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American Government
and Politics Today
2018–2019 Brief Edition

Steffen W. Schmidt
Iowa State University

Mack C. Shelley II
Iowa State University

Barbara A. Bardes
University of Cincinnati

Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

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American Government and Politics © 2019, 2017 Cengage Learning, Inc.
Today, 2018–2019 Brief Edition
Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage
Steffen W. Schmidt, Mack C.
­Shelley II, Barbara A. Bardes
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Printed in the United States of America


Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2017

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Contents in Brief

PART I: THE AMERICAN SYSTEM


Chapter 1 The Democratic Republic 1
Chapter 2 Forging a New Government: The Constitution 21
Chapter 3 Federalism 44
Chapter 4 Civil Liberties 66
Chapter 5 Civil Rights 92

PART II: THE Politics of American Democracy


Chapter 6 Public Opinion, Political Socialization, and the Media 118
Chapter 7 Interest Groups and Political Parties 146
Chapter 8 Campaigns and Elections 174

PART III: INSTITUTIONS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT


Chapter 9 Congress 199
Chapter 10 The President 225
Chapter 11 The Executive Branch 250
Chapter 12 The Courts 271

PART iv: Policymaking


Chapter 13 Domestic and Economic Policy 296
Chapter 14 Foreign Policy 320

Appendix A The Declaration of Independence 345


Appendix B The Constitution of the United States 347
Appendix C Federalist Papers No. 10 and No. 51 367
Appendix D Government Spending and Revenue Charts 375

Glossary 377
Index 389
iii

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Contents

PART I: THE AMERICAN SYSTEM

Chapter 1 The Democratic Republic 1


Politics and Government 2
Why Is Government Necessary? 2
Limiting Government Power 2
Authority and Legitimacy 3
Democracy and Other Forms of Government 4
Types of Government 4
Direct Democracy as a Model 4

Justin Sullivan/Getty Images


The Dangers of Direct Democracy 5
A Democratic Republic 5
What Kind of Democracy Do We Have? 6
Democracy for Everyone 7
Democracy for the Few 7
Democracy for Groups 8
Fundamental Values 8
Liberty versus Order 8
Liberty versus Equality 9
The Proper Size of Government 11
At issue: Does Entitlement Spending Corrupt Us? 13

Political Ideologies 13
Conservatism 14
Liberalism 15
The Traditional Political Spectrum 15
Problems with the Traditional Political Spectrum 16
A Four-Cornered Ideological Grid 16
making a difference: Seeing Democracy in Action 18
Key Terms • Chapter Summary • Test Yourself
iv

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Contents v

Chapter 2 Forging a New Government: The Constitution 21


The Colonial Background 22
Separatists, the Mayflower, and the Compact 22
More Colonies, More Government 23
at issue: Is America a Christian Nation? 24
British Restrictions and Colonial Grievances 24
The First Continental Congress 25

Nikreates/Alamy Stock Photo


The Second Continental Congress 25
An Independent Confederation 26
The Resolution for Independence 26
July 4, 1776—The Declaration of Independence 26
The Rise of Republicanism 28
The Articles of Confederation: Our First Form of Government 28
The Constitutional Convention 30
Factions among the Delegates 31
Politicking and Compromises 31
Working toward Final Agreement 33
The Final Document 35
The Difficult Road to Ratification 36
The Federalists Push for Ratification 36
The March to the Finish 37
The Bill of Rights 37
Altering the Constitution 38
The Formal Amendment Process 38
Informal Methods of Constitutional Change 39
making a difference: How Can You Affect the
U.S. Constitution? 41
Key Terms • Chapter Summary • Test Yourself

Chapter 3 Federalism 44
Federalism and Its Alternatives 45
A Unitary System 45
A Confederal System 45
A Federal System 46
Why Federalism? 46

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vi Contents

At issue: Should Recreational Marijuana Be Legal? 48


Arguments against Federalism 48
The Constitutional Basis for American Federalism 49
Powers of the National Government 49
Powers of the State Governments 50

ZUMA Press Inc / Alamy Stock Photo


At issue: Should We Let Uber and Lyft Pick Up Passengers? 51
Prohibited Powers 51
Concurrent Powers 52
The Supremacy Clause 52
Interstate Relations 53
Defining Constitutional Powers—The Early Years 53
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) 53
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) 54
States’ Rights and the Resort to Civil War 55
The Continuing Dispute over the Division of Power 56
Dual Federalism 56
The New Deal and Cooperative Federalism 57
The Politics of Federalism 58
Methods of Implementing Cooperative Federalism 58
Federalism and Today’s Supreme Court 61
A Trend toward States’ Rights? 61
Recent Decisions 61
making a difference: Writing E-mails and Letters to the Editor 63
Key Terms • Chapter Summary • Test Yourself

Chapter 4 Civil Liberties 66


The Constitutional Bases of Our Liberties 67
Protections Listed in the Original Constitution 67
Extending the Bill of Rights to State Governments 68
Incorporation under the Fourteenth Amendment 68
Freedom of Religion 69
Anadolu Agency/Getty Images

The Separation of Church and State—The


Establishment Clause 69
The Free Exercise Clause 72
Freedom of Expression 73
No Prior Restraint 73

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Contents vii

The Protection of Symbolic Speech 73


The Protection of Commercial Speech 74
Attempts to Ban Subversive or Advocacy Speech 74
The Eclipse of Obscenity as a Legal Category 75
Unprotected Speech: Slander 76
Student Speech 77
Freedom of the Press 78
The Right to Privacy 79
Privacy Rights and Abortion 79
Privacy Rights and the “Right to Die” 82
The Great Balancing Act: The Rights of the Accused versus the Rights of Society 83

At issue: Do Police Use Excessive Force against Black Men? 84


Rights of the Accused 84
Extending the Rights of the Accused 85
The Exclusionary Rule 86
Civil Liberties versus Security Issues 86
Subsequent Revelations of NSA Activity 87
making a difference: Your Civil Liberties: Searches and Seizures 89
Key Terms • Chapter Summary • Test Yourself

Chapter 5 Civil Rights 92


The African American Experience and the Civil Rights Movement 93
Ending Servitude 93
The Ineffectiveness of the Early Civil Rights Laws 94

Charlotte Observer/Tribune News Service/Getty Images


The End of the Separate-but-Equal Doctrine 96
De Jure and De Facto Segregation 96
The Civil Rights Movement 97
Modern Civil Rights Legislation 97
Civil Rights and the Courts 101
Standards for Judicial Review 101
The Supreme Court Addresses Affirmative Action 102
Experiences of Other Minority Groups 104
Latinos and the Immigration Issue 104
National Security and the Rights of Immigrants 106
At issue: Should We Deport Unauthorized Immigrants? 107
The Agony of the American Indian 107

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viii Contents

Women’s Struggle for Equal Rights 108


Early Women’s Political Movements 108
The Modern Women’s Movement 109
Women in Politics Today 110
Gender-Based Discrimination in the Workplace 111
The Rights and Status of Gay Males and Lesbians 112
Growth in the Gay Male and Lesbian Rights Movement 112
State and Local Laws Targeting Gay Men and Lesbians 112
“Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” 113
Same-Sex Marriage 113
The Rights of Transgender Individuals 114
making a difference: Dealing with Discrimination 115
Key Terms • Chapter Summary • Test Yourself

PART II: THE Politics of American Democracy

Chapter 6 Public Opinion, Political Socialization, and the Media 118


Public Opinion and Political Socialization 119
Consensus and Divided Opinion 119
Forming Public Opinion: Political Socialization 120

Chip Somodevilla/Getty Images News/Getty Images


The Media and Public Opinion 121
Political Events and Public Opinion 122
The Influence of Demographic Factors 123
Educational Achievement 123
Economic Status 123
Religious Denomination 123
Religious Commitment and Beliefs 125
Race and Ethnicity 125
The Hispanic Vote 126
The Gender Gap 126
Geographic Region 127
Measuring Public Opinion 127
The History of Opinion Polls 127
Sampling Techniques 127
The Difficulty of Obtaining Accurate Results 128
Additional Problems with Polls 129

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Contents ix

Public Opinion and the Political Process 131


Political Culture and Public Opinion 131
Policymaking and Public Opinion 131
The Media in the United States 132
The Roles of the Media 132
Television versus the New Media 135
Challenges Facing the Media 136
The Media and Political Campaigns 137
Political Advertising 138
Management of News Coverage 138
Going for the Knockout Punch—Presidential Debates 139
Political Campaigns and the Internet 140
Blogosphere Politics 140
Bias in the Media 141
making a difference: Being a Critical Consumer of the News 143
Key Terms • Chapter Summary • Test Yourself

Chapter 7 Interest Groups and Political Parties 146


A Nation of Joiners 147
Thousands of Groups 147
Interest Groups and Social Movements 148
Reasons to Join—or Not Join 148
Types of Interest Groups 148

Pacific Press/LightRocket/Getty Images


Economic Interest Groups 149
Environmental Interest Groups 151
Public-Interest Groups 152
Additional Types of Interest Groups 152
Interest Group Strategies 153
Direct Techniques 153
Indirect Techniques 155
Regulating Lobbyists 155
Political Parties in the United States 157
Functions of Political Parties in the United States 157
The Party Organization 158
The Party-in-the-Electorate 159
The Party-in-Government 160

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
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x Contents

A History of Political Parties in the United States 160


The Formative Years: Federalists and Anti-Federalists 161
Democrats and Whigs 162
The Civil War Crisis 162
The Post–Civil War Period 162
The Progressive Interlude 163
The New Deal Era 163
An Era of Divided Government 164
The Parties Today 164
Why Has the Two-Party System Endured? 165
The Historical Foundations of the Two-Party System 166
Political Socialization and Practical Considerations 166
The Winner-Take-All Electoral System 167
State and Federal Laws Favoring the Two Parties 167
The Role of Minor Parties in U.S. Politics 168
The Rise of the Independents 170
making a difference: You Can Be a Convention Delegate 171
Key Terms • Chapter Summary • Test Yourself

Chapter 8 Campaigns and Elections 174


The Twenty-First-Century Campaign 175
Who Is Eligible? 175
Who Runs? 175

Chip Somodevilla/Getty Images News/Getty Images


Managing the Campaign 176
Financing the Campaign 178
The Evolution of the Campaign Finance System 178
The Current Campaign Finance Environment 180
At issue: Can Money Buy Elections? 182

Running for President: The Longest Campaign 183


Reforming the Presidential Primaries 184
The Invisible Primary 184
Primaries and Caucuses 185
Front-Loading the Primaries 186
On to the National Convention 187
The Electoral College 188

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Contents xi

How Are Elections Conducted? 189


Voting by Mail 189
Voting Fraud and Voter ID Laws 189
Turning Out to Vote 191
Legal Restrictions on Voting 192
Is the Franchise Still Too Restrictive? 193
How Do Voters Decide? 194
Party Identification 194
Other Political Factors 194
Demographic Characteristics 195
making a difference: Registering and Voting 196
Key Terms • Chapter Summary • Test Yourself

PART III: INSTITUTIONS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT

Chapter 9 Congress 199


The Nature and Functions of Congress 200
Bicameralism 200
The Lawmaking Function 201
The Representation Function 201
Service to Constituents 202
The Oversight Function 202
The Public-Education Function 203

Zach Gibson/Getty Images


The Conflict-Resolution Function 203
The Powers of Congress 203
House-Senate Differences and Congressional Perks 204
Size and Rules 204
Debate and Filibustering 205
at issue: Is It Time to Get Rid of the Filibuster? 206
Congresspersons and the Citizenry: A Comparison 207
Perks and Privileges 207

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xii Contents

Congressional Elections and Apportionment 208


Candidates for Congressional Elections 208
Apportionment of the House 209
Gerrymandering 209
“Minority-Majority” Districts 211
How Congress Is Organized 212
The Power of Committees 213
Types of Congressional Committees 213
The Selection of Committee Members 215
Leadership in the House 215
Leadership in the Senate 217
Lawmaking and Budgeting 218
How Much Will the Government Spend? 218
Preparing the Budget 220
Congress Faces the Budget 221
Budget Resolutions and Crises 221
making a difference: Learning About Your Representatives 222
Key Terms • Chapter Summary • Test Yourself

Chapter 10 The President 225


Who Can Become President? 226
Birthplace and Age 226
The Process of Becoming President 226
The Many Roles of the President 227
Head of State 227
At issue: Should We Elect the President by Popular Vote? 228
JStone/Shutterstock.com
Chief Executive 229
Commander in Chief 230
At issue: Should President Trump Send U.S. Ground Forces to Syria? 231
Chief Diplomat 231
Chief Legislator 233
Party Chief and Politician 235
Presidential Powers 236
Emergency Powers 237
Executive Orders 238

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Contents xiii

Executive Privilege 238


Signing Statements 239
Abuses of Executive Power and Impeachment 239
The Executive Organization 240
The Cabinet 240
The Executive Office of the President 241
The Vice President 244
The Vice President’s Job 244
Presidential Succession 245
Making a difference: Communicating with the White House 247
Key Terms • Chapter Summary • Test Yourself

Chapter 11 The Executive Branch 250


The Nature and Scope of the Federal Bureaucracy 251
Public and Private Bureaucracies 251
The Size of the Bureaucracy 251
The Federal Budget 252
The Organization of the Executive Branch 253
Cabinet Departments 253

US Food and Drug Administration


At issue: Should We Simplify the Income Tax System? 254
Independent Executive Agencies 254
Independent Regulatory Agencies 255
Government and Government-Controlled Corporations 258
Staffing the Bureaucracy 259
Political Appointees 259
History of the Federal Civil Service 260
Modern Attempts at Bureaucratic Reform 262
Sunshine Laws before and after 9/11 262
Privatization, or Contracting Out 263
The Issue of Whistleblowers 263
Bureaucrats as Politicians and Policymakers 265
The Rulemaking Environment 265
Negotiated Rulemaking 266
Bureaucrats as Policymakers 266
Congressional Control of the Bureaucracy 267

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xiv Contents

making a difference: What the Government Knows about You 268


Key Terms • Chapter Summary • Test Yourself

Chapter 12 The Courts 271


Sources of American Law 272
The Common Law Tradition 272
Constitutions 273
Statutes and Administrative Regulations 273
Case Law 273
The Federal Court System 273

Rena Schild/Shutterstock.com
Basic Judicial Requirements 274
Parties to Lawsuits 274
Procedural Rules 274
Types of Federal Courts 275
Federal Courts and the War on Terrorism 277
The Supreme Court at Work 279
Which Cases Reach the Supreme Court? 280
Court Procedures 280
Decisions and Opinions 281
The Selection of Federal Judges 282
Judicial Appointments 282
At issue: Should State Judges Be Elected? 283
Partisanship and Judicial Appointments 284
The Senate’s Role 285
Policymaking and the Courts 286
Judicial Review 286
Judicial Activism and Judicial Restraint 287
The Roberts Court 288
What Checks Our Courts? 289
making a difference: Changing the Legal System 292
Key Terms • Chapter Summary • Test Yourself

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Contents xv

PART iv: Policymaking

Chapter 13 Domestic and Economic Policy 296


At issue: Should States Raise the Minimum Wage? 297

The Policymaking Process: Health Care as an Example 298


Health Care: Agenda Building 298
Health Care: Policy Formulation 300
Health Care: Policy Adoption 300
Health Care: Policy Implementation 301
Health Care: Policy Evaluation 302

Bloomberg/Getty Images
Immigration 303
The Issue of Unauthorized Immigration 304
The Immigration Debate 304
Energy and the Environment 306
Energy Independence—A Strategic Issue 306
Climate Change 307
The Politics of Economic Decision Making 308
Good Times, Bad Times 309
Fiscal Policy 310
The Public Debt and Deficit Spending 311
Monetary Policy 313
The Politics of Taxation 315
Federal Income Tax Rates 315
Income Tax Loopholes and Other Types of Taxes 316
making a difference: Learning about Entitlement Reform 317
Key Terms • Chapter Summary • Test Yourself

Chapter 14 Foreign Policy 320


Facing the World: Foreign and Defense Policies 321
Aspects of Foreign Policy 321
Idealism versus Realism in Foreign Policy 321

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xvi Contents

Terrorism and Warfare 323


The Emergence of Terrorism 323

Pool/ABACA/Newscom/Abaca Press/TAORMINA/Italy
Wars in Iraq 324
Afghanistan 325
The Civil War in Syria and the Rise of ISIS 326
U.S. Diplomatic Efforts 327
Nuclear Weapons 327
Israel and the Palestinians 329
The New Power: China 330
Economic Troubles in Europe 331
Who Makes Foreign Policy? 333
Constitutional Powers of the President 333
The Executive Branch and Foreign Policymaking 334
Congress Balances the Presidency 335
The Major Foreign Policy Themes 336
The Formative Years: Avoiding Entanglements 336
The Era of Internationalism 337
Superpower Relations 338
at issue: How Dangerous Is Putin’s Russia? 340

making a difference: Working for Human Rights 341


Key Terms • Chapter Summary • Test Yourself

Appendix A The Declaration of Independence 345


Appendix B The Constitution of the United States 347
Appendix C Federalist Papers No. 10 and No. 51 367
Appendix D Government Spending and Revenue Charts 375

Glossary 377
Index 389
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Preface

I
n November 2016, Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump triumphed over
Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton. The Republicans also maintained control of the
U.S. Senate and House of Representatives, although they did suffer minor losses. Trump
certainly has one of the most unusual backgrounds ever for a president, with no experi-
ence in elected or appointed public office. One consequence of his victory has been an
explosion of interest in political news. Online news sites, including that of the New York
Times, have experienced large increases in viewership. The same goes for cable news net-
works such as Fox News and MSNBC. For many people, American politics and government
have never been more interesting.
Trump won the presidency by carrying the vote in the electoral college, even though
Clinton’s popular vote was more than 2 percentage points greater than his. Many have won-
dered how a candidate could become president while losing the popular vote, and that is
one of many things that students will learn in this text. Now more than ever, it is important
to understand America’s complex and fascinating political system.
One thing was and continues to be certain: American politics today will never be with-
out tension, drama, and conflict. Throughout this Brief Edition of American Government
and Politics Today, you will read about how our government has responded to past issues
and how it is responding to current conflicts.
This edition is basically a condensed and updated version of the larger editions of
American Government and Politics Today. It has been created specifically for those of you
who want a text that presents the fundamental components of the American political sys-
tem while retaining the quality and readability of the larger editions. You will find that this
edition is up to date in every respect. The text, figures, tables, and all pedagogical features
reflect the latest available data. We have also included coverage of all recently issued laws,
regulations, and court decisions that have—or will have—a significant impact on American
society and our political system.
Like the larger editions, this volume places a major emphasis on political participation
and involvement. This brief, fourteen-chapter text has been heralded by reviewers as the
best essentials text for its affordability, conciseness, clarity, and readability.

New to This Edition


Of course, every chapter has been thoroughly revised and updated. But there is more.
Now in Full Color Throughout
A major objective of the Brief Edition has always been to provide students with an afford-
able textbook. To that end, previous editions have been limited to using a single color for
contrast in most of the text. With this edition, however, we have been able—for the first
time—to produce a text in full color and still keep it affordable. The use of color not only
makes the chapters more attractive, but it also adds to the impact of the various charts and
graphs that appear throughout.
xvii

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xviii Preface

Major Topical Updates


By far the most important change in American politics and government since the last Brief
Edition has been the rise of Donald Trump. We give ample space to Trump’s populist cam-
paign and his use of the media, including Twitter. In Chapter 1 The Democratic Republic
and Chapter 6 Public Opinion, Political Socialization, and the Media, we describe Trump’s
supporters and the problems facing the white working class. We describe the alleged scan-
dals faced both by Trump and by Democratic presidential candidate Hillary Clinton, in par-
ticular concerning questions about Russian involvement in the 2016 elections. Chapter 11
The Executive Branch explains Trump’s firing of FBI director James Comey. Other major
new topics include:
•• In Chapter 3 Federalism, the limits on what the national government can do to
coerce the states.
•• In Chapter 4 Civil Liberties, political correctness and government surveillance.
•• In Chapter 5 Civil Rights, how black men are treated by the police. We also have a
major new section on transgender individuals.
•• In Chapter 7 Interest Groups and Political Parties, the growth in party polarization
and the changing bases of the major parties.
•• In Chapter 8 Campaigns and Elections, the limits of the “invisible primary,” the
role of superdelegates, and restrictions on the right to vote.
•• In Chapter 9 Congress, the House Freedom Caucus and the conflict around replac-
ing the late Supreme Court justice Antonin Scalia.
•• Chapter 11 The Executive Branch, has been more appropriately renamed The
Executive Branch. We focus on whistleblowers and those who leak national secu-
rity information.
•• Chapter 13 Domestic and Economic Policy describes the Republican struggle to
replace the Affordable Care Act.
•• Finally, Chapter 14 Foreign Policy highlights Trump’s transactional foreign policy
and trade issues with China and Europe.

Key to High Student Interest—


Topical Debate-Style Features
Every At Issue feature focuses on a controversial topic and concludes with a For Critical
Analysis question to invite critical thinking. Most of these features are new:
•• Chapter 1: Does Entitlement Spending Corrupt Us?
•• Chapter 2: Is America a Christian Nation?
•• Chapter 3: Should Recreational Marijuana Be Legal?
•• Chapter 3: Should We Let Uber and Lyft Pick Up Passengers?
•• Chapter 4: Do Police Use Excessive Force against Black Men?

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Preface xix

•• Chapter 5: Should We Deport Unauthorized Immigrants?


•• Chapter 8: Can Money Buy Elections?
•• Chapter 9: Is It Time to Get Rid of the Filibuster?
•• Chapter 10: Should We Elect the President by Popular Vote?
•• Chapter 10: Should President Trump Send U.S. Ground Forces to Syria?
•• Chapter 11: Should We Simplify the Income Tax System?
•• Chapter 12: Should State Judges Be Elected?
•• Chapter 13: Should States Raise the Minimum Wage?
•• Chapter 14: How Dangerous Is Putin’s Russia?

Making a Difference Features


At the end of every chapter, a feature entitled Making a Difference enhances our empha-
sis on student participation. These features provide newly updated, useful information for
active citizenship. We offer tips on how to find information on issues, how to learn about
your elected representatives, how to join and participate in advocacy organizations, how to
protect your civil rights and liberties, and more.

Other Special Pedagogical Aids


The 2018–2019 Brief Edition of American Government and Politics Today retains many of
the pedagogical aids and features of the larger editions, including the following:
•• Learning Outcomes—A section-by-section focus on crucial questions that stu-
dents should learn to address.
•• Key Terms—Important terms that are boldfaced and defined in the text when they
are first used. These terms are defined in the text margins, listed at the end of the
chapter with the page numbers on which they appear, and included in the Glossary
at the back of the book.
•• InterAct—A mini-feature that directs students to selected websites and encour-
ages them to take one or more actions when they get there.
•• Chapter Summary—A point-by-point summary of the chapter text.
•• Test Yourself—A quiz and an essay question at the very end of each chapter.

Appendices
The Brief Edition of American Government and Politics Today includes, as appendices, both
the Declaration of Independence (Appendix A) and the U.S. Constitution (Appendix B).
The text of the Constitution has been annotated to help you understand the meaning and
significance of the various provisions in this important document. Appendix C presents
Federalist Papers No. 10 and No. 51. These selections are also annotated to help you grasp
their importance in understanding the American philosophy of government. Appendix D
contains pie charts that explain the expenditures and revenues of the federal government.

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xx Preface

MindTap
MindTap is here to simplify your workload as an instructor, organize and immediately grade
your students’ assignments, and allow you to customize your course as you see fit. Through
deep-seated integration with your Learning Management System (LMS), grades are easily
exported and analytics are pulled with just the click of a button. MindTap provides you
with a platform to easily add current events videos and RSS feeds from national or local
news sources. Looking to incorporate more recent and late-breaking news into the course?
Utilize our KnowNow American Government Blog for weekly updated news coverage and
pedagogy.

Instructor Supplements
The Instructor Companion Website (ISBN: 9781337559782) is an all-in-one multimedia
online resource for class preparation, presentation, and testing. Accessible through Cengage
.com/login with your faculty account, you will find the following available for download:
•• Book-specific Microsoft® Powerpoint® slides of lecture outlines, as well as pho-
tos, figures, and tables from the text. These presentations make it easy for you to
assemble lectures for your course.
•• Cognero Test Bank (ISBN: 9781337559775): Multiple-choice and essay ques-
tions, along with their answers and text references, that are compatible with mul-
tiple Learning Management Systems.
•• An Instructor’s Manual that includes learning outcomes, chapter outlines, discus-
sion questions, class activities and project suggestions, tips on integrating media
into your class, suggested readings and Web resources, and a section specially
designed to help teaching assistants and adjunct professors.

Acknowledgments
In preparing American Government and Politics Today: 2018–2019 Brief Edition, we were
the beneficiaries of the expert guidance of a skilled and dedicated team of publishers and
editors. We have benefited greatly from the supervision and encouragement provided by
our project manager, Bradley Potthoff.
We are grateful to our content project manager, Martha Conway, for her ability to make
this project as smooth-running and as perfect as is humanly possible. We are indebted to the
staff at SPi Global. Their ability to generate the pages for this text quickly and accurately
made it possible for us to meet our ambitious printing schedule. We also thank Katy Gabel,
our content developer, for her work on the book’s revision plan and project coordination.
In addition, our gratitude goes to all those who worked on the various supplements offered
with this text. We would also like to thank Valerie Hartman, marketing manager, for her
tremendous efforts in marketing the book.
Many other people helped during the research and editorial stages of this edition.
Gregory Scott coordinated the authors’ efforts and provided editorial and research assis-
tance. Sue Bradley’s copyediting abilities contributed greatly to the book. We also thank
Roxie Lee for her assistance, and Sue Jasin of K&M Consulting for her contributions to
the smooth running of the project. Finally, we are grateful for the proofreading services
provided by Kristi Wiswell.

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Preface xxi

We are also very thankful for the constructive comments and advice provided by our
colleagues and peers, especially those whose thoughtful insights helped us shape this new
edition:
Paul Blakelock, Lone Star College–Kingwood
Justin Deplato, Florida State College at Jacksonville
David Goldberg, College of DuPage
Tonya Gray, Central Carolina Community College
Robert L. Hall, Jr., Florida State College at Jacksonville
La Della Levy, College of Southern Nevada, Charleston
Charlotte Meador, Lone Star College–Kingwood
Don Mirjanian, College of Southern Nevada, Charleston
Azubike Kalu-Nwiwu, Erie Community College
Gwyn Sutherland, Elizabethtown Community and Technical College
Any errors, of course, remain our own. We welcome comments from instructors and
students alike. Suggestions that we received on previous editions have helped us to improve
this text and to adapt it to the changing needs of instructors and students.

S.W.S.
M.C.S.
B.A.B.

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About the Authors

Steffen W. Schmidt
Steffen W. Schmidt is a professor of political science at Iowa State
University. He grew up in Colombia, South America, and has studied
in Colombia, Switzerland, the United States, and France. He has a
B.A. from Rollins College and obtained his Ph.D. from Columbia
University, in public law and government.
Dr. Schmidt has published 14 books and more than 130 articles
in scholarly journals and major newspapers.
He is the recipient of numerous prestigious teaching prizes,
including the Amoco Award for Lifetime Career Achievement in Teaching and the Teacher
of the Year award.
Schmidt is a pioneer in the use of web-based and real-time video courses and is a
founding member of the American Political Science Association’s section on Computers
and Multimedia.
He is known as “Dr. Politics” for his extensive commentary on U.S. politics and cyber
threats in U.S. and international media. He comments on CNN en Español, Fox, Telemundo,
Univision, and public radio, as well as CTV (Canada Cable TV) and the BBC. He has been
quoted in every major news source in the world including The Economist, the New York
Times, the Washington Times, Kyodo News of Japan, Agence France-Presse, Latin American
news media, and others. He is the guest of two weekly radio shows on KASI Clear Channel
and on Concord, New Hampshire, radio with Deborah “Arnie” Arnesen.
Dr. Schmidt is a founding member of the Department of Defense U.S. Strategic
­Command Academic Alliance, which focuses on cybersecurity policy.
He is on Facebook (SteffenWSchmidt) and Twitter (DrPolitics).

Mack C. Shelley II
Mack C. Shelley II is professor of political science and statistics at
Iowa State University. After receiving his bachelor’s degree from
American University in Washington, D.C., he completed graduate
studies at the University of Wisconsin at Madison, where he received
a master’s degree in economics and a Ph.D. in political science. He
taught for two years at Mississippi State University before arriving at
Iowa State in 1979.
Shelley has published numerous articles, books, and monographs
on public policy. From 1993 to 2002, he served as elected coeditor of the Policy Studies
Journal. His published books include The Permanent Majority: The Conservative Coalition
in the United States Congress; Biotechnology and the Research Enterprise (with William
F. Woodman and Brian J. Reichel); American Public Policy: The Contemporary Agenda
(with Steven G. Koven and Bert E. Swanson); Redefining Family Policy: Implications for
xxii

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About the Authors xxiii

the 21st Century (with Joyce M. Mercier and Steven Garasky); and Quality Research in
Literacy and Science Education: International Perspectives and Gold Standards (with Larry
Yore and Brian Hand).
His leisure time includes traveling, working with students, and playing with the family
dog and cats.

BARBARA A. BARDES
Barbara A. Bardes is professor emerita of political science and for-
mer dean of Raymond Walters College at the University of Cincin-
nati. She received her B.A. and M.A. from Kent State University.
After completing her Ph.D. at the University of Cincinnati, she held
faculty positions at Mississippi State University and Loyola Univer-
sity in Chicago. She returned to Cincinnati, her hometown, as a col-
lege administrator. She has also worked as a political consultant and
directed polling for a research center.
Bardes has written articles on public opinion and foreign policy, and on women and
politics. She has authored Thinking about Public Policy; Declarations of Independence:
Women and Political Power in Nineteenth-Century American Fiction; and Public Opinion:
Measuring the American Mind (with Robert W. Oldendick).
Bardes’s home is located in a very small hamlet in Kentucky called Rabbit Hash,
famous for its 150-year-old general store. Her hobbies include traveling, gardening, needle-
work, and antique collecting.

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1
Justin Sullivan/Getty Images

The Democratic Republic

People celebrating at a campaign rally in Brooklyn, N.Y., in 2016. What do people mean when they wave the U.S. flag?

The five Learning Outcomes (LOs) below are designed to help improve your understanding of this chapter. After reading this
chapter, you should be able to:
LO1 Define the terms politics, government, order, liberty, LO4 Summarize the conflicts that can occur between the
authority, and legitimacy. values of liberty and order, and between those of liberty and
LO2 Distinguish the major features of direct democracy equality.
and representative democracy. LO5 Discuss conservatism, liberalism, and other popular
LO3 Describe majoritarianism, elite theory, and pluralism American ideological positions.
as theories of how democratic systems work. Check your understanding of the material with the Test
­Yourself section at the end of the chapter.

P
olitics, for many people, is the “great game,” and it is played for high stakes. After
all, the game involves vast sums and the very security of the nation. In the last few
years, the stakes have grown higher still. In 2016, American voters picked Republican
Donald Trump to be the next president of the United States. Trump’s political values
and personal background were unprecedented among major-party presidential candidates.
True, Democrat Hillary Clinton won more votes than Trump, but as we explain throughout
this text, Americans choose their president through the electoral college, not the popular
vote. Trump’s electoral vote margin was decisive. While the Democrats picked up a few
seats in Congress, Republicans still controlled both the U.S. House and Senate. A new era of
conservative governance appeared certain, to the delight of some and the dismay of others.
1
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2 Part one | THE AMERICAN SYSTEM

Politics and Government


LO1: Define the terms politics, government, order, liberty, authority, and legitimacy.

What is politics? Politics can be understood as the process of resolving conflicts and decid-
ing, as political scientist Harold Lasswell put it in his classic definition, “who gets what,
when, and how.”1 More specifically, politics is the struggle over power or influence within
organizations or informal groups that can grant or withold benefits or privileges.
We can identify many such groups and organizations. In every community that makes
decisions through formal or informal rules, politics exists. For example, when a church
decides to construct a new building or hire a new minister, the decision is made politically.
Politics can be found in schools, social groups, and any other organized collection of indi-
viduals. Of all the organizations that are controlled by political activity, however, the most
important is the government.
What is the government? Certainly, it is an institution—that is, an ongoing organization
that performs certain functions for society. An institution has a life separate from the lives
of the individuals who are part of it at any given moment in time. The government can be
defined as an institution within which decisions are made that resolve conflicts and allocate
benefits and privileges. The government is also the preeminent institution within society
because it has the ultimate authority for making these decisions.

Why Is Government Necessary?


Perhaps the best way to assess the need for government is to examine circumstances in
which government, as we normally understand it, does not exist. What happens when mul-
tiple groups compete violently with one another for power within a society? There are
places around the world where such circumstances exist. A current example is the Middle
Politics Eastern nation of Syria, run by the dictator Bashar al-Assad. In 2011, peaceful protesters
The struggle over power were killed, which led to an armed rebellion. The government lost control of much of the
or influence within country, and its forces repeatedly massacred civilians in contested areas. Some rebels, such
organizations or informal
groups that can grant as the so-called Islamic State (ISIS), were extreme Islamists. Others were more moderate.
or withhold benefits or By 2013, rebels were fighting each other as well as the government. In much of Syria, law
privileges. and order had broken down completely. By 2017, almost 500,000 people had been killed,
Institution and about half of the country’s people had been driven from their homes.
An ongoing organization As the example of Syria shows, one of the foundational purposes of government is the
that performs certain
functions for society. maintenance of security, or order. By keeping the peace, a government protects its people
from violence at the hands of private or foreign armies and criminals. If order is not present,
Government
The preeminent it is not possible for the government to provide any of the other benefits that people expect
institution within a from it. Order is a political value to which we will return later in this chapter.
society. Government has
the ultimate authority
to decide how conflicts Limiting Government Power
will be resolved and how A complete collapse of order and security, as seen in Syria, actually is an uncommon event.
benefits and privileges
will be allocated. Much more common is the reverse—too much government control. In January 2017, the
human rights organization Freedom House judged that forty-nine of the world’s countries
Order
A state of peace and were “not free.” These nations contained 36 percent of the world’s population. Such coun-
security. Maintaining tries may be controlled by individual kings or dictators. Saudi Arabia’s king, Salman bin
order by protecting Abdulaziz Al Saud, and North Korea’s Kim Jong-un are obvious examples. Alternatively,
members of society from
violence and criminal
activity is the oldest 1. Harold Lasswell, Politics: Who Gets What, When, and How (Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith Publisher,
purpose of government. 1990). Originally published in 1936.

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Chapter one | The Democratic Republic 3

a political party, such as the Communist


Party of China, may monopolize all the lev-
els of power. The military may rule, as in
Thailand since 2014.
In all of these examples, the individual
or group running the country cannot be
removed by legal means. Freedom of speech
and the right to a fair trial are typically
absent. Dictatorial governments often torture
or execute their opponents. Such regimes
may also suppress freedom of religion. Revo-
lution, whether violent or nonviolent, is often
the only way to change the government.

TAUSEEF MUSTAFA/Getty Images


In short, protection from the violence
of domestic criminals or foreign armies is
not enough. Citizens also need protection
from abuses of power by their own govern-
ment. To protect the liberties of the people,
it is necessary to limit the powers of the
­government. Liberty—the greatest freedom of
the individual consistent with the freedom of U.S. soldiers in Mosul, Iraq. They are assisting Iraqi forces in a
other ­individuals—is a second major politi- campaign to clear ISIS forces from the city. ISIS terrorists have
become famous for their brutality. What might inspire them to act
cal value, along with order. We discuss this in this way?
value in more detail later in this chapter.

Authority and Legitimacy


Every government must have authority—that is, the right and power to enforce its deci-
sions. Ultimately, the government’s authority rests on its control of the armed forces and
the police. Few people in the United States, however, base their day-to-day activities on
fear of the government’s enforcement powers. Most people, most of the time, obey the law
because this is what they have always done. Also, if they did not obey the law, they would
face the disapproval of friends and family. Consider an example: Do you avoid injuring your
friends or stealing their possessions because you are afraid of the police—or because if you
undertook these actions, you no longer would have friends?
Under normal circumstances, the government’s authority has broad popular sup-
port. People accept the government’s right to establish rules and laws. When authority is
broadly accepted, we say that it has legitimacy. Authority without legitimacy is a recipe Liberty
The greatest freedom
for trouble. of the individual that
Events in several Arab nations since 2011 can serve as an example. The dictators who is consistent with
ruled Egypt, Libya, and Tunisia had been in power for decades. All three dictators had the freedom of other
individuals in the society.
some popular support when they first gained power. None of these nations had a tradition of
democracy, and so it was possible for undemocratic rulers to enjoy a degree of legitimacy. Authority
The right and power of a
After years of oppressive behavior, these regimes slowly lost that legitimacy. The rulers sur- government or other entity
vived only because they were willing to employ violence against any opposition. In Egypt to enforce its decisions
and Tunisia, the end came when soldiers refused to use force against massive demonstra- and compel obedience.
tions. Having lost all legitimacy, the rulers of these two countries then lost their authority Legitimacy
as well. In Libya, the downfall and death of the dictator Muammar Gaddafi came only after Popular acceptance of
the right and power of a
a seven-month civil war. (As it happens, Egypt’s shaky new democracy collapsed in 2013 government or other entity
when the army seized power.) to exercise authority.

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4 Part one | THE AMERICAN SYSTEM

Democracy and Other Forms of Government


LO2: Distinguish the major features of direct democracy and representative democracy.

The different types of government can be classified according to which person or group of
people controls society through the government.

Types of Government
At one extreme is a society governed by a totalitarian regime. In such a political system,
Totalitarian Regime
A form of government that a small group of leaders or a single individual—a dictator—makes all decisions for the
controls all aspects of ­society. Every aspect of political, social, and economic life is controlled by the government.
the political, social, and The power of the ruler is total (thus, the term totalitarianism). Examples of such regimes
economic life of a nation.
include Germany under Adolf Hitler and the former Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin.
Authoritarianism A second type of system is authoritarian government. Authoritarianism differs from
A type of regime in which
only the government itself totalitarianism in that only the government itself is fully controlled by the ruler. Social and
is fully controlled by the economic institutions, such as churches, businesses, and labor unions, exist that are not
ruler. Social and economic
institutions exist that
under the government’s control.
are not under the Many of our terms for describing the distribution of political power are derived from
government’s control. the ancient Greeks, who were the first Western people to study politics systematically. One
Democracy form of rule was known as aristocracy, literally meaning “rule by the best.” In practice,
A system of government this meant rule by wealthy members of ancient families. Another term from the Greeks is
in which political authority
is vested in the people.
theocracy, which literally means “rule by God” (or the gods). In practice, theocracy means
rule by self-appointed religious leaders. Iran is a rare example of a country in which supreme
Direct Democracy
A system of government
power is in the hands of a religious leader, the Grand Ayatollah Ali Khamenei. One of the
in which political most straightforward Greek terms is oligarchy, which simply means “rule by a few.”
decisions are made by The Greek term for rule by the people was democracy. Within the limits of their culture,
the people directly, rather
than by their elected some of the Greek city-states operated as democracies. Today, in much of the world, the
representatives. people will not grant legitimacy to a government unless it is based on democracy.
Legislature
A governmental body
Direct Democracy as a Model
primarily responsible for The Athenian system of government in ancient Greece is usually considered the purest
the making of laws.
model for direct democracy because the citizens of that community debated and voted
Initiative directly on all laws, even those put forward by the ruling council of the city. The most
A procedure by which
voters can petition
important feature of Athenian democracy was that the legislature was composed of all of
to vote on a law the citizens. (Women, resident foreigners, and slaves, however, were excluded because they
or a constitutional were not citizens.) This form of government required a high level of participation from
amendment.
every citizen. That participation was seen as benefiting the individual and the city-state. The
Referendum Athenians believed that although a high level of participation might lead to instability in
An electoral device
whereby legislative
­government, citizens, if informed about the issues, could be trusted to make wise decisions.
or constitutional Direct democracy also has been practiced at the local level in S ­ witzerland and, in
measures are referred the United States, in New England town ­meetings. At these town meetings, important
by the legislature to the
voters for approval or decisions—­such as levying taxes, ­hiring city officials, and ­deciding local ordinances—are
disapproval. made by ­majority vote. (In recent years, ­however, ­turnout for such ­meetings has declined.)
Recall Some states p­ rovide a modern adaptation of direct d­ emocracy for their citizens. In these
A procedure allowing the states, representative democracy is supplemented by the initiative or the referendum. Both
people to vote to dismiss processes enable the people to vote directly on laws or constitutional amendments. The
an elected official from
office before his or her recall process, which is available in many states, allows the people to vote to remove an
term has expired. official from state office before his or her term has expired.

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risposte alle commedie giacobine. Roma, Ancona, Livorno ebbero
effigie divote che giravano gli occhi: alla Madonna del Conforto di
Arezzo tanto crebbe la venerazione, che colle offerte le si alzò
magnifica cappella: in via del Ciliegio a Firenze alcuni gigli selvatici,
esposti avanti una Immacolata, fiorirono, ed il fenomeno naturale
eccitò meraviglia e concorso e grazie e disordini; preludj di molto più
fieri. Nello Stato Pontifizio sobbollivano Terni, Civitavecchia, Orvieto:
in tutti i punti la guerra civile era fomentata dalle pessime nuove che
a giornata venivano d’ogni dove.
Napoli della brevissima repubblica Partenopea poco ebbe a lodarsi.
Persone di senno e di bontà l’aveano servita di cuore; nella giunta
legislativa sedettero Mario Pagano, Galanti, Signorelli, nomi
conosciuti, e per omaggio al defunto Filangieri un suo fratello; nel
direttorio l’Abamonti e il Delfico: Francesco Caracciolo brigadiere di
marina, disgustato del re, al quale serviva da trent’anni, perchè gli
mostrò diffidenza col togliere dalla nave di lui una somma depostavi,
passò nella marina repubblicana. Col nome di padri e madri dei
poveri, signori e dame andavano distribuendo denari e lavoro agli
artieri scioperi: il medico Cirillo, uno dei pochissimi che nelle
rivoluzioni mirano al pubblico bene, suggerì una cassa di soccorso,
nella quale versò quanto avea guadagnato nel lungo esercizio. Mario
Pagano, da vecchio e da storico, ripeteva non dovessero
ripromettersi pace e godimenti, ma a consolidar la repubblica volersi
tributi, armi e virtù, e che del proprio senno ciascuno ajutasse i
reggitori della patria: ma la moltitudine ascolta piuttosto a chi la
assonna di facili trionfi e beatitudini; poi quando le mancano, si
chiama tradita, e ribrama il prisco stato.
Ma la libertà era cosa insolita, insolitissima l’eguaglianza in paese
monarchico, di tenace feudalità, di fanatica ignoranza, e che la
presente condizione non avea conquistato a fatica e sangue, ma
riceveva in dono. Il sospetto era morbo inoculato dalla precedente
dominazione; i perseguitati voleano vendicar le ingiurie sofferte con
recarne di nuove; i giovani le idee di moda sorbivano
coll’esagerazione che non tollera freno; e per imitazione di Francia
urlavasi contro il tiranno, contro il papa, contro il culto, contro
l’aristocrazia; nelle sale patriotica e popolare formolavansi accuse
contro a privati e a pubblici, e diluviavansi parole e ineffettibili
proposizioni. Al popolo che chiedeva pane, si predicavano i beni
della repubblica, s’insegnavano i diritti dell’uomo e i destini d’Italia; i
nomi di santi imposti nel battesimo, e principalmente di Ferdinando,
si cambiano nei classici di Cassio e Armodio, o di Masaniello; e
cantar Partenope e il Sebeto, e recitar le tragedie d’Alfieri, di mezzo
alle quali talvolta uno sorgeva in pien teatro, e presone a testo
qualche verso, metteasi a sbraitare contro il dispotismo.
Acclamata la costituzione francese, si sciolsero i fedecommessi, le
giurisdizioni baronali, i servigi di corpo, le decime, le caccie riservate,
i titoli di nobiltà; con integrità si corressero gli abusi delle banche,
annichilando moltissima carta, e la gabella sul pesce, sulle farine,
sulle teste. Tutto bene, ma i modi precipitosi guastavano; l’abolire le
tasse senza nulla surrogarvi, scompigliò le finanze; se non bastava
che col distruggere le feudalità tutt’a un colpo si fossero suscitate
inestricabili liti coi Comuni, si beffavano e ingiuriavano con iscritti e
con atti i baroni come i preti. Il ministero della guerra avea
proclamato che «chiunque avesse servito il tiranno, nulla sperasse
da un Governo repubblicano»: onde tutto l’esercito antico e il
satellizio dei baroni (milizia già addestrata che sarebbesi potuto
utilizzare per la patria) si ridussero paltoni o masnadieri, ribramanti il
governo antico. Quindi scombussolamento e mali umori; chiunque
non sedeva in posti screditava chi vi sedesse; chiunque trovava un
freno di legge, urlava alla tirannide. I democratizzatori erano odiati
nelle provincie, ove piantavano alberi di libertà e toglieano denari. I
ventiquattro del Governo, da un lato pareano tirannici, perchè
moderavano le trascendenze dei circoli politici, peste d’ogni libertà;
dall’altro fiacchi, perchè nelle benevole fantasie non voleano
persuadersi degli abominj della ciurma qualora sormonta.
I Borboni erano fuggiti per pusillanimità, ancora integri di forza e di
tesoro, e lasciando moltissimi fedeli, ai quali aggruppavansi man
mano i malcontenti. Fidando in una vicina riscossa, i baroni, avversi
al nuovo Stato e non lo temendo, cingeansi de’ loro vecchi armigeri
e de’ soldati regj congedati, e alla spicciolata combattevasi,
assassinavasi, si rinnovavano fatti esecrandi. Pronío e Rodío
capibanda non cessavano di molestare i Francesi negli Abruzzi: in
Calabria uno Sciarpa, in Terra di Lavoro Michele Pezza, famoso col
nome di frà Diavolo, altri altrove, piacevansi degli assassini, onestati
dal titolo politico: il Mammone mugnajo ornava il suo desco con teste
appena recise, beveva sangue, e se non n’avesse d’altrui, il proprio;
quattrocento fe trucidare, anche traendoli di carcere: e a cosiffatti il
re dava il titolo d’amici e generali [46]. Tali cose sono asserite dal
Coco, ma dopochè il brigantaggio infierì quest’ultimi anni contro il
nuovo regno d’Italia, l’esagerazione con cui ne sono narrate le
imprese e le atrocità dalle due parti opposte obbliga a dedurre assai
da quanto fu asserito allora. Nulla più credulo che i tempi di
rivoluzione.
Altrettanto si esagerò intorno a Fabrizio Ruffo. Questo napoletano fu
assessore di governo a Roma, poi tesoriere abilissimo; avea tolti
molti abusi feudali, assicurato le rendite, stabilito un premio a chi
piantasse ulivi, e passava per riformatore; e poichè gl’interveniva,
come in tutti i tentativi, di fare e disfare, Pasquino il dipinse con
nell’una mano ordine, nell’altra contrordine, in fronte disordine.
Caduto di grazia, ricoverò a Napoli, ove il re lo pose intendente di
Caserta e San Leucio, ma sì poco profittò de’ suoi posti che, quando
fu fatto cardinale, per sostenere le spese dovette ipotecare i beni
della prelatura. Allora rivide Roma, e cooperò a sostenere il coraggio
di Pio VI, poi accompagnò i reali di Napoli nella loro fuga in Sicilia,
donde tornato in Calabria, vi sistemò l’insurrezione e la guerra di
bande in nome della santa fede; e al suo esercito parea dovessero
unirsi moltissimi di Sicilia, dove i baroni, benchè non obbligati a
servire fuori dell’isola, offersero di reclutare a proprie spese novemila
soldati.
Intanto legni inglesi e siculi, capitanati da Nelson, sommoveano le
coste, presero Ischia e Procida, minacciavano Toscana e Romagna,
interrompeano le comunicazioni fra Egitto e Francia, e catturavano
navi e persone: la flotta turco-russa, dopo ritolta Corfù ai Francesi,
accennava all’Italia. Della rapida conquista di Championnet non
restavano ornai che Napoli e il circondario (1799); sicchè il Governo
repubblicano dovette uscire dalla quiete, in cui lo teneano la
confidenza del bene e il desiderio di non infamarsi con crudeltà, e
cominciò rigorose repressioni. Andria fu distrutta orribilmente; Trani
col sacco e il fuoco punita dell’ostinatissima resistenza; e così
Sorrento e moltissime terre di Bari e di Calabria, senza per questo
sopire la rivolta. Macdonald mette fuori proclami ferocissimi; prelati e
preti sconterebbero colla vita le insurrezioni de’ luoghi ove
dimoravano e sarebbero uccisi appena côlti coi sollevati; autorità al
Governo d’arrestare i sospetti; ricompensa e silenzio a chi
denunziasse un migrato francese o depositi d’arme; morte a chi
toccasse a stormo le campane, o spargesse false notizie. Ettore
Caraffa conte di Ruvo, maggiordomo del re eppure mescolato nelle
congiure, imprigionato, fuggito, stimolatore e compagno di
Championnet nella spedizione, ora scontento che s’intepidisse
l’ardore repubblicano, faceva ad arbitrio leve e tolte che
invelenivano.
Stretto dal bisogno di riparare la Francia minacciata, il Direttorio di
Parigi (1799 maggio) comandò a Macdonald accorresse nell’alta
Italia per congiungersi a Moreau che scendea dalla Bocchetta di
Genova; ed egli partì di Napoli, lasciando deboli guarnigioni a
Capua, a Gaeta e in castel Sant’Elmo. Trovava la Toscana con
insolito furore levata alle grida di — Viva Ferdinando, viva il papa», e
dovette arrestarsi davanti Arezzo e Cortona che osarono resistergli.
Questo rubogli un tempo d’inestimabile valore per unirsi a Moreau, e
concedette agio a Suwaroff d’interporsi grosso fra loro nel piano di
Piacenza. Tre giorni di fiera battaglia (17-19 giugno) contaminarono
la Trebbia con quindicimila cadaveri; Macdonald indietreggia, e
difilatosi sopra Genova, vassene in Francia, con lode di grande ma
sfortunato valore; e Suwaroff pianta i suoi accampamenti in modo da
impedire che fossero soccorse Tortona ed Alessandria assediate.
Ormai nelle sole fortezze trovavasi ridotta la possa francese. Il
Direttorio rinnovatosi, volendo dare prova di sè con atti robusti,
impone cento milioni sui ricchi, arma grossi eserciti, dirizza alla volta
di Genova Joubert a capo di quarantamila infervorati: ma Kray e
Suwaroff riunitisi, lo pettoreggiano e costringono a rifuggire tra
l’Appennino; e poco poi resta ucciso a Novi in una battaglia che
costò ventisettemila vite (15 agosto). Anche Moreau sottentratogli è
messo in rotta: Championnet, sceso per Cuneo sul Piemonte, dopo
breve prosperità, trova sconfitta e morte (7bre). Gli Austriaci
espugnano faticosamente Tortona; ma Alessandria, Mantova,
Serravalle, Cuneo, altre fortezze capitolano con tal rapidità che i
comandanti sono accusati di corruzione o di tepore.
Sogliono gli Italiani chiedere la loro liberazione dai Francesi: ricevuta
che l’abbiano, maledirli. Quando Macdonald la abbandonò, alla
repubblica Partenopea parve d’avere acquistata l’indipendenza, e
fece gavazze ed eccessi fino a proporre di tor d’impiego chiunque vi
fosse stato posto da’ Francesi; e intanto frati predicare la repubblica
in nome del vangelo, filosofi in nome di Rousseau; tutti
assicurandola immortale, e già aveva il rantolo della morte. Il potere
fu accentralo in Gabriele Manthoné, chiassoso repubblicano, che
ravvivò gli ordini dei più fieri comitati di Francia, e con denari levati o
donati soldò i veterani e li spedì a combattere gl’insorgenti, sistemò
la guardia nazionale e una Legione Calabra, che proclamava —
Vogliamo sangue, vogliam morte: darla o riceverla ci è tutt’uno,
purchè la patria sia libera e noi vendicati».
Pensate che orrori ne dovessero seguire: intanto che le parti
straziavano le viscere, e gl’insorgenti sbucavano d’ogni calle, d’ogni
bosco, e superando l’opposizione, assalsero la mal guarnita Napoli.
Si volle, come sempre, difendere la capitale, mentre l’abbandonarla
e difilarsi in colonna verso Capua o ai monti, avrebbe risparmiato ai
Realisti tanti assassinj. Ruffo v’entrò di viva forza, secondato dai
lazzaroni, con ferocie quali poteano attendersi da disperati contro
disperati. Le finte notizie sono sempre l’arsenale dei settarj. Come
dianzi erasi sparso che Ruffo si fosse da sè creato papa, così allora
si diè intendere ai lazzaroni che i repubblicani avessero tramato di
scannarli tutti, e i loro fanciulli educare senza religione; ond’essi a
buttarsi su quelli ferinamente, e spogliare maschi e femmine per
punirli della chioma raccorcia o per trovarvi gl’impressi simboli
repubblicani e massonici, flagellarli, straziarli a membro a membro,
arderli vivi. Guai alla casa che uno ne ricoverasse! il che rendeva
inospiti molti, altri vili sino a denunziare il figliuolo o il fratello. Dopo
due giorni il cardinale riuscì a sospendere la carnificina, e si diresse
ad espugnare i castelli Nuovo, dell’Ovo e Sant’Elmo, dov’erano
ricoverati i patrioti di miglior conto.
Di là poteano questi recare immensi guasti alla città; aveano seco
ostaggi e parenti del Ruffo, e modo di resistere finchè di Francia
venissero soccorsi; laonde dal cardinale ottennero una buona
capitolazione, libertà di partire sulle navi chi volesse, o di restare
inoffesi, e promessa di sciogliere i prigioni e gli ostaggi. A tali patti
ebbe esso i castelli, pubblicò generale perdonanza, e i repubblicani
già erano imbarcati: quand’ecco dalla regina Carolina giunge una
protesta [47], e voler morire piuttosto che patteggiare con sudditi
ribelli; spedisce Emma Leona, che coi baci compra sangue da
Nelson, il quale cassa la capitolazione (14 giugno) perchè fatta
senza di lui ammiraglio, ottantaquattro cittadini fa incatenare, e dal
francese Mejean, lasciato da Macdonald a comandare, riceve castel
Sant’Elmo cogli ostaggi e coi patrioti in esso ricoverati.
Ruffo (dicasi a sgravio di questo prete che pure si dipinge senza
costume e senza fede, dicasi a obbrobrio del Nelson) mai non aderì
alla turpe violazione; e dichiarò che, se l’armistizio fosse rotto, non
s’attendessero verun soccorso da sua parte. Non gli si badò, e alle
infamate antenne britanniche si vide appiccato il vecchio ammiraglio
Caracciolo. L’esempio incita a crudeltà i mal repressi popolani; la
plebe scanna, ruba, abbrustolisce, mangia, si mangia i patrioti: il
coltello degli assassini gareggia colla mannaja.
Il re giungeva di Sicilia (30 giugno) come in paese conquistato,
perdonava ai lazzaroni saccheggiatori fin della reggia, aboliva i seggi
e i privilegi della città, del regno, dei nobili, e dichiara ribellione
ogn’atto commesso durante la sua fuga, e ottomila sono imprigionati
nella sola capitale per avere parlato, scritto, combattuto, per avere
avuto un nemico che li denunziasse. Spie, torture, presunzioni erano
le procedure della giunta, la quale mandò a morte i generali
Manthonè e Massa, Vincenzo Russo, Nicola Fiano, Francesco
Conforti che avea sostenuto le ragioni regie contro Roma e allevato i
migliori giovani d’allora, Nicolò Fiorentino dotto matematico e
giureconsulto, Marcello Scotti autore del Catechismo nautico e della
Monarchia papale, il conte Ruvo, il medico Cirillo, Mario Pagano,
una Sanfelice [48], ed Eleonora Pimentel, poetessa cara a Metastasio
e famosa parlatrice repubblicana.
Questi nomi immortalò il martirio con quello dell’inquisitore loro
Vincenzo Speciale, che insultava le vittime e i loro congiunti,
seduceva a confessare, alterava perfino i processi. Pasquale Baffa,
grand’erudito, ricusò dell’oppio, non credendo lecito il suicidio
neppure negli estremi: era già condannato, e Speciale assicurava la
moglie di lui non andrebbe che in esiglio. Invece Velasco,
all’intimazione dello Speciale che lo manderebbe a morte, — Non
tu» rispose, e precipitossi dal balcone. Cirillo interrogato da lui di che
professione fosse sotto il re, — Medico»; e nella repubblica, —
Rappresentante del popolo»; ed ora? — Ora in faccia a te sono un
eroe», e ricusò chiedere grazia dal re e da Nelson che aveva curati.
Vitaliani continuò a sonare la ghitarra, e uscendo al patibolo diceva
al carceriere: — Ti sieno raccomandati i miei compagni, son uomini;
e tu pure, un giorno potresti essere infelice». Manthonè alle
interrogazioni non dava altra risposta se non: — Ho capitolato».
Furono da cento gli uccisi di nome, nobili, letterati, guerrieri, due
vescovi, giovinetti di venti e di sedici anni [49]; molti altri andarono
sepolti nella fossa della Favignana (Ægusa); infiniti a minori pene. Si
omisero come troppo frequenti i rintocchi dell’agonia per giustiziati;
visitatori scovavano per le provincie «i nemici del trono e dell’altare»,
e due di quelli bastavano per togliere la libertà e i beni. Se si
consideri che fra quelle vittime era il fior della nazione, non si troverà
esagerato chi scrisse avere ella per quel colpo retroceduto di due
secoli. Domenico Cimarosa, cigno della musica, per avere puntato
un inno repubblicano ebbe la casa devastata, prigionia qual soleasi
allora, e per quattro mesi l’aspettazione della morte, finchè i Russi
essendo arrivati a Napoli, e chiestane invano la liberazione, ruppero
il carcere, e lasciarono andare a Venezia a morire sbattuto e
dimenticato.
Poi venivano le ricompense. Al cardinal Ruffo lautissime dal re, da
Paolo di Russia decorazioni; titoli e ricchezze agli altri, fossero pure
masnadieri e scampaforche; e più di tutti a Nelson e alla sua
bagascia, e il titolo di duca di Bronte infamò il vincitore d’Abukir. A
bastonate si svezzarono i lazzari dalla ruba e dal sangue; e il
Governo ripristinato, ravviando le consuetudini prische, avrebbe
potuto riuscire forte e farsi ancora benedire, se non fosse stato
ossesso dal demone della riazione. Il re, che mai non era sceso di
nave, tornò a Palermo festeggiato come trionfante di nemici; Canova
ebbe incarico di eternarlo in marmo sotto le sembianze di Minerva; e
l’astronomo Piazzi nominò da lui il pianeta Cerere, scoperto il primo
di quell’anno. Sol quando il risorgere della fortuna francese
insinuava idee più miti, e le favoriva il principe del Cassero vicerè,
Ferdinando bandì l’indulto (1800 30 maggio), pel quale settemila
uscirono di prigione: ma tante erano le riserve che ve ne restarono
mille, tre migliaja erano fuggiaschi, quattromila in esiglio [50].
L’esercito, rifatto coll’aggregarvi furfanti (1799), si era unito colle
bande di Rodío, di frà Diavolo e simili per avviarsi verso Roma a
ripristinare il papa. Garnier, che ne comandava lo scarso presidio, li
respinse: ma Tedeschi, Russi e Inglesi strinsero Roma così, che i
Francesi uscirono patteggiati e assicurando l’amnistia. Allora i
Napoletani entrati (30 7bre) strapazzano il busto di Bruto, svelgono
gli alberi della libertà, e ogni memoria e resto dell’esecrata
repubblica; espulsi, banditi, catturati i patrioti e tutti i forestieri; posto
un tribunale, che non mandò nessuno al supplizio, molti nelle
carceri, molti abbandonò agli insulti e all’assassinio. Intanto si
costituiva un Governo non papale ma napoletano, s’incamerano i
beni de’ fuggiaschi, si lanciano tasse fin sulle clericali immunità.
Altrettanto baldanzeggiava nelle Marche il generale Frölich, che le
teneva a nome dell’Austria.
Quattro mesi di dominazione francese aveano della Toscana
scassinate l’economia, la moralità, ogni subordinazione, e
procacciatole universale disamore. Perciò, appena si ode il
prosperare de’ coalizzati, grandi dimostrazioni prorompono nel
Lucchese; ma l’intempestiva levata costa a molti la vita. Il Reinhard
pubblicava: — Gli abitanti della campagna traviati, con petulante
insolenza provocano i Francesi; con preti alla testa insultano i colori
nazionali; vili istigatori dal fondo de’ nascondigli incitano alla rivolta e
appellano i barbari del Nord... Voi che abbattete gli alberi della
libertà, dovevate nel giorno in cui furono piantati esclamare,
Vogliamo rimanere schiavi; la ragione non è fatta per noi; ci
dichiariamo indegni d’esercitare i diritti dell’uomo».
Il granduca Leopoldo bonificando val di Chiana, avea ridotto fertili le
circostanze d’Arezzo, e abolito le gravose eccezioni, onde quella
città gliene professava una riconoscenza, che aumentata col
confronto, indusse il maggio popolo a insorgere (maggio) gridando
— Viva Maria, viva l’imperatore, abbasso l’albero». Cacciata la
debole guarnigione, assaliti i patrioti, rialzati gli stemmi ducali, le
donne incorano alla sommossa; la campagna asseconda, Cortona
vien dietro, invano le autorità civili ed ecclesiastiche gettando parole
di moderazione; appajono un valore e un furore qual mai nessuno
aspettava dai miti Toscani, i quali si muniscono di tutte le arti della
guerra paesana; intanto accoltellano i sospetti d’avversa parzialità, o
qualche Francese che da solo si avventurasse.
In questo sopraggiungeva Macdonald da Napoli, come dicemmo, e
trovandosi chiuse in faccia le porte, e munite di risoluti le ciclopiche
mura, proclamò se tardavano ventiquattr’ore a sottomettersi,
avrebbe passato per le armi gli abitanti, rase le città ribelli. Alcuna si
sottomise, altre gli costarono sangue e, che più gl’importava, tempo:
poi appena egli sfilò verso la Trebbia, gli Aretini raddoppiano di
baldanza, e distendono la controrivoluzione, sorretta da un
Windham, già ministro di Inghilterra presso Ferdinando III, e da
Alessandra Mari sua ganza. A tutti i Toscani proclamavano essi: —
Abbiamo scosso il ferreo giogo della servitù, dispersa la straniera
forza che ne gravava il collo; nel nome del Dio delle vittorie veniamo
a ridonarvi la politica e civile libertà rapita. Coraggio, Toscani,
all’armi... L’angelo sterminatore che combatte per noi, perseguita i
vostri oppressori». La ciurma accorsa da ogni parte trasmoda; Siena
è presa dagl’insorgenti, bruciati tredici ebrei, altre persone trucidate;
ai perseguitati dai Francesi sostituivansi nelle carceri i perseguitati
dai riazionarj. Sorte gare di primazia fra le due città, Siena offre alla
Madonna del Conforto una pace d’oro, stupendo dono di Pio II, e gli
Aretini in ricambio ne riconoscono le prerogative.
Dopo la sconfitta della Trebbia, le truppe francesi sono costrette
ritirarsi da Firenze, dove non essendosi provveduto alla pubblica
sicurezza, la moltitudine alza il capo, a fatica dall’arcivescovo e dai
prudenti rattenuta da eccidj e saccheggi. Il senato fiorentino
ristabilito manda a sollecitare i Tedeschi; ma ecco gli Aretini
soprarrivano ne’ più bizzarri arredi, con coccarde d’ogni colore e
croci ed armi e cupe risoluzioni, e cominciano a violentare i patrioti.
La Mari trionfa fra il Windham e un frate; un consesso inquisitorio,
assistito dal celebre giurista Cremani, su trentaduemila processati,
ventiduemila condanna per reati politici: le fortezze di Portoferrajo,
Volterra, Livorno, Prato, Pistoja riboccano di carcerati; molti sono
esposti alla gogna, moltissimi profughi, sostenuti l’antico vescovo
Ricci, il vescovo di Massa, il preposto Fossi bibliotecario della
Magliabechiana, diciotto cavalieri di san Stefano, il cavaliere
Fontana ordinatore del museo di fisica: chiuse le Università, destituiti
i professori. È superfluo parlare dei disordini economici.
L’arrivo del tedesco D’Aspre sospende le persecuzioni; i comandanti
stranieri rimasti padroni, riescono a sottoporre al senato il Governo
provvisorio d’Arezzo; poi l’armata austro-russa-aretina s’accinge a
invadere la Romagna, e prende Perugia e le altre città fino a Roma.
Tutta Toscana allora acclama il granduca Ferdinando; ed egli, che, al
primo venire de’ Francesi, aveva imposto come segno di lealtà di
riceverli con benevolenza, istituì una giunta onde premiare quelli che
aveano dato «il grand’esempio» dell’insorgere contro di essi, «e
adoperato valore o prudenza a far nascere, fomentare o animare la
sollevazione contro i nemici» [51]. Vittorio Alfieri, che aveva
declamato tutta sua vita contro i re, poi bestemmiata la rivoluzione
francese, e fremuto a quest’alzarsi degli avvocati e dei villani rifatti,
fu visto fra la turba applaudire agli insorgenti, poi scriveva: — Io ho
passato i centodue giorni della tirannide francese di Firenze
sempremai in villa, e non ho mai messo i piedi una sola volta nella
città fin al dì 6 luglio, che fu il giorno della purificazione. Adesso sono
ancora in villa, ma vo qualche volta a Firenze, e massime
ogniqualvolta ci arriva dei soldati tedeschi, per vedere il trasporto, il
giubilo, l’espansione di cuore del pubblico intero per i suoi liberatori,
benchè gli Aretini han fatto essi il più. La Toscana è presentemente
tutta evacuata, e il sole vi ritorna a risplendere» [52].
Ai Repubblicani non restavano più che Genova ed Ancona. Questa
fu assalita dalla flotta turco-russa, e per terra da Austriaci e
Romagnoli, guidati da Lahoz, il quale dalla Cisalpina era passato agli
Austriaci, o com’egli diceva all’Italia, ingannato prima dal nome di
libertà, ora da quello d’indipendenza, ed ivi perì. Pino e Monnier
difesero quella fortezza, che poi capitolò onorevolmente (1799 6
luglio), ma fu saccheggiata da Turchi e Russi. Genova offriva l’unico
passo verso Francia; laonde i Francesi la occuparono a malgrado
delle autorità paesane, e la posero in istato di difesa.
Francia diè ricovero ai tanti profughi d’Italia, i quali alle sventure
patrie anche allora non trovavano che le vulgari cagioni. — Il
tradimento e la perfidia soli han dato la vittoria al Barbaro; e chi più
efficacemente il favoriva, reggeva allora la Francia»: così
cominciavano un indirizzo ai rappresentanti; e a grida di piazza
insistevasi perchè il Direttorio dichiarasse l’unità d’Italia, altrimenti
dall’Europa sarebbe creduto complice di quei suoi agenti che aveano
compressa la libertà, posto in impieghi gli aristocratici, violentate le
assemblee primarie, perseguitato i più fervorosi, fomentato le
sollevazioni plebee. Poi venivano le incriminazioni fraterne, e quel
che pare un bisogno degl’infelici, il volgere il dente contro le proprie
carni. Chi avea tratto la Cisalpina in postribolo, godeva agi e onori;
ad altri soccorreva la carità de’ ricchi lombardi; il poeta e matematico
Mascheroni morì di stento; di stento visse il Monti, che metteva in
versi quelle accuse e quelle ire; e trovandosi negletti da un Governo
che di loro non abbisognava, i profughi ridestarono l’idea di
rigenerare da soli la patria, e il sentimento dell’unità italiana
rinvalidarono nella mescolanza de’ patimenti.
La Francia era a tal punto, da tremare della propria, non che poter
assicurare l’altrui libertà; vinta sui campi e minacciata d’invasione,
club di fanatici, indirizzi di eserciti pretendeano dettare leggi;
baldanzosamente intaccavasi il Governo, e il Governo che non
osava difendersi col terrore, suppliva con intrighi e colla polizia.
Luciano Buonaparte, uno dei direttori, fomentava i mali umori, e
diceva: — Non più ciancie si vogliono, ma una testa ed una spada».
Per verità la rivoluzione non tolse il despotismo, ma tramutollo dal re
nel popolo, che si arrogò le attribuzioni de’ privati, della famiglia, del
Comune, assorbendo l’uomo nel cittadino, la famiglia nello Stato. Ne
seguì l’anarchia; e poichè gli uomini han più paura di questa che
desiderio della libertà, credettero primo bisogno il reprimerla, ed
unico mezzo il despotismo. Ma chi potrebbe esercitarlo se non un
soldato? E tutti gli sguardi si dirigevano all’Egitto e al Buonaparte, di
cui la gloria traeva spicco dalle presenti sconfitte e dalla lontananza;
le scarse notizie, le accorte insinuazioni facevano credere a grandi
vittorie, magnificare i divisamenti del giovane generale, e guardarlo
come l’unico capace di opporsi all’Europa congiurata e al disordine
irruente.
Ma egli non avanzava fra i trionfi; e i quaranta secoli dall’alto delle
piramidi videro alcune vittorie, ma poi una serie di disastri e di
difficoltà, davanti alle quali fiaccavasi l’animo di lui, fatto pei colpi
subitanei più che per le lente combinazioni. Trovavasi dunque
disgustato della sua impresa, quando attraverso alle navi inglesi gli
trapelarono le notizie di Francia, e i voti e le orditure de’ suoi amici:
onde risolve tornarvi a tutto rischio; e disertando dall’esercito per
correre dietro alla fortuna (29 agosto), passa non visto di mezzo agli
esploranti inglesi, approda improvvisissimo a Frejus, e fra
l’entusiasmo e la curiosità vola a Parigi, salutato da tutti come
salvatore (9 8bre).
Fin là ben poco s’era sperimentata l’attitudine di Buonaparte al
governare; sapeasi però ch’egli era fortunato, e basta: faceva
mestieri d’un uomo, che desse unità a tanti impulsi, ed egli pareva il
caso; e tutto da lui aspettavano tutti, su tutto si cercava il suo avviso.
Egli sentendosi necessario, aveva l’arte di non spingersi che a
sentita: poi tutto concertato nel secreto, volge le armi contro le
toghe, e con un colpo ardito (9 9bre) disperde il corpo legislativo,
abbatte il Direttorio, e fa eleggere un Consolato che deve assettare
una nuova costituzione, capace di difendere la libertà dentro e
propagarla fuori. O stanchi o speranti, nessuno si oppose; il popolo
coprì d’applausi l’illegalità; le deportazioni suggellarono le bocche. —
Non più Giacobini, non Terroristi o Moderati, ma soli Francesi»,
diceva egli; e per verità quando il Governo non fu più arietato da
fazioni, non più fluttuò tra volontà irresolute, cessò il bisogno della
violenza perchè un solo robusto lo guidava, non a caso e passione,
ma per sistema.
La costituzione allora combinata (13 xbre) riduceva a mera ombra il
diritto elettorale e la rappresentanza; cento tribuni discuteano le
leggi, proposte dal consiglio di Stato; trecento legislatori le votavano
senza discussioni; ottanta senatori vegliavano all’integrità della
costituzione; tre consoli eseguivano. Buonaparte fu il primo di questi,
anzi restava il vero padrone, e secondava l’universale inclinazione a
restaurare il passato nel governo, ne’ costumi, nella religione. La
gente di veduta corta pensava ch’e’ volesse rimettere in trono i
Borboni: ma egli lavorava per sè, e si era accorto che al dominio non
poteano portarlo se non le bajonette. Occorrevagli dunque di
compire qualche splendida impresa: e qual campo migliore dell’Italia,
dove avea colto i primi allori? A questa pertanto volse la mira,
rialzando le speranze di quei tanti Italiani che dalla Francia
rimpiangeano la patria o in patria la libertà, e che soffrivano dalle
riazioni.
Le coalizioni, se pur durano fin a conseguire l’intento, poco tardano a
scomporsi. All’Inghilterra dava ombra lo stare Russi in Italia, i quali
poteano fissare un piede sul Mediterraneo, dov’essa aspira a
predominare. Più ne ingelosiva l’Austria, ed appena le ebbero
ricuperata la Lombardia, cercò rinviarli, e col pretesto d’una
spedizione in Olanda li trasferì in Isvizzera, benchè non pratici del
terreno, e nuovi alla guerra di montagna. Pel difficile Sangotardo,
ove si scolpì un masso Suwaroff Victori, costui cerca la valle del
Reuss (1799 25 7bre); da Lecourbe molestato al ponte del Diavolo,
sfila con gravi perdite per una gola angustissima; e subito svallato,
trovasi Massena alle spalle. Le balze tranquille risuonano di armi
omicide, dopo una battaglia di quindici giorni, dove ventimila Russi e
cinquemila Austriaci periscono, dell’esercito conquistatore non
rimangono che poche reliquie per giungere compassionevoli al
Reno; e Suwaroff ricusando di più combattere, torna a Pietroburgo a
lamentarsi dell’Austria come traditrice, nè altro che ingorda di
conquistare l’Italia e tenerla per sè.
Davvero essa parea raccogliere tutti i frutti degli altri disastri;
considerando scaduti il papa e il re di Sardegna, bramava serbarsi i
loro dominj come conquista sopra la repubblica francese [53]; e
inorgoglita, rifiutò la pace che le offerse il primo console (1800), e
ridomandava il Belgio. Anche l’Inghilterra ricusa patteggiare con
Francia; il ministro Pitt ottiene da quel Parlamento un credito di mille
milioni per guerreggiare un consolato, che nelle casse trovò appena
censessantamila franchi [54]; e la guerra del mondo è dichiarata.
Vasto era il sistema di campagna della seconda coalizione. In Italia
Austriaci e Inglesi doveano prendere Genova, marciare sopra Nizza
e di là nella Provenza, ove li seconderebbe l’insurrezione dei
Realisti; un secondo corpo solleverebbe il Piemonte; Melas si
spingerebbe nel Delfinato, e a rattizzare la guerra in Vandea, nella
Bretagna, nella Normandia; l’imperatore stesso e gli arciduchi si
metteano in campo; centrentamila uomini guidava Ferdinando,
ottantamila Bellegarde in Italia, l’arciduca Giovanni cenventimila;
mentre Carolina di Napoli andava a sollecitare il czar di Russia.
Di mezzo a tanto fracasso d’armi, Buonaparte davasi l’aria di volere
la pace, e gemea del vedersela negata; ma intanto s’accingeva a
nuovi trionfi. Comprendendo che il caso non richiedeva piccole e
solite manovre, raccolta a Digione una riserva di sessantamila
reclute, medita sbucare tutt’insieme per le valli del Sangotardo, del
grande e piccolo Sanbernardo e del Cenisio, e intercidere così la
linea del nemico, estesa dalla Lombardia sin lungo il Varo. Moncey,
staccato dall’esercito del Reno, per la prima via comincia le
operazioni; Thureau per l’ultima; pel piccolo Sanbernardo Chabran.
Secondo la Costituzione, il primo console non poteva avere il
comando delle armi; ma egli vi sorpassa, e solo per la forma fatto
nominare generale in capo Berthier (maggio), mena trentacinquemila
uomini pel gran Sanbernardo.
Generali abili nell’esecuzione, attenti ad ogni particolarità, solleciti
della disciplina e dell’esercizio, maestri ne’ metodi e nel meccanismo
della tattica, valentissimi in tutto ciò ch’è ordinario, mancano poi di
quell’inventiva che sa rompere il circolo delle idee, delle abitudini, de’
precetti, per ispegnersi là dove si trovano combinazioni nuove,
molteplici mezzi, insperati espedienti. Qui sta la differenza fra il
talento e il genio; indizio del quale è il persuadersi che si possa fare
cosa nuova. Delle Alpi in inverno sempre aveasi avuto spavento;
Buonaparte non vi credette, e trovò soda la neve, belle le giornate.
Avventurose quanto le sabbie d’Egitto erano le ghiacciaje dell’Alpi,
ed esalterebbero le giovani fantasie: e di fatto restò dalla poesia e
dalla pittura abbellito quel passaggio che sarebbe terribile sol
quando un pugno d’italiani vi difendesse l’indipendenza della patria.
Ma il nemico, ingannato dalla pubblicità che Buonaparte dava al suo
disegno e dall’enfasi con cui l’annunziava, lo credette un artifizio, e
non si argomentò a por riparo ad un’impresa, che altrimenti
sarebbesi condannata per temeraria [55].
In Italia i Francesi, ridotti a quarantamila uomini e penuriosi, erano
rincalzati verso le Alpi: e Massena nella Riviera di ponente senza
denaro nè munizioni, con pochi soldati, compiva atti eroici, finchè
entrò in Genova, riordinò l’esercito scompigliato per la morte di
Championnet, e vi si trovò ben presto assediato da Inglesi ed
Austriaci. Genova non era di veruna importanza all’Austria, la quale
non potea sperare di tenersela, e avrebbe dovuto comprendere che
le grandi battaglie si agiterebbero sul Po e in Lombardia; pure ella
ostinossi in un’impresa, che estendendo di troppo la fronte
dell’esercito comandato da Melas, lo indeboliva. Intanto essa lasciò
sguernita la Svizzera, e il francese esercito senza pur uno scontro
passò la montagna. Lannes, che comandava l’antiguardo, giunse a
Etroubles, il 19 maggio, il 21 Buonaparte, e per Aosta e Ivrea
scesero ne’ piani italici, tenendo la pendice meridionale dell’Alpi da
Susa fino a Bellinzona.
Melas aspettava ancora Buonaparte a Ventimiglia, quand’egli già,
preceduto dal cognato Murat, entrava in Milano (1800 2 giugno).
Senza persecuzioni la rimette in istato di popolo, nulla badando al
Direttorio Cisalpino che nei tredici mesi erasi sostenuto a Chambéry,
istituisce un comitato provvisorio di governo; ripristina l’Università di
Pavia con valentuomini; si rifocilla coi magazzini e colle artiglierie
abbandonate dal sorpreso Austriaco, che sarà battuto dall’armi sue
stesse. Murat correva a prendere Piacenza; e tagliato così in due
l’esercito nemico, i Francesi non esitano a lasciare sguarnita la
Lombardia per affrontarlo nelle pianure del Piemonte e costringerlo
ad allargare Genova.
L’esercito chiuso in questa città era destinato vittima a quella grande
spedizione, e vi sofferse martirj che onorerebbero una causa
santa [56]. Mancate le carni e i grani, mancata la cipria, s’incettò
l’orzo, il linseme, la veccia, il cacao e che che altro si potè, e
formavasene un tristissimo pane da munizione, mescolato con
zuccaro e miele; una fava fu pagata due soldi, un panetto diciotto
franchi; e dopo disputato le erbe e le radici ai ruminanti, frugavasi
nelle fogne se qualche resto di cibo si fosse sottratto all’avidità;
rodeansi le scarpe e i cuoj delle sacche; e soldati e popolo diventano
eroi nel cercar di che vivere con modi che a pena si crederebbero fra
popoli civili. Molti ogni giorno morivano di fame, o da sè aprivansi le
vuote viscere; l’abitudine toglieva il compassionarli, e l’impossibilità il
soccorrerli; e i gemiti di giorno e di notte, e i miserabili aspetti, e le
sorgiunte febbri pestilenziali facevano orribile la misera Genova.
Massena stette a parte di quei patimenti, i quali davano tempo alle
operazioni di Buonaparte, nè volea sentire di arresa, finchè il popolo
tumultuante, i soldati ridotti a ottomila ed estenuati, lo indussero non
ad una capitolazione, ma ad una convenzione, per cui tutto l’esercito
usciva colle armi, i rifuggiti restavano salvi, gli abitanti sarebbero
immediatamente provvisti di viveri.
Libero appena da quest’impaccio, Melas accorre per riaprirsi la
comunicazione con Vienna; e nella pianura di Marengo (1800 4
giugno), fra la Scrivia e la Bormida, affronta il nemico. L’esercito di
Buonaparte, che, non aspettandosi l’attacco, si trovava disseminato,
soccombeva un corpo dopo l’altro dinanzi ai veterani austriaci e alla
cavalleria ben atteggiantesi in quei piani; allorchè sopraggiunse
Dessaix con una colonna, reduce allor allora d’Egitto, e che
improvvidamente era stata mandata altrove: con quella che pare
ispirazione e non è che un calcolo fatto rapidamente, egli si dispone
in quadrato, come aveva appreso nel combattere i Mamelucchi,
compie una felice riscossa, pagandola colla propria vita, e
Buonaparte ne profitta per riportare compiuta vittoria [57].
La battaglia di Marengo costò quattromila vite ai Francesi, novemila
agli Austriaci. Questi dunque non erano annichilati: eppure li colse
tale costernazione, che quell’esercito di cenventimila uomini, che,
dopo rimesso il giogo all’Italia, doveva invadere la Francia
meridionale, levossi in totale sconfitta. Così ancora all’esperienza
prevale l’audacia, alla guerra metodica la spicciativa, alla dottrina
l’invenzione e il concentrar le forze e accelerar le marce. Melas,
irresoluto per natura e per gli ordini viennesi, cercò un armistizio, e in
cumulo cedette le fortezze, purchè le truppe avessero licenza di
ritirarsi a Mantova; fatto che eccitò l’indignazione, e crebbe il
prestigio napoleonico. Alessandria patteggia, i Francesi tornano in
Genova, l’Italia rientra sotto la devozione di Buonaparte, il quale non
inebriato dal trionfo, all’imperatore offre pace ai patti di
Campoformio, cioè che gli Austriaci sgombrino la penisola sino al
Mincio.
Ma Francesco II, nel tempo che negoziava di pace, accettò
sessantadue milioni di sussidj e l’alleanza dell’Inghilterra, e
disdicendo i preliminari, arrestò l’ambasciadore francese.
Buonaparte denunziandolo sleale, ripiglia le mosse e comincia la
campagna d’inverno (9bre). Augereau è sul Meno; Moreau sull’Inn;
sul Mincio Brune, generale mediocre, succeduto al prode ma
diffamato Massena nell’esercito italico; Murat guida verso l’Italia
diecimila granatieri; Macdonald staccatine quindicimila dall’esercito
vincitore di Moreau, traversa faticosamente la nevata Spluga, per
emulare il vantato passo del Sanbernardo, e sceso in Valtellina,
risale i Zapelli d’Aprica per calarsi nella val dell’Oglio, indi al Trentino
pel Tonale, per via inaspettatissima giungendo a formare l’ala
sinistra dell’esercito d’Italia; Moreau, vinto a Hohenlinden l’arciduca
Giovanni, avanzasi fino a Lintz sulla strada di Vienna, e agli
sgomentati arciduchi concede l’armistizio che dianzi avevano
ricusato (3 xbre), patto che a Luneville si tratti della pace senza
l’Inghilterra.
Anche in Italia Brune e Macdonald, vincitori a Mozambano, nè
lasciando all’Austria che Mantova, moveansi per isboccare dall’alpi
Noriche sopra Vienna (25-30 xbre), quando il maresciallo Bellegarde
che comandava gli Austriaci, udito l’armistizio di Germania, lo
patteggia anch’esso. Alessandro di Russia erasi già staccato dalla
coalizione; tutta Germania esclama (1801 gennajo) contro la
improvvida politica dell’imperatore, che è costretto sagrificare il
ministro Thugut e surrogare Cobentzel; il quale dopo lunghe
discussioni a Luneville con Giuseppe Buonaparte, conchiude la pace
(9 febbr.), dove, appellando al trattato di Campoformio, si
confermavano alla Francia il Belgio, all’Austria gli Stati veneziani.
Buonaparte, volendo ricuperare in America l’insorta isola di San
Domingo, erasi fatto cedere dalla Spagna la Luigiana, antico
possesso della Francia, in compenso promettendo crescere
all’infante di Parma gli Stati fino a un milione e ducentomila abitanti,
col titolo di re. A tale aumento fu destinata la Toscana, che verrebbe
custodita contro gl’Inglesi dalla flotta spagnuola, al granduca
assegnandosi un’indennità in Germania.
Così Austriaci più non rimaneano di qua dall’Adige. L’imperatore,
senz’autorità della dieta germanica, riconosceva le repubbliche
Batava, Elvetica, Cisalpina, Ligure; rilasciava i prigionieri di Stato
italiani, facea nuovamente cessione alla Cisalpina di tutti i diritti e
titoli che vi avesse, e alla Ligure de’ feudi imperiali. Non parola del
papa, di cui ambiva le Legazioni; non di Napoli, non del Piemonte.
La più generale conseguenza politica della rivoluzione francese, cioè
l’ingrandimento delle grosse potenze e la ruina delle piccole,
diveniva più sempre apparente; e per indennità ai grossi Stati
spartivansi i piccoli principati tedeschi e specialmente gli
ecclesiastici. L’Austria, patteggiando di contrade e sovranità non
sue, e all’interesse della Casa sagrificando quel del corpo
germanico, si pigliò i vescovadi di Bressanone e Trento; al granduca
di Toscana diede l’arcivescovado di Salisburgo, gran parte di quelli di
Cassow ed Eichstädt, e il prevostato di Bestholdsgaden; al duca di
Modena la Brisgovia e l’Artenau [58]: compensi inadequati alle perdite
in Italia, e per soprapiù iniqui.
In Toscana, quando si udì il ritorno de’ Francesi, il senato ordinò la
leva a stormo: ma i Francesi non tardarono a entrarvi (1800
dicembre). Sola Arezzo resistette e si fortifica, e il generale Monnier
la bombarda, e penetratovi a forza, fucila chiunque coglie colle armi,
lascia esercitar il saccheggio fin ne’ monasteri e spedali per sette
ore, poi smantellata la fortezza, mette contribuzioni, ammutite le
campane che aveano sonato incessantemente a martello. Il
generale Miollis proclamava poi il perdono, sperando «che la patria
del Petrarca non saprebbe essere insensibile alla generosità, colla
quale tutto è obliato» [59]; e poichè pizzicava di letterato, fece
ristabilire l’Accademia del Cimento, rendere onori funebri alla Corilla
poetessa e porre una lapide alla casa di lei; dagli Israeliti fece
erigere una cattedra di letteratura; protesse a Padova il Cesarotti,
come a Parma avea visitato il Mazza che ripagollo con una lettera e
un sonetto: ma quando a Firenze volle visitare l’Alfieri questo non lo
accolse.
Sull’Appennino duravano molti rivoltosi, contro cui si spinsero le
colonne francesi; per tutta la campagna si assassinava; nelle città
intrigavasi e disputava. Al crescere delle vittorie francesi, il re di
Napoli, stimolato dall’instancabile moglie, propone di marciare a
difendere la Romagna e ricuperare la Toscana, e avvia truppe sopra
Siena, guidate dal francese fuoruscito Dumas: ma Miollis con Pino
affrontatolo (1801 22 gen.), il ricacciano a forza, mentre Murat,
sceso dalle Cozie con diecimila uomini, si difila su Napoli. Questa
non poteva opporre che poche truppe scoraggite ai vincitori
dell’Austria; ma Carolina corre all’imperatore di Russia, ne adula
l’onnipotenza, non volesse negar la mano a una famiglia, rea
soltanto del nome borbonico e d’essersi esposta per la sacra causa
de’ troni.
Il czar le promise appoggio, e spedì il gran scudiere Levaschef a dire
al primo console come desiderasse l’integrità del regno di Napoli.
Buonaparte, vogliosissimo di tenersi amico il czar qual unico
contrappeso all’Inghilterra, si proferì disposto a sagrificare anche i
giusti suoi risentimenti al piacere di fargli piacere. Levaschef
proseguì verso Napoli, ricevuto fin con archi trionfali dall’esercito di
Murat (18 febb.); il quale arrestando l’irrefrenabile suo corso alla
parola del Russo, fece l’armistizio di Foligno (29 marzo), poi la pace
di Firenze, salvando quel regno a patto che i porti ne restassero
chiusi alla bandiera britannica e alla turca, e aperti alla francese e
alla russa; rinunziasse a qualunque ragione sull’isola d’Elba e sullo
Stato di Piombino e de’ Presidj; piena amnistia per colpe di Stato;
pagherebbe mezzo milione di franchi per restauro dei cittadini
francesi danneggiati. In segreto vi s’aggiunse, finchè durasse guerra
colla Turchia e la Gran Bretagna, guarnigioni francesi starebbero
negli Abruzzi e in terra d’Otranto, mantenute dal re.
Allora si riapersero le carceri, i proscritti uscirono dai nascondigli e
tornarono al possesso dei beni, si vietò ai repubblicani di turbare gli
ordini regj; e Buonaparte scriveva a Soult, comandante de’ presidj
francesi, che desiderava andasse alla messa coll’uffizialità a suon di
musica, e conversasse coi preti e cogli uffiziali regj. Tale spirito
nuovo e conciliativo Buonaparte voleva insinuare.

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