caie-a2-level-physics-9702-theory-66765357057aff1b71811350-144

ZNOTES.
ORG
UPDATED TO 2022-2024 SYLLABUS
CAIE A2 LEVEL
PHYSICS
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Astha Pandit for personal use only.
CAIE A2 LEVEL PHYSICS
Hence, 1 revolution is 0.1sec

Use the angular velocity formula
1. Motion in a Circle
2π
ω= = 62.8
0.1

1.1. Radians
Part (b)
Radian: one radian is the angle subtended at the centre of Using the relation between angular and linear velocity
the circle by an arc of length equal to the radius of the v = ωr = 62.8 × 0.2 = 12.6 ms-1
circle
Angular displacement: the angle through which an object
moves through a circle
1.3. Circular Motion
A body moving in a circle at a constant speed changes
s = rθ
velocity since its direction changes. Thus, it is accelerating
and hence experiences a force.
Centripetal force: resultant force acting on an object
moving in a circle, always directed towards the centre of
the circle perpendicular to the velocity of the object
mv 2
F = = mrω 2

r
Centripetal acceleration: derived by equating Newton’s
2nd law and centripetal force
v2
a = rω 2 or a = r
Example:
A horizontal flat plate is free to rotate about a vertical axis
1.2. Angular Velocity through its centre.
Angular velocity: the rate of change of the angular

position of an object as it moves along a curved path
θ
ω=
t
Period: the time taken by the body to complete the
circular path once
2π
ω= = 2πf

T
Relating angular velocity and linear velocity:
v = ωr
A mass M is placed on the plate, a distance d , 35cm, from
Example:
the axis of rotation. The speed of rotation is increased from
The drum of a spin dryer has a radius of 20cm and rotates at
zero until the mass slides off the plate.
600 revolutions per minute.
The expression gives the maximum frictional force FF
a. Show that the angular velocity is 63 rad s-1
between the plate and the mass
b. Calculate, for a point on the edge of the drum, its linear
velocity F = 0.72W
Solution:
Part (a) Determine the maximum number of revolutions of per
Find the rate per second minute for the mass M to remain on the plate.
Solution:
600rev : 60sec The centripetal force on the particle is the frictional force, so
the max speed is when friction is at the max
10rev : 1sec
Centripetal Force = Frictional Force
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M v2 Gravitational force between two-point masses is

= 0.72W

proportional to the product of their masses & inversely

r
proportional to the square of their separation
Manipulating expression by adding ω and removing M
GMm
M (ωr)
2 F =
r2

= 0.72M g
r
2
G : Gravitational Field Constant = 6.67 × 10 −11 Nm2kg -2
ω r = 0.72g
The gravitational force between two masses is
Find the angular velocity independent of the medium separating the mass and is
ω= 0.72×9.81
0.35 = 4.49 rad s-1 always an attractive force
Find radians covered in a minute using ratios
{S05-P04} Question 1:
4.49rad : 1sec
The orbit of the Earth, mass 6.0 × 10 24 kg, may be
269.5rad : 60sec assumed to be a circle of radius 1.5 × 10 11 m with the Sun
at its center, illustrated below. The time taken for one orbit is
Divide radians covered by 2π to find revolutions 3.2 × 10 7 s.
269.5
= 42.9
2π

∴ 43 revolutions min-1
2. Gravitational Fields a. Calculate the magnitude of the centripetal force acting on

the Earth
2.1. Introduction b. Determine the mass of the Sun
Solution:
The gravitational field is an example of a field of force Part (a):
Gravitational Field Strength: gravitational force per unit Firstly, calculate the angular velocity of the earth
mass 2π 2π
ω= = = 1.96 × 10 −7
3.2 × 10 7

T
2.2. Describing a Gravitational Field
Use centripetal force equation, F = mω 2 r
For an isolated point mass, the gravitational field is radial 2
in shape, with the mass at the center F = 6.0 × 10 24 × (1.96 × 10 −7 ) × 1.5 × 10 11
The field lines describe the gravitational field. A field line
F = 3.46 × 10 22 N
is the path followed by a free unit mass in that
Part (b):
gravitational field
The centripetal force is provided by the gravitational force of
A higher density of field lines = a region of stronger field
the sun ∴ using Newton’s inverse law
GMm
3.46 × 10 22 =
r2

Substitute values into the expression
6.67 × 10 −11 × M × 6.0 × 10 24

3.46 × 10 22 =
(1.5 × 10 11 )2

M = 1.95 × 10 30
2.4. Gravitational Field Strength

The gravitational field strength at a point is the
2.3. Newton’s Law of Gravitation gravitational force exerted per unit of mass
By equating W = mg and Newton’s Law of Gravitation
GMm In the section on centripetal acceleration, we have come out

mg =
r2 that

GM V2 = GM
∴g= r
r2

and for the linear velocity

2.5. Gravitational Potential 2π
v = ωr where ω = T = 2πf
The gravitational potential at a point is work done per unit
If we combine and simplify them, then we will get
mass in bringing a mass from infinity to the point
T 2 = ( GM ) r3
2
4π
GM
ϕ=−

r
The negative sign is because: 2.8. Geostationary Orbits
Gravitational force is always attractive
Gravitational potential increases to zero at infinity Geostationary Orbit:
Gravitational potential decreases in the direction of Equatorial orbit
the field The period is 24hrs, same angular speed as Earth
From West to East; the same direction of rotation as
Earth
A geostationary satellite is one which always appears to
be above a certain point on the Earth
For a geostationary orbit: T = 24 hrs., and orbital radius is
a fixed value from the centre of the Earth
However, the mass of the satellite was not fixed; hence
the k.e., g.p.e. and centripetal force are not fixed values
A geostationary satellite is launched from the equator in
the the direction of rotation of the Earth (West to East) so
that the axis of rotation of the satellite & Earth coincide
On Earth’s surface, we can use the equation g.p.e= mgh .
{W05-P05} Question 1:
However, this is not true for masses far from the Earth’s
The Earth may be considered to be a sphere of radius
surface because we assume g is constant
The gravitational potential energy of a mass m at a point
6.4 × 10 6 m with a mass of 6.0 × 10 24 kg concentrated at
its centre. A satellite of mass 650kg is to be launched from
in the gravitational field of another mass M , is the work
the Equator and put into geostationary orbit.
done in bringing that mass m from infinity to that point
a. Show that the radius of the geostationary orbit is 4.2 ×
GM 10 7 m
U = mϕ = − m
b. Determine the increase in gravitational potential energy of

r
the satellite during its launch from the Earth’s surface to the
The gravitational potential energy difference between two
geostationary orbit.
points is the work done in moving a mass from one point
Solution:
to another Part (a):
The centripetal force provided by gravity ∴
ΔU = mϕfinal − mϕinitial

GMm mv 2
2.6. Centripetal Acceleration =
r2 r

For an orbiting satellite, the gravity provides centripetal GM = v 2 r

force which keeps it in orbit ∴
Using angular velocity, substitute v = ωr
2
GMm mv
2 = GM = ω 2 r 2 × r
r r
GM Substituting ω = 2π
v2 = T
r 4π 2
∴ velocity is independent of the mass of the satellite GM = × r3
T2

The time period is always 24 hours so in seconds

2.7. Orbiting Period 24 hours = 24 × 60 × 60
Rearranging and substituting values

3.2. Equation of State
2
3 6.67 × 10 −11 × 6.0 × 10 24 × (86, 400 ) Ideal gas: a gas which obeys the ideal gas equation for all
r= = 4.2 × 10 7
4π 2 values of P , V and T

Part (b): pV = nRT

Using the following expression
where n = amount of substance (no. of moles)
GM GM
ΔU = (− m) − (− m)
Conditions for equation to be valid:

r final r initial
fixed amount of gas
= GM (− )
m m ideal gas
+
Boyle’s Law: P ∝ V1 hence pV = constant

r final r initial

Charles’s Law: V ∝ T hence VT = constant

Substitute values

650 650
6.67 × 10 −11 × 6.0 × 10 24 × \n ( 6.4×10 6 − × 10 7 ) P1 V1 P2 V2
4.2 ∴ =

10
= 3.45 × 10 J T1 T2

2.9. Escape Velocity of a Satellite 3.3. Kinetic Theory of Gases

By conservation of energy, Molecular movement causing pressure:
Initial K.E. + Initial G.P.E = Final = 0 Molecules hit and rebound off the walls of the container
The change in momentum gives rise to the force
1 GMm Many impulses averaged to give constant force and,
mv 2 − =0
2

r hence, pressure
2GM From observation of a smoke cell under a microscope, the
Thus escape velocity = r
Brownian motion of particles (haphazard, random)

provides evidence of movement of gas molecules
Escape velocity is the speed a satellite needs to escape
the gravitational pull of a planet and get into orbit Basic Assumptions of the Kinetic Theory of Gases
however not used as it is a huge value and satellites have
engines so provide thrust to reach height of orbit Gas contains large no. of particles
Negligible intermolecular forces of attraction
The volume of particles is negligible compared to the
2.10. Weightless container
Collisions between particles are perfectly elastic
An astronaut is in a satellite orbiting the Earth, reports that he
No time spent in collisions
is ‘weightless’, despite being in the Earth’s gravitational field.
Average k.e. directly proportional to absolute temp.
This sensation is because
Gravitational force provides the centripetal force: the 3.4. Molecular Movement and Pressure
gravitational force is equal to the centripetal force
Consider a cube of space with length L and a particle
GMm mv 2 moving with velocity c
=
r2

r
The sensation of weight (reaction force) is the difference
between FG and FC which is zero.
Therefore, astronaut feels weightless
3. Ideal Gases
3.1. The Avogadro Constant
When a particle collides with a wall, velocity is reversed
Avogadro’s Constant ( NA): number of atoms present in
and changes in momentum is
12g of carbon-12
A Mole: amount of substance containing the same Δp = m (c − (−c )) = 2mc
number of particles as in 12g of carbon-12
Distance moved by particle is = L + L = 2L Substitute information given converting to standard units i.e.
Using the speed-distance formula, the time between m3 and Kelvin
collisions is
1.1 × 10 5 × 6.5 × 10 4 × (10 −2 )3
2L n= = 2.89
8.31 × (25 + 273)

t=
c
Use the relationship between Avogadro’s constant NA and
The rate of change of momentum (i.e., force) is the number of moles n to find the number of particles N
Δp 2mc mc 2 N = NA × n
F = = 2L =

t c
L
N = 6.02 × 10 23 × 2.89 = 1.75 × 10 24

Using the above quantities to find the pressure
4. Temperature
2
F mc
mc 2 mc 2
P = = L2 = 3 =

A L L V
Rearrange to pV = mc 2 4.1. Introduction
Considering N particles in 3D (hence the 13 ) with average
speed c , Temperature does not measure the amount of thermal

energy in a body:
pV = 13 Nmc 2 or p = 13 ρc 2

Two objects of different masses made of the same
material at the same temperature would have
Mean square velocity c 2 : mean value of the square of the different amounts of heat
velocities of the molecules When a substance melts or boils, heat is input, but
there is no temperature change.
3.5. Kinetic Energy of a Molecule
4.2. Thermal Equilibrium
By equating the two formulae in pV , finding a
relationship between Ek and T
Thermal energy is transferred from a region of higher

1 temperature to a region of lower temperature
nRT = N m < c >2 Thermal Equilibrium: a condition when two or more
3

objects in contact have the same temperature, so there is

3nRT no net flow of energy between them (NB not equal
= m < c >2
internal energy because no. of molecules unknown)

N
N Regions of equal temperature are in thermal equilibrium.
Avogadro’s constant, NA = n
3RT 1
= m < c >2
4.3. Measuring Temperature
2NA 2

R
A physical property that varies with temperature may be
Boltzmann’s constant, k = NA

used for the measurement of temperature, e.g.

3 Change in volume of a liquid or gas
kT = Ek Change in volume of gas at constant pressure
2

Change in electrical resistance

∴ T ∝ Ek
Change in e.m.f. of a thermocouple
Physical property should have the following qualities:
Change in property with temp. should be large enough
{S11-P41} Question 2 to be measured accurately
A balloon is filled with helium gas at a pressure of 1.1 × The recorded temperature value should be
10 5 P a and a temp. Of 25 °C. The balloon has a volume of reproducible, i.e., m.p. should be the same when
6.5 × 10 4 cm3 . Helium may be assumed to be an ideal gas. measured at a 2nd time.
Determine no. of gas atoms in the balloon. The property being used must be suitable for the
Solution: temperature range being measured.
Firstly, calculate the number of moles It should be able to be calibrated easily; hence, the
property should change uniformly with temperature.
pV = nRT
n=
pV

4.4. Thermodynamic Scale
RT
Thermodynamic (Kelvin) Scale: theoretical scale that is Solid Liquid Gas

independent of properties of any particular substance. Vibrate about Translational Brownian – move
Based on the idea that the average k.e. of particles of a Motion
fixed point motion at high speeds
substance increases with temperature and the average
k.e. is the same for all substances at a particular temp.
5.2. Melting, Boiling and Evaporating
K = ℃ + 273.15
Melting Boiling Evaporation
Absolute zero: the temperature at which a system has
Throughout substance On surface
minimum internal energy (not zero) – impossible to Occurrence
Fixed temp./pressure All temps.
remove any more energy – at 0 Kelvin
Triple point of pure water: temp. at which water exists as Spacing & Increases Increases
P.E. slightly significantly
a vapour, liquid, and solid – at 273.16 Kelvin (0.01oC)
Temp. & Remaining liquid
Constant during process
K.E. cools
4.5. Practical Thermometers
= average KE ∴ overall temperature decreases
Thermistor:
Advantages Disadvantages 5.3. Specific Heat Capacity and Latent

Readings can be taken Non-linear variation with the Heat
remotely temp.
Very robust Narrower range Specific heat capacity: energy required per unit mass of
Slower response time than the substance to raise the temperature by 1 Kelvin
Fast response
thermocouple
E
Accurate Larger thermal capacity c=
mΔθ
Sensitive at low temps. Larger in size
Determining Latent Heat of Vaporisation, c
Not suitable to measure
varying temp. Quantities required:
Accurate measurement of mass
Thermocouple: Temperature at time intervals
Voltage and current supplied
Advantages Disadvantages
Readings can be taken Non-linear variation with the
remotely temp.
For accurate reading, a high
Faster response
resistance voltmeter required
Wider range
Small thermal capacity
Physically small – readings
taken at point
Power supply not need
Measure temperature at regular time intervals and plot

5. Thermal Properties of graph of temperature θ against time t
Divide quantity of heat equation with time
Materials
Δθ
= mc ( )
E
Δt Δt

5.1. Kinetic Model of Matter

E
Δt is the power supplied P and P = V
I
Solid Liquid Gas Δθ
Δt is the gradient of the graph plotted

More Replacing quantities in original equation

Completely
Structure Regular lattice disordered than
disordered
solid V I = mc × gradient
Attraction Strong Less than solid Negligible
Substitute values, rearrange and solve
Specific latent heat of fusion: energy required per unit If numerator and denominator in latent heat equation
mass of a substance to change from solid to liquid phase divided by time:
without any change in temperature E
Specific latent heat of vaporization: energy required per Δt
lv =

unit mass of a substance to change from liquid to gas

Δm
Δt
phase without any change in temperature

E
Δt is the power supplied P and P = V I

E Δm
lf /v =
Δt is the gradient of the graph plotted (use +ve)

m
Replacing quantities in original equation
Specific latent heat of vaporization always greater than
that of fusion for a given substance because: lv = power ÷ gradient

During vaporization, greater increase in volume than

in fusion; thus more work done against atmosphere Substitute values, rearrange and solve
In vaporization, particles need to be separated further
apart than in fusion so more work is done against {S03-P04) Question 2:
forces of attraction when vaporizing To harden a sample of pure gold, silver is mixed so that
mixture contains 5.0% silver by weight. The initial temp. of the
Determining Specific Heat Capacity, c silver is 27 °C. Calculate the initial temp. of gold so that the
final mixture is at the melting point of gold.
Quantities required:
Mass at time intervals
Voltage and current supplied
Solution:
As mass is not provided, we will consider a mixture of 100g
with the mass of gold 95g and silver 5g.
Firstly, calculate the energy required for silver to be at the
m.p. of gold
Q = mcΔT
0.005 × 235 × (1340 − (273 + 27 )) = 1222J

As silver is being heated past its m.p., it will also melt and
change state ∴ energy required to change it from solid to
liquid is required i.e. latent heat of fusion
Q = lf × m
105 × 10 3 × 0.005 = 525 J

The quantity of energy gold should initially have must provide
above calculated therefore
Q of Gold = 1222 + 525
Gold will already be past its m.p. so no need to calculate heat
of fusion, now using mcΔT
0.095 × 129 × ΔT = 1747
ΔT = 142.6
Initial temp. will obviously be above m.p. so adding to the final

temp. of gold i.e. the m.p.
Beaker containing water heated to 100oC and maintained
Initial Temp. of Gold = 1340 + 142.6 = 1483 K
Mass readings taken at regular time intervals
Plot graph of mass m against time t
Volume increases due to evaporation (turns into a gas) hence

5.4. Internal Energy
work is done on pushing back the atmosphere.
Internal energy: sum of random distribution of kinetic and ii. there is a change in the internal energy as water changes
to steam
potential energies of molecules in a system
The Ek of atoms is constant as there is no temp. change but
Internal Energy = Total P.E. + Total K.E. Ep changes because separation of atoms increases so
internal energy increases because
A rise in temperature of a body is an increase in its
internal energy ΔU = Ep + EK
b) By reference to the first law and your answer in (a), show

5.5. First Law of Thermodynamics
that thermal energy must be supplied to the water during the
boiling process
First law of thermodynamics: the increase in internal
energy of a system is equal to the sum of heat supplied to ΔU = q + w
the system and the work done on the system
Changing from a liquid to a gas, there is an increase in
ΔU = q + w internal energy. Work is done by the liquid so w is negative.
For ΔU to be positive, q must increase.
ΔU : increase in internal energy of the system
Q : heat supplied to the system
W : work done on the system 6. Oscillations
{S04-P04} Question 6: 6.1. Describing Oscillations
Write down the symbol ‘+’ for increase, the symbol ‘–’ for
decrease and the symbol ‘0’ for no change, Displacement (x): instantaneous distance of the moving
object from its mean position
Amplitude (A): maximum displacement from the mean
position
Period (T): time taken for one complete oscillation
Frequency (f ): number of oscillations per unit time
Angular frequency (ω): rate of change of angular
displacement
ω = 2πf
Solution: Phase difference (ϕ): measure of how much one wave is
Part (i): out of step with another wave ϕ = 2π Tt
The gas is being compressed so work is being done on the

system (w = +) and when a gas is compressed, its where T is time period and t is time lag between waves
temperature rises. As the system is not providing heat, the
gas itself is heating, (q = −). Overall, increase in work done 6.2. Simple Harmonic Motion
is balanced by the gas heating so net remains 0 and internal
energy unchanged (U = 0) Simple harmonic motion: acceleration proportional to
Part (ii): displacement and directed towards a fixed point
The solid is being heated so (q = +). As the solid is not Requirements for SHM:
expanding, (w = 0) and therefore there is an increase in Mass that oscillates
internal energy (U = +) Position where mass in equilibrium
Part (iii): Restoring force that acts to return mass to
The melting of ice requires heat energy provided so (q = +) equilibrium; F ∝ −x
. No work is done on or by the system so Defining equation of SHM:
(w = 0). Hence, there is a net increase so (U = +)
Some water in a saucepan is boiling.
a) Explain why:
i. external work is done by the boiling water
a = −ω 2 x
The negative sign in the equation represents that a and x
are in opposite directions. a is always directed towards
the mean position. 6.5. Energy in SHM
6.3. Equations of SHM

Displacement:
x = x 0 sin ωt
x = x 0 cos ωt

(depending on initial conditions)

Velocity:
Kinetic Energy:
v = ±ω (x 20 − x 2 )
v = ±ω (x 20 − x 2 ) Ek = 12 mv 2

v = v0 cos ωt
v = −v 0 sin ωt
1
Ek = mω 2 (x 20 − x 2 )
2

(differential simplified because x 0 ω = v0 )

Total Energy:
Maximum velocity at equilibrium position and minimum
At x = 0 , Ek is max and = to total energy
(0) at extremes

1
Acceleration: Ek = mω 2 (x 20 − (0)2 )
2

a = −ω 2 x 1
∴ Etot = mω 2 x 20
2

Noted that the minus sign shows that, when the object is
displaced to the right, the direction of its acceleration is to the Potential Energy:
left. Etot = Ek + Ep so Ep = Etot − Ek

a = −ω 2 (x 0 sin ωt) a = −ω 2 (x 0 cos ωt) 1 1

= mω 2 x 20 − mω 2 (x 20 − x 2 )
2 2

6.4. Graphs of SHM Ep =

1
mω 2 x 2
2

Graphs:
Hence, substitute values into equation and calculate v

v = 28.3 × (11 2 − 3 2 ) = 0.30 ms-1

The needle of a sewing machine oscillates vertically through 6.6. Damping
a total distance of 22 mm. The oscillations are simple
harmonic with a frequency of 4.5 Hz. The cloth being sewn is Damping: loss of energy and reduction in amplitude from
positioned 8.0 mm below the needle at its maximum height. an oscillating system caused by force acting in opposite
Calculate, for the point of the needle, direction to the motion (e.g. friction)
Light damping: system oscillates about equilibrium
1. its maximum speed
position with decreasing amplitude over a period of time
2. its speed as it moves downwards through the cloth
Critical damping: system does not oscillate & is amount of

Solution: damping required such that the system returns to its
Part (i): equilibrium position in the shortest possible time
Maximum speed can be calculated by Heavy damping: damping is so great that the displaced
object never oscillates but returns to its equilibrium
v0 = ωx 0

position very very slowly
Firstly, we must find the angular velocity

ω = 2πf = 2 × π × 4.5 = 28.3 rad s-1
Next, we must find the amplitude. As the total vertical
displacement is 22 mm,
x 0 = 22
2 = 11 mm

Substitute data calculated into the first expression

v0 = 28.3 × 11 × 10 −3 = 0.311 ms-1

Part (ii):
To find the velocity at that point, use the equation
6.7. Practical Examples of Damping
v=ω (x 20 − x 2 )
Car suspension:

Oscillation: Car oscillates due to spring like connection

We need to find the displacement when the needle passes
to wheels
through the cloth. From the annotated diagram:
Damping: Critical damping needed to stop oscillation
as quickly as possible to avoid motion sickness –
hydraulic in nature
Tall buildings:
Oscillation: During earthquakes
Damping: Large weight hung at the top of the building
to supply a counter oscillation
Tuning of radio receiver - natural frequency of radio is

6.8. Natural Frequency and Resonance
adjusted so that it responds resonantly to a specific
broadcast frequency
Natural frequency f0 : the unforced frequency of
Using microwave to cook food - produces microwaves of

oscillation of a freely oscillating object

frequency equal to natural frequency of water, causing
Free oscillation: oscillatory motion not subjected to an
the water molecules in food to vibrate generating heat
external periodic driving force; oscillates at natural freq.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is used in hospitals to
Eg : Tuning fork, Pendulum
create images of the human organs
Forced oscillation: oscillation caused by an external
driving force; frequency is determined by driving force Examples of Destructive Nature of Resonance:
Resonance: the maximum amplitude of vibration when
impressed frequency equals natural frequency of High-pitched sound waves can shatter fragile objects e.g.
vibration shattering of a glass when a soprano hit a high note
Buildings that vibrate at natural frequencies close to the
frequency of seismic waves collapse during earthquakes
A car suspension system vibrates when going over bumps
which would give large amplitude vibrations
7. Electric Fields
7.1. Introduction
The electric field of a charge is the space around the
charge in which an electric force due to that charge is
experienced
6.9. Damping and Resonance

Effects of damping on frequency response of a system
The direction of field lines shows the direction of the field
undergoing forced oscillations:
– always from the positive charge to the negative.
Decreases amplitude at all frequencies
The higher density of lines shows a stronger region of the
Slightly decreases resonant frequency
field.
Resonant peak becomes flatter
7.2. Coulomb’s Law

Any two-point charges exert an electrical force on each
other that is proportional to the product of the charges
and inversely proportional to the square of separation
Qq
F ∝ r2
Because they are proportional to each other, so in

kQ Q
mathematical way F = r12 2 which they show the same

where k is the constant of proportionality.

1
The constant K is usually given in the form k = 4πε 0

Noted that ε0 is the permittivity of free space. The

experimental value for ε0 is about 8.85

× 10 −12 Fm −1
Qq
So the equation for Coulomb’s Law is F = 4πεo r 2 where F

is the force between two charges, r is the distance

6.10. Purposes of Resonance between their centres.
Examples of Useful Purposes of Resonance:

7.3. Electric Field of a Point Charge
Oscillation of a child's swing
Electric field strength: The force applied per unit charge The maximum field strength at the surface of the sphere
on a small, positive, stationary charge at that point. before electrical breakdown (sparking) occurs is 2.0 × 10 6
Dividing force by charge q : Vm-1. The sphere has a radius r of 0.35m.
Q Calculate the maximum values of
E=
4πεo r 2

1. the charge that can be stored on the sphere

2. the potential at the surface of the sphere
7.4. Electric Potential
Solution:
Electric potential at a point is the work done in bringing Part (a):
positive unit charge from infinity to that point Max field strength given so using field strength formula
W = V Q and W = F .d Q
E=
4πεo r 2

F.d
V =
Substitute information given

Q
1 Q
V =
Q 2 × 10 6 = ×
4πεo 0.35 2

4πεo r

The potential difference between two points A and B from Q = 2.7 × 10 −5 C

an isolated charge Q is defined as work done in taking a
Part (b):
unit positive charge from B to A
Using charge calculate in potential equation
1 Q
2 × 10 6 = × V =
Q
4πεo 0.35 2

4πεo r

Substitute information given
1 2.6 × 10 −5
V = ×
4πεo 0.35

V = 7.0 × 10 5 V
7.5. Potential Due to a Conducting

1 1 Sphere
( − )
Q
V AB =
4πε0 b

a

A charge +Q on an isolated conducting sphere is

V AB is equal to the gain in electrical potential energy if Q

uniformly distributed over its surface

is positive and loss if Q is negative Charge remains on surface and at all points inside the
sphere, the field strength is 0
In general,
If -ve charge moved in direction of electric field, its electric

potential energy will increase
If +ve charge moved in direction of electric field, its
electric potential energy will decrease
If charge accelerated in the field, its electrical potential
energy will be converted to kinetic ∴ V q = 12 mv 2

As there is no field inside the sphere, the potential

difference from any point inside the sphere to the surface
is zero. Therefore, the potential at any point inside a
charged hollow sphere is the same as its surface
On a capacitor, there is a separation of charge with +ve

on one plate and –ve on the other.
To separate the charges, work must be done; hence
energy is released when charges come together
7.6. Equipotential
Equipotential surface: a surface where the electric
8.2. Capacitance and Farad
potential is constant
Equipotential lines are drawn such that potential is
Capacitance: the ratio of charge stored by a capacitor to
constant between intervals
the the potential difference across it
As potential constant, the potential gradient = 0, hence E
Farad (F): Unit of capacitance, 1 coulomb per volt.
along surface = 0
Hence no work is done when a charge is moved along this Q
surface C=
V

The capacitance of a capacitor is directly proportional to

the area of the plates and inversely proportional to the
distance between the plates
8.3. Dielectric Breakdown

Electric field lines must meet equipotential surface at
right angles An electric field can cause air to become conducting by:
Spacing will be closer when field is stronger
The electric field causes forces in opposite directions on
the electrons and nucleus of atoms in air
7.7. Similarity & Differences between
This results in the field causing electrons to be stripped
Electric and Gravitational Potential off the atom.
Results in a spark – air now contains oppositely charged
Similarities: particles which can carry charge.
Ratio of work done to mass/charge
Work done moving unit mass/charge from infinity
8.4. Capacitors in Parallel
Both have zero potential at infinity
Differences:
Gravitational forces are always attractive
Electric forces can be attractive or repulsive
For gravitational, work got out as masses come
together
For electric, work done on charges if same sign, work
got out if opposite sign as charges come together
By conservation of energy and hence charge ( W = QV ), the

8. Capacitance total charge in a circuit is sum of individual charges
QT = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
8.1. Capacitors

Apply Q = C V and V constant in parallel

Function: storing energy
Usage: Time delay, power smoothing, and protection Q T = V (C 1 + C 2 + C 3 )

against surges and spikes

Dielectric: an electrical insulator
QT
= C1 + C2 + C3

V
How a Capacitor Stores Energy:
Hence,
CT = C1 + C2 + C3
= 7.0 × 10 −11 Farad
Part (b):
8.5. Capacitors in Series Using equation for energy
W = CV 2
After the discharge, the sphere contains 25% of the energy
before so equating energy before and after
2
25% × C × (1.2 × 10 6 ) = C V 2
Cancel the C and calculate V
V = 6.0 × 10 5 V
8.7. Energy Stored in a Capacitor

Total p.d. in a circuit is sum of individual p.d.
VT = V1 + V2 + V3
Apply Q = C V and Q constant in series

1 1 1
VT = Q (
+ + )
C1 C2 C3
VT 1 1 1
= + +

Q C1 C2 C3
Hence,
1 1 1 1
= + +
CT C1 C2 C3
Area under a potential-charge graph is equal to work

done
8.6. Capacitance of a Body
1 1
W = QV = C V 2
Any isolated body can have a capacitance. 2 2

Considering a sphere of radius r carrying charge Q, the

The half comes in because:
potential at surface is
When the first charge flows onto the capacitor plates
Q there is no potential difference opposing the flow
V = As more charge flows, the potential difference
4πεo r

increases, so more work is done

Q Q The average potential difference is equal to half the

C= = = 4πεo r
Q maximum potential difference

V 4πεo r

An isolated metal sphere of radius 63cm is charged to a 9. Magnetic Fields
potential of 1.2 × 10 6 V. At this potential, there is an
electrical discharge in which it loses 75% of its energy. 9.1. Concept of Magnetic Field
1. Calculate the capacitance of the sphere
Magnetic field: Force per unit current per unit length that
2. Calculate the potential of the sphere after the
is placed at a right angle to external magnetic fields
discharge has taken place.
It can be produced by
Solution Current-carrying conductor
Part (a): Permanent magnets
Using equation derived above
9.2. Representing Magnetics Fields
C = 4π × 8.85 × 10 −12 × 63 × 10 −2
Magnetic Field due to Permanent Magnet
Magnetic field lines come out of the north pole and go into
the south pole
Direction of field line at any point in the field shows the
direction of the force that a ‘free’ magnetic north pole
would experience
For a solenoid and flat, circular coil:
Field is strongest where field lines closest together
Magnetic field pattern produced identical to that
produced by a bar magnet
9.3. Electromagnetism Magnetic field lines within solenoid are parallel
indicating strength is same (uniform field)
Strength of magnetic field can be increased by:
Increasing the current

Increasing number of turns per unit length of solenoid
Using soft-iron core within solenoid
Right Hand Grip Rule:
9.4. Determing Pole of Magnetic Field

Determined by Right Hand Grip rule however this time,
fingers represent current
For a long, straight conductor:

Magnetic field lines are concentric circles centered at
the conductor
Separation between adjacent field lines increases with
distance from the conductor
Magnetic field is non-uniform
9.5. Effect of Ferrous Core in Solenoid
The strength of the generated magnetic field can be
increased (by about 1000 times) by adding a ferrous (iron)
core inside the solenoid.
Two possible reasons to explain this effect
Ferrous material has a higher permeability than air;

stronger ability to support the formation of a magnetic
field within itself
For a flat, circular coil: Ferrous material is magnetic and become magnetized
Magnetic field pattern produced represents that when placed into the solenoid, thus contributing to overall
produced by a short bar magnet magnetic field strength of the solenoid.
9.6. Force on a Current-Carrying

Conductor
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
Force Acting on a Current-carrying Conductor in a Magnetic

Field
Can be worked out by considering one wire’s magnetic

field (using Right Hand Grip rule), drawing a tangent at the
position of the the other wire and then applying Fleming’s
Left Hand Rule
9.8. Magnetic Flux Density

Strength of force can be increased by: Magnetic flux ( Φ): product of (magnetic) flux density and
Increasing the current area where the area is perpendicular to the (magnetic)
Using a stronger magnet field. Unit = weber (Wb)
Magnetic flux density ( B): force acting per unit current on
9.7. Forces between Currents unit length of conductor placed at right angles to the
magnetic field
Φ = BA
1 Tesla is the magnetic field producing a force of 1 N m-1

on a wire carrying current of 1 A normal to the field
1T = 1 N A−1 m−1
The magnitude of the force on a current-carrying
conductor with:
F = BI L sin θ
Find direction using Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
If wire parallel to the field lines, θ = 0 and F =0
If the wire is at right angles to field lines, θ = 90 and
force acting on wire maximum ( F = BI L)
Two long straight vertical wires X and Y pass through a
horizontal card, carrying current upward. The magnetic flux
density B at a distance x from a long straight wire due to a Q

F = BI l and I=
current I in the wire is given by

∴ F = Bq ( )
μ0 I l l
B=

and v=
2πx

t t
The current in wire X is 5.0 A and that in wire Y is 7.0 A. The ∴ F = BQv
separation of the wires is 2.5 cm
a) Calculate the force per unit length on wire Y due to the If particle moving at an angle θ to the magnetic field, the
current in wire X component of velocity ⊥ to magnetic field is v sin θ
b) The currents in the wires are not equal. State and explain
whether the forces on the two wires are equal in magnitude 9.11. The Hall Effect
Solution:
Part (a):
Using given expression, find B due to wire X by substituting
current in X and separation
4π × 10 −7 × 5
B= = 4 × 10 −5
2π × 2.5 × 10 −2

To find force per unit length, divide expression for force by

length and substitute values – calculated B from above and
current in Y
F = BI l ÷ l = BI
The Hall effect is a mechanism in which magnetic and
F electric forces on a moving charged particle are balanced
= 4 × 10 −5 × 7 = 2.8 × 10 −4

l The probe is made of semiconductor material as

Part (b): electrons travel faster in it than metal ∴ greater effect
The force due to the magnetic field depends on the product of A small current flow through the probe and a magnetic
the currents in the two wires hence both values would be field is applied so the electrons are pushed sideways by
the magnetic force, accumulating on one side hence
equal. Also, Newton’s 3rd law applied and the reaction force is
producing a small voltage; Hall voltage
equal but opposite.
The greater the flux density, greater the Hall voltage
If magnetic field direction is reversed, electrons pushed to
9.9. Measuring Flux Density opposite side and Hall voltage is reversed
The force on a current-carrying conductor can be used to

measure the flux density of a magnetic field using a
9.12. The Hall Voltage
current balance
An electric field is set up in the probe as there is a
difference in voltage between a distance d so
VH
E=

d
As a single electron travels with drift velocity v , it
experiences a force to the left due to the magnetic field
Bqv and a force to the right due to the electric field Eq
Soon an equilibrium is reached hence forces equated
Small weights = mg
Force due to current = BI l Eq = Bqv
Assuming forces act at same distance from pivot, so no need
to take moments, equate forces Substitute for E
mg = BI l qVH
= Bqv

mg d
B= Current is related to mean drift velocity by
IL

9.10. Force on a Moving Charge I = nAvq
where A = td is cross sectional area and n is number 1 rBe 2

density of conducting particles eV = me ( )
2

me
Substitute for v and rearrange e 2V

= 2 2
qVH BqI me r B

=

d n(td)q
9.15. Deflection of e- through E-Field
BI
VH =
ntq

9.13. Deflection of e- through B-Field

Circular motion
Circular path
Ek constant
mv 2 mv
BQv = so r =
BQ

r
Faster moving particles move in bigger circles, r ∝v
Determining the motion of the electron:
Heavier particle move in bigger circles, r ∝ m
1 1 2
Stronger field, particle moves in smaller circle, r ∝ B s = ut + at and initial vertical velocity = 0 ms−1

2

1
y = at2
2

Finding an equation for acceleration
F = qE and F = ma
eE
∴a=
m
As particle moving horizontally at constant velocity and time
is the same for the whole journey
x
x = vt t=
v
9.14. Charge-to-Mass Ratio eE
y=( ) .x 2
2mv 2

The charge-to-mass ratio is known as the specific charge

on the electron
Hence, y ∝ x 2 therefore parabolic (projectile) motion
e Gain in y -component of velocity ∴ Ek increases
Determination of me :

Work done by an electron is equivalent to Ek it possesses 9.16. Crossed-Fields

1
W = QV Ek = mv 2 Considering a setup where electric and magnetic field are
2

perpendicular to each other and act on a moving charge

1 simultaneously
eV = me v 2
2 In such case, a certain velocity exists where fields exert

equal and opposite forces.

Using equation for an electron travelling in a circle in a
magnetic field to eliminate v B-Field = E-Field
rBe BQv = QE
v=
me
E
v=
no. of field lines being cut change

e.g. moving coil from A to B
no. of lines linked increases from 3 to 5

no. of lines cut increases from 0 to 2
Hence an e.m.f. is induced

If velocity higher, F = BQv hence magnetic force
stronger & effect of force due to electric field decreases 10.2. Magnetic Flux Linkage
If velocity lower, F = BQv hence magnetic force
weaker & effect of force due to electric field increases Magnetic flux: product of magnetic flux density and area
normal to the field through which the field is passing.
9.17. Force in Gravitational, Electric and
ϕ = BA
Magnetic Fields
1 Weber (Wb) is the flux that passes through an area of
Gravitational Electric Magnetic 1m2 when the magnetic flux density is 1 tesla.
Force always
Forces is attractive or repulsive 1 Wb = 1 T m2
attractive
Force directly Force directly Force directly Magnetic flux linkage: product of magnetic flux and
proportional to the proportional to the proportional to the number of turns
mass charge current
Force inversely proportional to square of the distance Magnetic flux linkage = Nϕ
Force independent Factors affecting magnitude of induced e.m.f.
Force depends on the medium
of the medium Magnetic field density, B
Force is weak Force is strong Speed of motion of magnet, v
Force is in direction Force is parallel to Force is perp. to the Number of turns of coil, N
of field the field field
Force independent of state of motion of

Force directly 10.3. Faraday’s and Lenz’s Law
proportional to
the body
velocity of body Faraday’s Law: the magnitude of induced e.m.f is
proportional to rate of change of magnetic flux-linkage
charged and there is no force on the mass when it is
stationary or moving in a particular direction,
dNϕ
V =
dt

*Magnetic field*
Lenz’s Law: the direction of the induced e.m.f. is such that
it tends to oppose the flux change causing it
10. Electromagnetic −dNϕ
V =
Induction dt

10.1. Inducing e.m.f

EM induction is an action-at-a-distance phenomenon
e.m.f. is induced when magnetic flux linking a conductor
change either by
no. of lines linking B-field changes
average e.m.f induced.

Solution:
Part (a):
Maximum torque when parallel. When normal to the plane,
there is no perpendicular distance between the two forces ∴
minimum/0 torque.
Part (b):
Torque = Force × ⊥ Distance between Forces
2.1 × 10 −3 = 2.8 × 10 −2 × x
x = 0.075N
Part (c):
Using force calculated previously, and information from
question
Use Faraday’s Law to explain why 0.075 = B × 170 × 10 −3 4.5 × 10 −2
1. there is a reading on the voltmeter B = 9.80T

Moving magnet causes a change of flux linkage
Value calculated is for 140 turns so dividing by it
2. this reading varies in magnitude
Speed of magnet varies so varying rate of change of 9.80
flux = 0.0700T = 70mT
140

3. the reading has both positive and negative values

Magnet changes direction of motion Part (d):
Firstly, calculate ϕ from B calculate above
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule:
ϕ = BA
ϕ = 70 × 10 −3 × (2.8 × 10 −2 ) × (4.5 × 10 −2 )
ϕ = 8.82 × 10 −5 Wb
Using Faraday’s law:
dNϕ
V =
dt

Substituting information given and ϕ calculated
{S08-P04} Question 6: 140 × 8.82 × 10 −5

V = = 0.0882V
A small rectangular coil ABCD contains 140 turns of wire 0.14

11. Alternating Currents

11.1. Sinusoidal Current
The coil is held between the poles of a large magnet so that

the coil can rotate about an axis through its centre.
When the current in the coil is 170 mA, the maximum torque
produced in the coil is 2.1 × 10–3 N m.
a) What position to the magnetic field should the coil be in for
maximum torque Period, T : the time for one complete cycle of the a.c.
b) For the coil in position shown, calculate the magnitude of Frequency, f : number of oscillations per unit time
the force on side AB 1
c) Show that the magnetic flux density (B) is 70 mT f=
T
d) The current in the coil is switched off and the coil is turned
through an angle of 90° in a time of 0.14 s. Calculate the Peak value, I 0 / V 0 : highest point on the graph

Instantaneous current/voltage, I/V : the current/voltage The e.m.f. induced proportional to rate of change of field
at a particular instant so not in phase
I = I 0 sin ωt V = V 0 sin ωt
VP and VS have a phase difference of 90 ∘ with IS, IP and ϕ
where ω = 2πf
The root-mean-squared (r.m.s.) value, I rms /V rms is the

11.4. Eddy Currents
value of steady current/voltage that produces same
If a metallic conductor moves in a magnetic field, an e.m.f
power in a resistor as the alternating current/voltage
is induced which will make free e-s in the metal move,
I rms = I0
V rms = V0

causing electric current – eddy currents

2 2

The eddy currents will oppose change in flux linkage of

the conductor by Lenz’s law and energy of motion will be

11.2. Mean Power in an a.c. Supply dissipated as heat.
For a sinusoidal alternating current, peak power is twice

the average power
11.5. Transmission of Electrical Energy
P = I V and using I rms and V rms
Electricity transmission lines have resistance, therefore,
energy will be lost through heating in the wires
I0 V0 1
P = × = IV

2 2 2

Electricity transmitted at high voltage a.c. supply:
{S10-P42} Question 7: High voltage: for same power, current is smaller so less
An alternating voltage is represented by the equation heating and voltage loss in cables/wires
a.c. supply: can change output voltage efficiently using
V = 220 sin (120πt) transformers
For this alternating voltage, determine

11.6. Half-Wave Rectification
1. peak voltage
2. the r.m.s voltage For one-half of the time, the voltage is 0; this means that
3. the frequency the power available from a half-wave rectified supply is
reduced.
Solution:
Part (a):
Simply using the equation, V = 220 V
Part (b):
V rms = V02 = 2202 = 156 V

Part (c):
The quantity in sin ( ) is equal to ωt ∴
ω = 120π
Also, ω = 2πf so
120π
f= 2π = 60 Hz
11.3. Phase Difference in VP/Vs and

IP/IS/ϕ 11.7. Full-Wave Rectification
The four diodes are known as a bridge diode
The alternating current in the primary coil is not in phase with When current flowing for first half of period
the alternating e.m.f induced in the secondary coil:
Current in primary coil gives rise to magnetic field

The magnetic field in the core is in phase with current in
the primary coil
The magnetic flux cuts the secondary coil inducing e.m.f.
in the secondary coil
Value should be much greater than the time period of a.c.

supply so capacitor does not have sufficient time to
discharge significantly
In general, the greater the value R × C , the smoother
the rectified a.c.
12. Quantum Physics

When current flowing for second half of period 12.1. Wave and Particle Model
Particle model: objects that are hard, have mass and
move about according to laws of Newtonian mechanics
Wave model: shaped like a sine graph, do not have mass
or charge. Their defining characteristics are diffraction
and interference
12.2. Photoelectric Effect

Photoelectric effect: when an electromagnetic radiation of
sufficiently high frequency falls on a metal surface,
electrons are emitted
Delocalized electrons in metal are removed by supplying
a small amount of energy provided by the incident
electromagnetic radiation
Emitted electrons are called photoelectrons
Photoelectric current: current due to photoelectrons
11.8. Smoothing
In order to produce steady d.c. from ‘bumpy’ d.c. that 12.3. Demonstrating Photoelectric
results from rectification requires a smoothing capacitor Effect
The capacitor charges and maintains the voltage as a.c.
voltage rises, (first half of the wave).
As the wave slopes downward, the capacitor begins to
discharge in order to maintain the voltage
+vley charged: when zinc plate exposed to u.v., the leaf

remains open because though electrons are emitted, they
are attracted back due to +ve charge on zinc plate
-vely charged: when zinc plate exposed to u.v., the leaf
A small capacitor discharges more rapidly than a large slowly collapses as electrons are emitted hence -ve
capacitor and gives rise to a greater ripple in output charge on electroscope decreases
If the load resistor is small, the capacitor will also
discharge rapidly Laws of Photoelectric Emission:
CR is the time constant of a capacitor resistor: time
1 1st Law: number of photoelectrons emitted per second is
taken for charge to fall e times original value
directly proportional to intensity of incident radiation

2nd Law: max kinetic energy of photoelectrons is directly Matter wave: a moving particle of matter of momentum p
proportional to the frequency of the incident radiation but will have an associated wave of wavelength λ where
independent of its intensity
h h
3rd Law: for every metal, there is a minimum frequency of λ= =
mv

p
incident radiation below which photoelectric emission
does not take place; threshold frequency where h is Plank’s constant, m is the mass and v is the
Threshold frequency: minimum frequency required to velocity of the particle. λ is the de Brogile wavelength
release electrons from the surface of a metal Diffraction of Electrons:
12.4. Particulate Nature of

Electromagnetic Radiation
Energy of an electromagnetic wave doesn’t flow
continuously but in discrete quanta
Photon: each quantum (particle) of electromagnetic
radiation
Energy of a photon of an electromagnetic radiation of
frequency f is given by When a beam of electrons strikes a thin carbon foil, a
diffraction pattern is obtained on a screen
E = hf When velocity of electrons in beam was increased by
increasing voltage, the rings in the pattern became
where h is the Planck’s constant = 6.63 × 10 −34 Js
narrower showing wavelength decreases as velocity is
Work function ( Φ): minimum amount of energy required increased, agreeing with de Brogile’s equation
by an electron to escape its surface
For a given frequency, electrons are emitted with a range 12.8. Energy Levels
of k.e. because electrons deeper inside the metal lose
energy in collision with atoms as they are emitted The energy of an atom is the total energy of its electrons
Under normal conditions, an atom is in its ground state
where it possess the minimum possible energy
12.5. Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation
When the atom absorbs energy, the energy of the atom
increases and the atom is in an excited state
hf = ϕ0 + Emax
The excited state is unstable so atoms eventually emit

where ϕ0 is the work function of the metal absorbed energy bringing the atom back to ground state
Transition: shifting of electrons between energy levels
Thus, the energy of the absorbed photon is partly used to Electrons release energy in the form of e-m radiation
release the electron from the metal and partly to give it a The frequency of the emitted radiation is given by:
kinetic energy
hf = E2 − E1
1

2
hf = hf 0 + mvmax
2 where f is the frequency, E2 is the energy of the higher level

and E1 is the energy of the lower level

where f0 is the threshold frequency

The frequencies of e-m radiation emitted by electrons

12.6. Wave-Particle Duality when they come down to ground state were found to be
discrete showing electrons can only absorb certain
Wave behavior: electromagnetic radiation shows discrete values ∴ energy of an atom is quantized
properties of diffraction and interference
Particle behavior: photoelectric effect 12.9. Line Spectra
Thus, electromagnetic radiation have a dual nature and
their particles are photons
12.7. Electron Diffraction

de Brogile suggested since waves can behave like
particles, particles should be able to behave like waves
Assuming the unknown particle to possess x nucleons,

235+1=95+139+ 21+x
x=0
The only particle in the table to contain 0 nucleons is the
electron (-10e).
92235U +01n→ 4295Mo+57139La+ 201n+-10e+energy [1]
13.2. Mass-Energy Equivalence

Einstein’s mass-energy relation:
Emission line spectra: the composition of light emitted by
a hot gas E = mc 2
The frequencies emitted by atoms of a substance
when they de-excite from higher to lower energy where c is the velocity of light in free space
levels “mass of a system increases when energy is supplied to it”
Absorption line spectra: when white light is passed though
a cool gas Mass Defect ( ΔM): the difference between the total
The frequencies absorbed from a continuous mass of the individual, separate nucleons and the mass of
spectrum by the electrons a substance the nucleus
The emission and absorption spectra are characteristic of Binding Energy ( ΔE): the minimum external energy
each element required to separate all the neutrons and protons of a
nucleus. It is also the energy released when the nucleus is
assembled from its constituent nucleons
13. Particle and Nuclear The binding energy of a nucleus is a measure of how
tightly the nucleus is bound and hence how stable it is
Physics Binding Energy per Nucleon of a nucleus is the ratio of the
total binding energy to its nucleon number
The higher the binding energy per nucleon, the more
13.1. Balanced Equations stable the atom is
α decay: - 4 α 2
nucleon no. decreases by 4 13.3. Atomic Mass Unit
proton no. decreases by 2
1
β+ decay: - 0 β -1 1u is defined as 12 of the mass of a neutral atom of

proton no. decreases by 1 carbon-12 – approx. equal to 1.661 × 10-27 kg

β- decay: - 0 β +1
proton no. increases by 1 mass excess = mass (in u) – nucleon number
γ decay: - 0 γ 0
proton and nucleon no. unchanged 13.4. Nuclear Fission & Fusion
One nuclear reaction that can take place in a nuclear reactor
may be represented, in part, by the equation
92235 U +01 n → 4295 Mo + 57139 La+ 201 n+ .…… +energy
Data for a nucleus and some particles are given in Fig. 12.1.
Nucleus or Particle Mass/ u
57139La 138.955
01n 1.00863
59139p 1.00728
-10e 5.49 × 10-4
1. Complete the nuclear reaction shown above. [1]

Fission: process in which a massive nucleus splits to form
Solution: two smaller fragments
Part (a): The large nucleus has a lower binding energy per
According to the law of conservation of mass, nucleon so splits into fission fragments which have
The sum of the number of nucleons always remains the same higher binding energy per nucleon ∴ more stable
on both sides of the equation.
Fusion: process by which two very light nuclei join

together to form a heavier nucleus
Two light nuclei fuse so the final binding energy per
nucleon will be greater than the original value
In general, if energy is released in a nuclear reaction, then
it shows that the binding energy of the product nuclei is
greater than that of the reactants
13.5. Spontaneous & Random Nature

Radioactive process are random and spontaneous
Random: impossible to predict and each nucleus has the

same probability of decaying per unit time
Spontaneous: not affected by external factors such as the
presence of other nuclei, temperature and pressure
Evidence on a graph: The activity of a radioactive substance represents an
Random; graph will have fluctuations in count rate exponential decay
Spontaneous; graph has same shape even at different
The half life (t 1 ) of a radioactive sample is the mean
temperatures, pressure etc.

2

time taken for half of the active nuclei in a sample to

decay
13.6. Radioactive Decay Assuming the initial activity is 1, at half life the activity
would be ½ so:
The rate of decay of a given nuclide at any time is ∝ to
the number ( N ) of nuclei present at that time 1
= (1)e−λt
2
dN
dt = −λN Take ln on both sides of the equation
The activity ( A) of a radioactive sample is the rate at ln 12 = −λt 12

which nuclei decay or disintegrate

The decay constant ( λ ) is the probability that an individual Calculate and rearrange:
nucleus will decay per unit time interval
0.693
λ= t1

A = λN 2

Thus, decay constant is inversely prop. to its half life

The above relationship can also be written as:
x = x 0 e−λt

14. Astronomy and

where x could represent activity, number of undecayed
nuclei or received count
Cosmology
13.7. Exponential Nature 14.1. Standard Candles
The luminosity of a Star: total radiant energy emitted per
unit (total radiant power)
Unit: W or J/s
Standard Candle: an astronomical object of known
luminosity
Scientists can determine the star's distance from
Earth by measuring the intensity of electromagnetic
radiation observed on Earth.
Example:
Cepheid variable stars: the period of changing brightness

is related to its average luminosity. So, the luminosity of
Cepheid variable stars can be determined by measuring
the period. So, Cepheid variable stars are considered to

14.3. Hubble’s law and the Big Bang
be standard candles.
Type 1A Supernovae: always implode rapidly and scatter theory
matter and energy into space. The star's luminosity at the
time of implosion is always the same. So, it can be Big bang theory: Around 13.7 billion years ago, everything
considered a Standard candle. in the entire universe was condensed in an infinitesimally
small singularity, a point of infinite denseness and heat.
Red Shift: the observed wavelength of all spectral lines
Light Year (ly): distance travelled by light in a vacuum in a from distant galaxies are longer than the ones observed
year in lab.
Radiant Flux Density: radiant power passing
generally through a surface per unit area.
Assumptions of radiant flux density: Hubble’s Law
the power of a star is uniformly distributed in space
there is negligible absorption of power in space V ∝d
The recession speed V of a galaxy is directly proportional to
Inverse Square Law its distance d.
V = H0 d
L

F = H0 : Hubble Constant. The experimental value is 2.4 ×

4πd 2

10 −18 s−1
L: the luminosity of the star
d: distance from the star centre Doppler redshift: for those galaxies moving speed lower
Unit of Radiant Flux Density: Wm− 2 than light
Δλ Δf v
14.2. Stellar Radii λ = f = c
where λ is the wavelength of the electromagnetic waves from

Black Body: an idealized object that absorbs all incident the source, Δλ is the change in the wavelength, f is the
electromagnetic radiation (e.g. star) frequency of the electromagnetic waves from the source, Δf
Wien’s Displacement Law is the change in frequency, v is the recession speed of the
The higher the temperature of the body: source and c is the speed of light in vacuum.
the shorter the wavelength
the greater the intensity of the electromagnetic
radiation at each wavelength
15. Medical Imaging
λ max T = constant 15.1. X-Ray Production
The Experimental Value of the constant is 2.9 × 10 −3 mK
If we rearrange the equation, we will deduce X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation
1
λ max ∝ T
Produced when high-speed electrons hit metal targets
However, the luminosity of the star not only depends on its
surface thermodynamic temperature T, but also depends on
its radius r.
Stefan-Boltzmann law
L = 4πσr 2 T 4
Which the experimental value of σ is 5.67 ×
10 −8 Wm −2 K −4
How to determine the star radii:
1. First, we use Wien’s displacement law to determine

the surface thermodynamic temperature T.
2. Then, we can use Radiant flux density to determine the
Production of X-rays:
star's luminosity.
3. Finally, we substitute T and L into Stefan-Boltzmann Heated filament undergoes thermionic emission
releasing high-speed electrons
law to calculate the radii.
p.d between cathode & anode causes e-s to accelerate
Electrons bombard metal target emitting X-rays which
leave through the window
Some kinetic energy of electrons transferred into the Can be used to identify organs if the densities of
metal target as thermal energy surrounding tissues are sufficiently different
Metal target is cooled by water or spun around to
increase target area 15.4. X-Ray Quality
Tube Current: the rate of arrival of electrons at a metal
target Sharpness is the ease with which the edge of a structure
can be determined
Intensity Hardness
Improving sharpness of X-Ray:
Depends on no. of e-s
hitting Depends on the acceleration Reduce the area of target anode
anode per unit time of electrons
Proportional to the heater Proportional to p.d. between
current anode & cathode
A more intense X-ray A harder X-ray has more
produces an image quicker penetrating power
Some ‘soft’ X-rays are always produced which cannot fully

pass through the patient and contribute to the total Reduce aperture size (window): reduces beam width
radiation dose of the patient. Place lead grid in front of photographic film: absorbs
To reduce the radiation dose hence cut off ‘soft’ X-rays, an scattered X-rays and reduces partial image
aluminium filter used to absorb them
Contrast is the visual difference between the areas of
blackening and light
15.2. X-Ray Spectrum
Improving contrast of X-Ray:
Increase Exposure time
X-rays emerge from the tube with a range of energies as
Use harder X-Rays: increases penetration power
represented in the spectra below
Reduce scattering of X-Ray beam
Use fluorescent ‘contrast medium’
15.5. X-Ray Intensity

In medium where X-Rays are absorbed, intensity of a
parallel X-Ray beam decreases by a constant fraction in
passing through equal small thicknesses of the medium.
This gives rise to an exponential decrease in the intensity
of the transmitted beam:
I = I 0 e−μx

I is the instantaneous intensity of the X-ray beam

I 0 is the initial intensity of the X-Ray beam

The spectra is made up of two components: x is the thickness of the medium passed by X-Ray
Braking radiation: X-ray photons released when e- μ is the linear absorption coefficient unique to medium,
decelerate as it strikes anode, attracted by the dependent on photon energy and in mm-1
nucleus of an atom in the anode and loses energy
This can be represented graphically:
Characteristic radiation: rearrangement of e-s in
anode when a high-speed e- strikes, excites orbital e-s
which then de-excite, emitting photons & giving rise to
spectrum lines; specific to material of anode
15.3. X-Ray Imaging

X-ray radiation blackens photographic plates in the same
way as visible light
Degree of blackening depends on total X-ray exposure
Mostly used to distinguish bones from tissue because
bones have a higher density than surrounding tissue
Half-value Thickness ( x1/2 ): thickness of the medium

required to reduce the transmitted intensity to one half of
its initial value
Related to the linear absorption coefficient by:
x 1/2 × μ = ln 2

15.6. Computed Tomography (CAT/CT

Scan)
X-Ray imaging only produces a 2 dimensional image with
no impression of depth, cannot tell if tissue is near to the
surface or deep within the body
Tomography is a procedure which forms a 3 dimensional
plane of the object
The diagram below shows the procedure
Advantages of a CT scan:
Produce images that show three-dimensional
relationships between different tissues
Can distinguish tissues with quite similar densities
Putting together several planes produces a whole 3 15.8. Ultrasonic Waves

dimensional image which can be rotated
Ultrasound is any sound wave that has a frequency above
the upper limit of human hearing, 20kHz
15.7. Building the Image Piezo-electric transducers can be used to record and
produce ultrasonic waves
A diagram of a Piezo-electric transducer:
Quartz crystal is the macromolecule formed by SiO2 Between two media, the difference in acoustic impedance
determines the fraction of incident intensity that is
Generating Ultrasonic Waves: reflected
Intensity Reflection Coefficient ( α ): ratio of intensity of
Charged atoms of a transducer in an electric field move
reflected wave and intensity of incident wave
closer to oppositely charged plates and the overall crystal
either compresses or extends: 2
IR ( Z2 − Z1 )
α= =

( Z2 + Z1 ) 2

I
Comparing acoustic impedances ( IIR ) :
Very large fraction reflected at air-tissue boundary

Large fraction reflected at tissue-bone boundary
Very little reflected at boundary between soft tissues
A gel is applied before carrying out scan because when
wave travels in or out of the body, there is:
Very little transmission at an air-skin boundary
Almost complete transmission at a gel-skin boundary
When an alternating voltage with frequency f is applied to
the crystal, it causes it to contract and expand at the same because acoustic impedance of gel & skin very similar
frequency of f
15.10. Attenuation of Ultrasonic Waves
This acts as the vibrating source of ultrasound waves
Similar to X-Rays ultrasonic waves are also absorbed by
Receiving Ultrasonic Waves:
the medium in which they are passing through
Ultrasonic waves change pressure in medium Also follows the same decay equation as X-Rays:
Charged atoms in crystal shift position closer to plates
I = I 0 e−kx
Opposite charges induced in the silver plates

Induced potential difference across the plates Note the constant is different
Potential difference fluctuates which can be processed k is called the absorption coefficient
15.9. Reflection of Ultrasonic Waves 15.11. Ultrasound Imaging Procedure

Ultrasound requires ultrasonic waves to pass from one Transducer is placed in contact with skin and a gel acting
medium to another as a coupling medium
When a beam of ultrasound wave reaches a boundary Pulses of ultrasound are directed into the body
between two different media, the beam is partially The wave is reflected at boundary between tissues
refracted and partially reflected The reflected pulse is detected and processed
The time for return of echo gives information on depth
Amount of reflection gives information on structures
Two techniques for display:
A-scan: measures distance of different boundaries
from transducer held in one position graphically
B-scan: repeats A-scan from multiple angles to form 2
dimensional image
From the law of conservation of energy:
I = IR + IT

Specific Acoustic Impedance ( Z ): product of density of

medium and speed of sound in medium
Z = ρc
Radiotracer
Radiotracer: made by fluorodeoxyglucose, glucose base

molecule with attachment of fluorine-18. Radiotracer will
emit beta+ particle (positron).
Radiotracer is injected into vein, travels through the body
and is absorbed by organs.
Cancer cells are more active, so they absorb glucose and
decay more rapidly.
Annihilation
1. Isotope fluorodeoxyglucose decays by emitting beta+

(positron, antiparticle of electron)
2. Positron moves a short distance and pair with an
electron
15.12. Comparing Medical Imaging 3. The pair will annihilate and their mass becomes pure
energy
Methods 4. Two gamma rays emitted in opposite direction
5. Gamma rays will be detected
X-Ray:
Noted that in this process, both the energy and momentum
Advantages Disadvantages are conserved.
Equipment heavy and not
Sharp image
portable
May cause ionization and
Improvable contrast
damage tissues
Production of suitable radioisotopes
Can form image where air is
trapped (lung) Scientists use cyclotron:
Ultrasound: 1. Particles are continuously accelerated by alternating

electric field
Advantages Disadvantages 2. Travel in a spiral path and hit target nuclei
Cannot be used to form
Portable equipment image where air is trapped
e.g. lungs
Noted that Fl-18 has
Image not sharp due to half-life of 2 hours so no danger for patient.
Less harmful than X-ray
refraction
Rapid movements in tissue – Detecting the gamma rays
Can break kidney stones
may damage
Used for treatment of Like CT, series slices of image are taken by ring shape
sprained joints detectors.
Principal of detector:
CT/CAT:
1. A crystal receives gamma-photon
2. An electron is excited according to photoelectric effect
Advantages Disadvantages
3. One electron will excite more electrons
show metabolic activity of Equipment heavy and not
4. As electrons back to ground state, they emit visible
cells portable
light photon
can be used to detect cancer 5. Photomultiplier converts photon into electrical signal
which can be read by computer.
15.13. Positron Emission Tomography Computer can build up the image by by processing the arrival
times of the gamma-ray photons.
Uses: diagnosing cancers, heart diseases, gastrointestinal
disorders and brain function
CAIE A2 LEVEL
Physics
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These notes have been created by Howard Li for the 2022-2024 syllabus
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ZNOTES.

UPDATED TO 2022-2024 SYLLABUS

Hence, 1 revolution is 0.1sec

Angular velocity: the rate of change of the angular

M v2 Gravitational force between two-point masses is

proportional to the product of their masses & inversely

2. Gravitational Fields a. Calculate the magnitude of the centripetal force acting on

Substitute values into the expression

6.67 × 10 −11 × M × 6.0 × 10 24

2.4. Gravitational Field Strength

GMm In the section on centripetal acceleration, we have come out

and for the linear velocity

b. Determine the increase in gravitational potential energy of

For an orbiting satellite, the gravity provides centripetal GM = v 2 r

The time period is always 24 hours so in seconds

Rearranging and substituting values

Part (b): pV = nRT

Conditions for equation to be valid:

Charles’s Law: V ∝ T hence VT = constant

2.9. Escape Velocity of a Satellite 3.3. Kinetic Theory of Gases

Brownian motion of particles (haphazard, random)

N = 6.02 × 10 23 × 2.89 = 1.75 × 10 24

speed c , Temperature does not measure the amount of thermal

Thermal energy is transferred from a region of higher

objects in contact have the same temperature, so there is

used for the measurement of temperature, e.g.

Change in electrical resistance

Thermodynamic (Kelvin) Scale: theoretical scale that is Solid Liquid Gas

Advantages Disadvantages 5.3. Specific Heat Capacity and Latent

Measure temperature at regular time intervals and plot

5.1. Kinetic Model of Matter

More Replacing quantities in original equation

unit mass of a substance to change from liquid to gas

phase without any change in temperature

During vaporization, greater increase in volume than

0.005 × 235 × (1340 − (273 + 27 )) = 1222J

105 × 10 3 × 0.005 = 525 J

0.095 × 129 × ΔT = 1747

Initial temp. will obviously be above m.p. so adding to the final

Volume increases due to evaporation (turns into a gas) hence

b) By reference to the first law and your answer in (a), show

The gas is being compressed so work is being done on the

6.3. Equations of SHM

(depending on initial conditions)

(differential simplified because x 0 ω = v0 )

a = −ω 2 (x 0 sin ωt) a = −ω 2 (x 0 cos ωt) 1 1

6.4. Graphs of SHM Ep =

Hence, substitute values into equation and calculate v

Critical damping: system does not oscillate & is amount of

position very very slowly

Firstly, we must find the angular velocity

Substitute data calculated into the first expression

Oscillation: Car oscillates due to spring like connection

Tuning of radio receiver - natural frequency of radio is

oscillation of a freely oscillating object

6.9. Damping and Resonance

7.2. Coulomb’s Law

Because they are proportional to each other, so in

where k is the constant of proportionality.

Noted that ε0 is the permittivity of free space. The

experimental value for ε0 is about 8.85

is the force between two charges, r is the distance

Examples of Useful Purposes of Resonance:

1. the charge that can be stored on the sphere

The root-mean-squared (r.m.s.) value, I rms /V rms is the