ALGEBRA

Algebra, branch of mathematics in which arithmetical operations and formal manipulations are
applied to abstract symbols rather than specific numbers. The notion that there exists such a distinct
subdiscipline of mathematics, as well as the term algebra to denote it, resulted from a slow historical
development. This article presents that history, tracing the evolution over time of the concept of the
equation, number systems, symbols for conveying and manipulating mathematical statements, and
the modern abstract structural view of algebra. For information on specific branches of algebra, see
elementary algebra, linear algebra, and modern algebra.

Emergence of formal equations

Perhaps the most basic notion in mathematics is the equation, a formal statement that two sides of
a mathematical expression are equal—as in the simple equation x + 3 = 5—and that both sides of the
equation can be simultaneously manipulated (by adding, dividing, taking roots, and so on to both
sides) in order to “solve” the equation. Yet, as simple and natural as such a notion may appear
today, its acceptance first required the development of numerous mathematical ideas, each of
which took time to mature. In fact, it took until the late 16th century to consolidate the modern
concept of an equation as a single mathematical entity.

Three main threads in the process leading to this consolidation deserve special attention:

Attempts to solve equations involving one or more unknown quantities. In describing the early
history of algebra, the word equation is frequently used out of convenience to describe these
operations, although early mathematicians would not have been aware of such a concept.
The evolution of the notion of exactly what qualifies as a legitimate number. Over time this notion
expanded to include broader domains (rational numbers, irrational numbers, negative numbers, and
complex numbers) that were flexible enough to support the abstract structure of symbolic algebra.
The gradual refinement of a symbolic language suitable for devising and conveying generalized
algorithms, or step-by-step procedures for solving entire categories of mathematical problems.
These three threads are traced in this section, particularly as they developed in the ancient Middle
East and Greece, the Islamic era, and the European Renaissance.

Equations written on blackboard

Britannica Quiz
Numbers and Mathematics
Problem solving in Egypt and Babylon
The earliest extant mathematical text from Egypt is the Rhind papyrus (c. 1650 BC). It and other texts
attest to the ability of the ancient Egyptians to solve linear equations in one unknown. A linear
equation is a first-degree equation, or one in which all the variables are only to the first power. (In
today’s notation, such an equation in one unknown would be 7x + 3x = 10.) Evidence from about 300
BC indicates that the Egyptians also knew how to solve problems involving a system of two
equations in two unknown quantities, including quadratic (second-degree, or squared unknowns)
equations. For example, given that the perimeter of a rectangular plot of land is 100 units and its
area is 600 square units, the ancient Egyptians could solve for the field’s length l and width w. (In
modern notation, they could solve the pair of simultaneous equations 2w + 2l =100 and wl = 600.)
However, throughout this period there was no use of symbols—problems were stated and solved
verbally. The following problem is typical:

Method of calculating a quantity,

multiplied by 1
1
/
2
added 4 it has come to 10.
What is the quantity that says it?
First you calculate the difference of this 10 to this 4. Then 6 results.
Then you divide 1 by 1
1
/
2
. Then 2/3 results.
Then you calculate 2/3 of this 6. Then 4 results.
Behold, it is 4, the quantity that said it.
What has been found by you is correct.
Note that except for 2/3, for which a special symbol existed, the Egyptians expressed all fractional
quantities using only unit fractions, that is, fractions bearing the numerator 1. For example, 3/4
would be written as 1/2 + 1/4.

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Babylonian mathematics dates from as early as 1800 BC, as indicated by cuneiform texts preserved
in clay tablets. Babylonian arithmetic was based on a well-elaborated, positional sexagesimal system
—that is, a system of base 60, as opposed to the modern decimal system, which is based on units of
10. The Babylonians, however, made no consistent use of zero. A great deal of their mathematics
consisted of tables, such as for multiplication, reciprocals, squares (but not cubes), and square and
cube roots.

In addition to tables, many Babylonian tablets contained problems that asked for the solution of
some unknown number. Such problems explained a procedure to be followed for solving a specific
problem, rather than proposing a general algorithm for solving similar problems. The starting point
for a problem could be relations involving specific numbers and the unknown, or its square, or
systems of such relations. The number sought could be the square root of a given number, the
weight of a stone, or the length of the side of a triangle. Many of the questions were phrased in
terms of concrete situations—such as partitioning a field among three pairs of brothers under
certain constraints. Still, their artificial character made it clear that they were constructed for
didactical purposes.