144
8.2 Rosalie Rayner and John B. Watson 147
8.3 Kurt Lewin, Edward Tolman, and Clark Hull 153
8.4 B. F. Skinner and early Skinner box 158
9.1 Army Alpha group 163
9.2 David Shakow and Walter van Dyke Bingham 172
9.3 Arnold Gesell and Carl Rogers 177
10.1 Popular psychology magazine and game 183
10.2 Helen Thompson Woolley and Leta Hollingworth 187
10.3 Kurt Lewin and Otto Klineberg 194
10.4 Mamie Phipps Clark and Kenneth B. Clark 199
11.1 Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Köhler 207
11.2 Frederic C. Bartlett 212
11.3 Herbert Simon 215
11.4 Roger Brown and George A. Miller 221
 Benjamin f04.tex V2 - 12/12/2013 7:37 P.M. Page x

Preface

As the title of this book indicates, this is a history of modern psy-

chology. It is a brief history, and we will say more about that later.
Today psychology exists in three forms. There is an academic psy-
chology located in secondary schools, colleges and universities, and
research institutes. There students can study the field of psychology
for preparation for a career in psychology or as preparation for any
number of other fields such as medicine, law, the ministry, business,
and education. There instructors can teach courses in this fascinating
discipline. Psychological scientists can work to answer the complex
questions of human behavior and mental processes.
In addition to academic psychology, there is also a profession of
psychology that applies the knowledge of scientific psychology to
real-world problems. These professionals have studied psychology
beyond the baccalaureate level and have earned master’s or doctoral
degrees. If they work in the mental health fields (e.g., clinical psychol-
ogy, counseling psychology, or marriage and family therapy), they
are required to obtain professional licensure as a condition of being
able to practice. These professionals include industrial-organizational
psychologists who work with businesses, corporations, and unions
on a wide array of issues in the workplace, such as increasing worker
satisfaction or selecting effective managers. Forensic psychologists
work in the judicial system offering expert testimony about the mental
states of individuals, about the advisability of placement of children
in child-custody cases, and even about strategies for presenting cases
in the courtroom. Sport psychologists work with individual athletes
or athletic teams to enhance performance, often helping athletes to
overcome mental obstacles that impede performance. School psy-
chologists work with teachers, parents, and children, providing a
host of services aimed at seeing that children get the educational and
behavioral help that they need. Clinical and counseling psychologists
offer psychotherapy to individuals and groups who are experiencing
psychological problems from minor adjustment issues to serious
 Benjamin f04.tex V2 - 12/12/2013 7:37 P.M. Page xi

Preface xi

psychopathology. These, and other kinds of practicing psychologists,

make up the profession of psychology.
The third kind of psychology is the oldest. It might be called public
psychology or popular psychology. It comprises public interest in and
beliefs about behavior and mental states. It involves practitioners, such
as phrenologists and mesmerists from the nineteenth century, and con-
temporary practitioners who are not trained in psychology, but adver-
tise themselves as persons who can offer psychological help such as
reading a person’s mind, foretelling the future, or offering some form
of therapy that they believe will be effective in treating certain kinds of
problems. They can practice in this way as long as they do not adver-
tise themselves as a psychologist. That label is licensed. Contemporary
popular psychology is manifested in hundreds of ways, for example,
books, television shows, magazines, and radio talk shows. One can buy
books on how to have a happy marriage, how to raise optimistic chil-
dren, how to control ones emotions, how to be an effective leader, and
how to overcome depression. These books would be labeled popular
psychology if the authors had no educational background qualifying
them as experts in these subjects. Of course, this pervasive popular psy-
chology is not always the psychology that psychologists would want to
claim as their own. Nevertheless, it is a psychology and is part of the
history of psychology.
This public psychology has likely existed since humans first appeared
on this earth. However, academic psychology (sometimes called scien-
tific psychology) and the profession of psychology have their roots in
the late nineteenth century, only about 135 years ago. This book is the
story of the development of the science and profession of psychology.
More will be said about the relationship of these to popular psychology
in Chapter 1.
One of the sad ironies of the history of psychology is that the first book
on the history of psychology to become quite popular was authored by
a psychologist named Boring. He published his book in 1929, revised
it in 1950, and for nearly 40 years it was considered the authoritative
treatment of the history of psychology – required reading for most doc-
toral students in psychology. Although the juxtaposition of Boring and
history is amusing, it is only mildly so. That is because there are actually
people in the world who believe that history is boring! But how absurd!
How could history be boring? History is the story of fascinating lives in
fascinating times. If it were not interesting, why would anyone take the
time to remember it? History recounts the drama of our past. It allows us
to connect our lives to that past. It helps us make sense of the present. It
gives us some basis on which to speculate intelligently about our future.
 Benjamin f04.tex V2 - 12/12/2013 7:37 P.M. Page xii

xii Preface

It helps us integrate our knowledge in a framework of more meaning-

ful understanding. It teaches us some humility for our own views and,
we hope, some tolerance and understanding of the views of others. Like
any good story, history alternately fills us with joy or sadness, hope or
despair. For those who would want to understand the human condition,
the history of psychology is a good place to begin.
Some histories of psychology focus principally on the history of the
science of psychology, which was, in fact, the subject of Boring’s history.
Such an approach tells only half of modern psychology’s history. There
is a modern profession of psychology that has grown up as a twin of
experimental psychology. The overwhelming majority of psychologists
today do not work in research labs or universities. Instead, they serve
the public directly as practitioners in numerous professional specialties.
This book treats both stories, the science and the practice of psychology,
illustrating their roots and their co-development.
The title of this book indicates that this is a brief history, and there is a
reason for that. It is meant to be an alternative to the typically encyclo-
pedic history of psychology textbooks, of which there are many good
ones. In writing a smaller book, it is my hope that instructors will find
it useful to pair this book with other specialty books in a history of psy-
chology course (such as A History of Psychology in Letters, 2nd ed., Wiley,
2006), including readers, or to pair the book with the rich collections of
online readings that are available on the Internet. It is possible to use
this book for the integrative story that it offers and pair it with pri-
mary readings by the pioneers of psychology and related fields such
as Wilhelm Wundt, G. Stanley Hall, Mary Calkins, E. B. Titchener, and
John B. Watson. Readings by these individuals, and hundreds of oth-
ers, are available on the Internet at a number of sites. Students can read
chapters from Freud’s The Interpretation of Dreams, Darwin’s Origin of
Species, and James’s Principles of Psychology, or hundreds of other books
and articles critical in psychology’s history. A particularly rich site for
the history of psychology is Classics in the History of Psychology, main-
tained by Professor Christopher Green at York University in Toronto
(http://psychclassics.yorku.ca).
For the student, my hope is that this book will provide you with a solid
grounding in psychology’s past, that it will help you integrate your
knowledge of contemporary psychology into a more meaningful whole,
and that it will help you understand psychology’s place in a larger story.
Additionally, I hope that it will stimulate your curiosity about the top-
ics and individuals discussed in this book, leading you to read some of
this earlier work that changed our understanding of human nature. For
the general reader, I hope that you will find that the book provides the
historical and disciplinary context that will help you better understand
 Benjamin f04.tex V2 - 12/12/2013 7:37 P.M. Page xiii

Preface xiii

the richness and complexity of contemporary psychology in its several

forms.
In this second edition, I have benefited from the advice of many users
of the first edition. Much new material has been added to this edition,
reflecting the growing scholarship on the history of psychology and
related fields. To accommodate these additions and still keep the book in
its brief form, I have reduced the amount of biographical coverage. As a
historian, I favor a personalistic approach to history and so I have main-
tained the biographical content that I believe is necessary to provide
context to understanding the theories, research, and practices described
in this book. Such material is essential to the quality and character of
the narrative. The great American historian, Henry Steele Commager
(1965), reminds us that although history has multiple functions, at its
essence, history is a story, and few things are more enjoyable than a story
well told. The history of psychology is a fascinating story, and my hope
is that even in this brief history I have created an account that is both
scholarly and informative, and, in the best traditions of good history,
interesting reading.
I express my gratitude to John Wiley and Sons for the opportunity to
produce this second edition. I am grateful to my former editor, Chris
Cardone who invited me to write this book and to my current editor
at Wiley, Chris Johnson, for his stewardship on this second edition. I
have also benefitted from the help of Wiley assistant editor Brittany
Cheetham and editorial assistant Kristen Mucci for handling many of
the production issues on this book.
I thank Kerry Buckley whose excellent biography of John Watson
gave me the idea for the opening of the chapter on behaviorism. I
also thank David Baker, Lizette Royer Barton, Jennifer Bazar, Darryl
Bruce, Robin Cautin, Deborah Coon, Paul Craig, Nicholas Cummings,
James Deegear, Stanley Finger, James Goodwin, Christopher Green,
John Hogan, Alexandra Rutherford, Michael Sokal, Roger Thomas,
Karyn Plumm, Peter Frecknall, David Wilder, Thomas Heinzen, and
Gwen Murdock for their suggestions on this book and its predecessor.
I greatly appreciate the scholarship and sense of history they brought
to the task. I thank my undergraduate and graduate students of many
years whose comments and questions have shaped the content and
structure of this book. Finally, I thank my wife, Priscilla, who has
worked with me for nearly 50 years, and who brings her talents as
librarian and educator to all of my writing projects.

Ludy T. Benjamin, Jr.

Benjamin f04.tex V2 - 12/12/2013 7:37 P.M. Page xiv
 Benjamin c01.tex V2 - 12/18/2013 9:30 A.M. Page 1

1
Pre-Scientific Psychology

Start with these facts. Psychology is the most popular elective in

American high schools today. Further, psychology is one of the two or
three most popular undergraduate majors in North American colleges.
People cannot seem to get enough of psychology; it is everywhere
today. It is the substance of movies, novels, computer games, Facebook,
magazines, television shows, tabloid newspapers, radio talk shows,
and music lyrics. Clearly, there is no shortage of public interest in
psychology. People are interested in behavior – their own, their rela-
tives, their neighbors, their co-workers, and even strangers who they
know only through the media of books, magazines, or television shows
such as soap operas, courtroom programs, game shows, situation
comedies, dramas, and the so called “reality” shows. There seems to
be a never-ending fascination with human behavior that is perhaps
inherent in human nature. It is likely that such an interest has afforded
evolutionary advantages. Psychologists refer to this public interest in
psychology as popular psychology. It isn’t psychology of the form that
would be recognized by most psychologists as scientific psychology.
Indeed, many psychologists would be embarrassed by any association
with it. However, the public loves it, and it is their psychology.
Surely, psychology has existed from the very beginnings of human
history. When hominids first walked erect on the earth, facing a life
expectancy of perhaps 30 years, a life beset with hardships and dangers
that could hardly be imagined today, these early individuals were no
doubt in need of human comfort, of reassurance, of empathy, and of
guidance. Moreover, where there is demand, there is supply. There
must have been individuals who provided services of a psychological
nature to their fellow humans as practitioners. These early humans
practiced their craft under a variety of names such as sorcerer, wizard,
charmer, shaman, medicine man, enchanter, seer, and priest. Their
trade involved a combination of medicine, religion, and psychology.
Although they often held positions of authority and respect within
 Benjamin c01.tex V2 - 12/18/2013 9:30 A.M. Page 2

2 Pre-Scientific Psychology

their tribes, they could lose that social standing, and indeed their very
lives, if they were judged incompetent or ineffective in their healing
arts. With the passage of centuries, specialization occurred leading to
separate professions of medicine, religion, and psychology, although it
can be easily argued that these three remain linked in various ways in
modern practice. Thus, the practice of psychology dates to thousands
of years ago, but, as we will describe in this book, the science of
psychology is a nineteenth-century invention.
As the title of this book indicates, this is an account of modern
psychology, which means that the story recounted here is a mostly
recent one. So having acknowledged that the practice of psychology
is thousands of years old, we will fast forward to the era of concern
for this chapter, which is the nineteenth century. The term “modern
psychology” has come to be synonymous with scientific psychology.
Indeed, there is consensus that the dating of modern psychology
begins with the establishment of a research laboratory by Wilhelm
Wundt at the University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879. The historical
significance and salience of that occurrence is underscored by historian
James Capshew (1992) who wrote, “the enduring motif in the story of
modern psychology is neither a person nor an event but a place – the
experimental laboratory” (p. 132).
The new psychological laboratories began their appearance in North
America in the last two decades of the nineteenth century, first at Johns
Hopkins University in 1883, then at Indiana University in 1887, at
the University of Wisconsin in 1888, and at Clark University and the
universities of Pennsylvania, Kansas, and Nebraska in 1889. The first
of the new laboratories in Canada was established at the University of
Toronto in 1891 (Baldwin, 1892). By 1900 there were more than 40 such
laboratories in North America (Benjamin, 2000), all seeking to apply
the new scientific methods, borrowed largely from physiology and
psychophysics, to questions of the basic human processes of seeing
and knowing and feeling.
When this new psychology arrived on American soil, there was
already a psychology in place. In fact, there were two other psycholo-
gies extant in the nineteenth century, the practice of psychology, which,
as argued, had been around since the dawn of human history, and
another psychology that existed largely within colleges and universities
known as mental philosophy.
The practitioners of psychology offered their services under a variety
of labels. There were phrenologists who measured the shape of the
skull of their clients, looking for bumps and indentations that signified
talents or deficiencies. There were physiognomists who studied the
contours and features of their clients’ faces, making determinations of
 Benjamin c01.tex V2 - 12/18/2013 9:30 A.M. Page 3

Pre-Scientific Psychology 3

personality traits and abilities based on such things as the shape of a

person’s nose, the height of the cheekbones, or the distance between the
eyes. There were mesmerists who used forms of hypnosis to encourage
changes in their clients’ behaviors. There were seers and clairvoyants
who could predict the future and thus advise clients about their current
and future actions. There were graphologists who made psychological
assessments based on the characteristics of their clients’ handwriting.
In addition, there were mediums, psychopathists, psychics, spiri-
tualists, mental healers, advisors, psychometrists, and even people
who labeled themselves psychologists. Mostly self-trained and using
methods tenuously based in science, if at all, these practitioners sought
to help their clients in much the same way as modern psychologists do.
They attempted to cure depression, improve marital relations, teach
parenting skills, increase job satisfaction, reduce anxiety, and assist in
vocational choices. These individuals represented what the general
public understood to be the subject matter and practice of psychology.
This kind of psychology, however, did not have credibility within the
community of higher learning, that is, within colleges and universities,
where the other pre-scientific psychology resided.
Mental philosophy was a subject matter that had been part of
America and its university curriculum since the seventeenth century.
From the author’s collection

Figure 1.1 An advertisement for the Chicago School of Psychology in 1900,

a school that taught the use of hypnosis for psychological treatment, an
example of the public psychology of that time
 Benjamin c01.tex V2 - 12/18/2013 9:30 A.M. Page 4

4 Pre-Scientific Psychology

Of English and Scottish origins, through the works of such philoso-

phers as John Locke, David Hume, George Berkeley, Thomas Reid, and
Dugald Stewart, the subject became a nineteenth-century staple in the
education of students who learned this brand of empirical psychology
from one of several American textbooks on the subject. Demonstrating
the centuries-long influence of British empiricism, the focus of mental
philosophy was on sensation and perception, usually referred to as
properties of the intellect, although the intellect also included other
cognitive processes such as attention, learning, memory, and thinking.
In addition, mental philosophy covered the emotions (often called
sensibilities) and the will, including debates on determinism versus
free will (Fuchs, 2000). This tripartite treatment – intellect, sensibilities,
and will – defined the extant academic psychology in America when
laboratory experimental psychology arrived from Germany.
It is these two psychologies – one public, one academic – that are the
subject of this chapter. They are important for the history of modern
psychology because they are part of the historical context for under-
standing the development of the science of psychology, the profession
of psychology, and that brand of psychology that has such broad public
appeal, often referred to as popular psychology.

A Public Psychology
The public fascination with behavior today existed in the nineteenth
century as well, although the media sources in that century were
far more limited. Still, people were exposed to psychology through
books, newspaper and magazine stories, and advertisements and
signs announcing psychological services, for example, “Sister Helen,
Palm Reader.” People wanted the assistance that they believed could
come from those whose special knowledge or talents could help them
identify their strengths and improve their personal weaknesses, help
them choose a career wisely, help them find a suitable partner for
life, help them overcome specific fears, cure them of their depression,
help them communicate with dearly departed friends or relatives, or
predict their future. There were many of these pre-scientific public
psychologies, too many to cover in this account. In order to understand
the landscape that scientific psychology faced when it arrived in North
America it is important to understand something about these various
psychologies. We will focus on a select few that achieved the greatest
followings: phrenology, physiognomy, mesmerism, spiritualism, and
mental healing.
 Benjamin c01.tex V2 - 12/18/2013 9:30 A.M. Page 5

Pre-Scientific Psychology 5

Phrenology

In the nineteenth century, “having your head examined” did not refer
to suspected mental illness, but meant instead a visit to a phrenolo-
gist who would examine the shape of the client’s head and, based on
various cranial measurements, would make pronouncements about the
individual’s personality, abilities, and intelligence. It began in the work
of German anatomist, Franz Josef Gall (1758–1828), who believed that
different parts of the brain were responsible for different intellectual,
emotional, and behavioral functions. Some parts of the brain would
be overdeveloped, creating a bump on the skull, whereas others parts
might be underdeveloped creating a skull indentation. The location of
these various functions was specific to a particular area of the skull.
Thus, a person’s propensity for being destructive was measured imme-
diately above the left ear, whereas the area above the right ear indicated
a person’s degree of selfishness. Spirituality and benevolence were mea-
sured at the top of the head, whereas parental love, friendship, and love
of animals were measured at the back of the head.
Gall’s phrenological ideas were spread in North America by Johann
Spurzheim (1777–1832) and particularly by George Combe (1788–1858)
who lectured widely in the United States and Canada on phrenology,
promoting his book, System of Phrenology (first published in 1825), and
establishing phrenological clinics in the cities where he traveled. Combe
subscribed to the system of categorization of 35 faculties as originally
described by Spurzheim. Combe (1835) wrote:

Observation proves that each of these faculties is connected with a partic-

ular portion of the brain, and that the power of manifesting each bears a
relation to the size and activity of the organ. The organs differ in relative
size in different individuals and hence their differences in talents and dis-
positions.… Every faculty is good in itself, but all are liable to abuse. Their
manifestations are right only when directed by enlightened intellect and
moral sentiment. (pp. 54–56)

What the phrenologist provided was not only the cranial measurements
that identified the talents and dispositions, but of greater importance,
a plan of action designed to strengthen the weaker faculties and thus
provide greater happiness and success in life for the client. As John van
Wyhe (2004) has written, “The phrenologist claimed to have an almost
mystical power to reveal invisible traits and tendencies.… Phrenology
was knowing about others and revealing their secrets” (p. 58).
In the United States, the phrenological market had been cornered
by the Fowler brothers, Orson (1809–1887) and Lorenzo (1811–1896),
 Benjamin c01.tex V2 - 12/18/2013 9:30 A.M. Page 6

6 Pre-Scientific Psychology

From the author’s collection

From the author’s collection

Figure 1.2 At left, a replica of the phrenology bust designed by Lorenzo
Fowler in the 1840s. It was crafted as an ideally shaped head to be used as a
reference point. On the right is the cover of a “Self-Instructor” phrenology
manual, also dating from the 1840s. For 25 cents, the client would receive
this small book after the examination in which the phrenologist would have
recorded his or her measurements in the first few pages, indicating per-
sonal strengths and weaknesses. The book included information on how
the client could work to improve personal weaknesses

who opened clinics in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia in the late
1830s. They created their own phrenological industry that included
books, magazines, phrenology heads, measuring instruments, and
phrenological charts. They franchised their business to other cities
where they trained examiners and, of course, supplied them with all
the necessities to run their clinics. To be trained in the Fowler System
was a marketing device, a kind of credential that examiners could use
to argue their credibility.
Phrenologists provided examinations or “readings” as they were
often called. There were itinerant phrenologists who traveled the coun-
try offering their services and carrying the tools of their trade in the
carrying cases manufactured by the Fowler brothers for just such pur-
poses. Others operated from their clinics where clients made appoint-
ments for their examinations. Some clinics were tied to businesses,
serving as a kind of personnel office, testing prospective employees,
and sending the results of their examinations to the employer.
 Benjamin c01.tex V2 - 12/18/2013 9:30 A.M. Page 7

Pre-Scientific Psychology 7

Phrenologists provided their clients with a checklist of their facul-

ties, noting those that were over- or underdeveloped. Some faculties
were positive, such as sympathy or conscientiousness, whereas others
were negative, for example, defiance or secretiveness. Clients would be
advised about which faculties required “cultivation” and which ones
required “restraint.” For example, if the “destructiveness” faculty was
shown to be too large, the client was advised:

To Restrain – Kill nothing; and offset destructiveness by benevolence;

never indulge a rough, harsh spirit, but cultivate instead a mild and
forgiving spirit; never brood over injuries or indulge revengeful thoughts
or desires, or aggravate yourself by brooding over wrongs; cultivate
good manners; and when occasion requires you to reprove, do it in a
bland, gentle manner rather than roughly; never tease, even children, or
scourge animals, but be kind to both, and offset by benevolence and the
higher faculties. (Fowler & Fowler, 1859, p. 97)

Many contemporary accounts of phrenology portray its practitioners

as charlatans who sought to extract money from their clients by provid-
ing services that lacked any scientific basis and were thus worthless. No
doubt there were such unscrupulous characters in the phrenological
business, yet there were many with honorable motives. Although their
science may have been suspect, they likely aided their clients through
their powers of observation. In the best empirical tradition, they used
their senses to make their diagnoses and inform the counsel they
offered their clients. Historian Michael Sokal (2001) has described how
this worked:

After all, they had great opportunities to practice these powers on the
individuals they examined. They spent a fair amount of time with
their subjects, often in close physical contact. They spoke with these
clients – and, especially, listened to them – as they introduced themselves
and took in their accents and use of words. They shook their hands
and felt their calluses. They observed their dress, and noted its style,
cleanliness, and usage. They observed their subjects’ carriage as they
entered and walked about the examining room and read their “body
language.” They stood over and behind them as they moved their hands
about their heads. And in a less clean age, they especially noted their
subjects’ odor. (pp. 38–39)

Thus, much could be learned about a client by an observant phre-

nologist. Such observations could be used to increase the accuracy of
the psychological assessment meaning that the client was better served,
at the same time raising the client’s confidence in the abilities of the
 Benjamin c01.tex V2 - 12/18/2013 9:30 A.M. Page 8

8 Pre-Scientific Psychology

phrenologist. That confidence was important in ensuring greater com-

pliance with the directives of the phrenologist and in generating, no
doubt, good word-of-mouth advertising for the examiner’s services.

Physiognomy

Another of the pre-scientific psychologies popular in the nineteenth

century was physiognomy, the evaluation of a person’s character, intel-
lect, and abilities based on facial features. Physiognomy, also called
characterology, began in the eighteenth century, based on the work of a
Swiss theologian, Johann Lavater (1741–1801). His book, Essays on Phys-
iognomy, was published in 1775 and predated the phrenological ideas of
Gall. However, the system never gained the popularity of phrenology.
Lavater’s system emphasized the eyes, nose, chin, and forehead as the
principal indicators of intelligence, sense of humor, sympathy, morality,
and other characteristics. About the nose, Lavater (1775) wrote:

Noses which are much turned downward are never truly good, truly
cheerful, noble, or great. Their thoughts and inclinations always tend to
earth. They are close, cold, heartless, incommunicative; often maliciously
sarcastic, ill-humored, or extremely hypochondriac or melancholic.
When arched in the upper part they are fearful and voluptuous. (p. 36)

Sadly, physiognomy, like phrenology, was also used to “validate”

ethnic and racial stereotypes. One well-known textbook of physiog-
nomy written by Samuel Wells in 1866 (Wells was brother-in-law to
the Fowlers) provided the following analysis of the “Jewish nose”:
“It indicates worldly shrewdness, insight into character, and ability
to turn that insight to a profitable account” (p. 196). The sub-Saharan
African nose Wells described as a “snubnose,” a nose of “weakness and
underdevelopment.” He continued, “Such a shortened and flattened
proboscis can not … have made any legible mark on the records of
the world’s progress. Its wearers have never conquered realms and
enslaved nations, like the owners of the royal Roman nose, or built
magnificent temples and adorned them with works of high art, like the
Greek-nosed children of genius” (p. 196).
For a while, physiognomy gained credibility in the field of
criminology, largely because of the work of an Italian anthropolo-
gist/criminologist Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909), whose work in that
field earned him nominations for the Nobel Prize on four occasions.
Both before and after Lombroso’s writings, there have been many
individuals, learned and not-so-learned, who believed in the notion of
a “criminal type” identifiable by facial features. Lombroso wrote that
criminals were almost never tall, that their heads were over-sized but
 Benjamin c01.tex V2 - 12/18/2013 9:30 A.M. Page 9

Pre-Scientific Psychology 9

From the author’s collection

Figure 1.3 A physiognomy face map from Samuel Wells (1866) showing
location of various characteristics such as kindness (2), eloquence (32), sym-
pathy (71), and patriotism (136)

their brains smaller in size, their ears were larger and more protruding,
their eyebrows were bushy, and their chins were receding or flat (see
Lombroso, 1911; Lombroso & Ferrero, 1899).
Like the field of phrenology, the credibility of physiognomy was seri-
ously diminished at the beginning of the twentieth century; however,
it did not disappear and even found its way into employee selection in
America in the 1910s through the characterological system of Katherine
Blackford. We will discuss her work in Chapter 9, work that proved to
be a considerable irritant to psychologists who were trying to establish
the legitimacy of their science in the world of business at that time.

Mesmerism

Franz Anton Mesmer (1734–1815) was an Austrian physician who, in

1775, discovered that he could relieve medical and psychological symp-
toms in his patients by passing magnets over their bodies. He called his
procedure animal magnetism, although it would become better known
as mesmerism. As a physician, Mesmer functioned in a time in which
humors, or bodily fluids, such as blood and bile, were viewed as keys
to health. Mesmer believed that the fluids in the body were magnetized,
and that many conditions of physical and mental illness were caused by
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Iron bridge, the first: 15.
Iron boats:
Wilkinson builds the first, 14;
Symington, 14, 82;
Brunel, 32;
Onions & Sons, 14;
Jervons, 14;
at Horsley Works, 14;
“Great Eastern” and “Great Western,” 32;
Fairbairn, 73-74.
Jefferson, Thomas:
on interchangeable system in France, 129-131;
on Whitney, 135.
Jenks, Alfred:
textile machinery, 123, 246-247.
Jenks, Alvin:
cotton machinery, 124-125.
Jenks, Barton H.: 247.
Jenks, Eleazer:
spinning machinery, 123.
Jenks, Joseph: 115-116, 125.
Jenks, Joseph, Jr.:
founder of Pawtucket, 118.
Jenks, Joseph, 3d:
governor of Rhode Island Colony, 118.
Jenks, Capt. Stephen:
guns, 117;
nuts and screws, 124;
Jenks & Sons, 125.
Jennings gun:
origin of, 292-294.
Jerome, Chauncey:
brass clocks, 144, 171-172, 233.
Jervons:
iron boat, 14.
Jewelry industry in Providence: 126-127.
Johnson, Charles: 237.
Johnson, Iver: 226.
Johnson, Judge:
decision, Whitney vs. Fort, 155-157.
Jones & Lamson Machine Co.: 191, 193, 194, 197;
flat-turret lathe, 198-199;
Fay automatic lathe, 200.
Kaestner:
gearing, 64.
Kearney & Trecker: 276.
Kempsmith, Frank: 264-265, 271.
Kempsmith Manufacturing Co.: 271, 276.
Kendall, N., & Co.: 186, 189.
Key-seater: 61.
Lamson, Goodnow & Yale: 192, 193.
Lamson Machine Co.: 198.
Landis Tool Co.: 259-260.
Lane & Bodley: 267.
Lapointe, J. N.:
broaching machine, 183.
Lathes:
pole, 3, 41;
engine, 4;
in 18th century, 3, 4;
automatic, 5, 176;
French rose engine, 6;
screw-cutting, 19, 35, 40, 119-120;
tool-room, 182;
Lo-swing, 200;
Bramah and Maudslay, 17;
Ramsden, 38;
Bentham, 38;
Maudslay, 40-42, 46;
Wilkinson, 119-120;
Blanchard, 140, 142-143;
Spencer’s turret lathe, 176;
 Fay automatic, 200;
Sellers, 250.
Lathe, Morse & Co.: 222.
Lawrence, Richard S.: 188-189, 195;
profiling machine, 143;
master armorer, Sharps Works, 170, 194;
lubricated bullet, 194;
miller, 191, 194;
split pulley, 194;
turret lathe, 197;
autobiography, 281-291.
Lawrence, Mass.: 127.
Lawrence Machine Shop: 219.
Lead screw: 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43.
Le Blanc:
interchangeable gun manufacture in France, 130.
Le Blond, R. K.: 271.
Lee-Metford rifle: 105.
Leland, Henry M.: 214;
on J. R. Brown, 215.
Leonards: 116.
Libbey, C. L.:
turret lathes, 275.
Limit gauges:
developed in America, 5.
Lincoln, Levi: 165, 171.
Lincoln Co., The: 165.
Lincoln, Charles L., & Co.: 165.
Lincoln, George S., & Co.: 137, 165.
Lincoln miller: 137, 165-166, 208.
Linear dividing engines: 206.
Lingren, W. F., & Co.: 274.
Locomotives:
early inventions, 56;
Sharp, Roberts & Co., 61-62;
Nasmyth, 93.
Lodge, William E.: 268-271.
Lodge & Davis:
policy of, 270-271.
Lodge & Shipley Machine Tool Co.: 270.
Lowell, Mass.: 127;
machine shops of, 218.
Lowell Machine Shop: 217, 218, 253.
Lucas Machine Tool Co.: 265.
McFarlan, Thomas: 268.
Macaulay, Lord:
on Eli Whitney, 161.
Machine tools:
effect of modern, 1;
crudity in 18th century, 3, 4;
developments of, 4, 5, 63, 107;
Fairbairn on, 10;
Bramah and Maudslay, 34;
Whitworth, 99;
Greek or Gothic style, 63;
developed by cotton industry, 120.
Machine Tool Works: 255.
Machinist Tool Co.: 222.
Madison, Wis.: 276.
Manchester, N. H.: 123, 127;
founding of, 217.
Manchester Locomotive Works: 217.
Manchester pitch: 70 note 66, 80.
Manville, E. J.: 237.
Map of tool building industry: Fig. 56.
Marshall, Elijah D.: 254.
Marvel, C. M., & Co.: 219.
Mason, William: 170, 173-174.
Massachusetts Arms Co.: 162.
Maudslay, Henry: 7, 8, Chapter IV;
estimates of, 9, 43, 44, 45, 48, 49, 88;
taps and dies, 10, 42, 88;
Portsmouth block machinery, 8, 29, 35;
 screw thread practice, 10, 40, 42, 88, 101;
cup-leather packing, 18, 34;
the slide-rest, 6, 35, 36, 38, 40, 43, 49, 143;
screw-cutting lathe, 35, 40, 41, 42, 50, 120;
engine improvements, 43;
work on plane surfaces, 44, 45, 99, 100.
Maudslay & Field: 8, 19, 35, 58, 98;
influence on English tool builders, 46;
Moon’s description of shop, 46-48.
Maynard Rifle Co.: 161.
Mechanics Machine Co.: 274.
Merrick, S. V.:
introduces steam hammer into United States, 96, 257.
Merrimac Valley:
textile works, 124, 127;
shops of, 216-219.
Michigan Twist Drill & Machine Co.: 266.
Midvale Steel Co.: 250.
Miles, Frederick B.:
steam hammer, 255.
Mill, Anton: 272.
Miller, Patrick: 82.
Miller, Phineas:
partner of Eli Whitney, 148-149, 153, 154.
Miller & Whitney: 149, 152.
Miller, universal:
origin of, 5, 138 note 163, 208-209.
Milling cutter, formed: 206-207, 208.
Milling machine:
Whitney, 142;
first in Hartford, 170, 194;
Lawrence, 191;
Lincoln, 137, 165-166, 208.
Millwork: Chapter VI;
Nasmyth on, 71.
Milwaukee, Wis.:
tool builders in, 276-277.
Milwaukee Machine Tool Co.: 277.
Moen, Philip L.: 225.
Montanus, Philip: 271.
Moody, Paul:
expert in cotton machinery, 218.
Moore & Colby: 252.
Morris, I. P., & Co.: 257, 258.
Mueller, Oscar: 271.
Murdock: 55;
D-slide valves, 51.
Murray, Matthew: 7, 54-57, 107;
planer, 50, 51, 55, 57;
D-slide valve, 55;
steam heating, 56;
locomotives, 56;
influence on flax industry, 56.
Nashua Manufacturing Co.: 124.
Nasmyth, Alexander: 81, 82, 83.
Nasmyth, James: 7, 8, Chapter VIII;
with Maudslay, 46, 48, 87, 88;
millwork, 71, 88;
steam road carriage, 86;
milling machine, 89;
shaper, 92;
method of invention, 92;
steam hammer and other inventions, 93-96;
study of the moon, 97;
on interchangeable system of manufacture, 140-141.
Nasmyth & Gaskell: 92.
National Acme Manufacturing Co.:
multi-spindle automatic lathe, 183, 265.
Naugatuck Valley: Chapter XVIII;
brass industry in, 231-238;
pin machinery, 233.
New Britain, Conn.:
hardware manufacture in, 171.
Newell, Stanford:
Franklin Machine Co.: 125.
New England industries:
early development of, 109-110;
cotton, 114;
iron, 116, 117, 118.
New England Screw Co.: 126.
Newton & Cox: 266.
Newton Machine Tool Works: 266.
New York:
early steamboat trade, 127.
Niles, James and Jonathan: 251.
Niles & Co.: 267, 273.
Niles-Bement-Pond Co.: 179, 222, 255, 259, 273.
Niles Tool Works: 267, 273.
Norris, Henry M.: 272.
North Chelmsford Machine & Supply Co.: 124.
North, Henry: 165.
North, Selah: filing jig, 142.
North, Simeon: 161-163;
gun contracts, 131, 133, 134, 135, 137, 162, 163;
interchangeable system, 133-134, 136, 142, 145, 162.
Norton, Charles H.:
precision grinding, 214, 224, 225.
Norton, F. B.: 224, 225.
Norton Company, The: 224, 225.
Norton Emery Wheel Co.: 224.
Norton Grinding Co.: 224, 225.
Norwalk Iron Works Co.: 184.
Oesterlien Machine Co.: 268.
Ohio Machine Tool Co.: 269.
Orr, Hugh:
early mechanic, 116-117.
Orr, Robert:
master armorer at Springfield, 117.
Otting & Lauder: 268.
Owen, William: 271.
Palmer, Courtland C.: 190.
Palmer, Jean Laurent:
screw caliper, 212, 213.
Palmer & Capron: 127.
Parallel motion: 3 note 6.
Parkhurst, E. G.: 182.
Parks, Edward H.:
automatic gear cutters, 214.
Pawtucket, R. I.:
manufacturing center, 118, 127;
Dr. Dwight on, 121;
manufactures of, 118-125.
Peck:
lifter for drop hammer, 143.
Pedrick & Ayer: planer, 53.
Phelps & Bickford: 222.
Phœnix Iron Works: 165.
Philadelphia, Pa.:
tool builders in, Chapter XIX;
early textile machinery, 246.
Pin machinery: 233.
Pitcher, Larned:
Amoskeag Manufacturing Co.: 123;
Pitcher & Brown, 124.
Pitkin, Henry and James F.:
American lever watches, 164.
Pitkin, Col. Joseph:
pioneer iron worker, 164.
Planer:
in 18th century, 4;
developed in England, 4;
Bramah, 18;
Clement, 19, 52;
inventors of the, Chapter V;
early French, 50;
 Roberts, 51;
Murray, 57;
Bodmer, 75, 76;
Sellers, 248.
Plane surfaces, scraping of:
Maudslay, 44, 45;
Whitworth, 44, 98-101.
Plume & Atwood: 234.
Plumier: French writer, 50.
Pond Machine Tool Co.: 222, 259.
Pope Manufacturing Co.: 170.
Portsmouth block machinery:
influence on general manufacturing, 5;
work of Bentham and Brunel, 8, 9, 22, 26, 27, 28;
Maudslay’s contribution to, 29, 35;
description of, 29, 30, 31;
Roberts, 60;
Maudslay and Bentham, 89;
approaches interchangeable system, 131.
Potter & Johnson: 183.
Pratt, Francis A.: 137, 170, 177;
Lincoln miller, 165, 191.
Pratt & Whitney: 137, 178-183;
Interchangeable system, 179;
gun machinery and manufacture, 179-180, 182;
screw threads, 180-182;
tool-room lathe, 182;
thread-milling, 183;
workmen, 183;
turret screw machines, 207.
Precision gear cutter: 206.
Prentice, A. F.: 224.
Prentiss, F. F.: 266.
Priority in invention: 5.
Pritchard, Benjamin: 216.
Profiling machine: inventors of, 143.
Providence, R. I.:
 early cannon manufacture, 117;
trading center, 118;
textile industry, 123;
manufactures in, 118-126;
jewelry industry of, 126-127.
Providence Forge & Nut Co.: 125.
Providence Tool Co.: 125;
turret screw machine built for, 207;
universal miller built for, 209.
Providence & Worcester Canal: 219-220.
Punching machine, Maudslay’s: 43.
Putnam, John: 227-228.
Putnam, Salmon W.: 227-228.
Putnam Machine Co. Works: 200, 227-228.
Ramsden, Jesse: lathe, 38.
Randolph & Clowes: 236.
Reed, F. E.: 224.
Reed & Prentice Co.: 222.
Remington Arms Co.: 161.
Remington, E., & Sons: 175.
Rennie, George: 54;
planer, 50, 51.
Rennie, Sir John: 54.
Rennie, John: millwright, 54.
Rhode Island Tool Co.: 125.
Richards, Charles B.: 173.
Richards, John: on Bodmer, 79.
Robbins & Lawrence: Chapter XV;
interchangeable system, 138;
turret lathe, 143, 197;
miller, 165, 191;
government contracts, 190;
Enfield rifle and gun machinery, 191-192;
cause of failure, 192;
successive owners of plant, 192-194, 200.
Robbins, Kendall & Lawrence: 189-190.
Roberts, Richard: 7, 9, 59-60, 62, 107;
with Maudslay, 46, 60;
planer, 50, 51, 60;
locomotives, 61-62;
Sharp, Roberts & Co.: 61, 62.
Robinson, Anthony:
screw thread, 39.
Rockford, Ill.:
tool builders in, 274-275.
Rockford Drilling Machine Co.: 274.
Rockford Iron Works: 274.
Rockford Lathe & Tool Co.: 274.
Rockford Machine Tool Co.: 274.
Rockford Milling Machine Co.: 274.
Roemer: epicyclic curve, 63.
Rogers, William A.:
Rogers-Bond comparator, 180-182.
Root, Elisha K.: 168-169, 170;
influence on die forging, 137;
profiling machine, 143;
drop hammer, 143, 169;
Colt Armory, 169;
machinery invented by, 169;
horizontal turret principle, 197.
Roper Repeating Arms Co.: 175.
St. Joseph Iron Co.: 253.
Savage Fire Arms Co.: 161.
Saxton: gear teeth, 66-67.
Schneider, M., and Nasmyth’s steam hammer: 95-96.
Scituate, R. I.: Hope Furnace, 117.
Scovill Manufacturing Co.: 232.
Screw machines, multi-spindle automatic: 265.
Screw-thread practice:
Maudslay and Clement, 10, 19, 42, 58-59, 88;
Whitworth standardizes, 10, 101;
early methods of screw cutting, 38-40;
 Pratt & Whitney, 180-182;
history of Sellers’ or U. S. Standard, 249.
Sellers, Dr. Coleman: 251-252;
design of railway tools, 251;
screw thread, U. S. Standard, 249.
Sellers, William: 247-251, 255;
inventions, 247-248;
planer, 248;
system of screw threads, 248-249;
bridge building machinery, 250;
great lathe, Washington Navy Yard, 250.
Sellers, William, & Co.: 251, 252.
Sentinel Gas Appliance Co.: 160.
Shapers:
developed in England, 4;
Brunel’s, 27;
Nasmyth’s “Steel Arm,” 92.
Sharp, Roberts & Co.: 61, 62.
Sharpe, Lucian: 202;
American wire gauge, 205.
Sharps, Christian:
breech loading rifle, 170, 192.
Sharps Rifle Works: 192, 194, 195.
Shaw, A. J.: 214.
Shepard, Lathe & Co.: 222.
Shipley, Murray: 270.
Slater, Samuel: 114, 119, 121;
Arkwright cotton machinery, 120, 121;
textile industry, 122;
Amoskeag Co., 216-217.
Slide-rest:
in 18th century, 4;
inventors of, 6;
early forms of, 6, 36;
Bramah and Maudslay, 17;
Maudslay, 35, 36, 38, 40, 43, 49.
Sloan, Thomas J.:
 screw machine, 126.
Slocomb, J. T.: 214.
Slotter: 61.
Smeaton, John: 2, 3;
boring machine, 2, 13;
cast iron gears, 64.
Smith, George: 214.
Smith & Mills: 270.
Smith & Phelps: 234.
Smith & Silk: 271.
Smith & Wesson: 138.
Snyder, J. E., & Son: 22.
Southwark Foundry & Machine Co.: 173, 256-257.
Spencer, Christopher M.: 170, 175-177;
turret lathe, 143, 176;
board drop, 143;
silk-winding machine, 175;
repeating rifle, 175.
Spencer Arms Co.: 177.
Spring: planer, 50, 53.
Springfield, Mass.: 230.
Springfield Armory: 103, 136, 138, 143, 163;
Blanchard’s lathes, 142-143.
Springfield Machine Tool Co.: 271.
Standard Tool Co.: 266.
Stannard, Monroe:
with Pratt & Whitney, 178.
Steam boats:
early, 82;
Wilkinson’s, 119.
Steam engine, Watt’s:
new element in industry, 1;
problems in building, 1-3;
first built at Soho, 12;
Maudslay’s improvements, 43.
Steam hammer: 4;
Nasmyth’s invention of, 93-96.
Steam heating apparatus:
Murray, 56.
Steinle Turret Machine Co.: 277.
Stephenson, George: 6, 32, 56, 150.
Steptoe, John: 267-268.
Steptoe Co., The John:
shapers and milling machines, 268.
Stone, Henry D.: 192, 193, 196;
turret lathe, 143, 197.
Swasey, Ambrose: 183, 262, 263;
dividing engine, 264.
Syme, Johnie: Nasmyth on, 84.
Symington, William: iron boat, 14, 82.
Taps and dies:
developed in England, 4;
Maudslay’s, 10, 42;
Clement’s, 59.
Taylor, Frederick W.:
high-speed tool steels, 250, 277.
Taylor & Fenn Co.: 165.
Terry, Eli: clocks, 144, 171, 172.
Textile industries:
Arkwright and Strutt, 53;
influence of Whitney’s cotton gin, 114;
in New England, 114, 120, 123, 127;
Slater’s influence on, 122.
Textile machinery:
Robert’s spinning mule, etc., 61;
Bodmer, 77;
in New England, 114, 120-121;
Wilkinson, 122;
Alfred Jenks, 123.
Thomas, Seth: clocks, 144.
Thomaston, Conn.:
clock manufacture, 171.
Thurber, Isaac:
 Franklin Machine Co., 125.
Thurston, Horace: 214.
Tool builders:
general estimate of early, 107;
in Central New England, Chapter XVII;
Western, Chapter XX.
Tool building centers: 127;
map of, Fig. 56.
Torry, Archie:
Nasmyth’s foreman, 91.
Towne, Henry R.: 257, 258.
Towne, John Henry: 256-257, 258;
screw thread, U. S. Standard, 249.
Traveling crane, first: 77, 80.
Trevithick:
steam road engine, 56.
Turret lathes: 140;
early producers of, 143;
Spencer, 176;
Howe and Lawrence, 197;
Hartness’ flat-turret, 198;
Warner & Swasey, 262.
Turret screw machine, improvements on: 207.
Union Steel Screw Works: 198, 265, 266.
Universal Radial Drill Co.: 273.
Wadsworth, Capt. Decius:
on Whitney’s interchangeable system, 134-135.
Waldo, Daniel:
Hope Furnace, 117.
Wallace, William: 237.
Wallace & Sons: 234.
Waltham Watch Works, see American Watch Co.
Warner, Worcester R.: 183, 262, 263.
Warner & Swasey Co.: 261-265;
building of astronomical instruments, 263-264.
Washburn, Ichabod: American Steel & Wire Co., 225, 226.
Washburn & Moen Co.: 225.
Waterbury Brass Co.: 234, 237.
Waterbury Button Co.: 234.
Waterbury Clock & Watch Co.: 234.
Waters, Asa: 226.
Waston, William: Nasmyth on, 84.
Watt, James: 3, 6, 82, 83, 150, 161;
invention of steam engine, 1, 2, 145;
parallel motion, 3 note 6;
dependence on Wilkinson’s boring machine, 3;
opposed by Bramah, 18.
Weed Sewing Machine Co.: 170, 174, 175.
Weeden, W. N.: 237.
Wheeler, William A.: 221.
Wheeler & Wilson: 192.
Whipple, Cullen: 126.
Whitcomb, Carter, Co.: 222.
Whitcomb-Blaisdell Machine Tool Co.: 222.
White, Zebulon: J. S. White & Co., 122.
White Sewing Machine Co.: 193, 266.
Whitman-Barnes Co.: 266.
Whitney, Amos: 137, 170, 177, 219.
Whitney, Baxter D.: 177, 230.
Whitney, Eli: 6, 146-147, 161, 177;
interchangeable system, 76, 132-133, 134-135, 136, 145,
146, 158-159;
cotton gin, 114, 131, 145, 148-158;
U. S. contract of 1798, 131-132, 158, 159;
Whitneyville plant, 132, 162, 158, 160;
method of manufacture, 158-159;
milling machine, 142;
Miller & Whitney, 149.
Whitney, Eli, Jr.:
contract for “Harper’s Ferry” rifle, 160;
steel-barreled muskets, 160, 162.
Whitney Arms Co.: 160-161;
first Colt revolvers made by, 167.
Whitworth, Joseph: 7, 8, 9, 93; Chapter IX;
screw-thread practice, 10, 59, 101, 102 note 105;
manufacture of plane surfaces, 44, 45, 98-101;
with Maudslay, 46, 98;
shaper and improvements in machine tools, 99;
improved methods of measurement, 101;
ordnance and armor, 104-105;
on American automatic machinery, 102-104;
William Armstrong, 105.
Wilcox & Gibbs Sewing Machines: 208, 210, 213.
Wilkinson, Abraham: 119.
Wilkinson, Daniel: 119, 122.
Wilkinson, David: 123, 124, 125;
patent on slide-rest, 6;
steamboat, 119;
slide lathe, 119-120;
textile machinery, 122;
nail manufacture, 122.
Wilkinson, Isaac: 119, 125.
Wilkinson, John: 2, 8, 11, 15;
boring machine, 3, 10, 11, 12, 13, 60;
first iron boat, 14;
first iron bridge, 15;
relations with Boulton & Watt, 12, 13.
Wilkinson, Ozeal: 118-119, 121, 122.
Wilkinson, William: 119, 121.
Willimantic Linen Co.: 175, 178.
Willis, Robert: 69 note 64;
gear teeth, 63, 64, 69-70.
Wilmot, S. R.:
micrometer, 212.
Winchendon, Mass.:
woodworking machinery, 230.
Winchester Repeating Arms Co.: 160, 174.
Windsor, Vt.: 127, 186.
Windsor Machine Co.:
Gridley automatic lathes, 194, 200.
Windsor Manufacturing Co.: 193.
Wolcott, Oliver: 132.
Wolcottville Brass Co.: 233-234.
Wood, Light & Co.: 222.
Woodruff & Beach: 165.
Woodward & Powell Planer Co.: 224.
Woodworking machinery:
Bramah, 18, 19, 24;
Bentham, 24, 25;
Brunel, 31;
in Massachusetts, 229.
Worcester, Mass.: 127;
tool builders in, 219-226;
early textile shops of, 220;
gun makers in, 226.
Worm-geared tilting pouring-ladle, Nasmyth’s: 91-92.
Worsley, S. L.:
automatic screw machine, 208.
Wright, Sylvester: 200, 228.
Yale & Towne Manufacturing Co.: 258.
 Transcriber’s Notes

Inconsistencies in spelling, hyphenation, etc. have

been retained, in particular in quoted material.
Minie rifles and Minié rifles both occur in the text.
Depending in the hard- and software used to read
this text and their settings, not all elements may
display as intended.
Page 20, Group portrait Eminent Men of Science:
there are 50 people in the portrait, but only 48 are
identified in the accompanying list.
Page 217, ... he and his brother, Ziba Gay, ...: also
referred to as Zeba Gay in this text.
Page 223, Figure 45: The source document does
not show any links to or from the entry A. F.
Prentice.
Page 235, F. J. Kingsbery, Sr. and F. J. Kingsbury,
Jr.: as printed in the source document; either one
may be an error or misprint.
Index: sorting errors have not been rectified.
Changes made
Footnotes, illustrations and charts have been moved
out of text paragraphs; footnotes have been
renumbered consecutively throughout the book
(and footnote references have been adjusted
where necessary).
Some obvious minor typographical and punctuation
errors have been corrected silently.
Text in
dashed boxes
 have been transcribed from the accompanying
charts, and give a (very) approximate indication of
the relative positions of chart elements.
List of names after page 20: Patrick Millar changed
to Patrick Miller.
Index: the inconsistent lay-out has been
standardised; some entries (mainly proper names)
have been changed to conform to the spelling
used in the text.