MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM

In the year 1820, Oersted noticed deflection in a magnetic needle placed near a current carrying
conductor. He investigated this phenomenon further. He noticed that the deflection in the needle
got increased when the current was made large or the needle was placed closer to the conductor.
On reversing the direction of the current, deflection in the needle got reversed. Oersted concluded
that moving charges or electric currents produced a magnetic field in the surrounding space.
Magnetic field is the space around a current carrying conductor (or a magnet) in which its
magnetic effects can be felt.
Magnetic field around a current carrying conductor disappears as soon as current in the conductor
is turned off. It means a moving charge is the source of magnetic field.

FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD:

⃗⃗ such that the
A positive charge q is moving with a velocity 𝑣⃗ in a magnetic field of strength 𝐵
angle between its velocity and magnetic field is𝜃.

As a consequence of the interaction between the magnetic field produced by the moving charge
and the applied magnetic field, the charge experiences a force which depends on
1. Magnitude of the applied magnetic field
2. Magnitude of the charge
3. The component of velocity perpendicular to the applied magnetic field.
Combining the above factors, we get 𝐹 ∝ 𝑞𝐵𝑣 sin 𝜃
𝐹 = 𝐾𝑞𝐵𝑣 sin 𝜃
The value of constant of proportionality (k) = 1.
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐵𝑣 sin 𝜃
⃗
In vector form, the force is given by 𝐹 = 𝑞(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗)
The magnetic force on moving charge q includes a vector product of velocity and magnetic field.
Its direction can be found by Right handed screw rule or Right hand rule. Accordingly, the
direction of magnetic force is perpendicular to the plane containing 𝑣⃗and 𝐵 ⃗⃗.
Special cases
 If a charge is at rest in a magnetic field, then its velocity 𝑣⃗ = 0. Therefore, 𝐹⃗ = 0. Thus a
stationary charge will never experience a force in magnetic field.
 If the charge moves parallel or anti-parallel to the direction of magnetic field, thenθ=00or 1800.
In either cases sin 𝜃 = 0. So 𝐹⃗ = 0. Therefore, a charge moving parallel or anti-parallel to a
magnetic field experiences no force.
 If the charge moves perpendicular to the applied magnetic field, then,θ=900the charge will
experience maximum force given by 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐵𝑞𝑣 . The direction of this force is given by
Fleming’s left hand rule.
Definition of Magnetic field
If 𝑞 = 1, 𝑣 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 1 then 𝐹 = 𝐵.Thus, Magnetic field strength at a given point is
defined as the force experienced by a unit charge moving with unit velocity at right angles to the
magnetic field.
S.I unit of Magnetic field is tesla (T)

Lorentz force
Suppose a charge 𝑞is moving with a velocity 𝑣⃗ in the presence of both electric(𝐸⃗⃗ ) and
magnetic(𝐵 ⃗⃗)field. The force experienced by the moving charge in both electric and magnetic
fields is called Lorentz force.
It is given by 𝐹⃗ = 𝑞𝐸⃗⃗ + 𝑞(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵⃗⃗), where𝑞𝐸⃗⃗ is the force on the charge due to electric field and
𝑞(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗) is the force on the moving charge due to magnetic field.

MOTION OF A CHARGE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD:

A charged particle q having a mass m enters a uniform magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗⃗ with velocity 𝑣⃗ making
an angle 𝜃 with the direction of magnetic field as shown in the diagram.
Velocity 𝑣⃗ of the charge is resolved into its rectangular
components. 𝑣∥ = 𝑣 cos 𝜃 and 𝑣⊥ = 𝑣 sin 𝜃.
Here the component of velocity𝑣 sin 𝜃 is perpendicular
to𝐵⃗⃗. Hence the magnetic force on the charge is
𝐹⃗ = 𝑞(𝑣 ⃗⃗
⊥ × 𝐵 ) . The direction of this magnetic force is
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
perpendicular to the plane containing 𝐵 ⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑣⊥ and is
given by right hand rule. Since this force is
perpendicular to 𝑣 sin 𝜃it does not perform any work
and hence the magnitude of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑣⊥ (𝑣 sin 𝜃) does not
change with time. However, this magnetic force 𝐹⃗
changes the direction of motion of the charge,
Consequently, the charge moves in a circular path as shown in the diagram.
The centripetal force required for the charge to move in
circular path is provided by the magnetic force acting on it.
2
𝑚𝑣⊥
Mathematically, = 𝐵𝑞𝑣⊥
𝑟
𝐵𝑞𝑟 𝑚𝑣⊥
𝑣⊥ = and𝑟 =
𝑚 𝑞𝐵
The angular velocity of the charge in magnetic field is given
𝑣 𝐵𝑞𝑟 𝐵𝑞
by, 𝜔 = 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑚 = 𝑚
Clearly 𝜔 is independent of velocity of the charge or its
kinetic energy. Further,frequency of revolution of the charge
𝜔 𝐵𝑞
in magnetic field is 𝑓 = 2𝜋 = 2𝜋𝑚

Time period of revolution of the charge in magnetic field is

2𝜋𝑚
𝑇 = 𝐵𝑞
For component velocity𝑣 cos 𝜃, charge will not experience any force in the magnetic field because
the angle between 𝑣⃗∥ and 𝐵⃗⃗ is zero (0). Thus the charge will cover a linear distance with a constant
speed𝑣 cos 𝜃.
Due to the combined effect of the two component velocities the charged particle in magnetic field
covers linear path as well as circular path. As a result, path of the charge is helical, whose axis is
parallel to the magnetic field.
The linear distance covered by the charged particle in the magnetic field in one revolution is
called pitch of the helix. Mathematically, pitch of the helix is given by,
2𝜋𝑚
𝑑 = 𝑣∥ 𝑇 = 𝑣 cos 𝜃 𝐵𝑞
NOTE:
 Magnetic field does no work on a charged particle .i.e. kinetic energy of a moving charge
remains constant in a magnetic field. Unlike electric field magnetic field can neither speed up
nor slow down a charged particle.
 A moving charge experiences maximum force in a magnetic field when it enters the field at
𝑚𝑣
right angles to it. The charge will move in a circular path whose radius is given by𝑟 = 𝐵𝑞 .
 The larger the momentum(𝑚𝑣 ) of the charge, larger is the radius and bigger the circle described.

BIOT-SAVART LAW:
Biot-savart’s law deals with the magnetic field at a point due a current element (a small portion of
conductor carrying current).
Consider a conductor carrying a current𝐼. Let P be a point at a distance 𝑟 from the mid-point of
current element. Let 𝜃 be the angle between 𝐼𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗and𝑟⃗. The magnetic field 𝑑𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ at point P is to be
determined due the current element.
According to Biot-Savart’s law, the magnitude of magnetic field (𝑑𝐵) is directly proportional to
the current (𝐼), the element length (𝑑𝑙), sine of the angle between the line joining point P and mid-
point of current element (sin 𝜃) and inversely proportional to square of the distance (𝑟).
𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
Mathematically, 𝑑𝐵 ∝ 𝑟 2
𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝐵 = 𝑘 𝑟 2 , the value of 𝑘depends on the units
chosen for measurement and the medium between point
P and the current element.
When there is free space between point P and the
𝜇
current element and in SI units, 𝑘 = 4𝜋𝑜 where 𝜇𝑜 is
absolute permeability of free space.
Its value is 4π x 10-7 TA-1m
𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
Therefore,𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟2

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ×𝑟̂
𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑑𝑙
In vector form,⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐵 = 4𝜋 𝑟 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗)
𝜇𝑜 (𝐼𝑑𝑙
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟3
The direction of 𝑑𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is determined by right hand thumb rule or right hand screw rule.
NOTE:
 If 𝜃 = 00 or 1800 ,then the magnetic field dB= 0
𝜇 𝐼𝑑𝑙
 If 𝜃 = 900,then the magnetic field 𝑑𝐵 = 4𝜋𝑜 𝑟 2

MAGNETIC FIELD AT A POINT ON THE AXIS OF A CIRCULAR COIL CARRYING

CURRENT:
Figure depicts a circular loop carrying a steady current I. The loop is placed in the y-z plane with
its centre at the origin O and has a radius R. The x-axis is the axis of the loop. Let x be the
distance of P from the centre O of the loop. To calculate the magnetic field at P on this axis,
consider a current element dl of the loop. The distance of the point P from the current element is r
such that r= √𝑅2 + 𝑥 2
According to Biot- Savart’s law, the magnitude of magnetic field at P due to current element 𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ is
⃗⃗⃗⃗×𝑟⃗|
𝜇0 𝐼 |𝑑𝑙
dB=
4𝜋 𝑟 3
Any element of the loop will be perpendicular to the displacement vector from the element to the
axial point. Hence, |⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 × 𝑟⃗| = r dl.
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙
Thus, dB= -------(1)
4𝜋 𝑅 2 +𝑥 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟⃗. It has an x-
The direction of dB is shown in fig. It is perpendicular to the plane formed by𝑑𝑙
component dBx and a component perpendicular to x-axis, dB┴. Whenthe components
perpendicular to x-axis are summed over, they cancel out and we obtain a null result. Thus, only
the x-component survives. The net contribution along x-direction can be obtained by integrating
dBx = dB cosθ over the loop.
𝑅
From the fig. cosθ= 1 -------(2)
(𝑥 2 +𝑅2 )2
From (1) and (2)
𝜇0𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑅
dBx=
4𝜋 (𝑅 2 +𝑥 2 )1/2
The summation of elements dl over the loop yields 2πR, the circumference of the loop. Thus, the
magnetic field at P due to entire circular loop is
µ0 𝐼𝑅2
B = Bx𝒊̂ = 1 𝒊̂
2(𝑥 2 +𝑅2 )2
At the centre of the loop, x=0,
𝜇0𝐼
B0 = 𝒊̂
2𝑅
NOTE:The magnetic field is maximum at the centre of the coil. It decreases along the axis on
either side.
AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW
Statement:
According to Ampere’s circuital law, the line integral of the magnetic field along a closed
path or a circuit enclosing an arbitrary area is equals to μ0 times the current flowing normally
through the area.
 
The line integral of magnetic field is  ( B. dl ) = μoInet
APPLICATIONS:
1. The magnetic field due to a straight conductor carrying current
Consider a long straight conductor carrying a current I as shown in the figure. Let ‘P’ be
any point in the field of the conductor on a closed path as shown in the figure at a distance ‘a’.
The line element and magnetic field at that point both are directed along the same line. Therefore
the angle between them is 00.
From the ampere circuital law
 
 ( B. dl ) = μ0I
∮ 𝐵𝑑𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = μ0I
B ∮ 𝑑𝑙= μ0I (θ=00)
B 2πa = μ0I
μ I μ 2I
B = 0 or B = 0
2π a 4π a
This is the field due to a long straight conductor carrying current.
NOTE: 1. The magnetic field is directly proportional to the current and inversely proportional to
the distance from the current source.
2. Direction of magnetic field due to a long wire is given by right hand rule.

2. SOLENOID:
Solenoid is a coil of large number of turns of insulated wire wound very closely on an insulating
cylinder.
Every turn in a solenoid produces its own magnetic field along its axis. Therefore, the net field is
a vector sum of the fields due to all the turns, and is directed along the axis as shown in the figure.
On the surface of the solenoid, the fields due to two adjacent turns are in the opposite direction
and equal. Hence they cancel out resulting zero field. Outside the solenoid the field is negligibly
weak. Therefore, the entire field of the solenoid is uniform within the solenoid and parallel to its
axis. Along any line normal to the axis, the component of magnetic field is zero.

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A SOLENOID:

d B 0
c
B=0 B=0

i i
a dl B
b

Consider an ideal solenoid whose length is very large compared to its radius. Let L be the length
of the solenoid and ‘P’ be any point inside it. Let the current flowing through the solenoid wire be
‘i’. To apply the Ampere’s law draws an amperian loop ‘abcda’, such that ab passes through the
point ‘P’ and ab= l
According to Ampere’s Law, the line integral of the magnetic field along ‘abcda’ is equals to μ 0
times the total current through abcda.
 
 dl ) = μ0 I
( B. Where I–total current through the path ‘abcda’
The line integral of magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗⃗ over the closed loop abcda is
  𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎
 ( B. dl ) = ∫𝑎 𝐵⃗⃗. ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 + ∫𝑏 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 + ∫𝑐 𝐵⃗⃗. ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 + ∫𝑑 𝐵 𝑑𝑙
Since the field normal to the ideal solenoid along bc and da are zero and along cd it is negligibly
weak, the total field is along ab only.
b
B  dl = μ I
a 0
Bl = μ0 I
But the net current through the loop abcd isI =nlI
Hence, B =μ0n I
 N
Since = n is number of turns per unit length.
L
𝝁𝟎 𝑵𝑰
B= This is the magnetic field due to a solenoid.
𝑳
Note:
i) Magnetic field of solenoid is inside it along its axis.
ii) Solenoid acts as a magnetic dipole.
iii) Magnetic field is directly proportional to the number of turns per unit length and
current.
MAGNETIC FORCE ON CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD:

Consider a straight conductor of length ‘L’, area of cross

section A carrying a current ‘I’ in a uniform magnetic field
of strength, ‘B’. Let ‘n’ be the number of electrons per unit
volume of the conductor, ‘q’ be the charge of an electron
and vdbe its drift velocity. The number of electrons in
conductor of length l is N= nAL. The charges flowing
inside the conductor experience a magnetic forces. The
force on each charge is given by

Fcharge = B Vd q sin θ
If each charge experiences this force then the magnetic force on conductor of length L is given by
F = N B Vd q sin θ
= nAlqVdBsinθ
= nAlq (𝑉⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
𝑑 ×𝐵 )
The steady current through the conductor I= nAqVd
𝐼
Current density 𝑗⃗ = 𝐴 = nqvd
Hence, F= BILsinθ where, θ is the angle between B and I
⃗
𝐹 = AL ( 𝑗⃗×𝐵 ) ⃗⃗
𝐹⃗ = I(𝐿⃗⃗× 𝐵
⃗⃗ )
Where, 𝐿⃗⃗ = L 𝐿̂ , 𝐿̂ is a unit vector in the direction of I
Case 1): when the conductor is placed parallel to the field, θ = 0 0, then 𝐹⃗ = 0 which is minimum.
Case 2): when the conductor is placed perpendicular to the field ,θ = 90 0 , then 𝐹⃗ =BIL and is maximum.

FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CONDUCTORS CARRYING CURRENT:

Consider two parallel straight conductors each of length L

separated by a distance‘d’carrying currents I1& I2 as shown
in fig. As these 2 conductors carry currents, they produce
their own magnetic fields around them. If‘d’ is small, both
the conductors are present in the magnetic fields of each
other. As a result each conductor experiences a magnetic
force. We know the force on conductor carrying current in a
magnetic field is given by
𝐹⃗ = I ( 𝐿⃗⃗× 𝐵⃗⃗ )
The force on the 2nd conductor with current I2 exerted by 1st
conductor with current I1, is given by
F21 = B1 I2 L sin θ
F21 = BI2 L (θ = 900)
Magnetic field B due to a straight conductor from Amperes
circuital law is

µ0 2𝐼1
B1 =
4𝜋 𝑑
 µ0 2𝐼1
 F21={ }I2 L
4𝜋 𝑑
µ0 2𝐼1 𝐼2
F21 = L …………………… (a)
4𝜋 𝑑
According to Fleming’s left hand rule, this force is directed towards the conductor 1
Similarly, force on first conductor exerted by second conductor is
µ0 2𝐼1 𝐼2
F12 = L …………………… (b)
4𝜋 𝑑
This force is directed towards the conductor 2
From equations (a) and (b)
F12 = - F21
The force per unit length is given by
𝐹 µ 2𝐼1 𝐼2
=4𝜋0 …………………….(c)
𝐿 𝑑
Definition of Ampere:
In the above expression of force per unit length , ifd= 1m and I1 = I2 = 1A, then
F 4π×10-7 2 × 1 × 1
=
L 4π 1
F
= 2x10-7 N m-1
L
When two long straight parallel conductors kept at unit distance in free space carry equal currents
in the same direction and experience a force of 2x10-7 N m-1, then the current is said to be one
ampere.
TORQUE ON A RECTANGULAR CURRENT LOOP IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD :

Consider a rectangular loop ABCD of length ‘b’, and

breadth ‘a’, placed in a uniform magnetic field 𝐵⃗⃗. Let I
be the current through the loop in clockwise direction.
Case 1) magnetic field is parallel to the plane of the
loop
The magnetic field exerts no force on the side BC and
DA
The side CD and AB are perpendicular to the field.
The force on AB is F1= I b B and is directed into the
loop.
The force on CD is F2 = I b B and is directed out of the
plane of the paper.
The forces F1 and F2 are equal in magnitude, opposite in
direction and are not collinear. Hence they constitute a
couple. This torque on loop tends to rotate the loop in
anti-clockwise direction.
Τorque, τ= force × perpendicular distance
=BIb×a
= BIA
Where, A = ab is the area of the rectangle.
Case 2) when the uniform magnetic field makes angle θ w.r.t axis of the loop:
Let θ be the angle between field and the normal to the coil.
Forces acting on sides BC and DA are equal and opposite. They are collinear and doesn’t produce
torque. But the forces on sides AB and CD are F1 and F2. They are too equal and opposite, with
magnitude but not collinear and thus, constitute a couple.
F1 = F2=I b B
Magnitude of torque(τ) due to forces F1 & F2is
τ = force × arm of the couple
=I B b× a sinθ
τ = B I A sinθ
If loop has N turns, then τ =N B I A sinθ

MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT OF A CURRENT LOOP:

The magnetic moment is defined as the product of current I and the area vector of the loop.
Magnetic moment, 𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗= I 𝐴⃗
The direction of 𝐴⃗ is along the normal to the plane of the loop and hence is the direction of 𝑚
⃗⃗⃗ .
Unit of magnetic dipole moment is Am2
Hence, we have 𝜏⃗ = 𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗

CIRCULAR CURRENT LOOP AS A MAGNETIC DIPOLE:

W.k.t the magnetic field on the axis of a circular loop of radius R carrying a current I has a
magnitude
µ 2πIR2
B= 4π0 (a2 +x2 )3/2

Where, x is the distance along the axis from the centre of loop.
When, x>> a,
µ 2𝜋𝐼𝑎2 µ 2𝐼𝐴
B =4𝜋0 = 4𝜋0 where, A = πa2 is the area of the loop
𝑥3 𝑥3
⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = = µ0 2𝑚
Hence, 𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗= I 𝐴⃗
where, 𝑚
4𝜋 𝑥 3

MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER:

Moving coil galvanometer or a pointer galvanometer is a device
used to detect the presence of a current in an electrical circuit.
Principle:
It works on the principle that a current carrying conductor
experiences a mechanical force in a direction perpendicular to the
direction of both the current and the applied magnetic field or a
current carrying loop placed in a magnetic field experiences
torque.
Construction: Moving coil galvanometer consists of rectangular
coil of copper wire wound on an insulating rectangular frame
mounted between two bearings and two (phosphore bronze)
helical springs as shown in the figure. This arrangement is fixed
along the axis of two cylindrical pole pieces of strong magnets.
The two ends of the coil are taken through the helical springs
through which the current flows to the galvanometer. A soft ion
cylinder is mounted along the common axis of the coil, which
increases the magnetic field strength in that region.
Theory
When a current flows through the coil, a torque acts on it. Let N be the number of turns, A be the
area of cross section of the coil and B be the radial magnetic field then, torque acting on it is given
by τ = NI AB
(Since the field is radial , θ = 900 and sin θ = 1).
The magnetic torque (NIAB) tends to rotate the coil.
A spring Sp provides a counter torque equal to (k  ) that balances the magnetic torque (NIAB)
resulting in a steady angular deflection  .
In equilibrium (k  ) = (NI AB).
Where k is the torsional constant of the spring (the restoring torque per unit twist).
The deflection  is indicated on the scale by a pointer attached to the spring.
Angle of deflection is given by  =
 NAB  I
k

SENSITIVITY OF MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER :

A galvanometer is said to be sensitive if a small current in the galvanometer produces a large
deflection.
1) Current sensitivity: It is defined as the deflection produced in the galvanometer when an
unit current flows through it.
ϕ NBA
Hence, current sensitivity, I = K
Its unit is rad A-1 or div A-1
2) Voltage sensitivity: It is defined as the deflection produced in the galvanometer when a
unit potential difference is applied across the two terminals of the galvanometer.
ϕ NBA I NBA 1
Voltage sensitivity, = =
V K V K R
Where, R is the resistance of the galvanometer.
Current sensitivity
Hence, voltage sensitivity = R
Unit of voltage sensitivity is radV-1 or divV-1
CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER
1) CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO AMMETER:

Ammeter is a current measuring device. Any current

measuring device is connected in series in the circuit.
When the current to be measured flows through, it
should not reduce the actual value of current in the
circuit. Hence its resistance should be very low. The
resistance of ideal ammeter is zero.
If galvanometer has to be converted in to
ammeter, a suitable low resistance called shunt
resistance should be connected parallel to the coil of
the galvanometer. This resistance depends on main
maximum current to be measured.

VG = VS
Ig G = S (I – Ig)
IG
S= g
I-Ig
Where, G - resistance of Galvanometer
Ig - Current which produce full scale deflection in the galvanometer.
I - main current
 2) CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO VOLTMETER:

Voltmeter is a device that measures voltage across the

ends of a circuit element. Any voltage measuring device
should not draw any appreciable current into it, to measure
the actual voltage across the circuit element. Hence an
ideal galvanometer should have infinite resistance.
Practically it should have a large resistance.

To convert a galvanometer into voltmeter, the galvanometer resistance should be raised suitably.
And hence a large resistance is connected in series with the galvanometer. This can be calculated
as follows.
V = Vg + VR
V = Ig G + Ig R
V = Ig (G + R)

V
 R= -G
Ig