Chapter 5

Signal Generator and

Waveform-Shaping
Circuits

Chapter 5 Signal Generator and Waveform-Shaping Circuit By: Er. MB Sah

Signal generator
A signal generator is an electronic device that generates various types of waveforms, including
sinusoidal, square, triangular, saw tooth, etc. Signal generators can be implemented using dedicated
integrated circuits (ICs) or microcontrollers.

Waveform shaping circuits

Waveform shaping circuits are used to modify the generated signal's shape and characteristics. For
instance, a sine wave can be converted into a square wave, triangle wave, or other waveforms through
waveform shaping circuits like comparators, integrators, differentiators, and logic gates.

Oscillator
Oscillator is a circuit which utilizes positive feedback amplifier to generate sinusoidal waveforms of
fixed amplitude and frequency. It is the major source of power in electrical and electronic instruments.
The amplifier provided with the positive feedback can generate the sinusoidal signal even in the absence
of any input. These signals are termed as oscillations, and hence the device is known as an oscillator.

Feedback Amplifier
Feedback Amplifier is a device that is based on the principle of feedback. The process by which some
part or fraction of output is combined with the input is known as feedback. There are basically two types
of feedback i.e. positive feedback and negative feedback. The oscillator circuit uses positive feedback
whereas a practical amplifier uses negative feedback to improve the circuit performance.

Positive Feedback amplifier

It is a type of an amplifier in which source signal and the feedback signal are in the same phase. Thus,
the feedback signal applied increases the strength of the input signal. From figure, we can see that, both
the amplifier and feedback network introduce a phase shift of 180o. The result is 360 o phase shift around
the loop, causing the feedback voltage Vf to be in phase with input signal Vs.

Figure – Positive Feedback amplifier

From figure we can write,

1
The above equation is the equation for gain of the positive feedback amplifier and it is always greater
than 1.

Negative Feedback amplifier

In this type of amplifier source signal and the feedback signal are out of phase with each other. Thus, the
feedback signal applied to decrease the strength of the input signal. From figure we can see that, the
amplifier introduce a phase shift of 180o into the circuit while the feedback network introduce a phase
shift of 0o. The result is that the feedback voltage Vf is 180o out of phase with input signal Vs.
Chapter 5 Signal Generator and Waveform-Shaping Circuit By: Er. MB Sah
 Figure – Negative feedback amplifier
From figure we can write,

1
The above equation is the equation for gain of the negative feedback amplifier and it is always smaller
than 1 because the value of denominator is always greater than 1, this will decrease the overall gain of
the system by the factor 1 +Aβ.

Barkhausen Criteria for oscillator (Basic Principles of Sinusoidal Oscillator)

Heinrich Georg Barkhausen (1881-1956), a German scientist, proposed it in 1921. Barkhausen Criteria
state that
The Loop gain is equal to unity in absolute magnitude. i.e. |Aβ|=1
The phase shift around the loop is zero or an integral multiple of 2π.
An Oscillator is basically an Amplifier with “Positive Feedback”, or regenerative feedback (in-phase)
and one of the many problems in electronic circuit design is stopping amplifiers from oscillating while
trying to get oscillators to oscillate.

Figure – Oscillator with positive feedback

1
As we know that the overall gain must be infinity, this means that, 1 0
1
Case I – If Aβ=1
The amplifier will oscillate if the phase shift through the amplifier and the feedback circuit is 00 or
3600 . The output signal oscillates continuously during infinite period of time and this type of
oscillation is called Un-damped oscillation.

Chapter 5 Signal Generator and Waveform-Shaping Circuit By: Er. MB Sah

The electrical oscillations whose amplitude remains constant with time are called as Un-damped
Oscillations. The frequency of the Un-damped oscillations remains constant.

Figure: Un-damped oscillation or Constant amplitude oscillation

Case II – If Aβ ˂1
There is a decrease in the input signal and the output signal will die out after a certain period of
time thus this type of oscillation is called damped oscillation. Damped oscillation is also called
Decaying Oscillation. The figure below shows the waveform for damped oscillation.

Figure: Damped oscillation or Decaying Oscillation

Case III – If Aβ >1
The input increases and output signals will build up. The figure below shows the waveform for this
condition.

Figure: Oscillation build-up or increasing Oscillation

Classification Of Oscillators
The electronic oscillators may be broadly classified into the following two categories.
• Sinusoidal Or Harmonic Oscillators
• Non-Sinusoidal Or Relaxation Oscillators

Sinusoidal or Harmonic Oscillators

The oscillators, which provide an output having a sine wave form, are called sinusoidal or harmonic
oscillators. Such oscillators can provide output at frequencies ranging from 20 Hz to GHz. The
Harmonic Oscillators are further classified as
LC Oscillators or Tuned Circuit Oscillators
RC Oscillators
Crystal Oscillators
Negative-Resistance Oscillators

LC Oscillators or Tuned Circuit Oscillators

These oscillators use a tuned-circuit consisting of inductors (L) and capacitors (C) and are used to
generate high frequency signals. Thus they are also known as radio frequency (RF) oscillators. Such
oscillators are Hartley and Colpitts oscillators etc.

Chapter 5 Signal Generator and Waveform-Shaping Circuit By: Er. MB Sah

RC Oscillators
These oscillators use resistors and capacitors and are used to generate low or audio-frequency signals.
Thus they are also known as audio-frequency (A.F) oscillators. Such oscillators are phase-shift and
wien-bridge oscillators.

Crystal Oscillators
These oscillators use quartz crystals and are used to generate highly stabilized output signal with
frequencies up to 10 Mhz. The pierce oscillator is an example of a crystal oscillator.

Negative-Resistance Oscillators
These oscillators use negative-resistance characteristic of the devices such as tunnel diodes. A tuned
diode oscillator is an example of negative resistance oscillator.

Non-Sinusoidal or Relaxation Oscillators

The oscillators, which provide an output having a square, rectangular or saw tooth waveform, are called
non-sinusoidal or relaxation oscillators. Such oscillators can provide output at frequencies ranging from
zero to 20 Mhz. relaxation oscillators can further classified as
Astable Multivibrator
Schmitt Trigger Oscillator
Saw tooth Wave Oscillator

Astable Multivibrator
Astable multivibrator is a type of relaxation oscillator that produces a continuous square wave output. It
uses two transistors or operational amplifiers and a few passive components to generate the waveform.
Astable multivibrators are commonly used in applications such as timing circuits, pulse generators, and
frequency dividers. Astable multivibrator can be designed using transistors, or IC like 555 Timer astable
multivibrator.

Schmitt Trigger Oscillator

The Schmitt trigger oscillator is another type of relaxation oscillator that generates a square wave output.
It uses a Schmitt trigger, which is a type of comparator with hysteresis, to produce a stable square wave
output. Schmitt trigger oscillators are used in applications such as signal conditioning, waveform
generation, and noise reduction. Many VCO (Voltage Controlled Oscillator) are designed using Schmitt
trigger oscillator circuit such as the 555 VCO.

Saw tooth Wave Oscillator

Saw tooth wave oscillators generate a saw tooth waveform, which is a linearly increasing voltage
followed by a sudden drop to a starting voltage. They are commonly used in applications such as time
base generators, waveform generation, and analog-to-digital converters.

Op Amp-RC Oscillator Circuits

Wein bridge Oscillator
The Wien bridge oscillator is developed by Maxwien in the year 1981. The Wien bridge oscillator is
based on the bridge circuit it consists of four resistors and two capacitors and it is used for the
measurement of impedance. The huge amount of frequency is produced by the Wein bridge oscillator.
The feedback circuit is used by the Wien bridge oscillator and the circuit consists of a series RC
circuit which is connected to the parallel RC circuit.

The Wien bridge oscillator is an electronic oscillator and produces the sine waves. It is a two stage
RC amplifier circuit and it has high quality of resonant frequency, low distortion, and also in the tuning.

Chapter 5 Signal Generator and Waveform-Shaping Circuit By: Er. MB Sah

 Figure –Wein bridge oscillator

Figure – frequency determining network

Oscillation could also take place when the amplitude as well as the frequency determining network both
introduces zero phase shifts. This is the principle of wein bridge oscillator.
The upper series RC network and lower parallel RC network together produce a zero phase shift at the
frequency of oscillation. The series RC network provide a dynamic lag and the parallel RC network
provides an equal amount of dynamic lead, when approaches oscillation frequency.

"#$
Let, and ! "%#$
Hence,
!
&
!

!
&

&
! ! 2 ! ! 3

1
&
! ! 3

At the frequency of zero phase shift, we have the term of j operator to vanish
i.e. ! !
0 ! !
!) * +
or,
1
2,-.

1
Hence the frequency of oscillation,
∴-
2, .
Chapter 5 Signal Generator and Waveform-Shaping Circuit By: Er. MB Sah
Substituting, R2–X2 =0 in equation (1), we have
01 3"$
02 34"$ 4
Hence this arrangement provides a voltage attenuation of 3 so the amplifier should provide a voltage
gain of at least 3 to produce oscillation.
Thus, gain =3
51 7 3
4

6
4 2 6
In practice the gain is made slightly larger than 3 to provide smooth continuous oscillation.
Adantages
By using decade resistance boxes, the frequency range can be selected easily.
Over a wide range of frequency, it provides a stable low distortion sinusoidal output.
By varying capacitances C1 and C2 simultaneously, the frequency of oscillation can be easily
varied.
Disadvantages
The maximum frequency output is limited because of the amplitude and phase shift
characteristics of the amplifier.
The design is bulky because circuit requires two transistors and a large number of other
electronic components.
Applications
These are highly used for audio testing.
Clock signals for testing filter circuits can be generated by this oscillator.
Used in distortion testing of power amplifiers.
These are also used as excitation for the AC bridges.

RC Phase Shift Oscillator Using Op-amp

R-C phase shift oscillator using op-amp uses an op-amp in inverting amplifier mode. Thus it introduces
the phase shift of 180° between input and output. The feedback network consists of 3 RC sections each
producing 60° phase shift.
The output of the amplifier is given to the feedback network. The output of the feedback network drives
the amplifier. The total phase shift around a loop is 180° of the amplifier and 180° due to 3 RC sections,
thus 360°. This satisfies the required condition for positive feedback and circuit works as an oscillator.

Figure – R-C phase shift oscillator using op-amp

Chapter 5 Signal Generator and Waveform-Shaping Circuit By: Er. MB Sah

 Figure – Feedback network for calculation
#89
Let X be the reactance of the capacitor and

: :!
Applying KVL to various loops we get,

: :! 2 :4 0
0 :! :4 2 0

0 :
Now we write the equations in the matrix form,

; 2 < ;:! < ;0<

0 2 :4 0

0
Using the Crammer’s rule to obtain I3

= > 2 >
0 2
2 0 0
= ? ? ? ? 0? ?
2 2 2
= @ 2 ! !A @ 2 0A 0
= 4 ! 4 ! !
2 4 !

= 3 ! 4 !
2 4 !

= 3 4
4 ! !
3 !
4 ! 4
2 4 !

= 4
6 ! 5 ! 4
E
Now we find D3
9
=4 > 2 9 0>
0 0
=4 !
E
=4 !
∴ :4
= 4 6 ! 5 ! 4

Now,
4
:4 E
& 4 6 ! 5 ! 4

&
4
1
4 6 ! 5 ! 4 6 5 ! 4
1 ! 4
1 1
6 5 1 5 6 1
1 1
F . F! !.! F4 4.4 F! !.! F . F4 4 . 4
1
E
5 1 1
G1 H F . G6 H
F ! ! . ! F !.!
!

To have phase shift of 180o, the imaginary part in the denominator must be zero.

Chapter 5 Signal Generator and Waveform-Shaping Circuit By: Er. MB Sah

 1 1
56 7 0
F . F! !.!
1
6
F! !.!
1
F!
6 !.!
1
F
.√6
1
∴-
2, .√6

1 1
This is the frequency with which circuit oscillates, At this frequency,

1 5∗6 29

1
°
The negative sign indicates a phase shift of 180
| |
29

| | 1
Now to have the oscillations,

| || | 1
1
| | 29
| |
Thus circuit will work as an oscillator which will produce a sinusoidal waveform if the gain is 29 and
total phase shift around a loop is 360°. This satisfies the Barkhausen criterion for the oscillator. These
oscillators are used over the audio frequency range i.e. about 20 Hz up to 100 kHz.
Advantages
The advantages of R-C phase shift oscillator are,
The circuit is simple to design.
The circuit can produce output over the audio frequency range.
The circuit Produces sinusoidal output waveform.
It is a fixed-frequency oscillator.
Disadvantages
By changing the values of R and C, the frequency of the oscillator can be changed. But the values of R
and C of all three sections must be changed simultaneously to satisfy the oscillating conditions. But this
is practically impossible. Hence the phase shift oscillator is considered as a fixed frequency oscillator,
for all practical purposes. And the frequency stability is poor due to the changes in the values of various
components, due to the effect of temperature, ageing etc.

LC Oscillators
LC Oscillators are the oscillators which uses LC circuit as a feedback network. The arrangement of the
L and C depends upon the type of the LC oscillator. Hartley, Colpitts and Clapp oscillator are the LC
type Oscillator. The general block diagram of the oscillator is shown below

Figure – Block disgram of Oscillator Figure – Feedback Network of LC Oscillator

Chapter 5 Signal Generator and Waveform-Shaping Circuit By: Er. MB Sah
In the feedback circuit, if Z2 and Z3 are inductor and Z1 is capacitor then it is Hartely Oscillator.
If Z2 and Z3 are capacitor and Z1 is inductor then it is Colpitts Oscillator. Let us draw a equivalent circuit
for LC oscillator.

Let ZL be the equivalent impedance of the feedback network and it is given by

//
! 4
M ! 4
! 4
From the equivalent figure, the output voltage can be calculated by applying voltage divider rule
M 0

M
M 0

M
Now from feedback network, we can write
!

! 4
!

! 4

1
From Barkhausen criteria, we know that

∗ 1 OPQR
M 0 !

M ! 4
! 4
0
∗ 1 OPQR
! 4 !
! 4 ! 4
! 4

∗ ∗ 1 OPQR
! 4 0 ! 4 !

! 4 ! 4 ! 4 ! 4

1 OPQR E
! 0

! 4 ! 4
Since, Z1, Z2 and Z3 are active component so
, ! ! Q T 4 4
Putting the these values in equation (iv), we get
1 OPQR
! 0

! 4 ! 4

1 OPQR
! 0

! 4 ! 4
To satisfy Barkhausen criteria, the imaginary part in the denominator must be zero
! 4 0
U0
Thus
! 4 0

Chapter 5 Signal Generator and Waveform-Shaping Circuit By: Er. MB Sah

Hartely Oscillator
The Hartley oscillator was invented by American engineer Ralph Hartley in 1915 in the Research
Laboratory of the Western Electric Company. The circuit diagram of a Hartley oscillator is shown in
figure below.
An NPN transistor connected in common emitter configuration serves as active device in amplifier
stage. R1 and R2 are biasing resistors and RFC is the radio frequency choke which provides the isolation
between AC and DC operation. At high frequencies, the reactance value of this choke is very high;
hence it can be treated as open circuit. The reactance is zero for DC condition hence causes no problem
for DC capacitors. CE is the emitter bypass capacitor and RE is also a biasing resistor. Capacitors CC1
and CC2 are the coupling capacitors.

Figure – Hartley Oscillator using BJT Figure – Hartley Oscillator using Op-amp
Working
When the DC supply (Vcc) is given to the circuit, collector current starts raising and begins the charging
of the capacitor C. Once C is fully charged, it starts discharging through L1 and L2 and again starts
charging.
This back-and-fourth voltage waveform is a sine wave which is a small and leads with its negative
alteration. It will eventually die out unless it is amplified. The sine wave generated by the tank circuit is
coupled to the base of the transistor through the capacitor CC1.
Since the transistor is configured as common-emitter, it takes the input from tank circuit and inverts it to
a standard sine wave with a leading positive alteration.
Thus the transistor provides amplification as well as inversion to amplify and correct the signal
generated by the tank circuit. The mutual inductance between the L1 and L2 provides the feedback of
energy from collector-emitter circuit to base-emitter circuit.
Derivation

0
For LC oscillator the sum of the reactance of the tank circuit is zero.
! 4
FV , ! FV! and 4
89
Let thus we can write
1
FV FV! 0
F.
1
F V V!
F.
1
F!
V V! .
1
F
W V V! .
1
∴-
2,W V V! .

Chapter 5 Signal Generator and Waveform-Shaping Circuit By: Er. MB Sah

If we consider the mutual inductance (M) induced by the each inductor winding then the frequency of

1
oscillation becomes
∴-
2,W V V! 2X .

FV V 1 V!
From figure, the gain is given by
, Q T
! FV! V! V

V! X
If we consider the mutual inductance (M) induced by the each inductor winding then gain becomes

V X
Advantages
It gives Radio frequency(RF) output i.e. high frequency.
By using variable capacitor, the frequency of oscillations can be varied.
Very few components are needed, including either two fixed inductors or a center tapped coil.
The amplitude of the output remains constant over the working frequency range.
Disadvantage
The size of the oscillator is large due to two transformer.
The cost is high due to two transformer.
This oscillator can not generate low frequency.
It has poor frequency stability.
Applications
The Hartley oscillator is to produce a sine wave with the desired frequency
Hartley oscillators are mainly used as radio receivers. Also note that due to its wide range of
frequencies, it is the most popular oscillator
The Hartley oscillator is Suitable for oscillations in RF (Radio-Frequency) range, up to 30MHZ

Colpitts Oscillator
A Colpitts Oscillator is a type of LC oscillator. Colpitts oscillators were invented by American engineer
Edwin H. Colpitts in 1918. the Colpitts oscillator consists of two major sections namely amplifier
section and tank section. Each section is responsible for producing 180 degrees phase shift of the AC
output voltage so the waveform at the output of this oscillator is like a standard sine wave when the time
it leaves from the oscillator.
An NPN transistor connected in common emitter configuration serves as active device in amplifier
stage. R1 and R2 are biasing resistors and RFC is the radio frequency choke which provides the isolation
between AC and DC operation. CE is the emitter bypass capacitor and RE is also a biasing resistor.
Capacitors CC1 and CC2 are the coupling capacitors.
The circuit diagrams of Colpitts oscillator using BJT aand Op-amp are shown in below figure

Figure – Colpitts Oscillator using BJT Figure – Colpitts Oscillator using Op-amp
Chapter 5 Signal Generator and Waveform-Shaping Circuit By: Er. MB Sah
Working
When the power supply is given to the circuit, transistor is turned ON by the small noise voltage as a
biasing voltage. This causes the collector current to grow up thereby the capacitors C1 and C2 starts
charging.
Once these are fully charged, they start discharging through the inductor L by settling up damped
oscillations in the tank circuit.
Therefore, an AC voltage is developed across the combination of capacitors. The oscillations across the
capacitor C2 are applied to the transistor at base-emitter junction.
These oscillations are amplified and phase shifted in the transistor amplifier. Thus, at the amplifier
output, sustained undamped oscillations are produced.
Derivation

0
For LC oscillator the sum of the reactance of the tank circuit is zero.
! 4
Let 89Y
, ! 89+
and 4 FV thus we can write
1 1
FV 0
F. F.!
1 1 1 1 1 1 . .! 1
FV 5 7 5 7
F. F.! F . .! F . .! . .!
FG
. .! H
1
F!
. .!
V G. .! H
1
F
. .!
ZV G
. ! . H
1
∴-
. .!
2,ZV G. .! H

F. . 1 .!
From figure, the gain is given by
, Q T
!
F.! .! .
Advantages
Colpitts oscillator can generate sinusoidal signals of very high frequencies.
It can withstand high and low temperatures.
The frequency stability is high.
Frequency can be varied by using both the variable capacitors.
Less number of components are sufficient.
The amplitude of the output remains constant over a fixed frequency range.
Disadvantages
Difficult to design
Poor isolation
Oscillating frequency can be unstable due to internal capacitances of transistor.
Application
Colpitts oscillator can be used as High frequency sinewave generator.
This can be used as a temperature sensor with some associated circuitry.
Mostly used as a local oscillator in radio receivers.
It is also used as R.F. Oscillator.
It is also used in Mobile applications.
It has got many other commercial applications.

Chapter 5 Signal Generator and Waveform-Shaping Circuit By: Er. MB Sah

Clapp Oscillator
The Clapp oscillator is an advanced version of the Colpitts oscillator which was designed by simply
adding an extra capacitor to the Colpitts oscillator. It was invented by James Kilton Clapp in 1948.
The circuit differs from the Colpitts oscillator only in one respect; it contains one additional capacitor
(C3) connected in series with the inductor. The addition of capacitor (C3) improves the frequency
stability and eliminates the effect of transistor parameters and stray capacitances.

Figure – Clapp Oscillator using BJT

The operation of Clapp oscillator circuit is in the same way as that of Colpitts oscillator.
Derivation

0
For LC oscillator the sum of the reactance of the tank circuit is zero.
! 4 6
Let
89Y
, ! 89+
, 4 89[
and 6 FV thus we can write
1 1 1
FV 0
F. F.! F.4
1 1 1
FV
F. F.! F.4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
F! 5 7
V . .! .4 V. V.! V.4
1 1 1 1
- \
2, V. V.! V.4
The value of C3 is very small as compared to C1 and C2. It is made small to reduce the effect on the net
effective capacitance. i.e. C3<< C1 and C2 so 9 ≫ 9 Q T 9 then the term M9
M9
is negligible. Thus,
[ Y + Y +
the equation of frequency of oscillations can also be represented as:
1 1 1
- \
2, V.4 2,WV.4
Advantages
a Clapp oscillator possesses high-frequency stability.
The frequency stability can be enhanced in this oscillator by simply enclosing the oscillator
circuit within a stable temperature region.
These oscillators are extremely preferred due to their reliability.
Application
It is commonly used in radio transmitters, communication systems, and local oscillator circuits for
frequency conversion in superheterodyne receivers.
Clapp oscillators are utilized in FM modulators, as in FM radio transmission.
Chapter 5 Signal Generator and Waveform-Shaping Circuit By: Er. MB Sah
Crystal Oscillators
Crystal oscillators operate on the principle of inverse piezoelectric effect in which an alternating voltage
applied across the crystal surfaces causes it to vibrate at its natural frequency. It is these vibrations
which eventually get converted into oscillations. These oscillators are usually made of Quartz crystal.

In crystal oscillators, the crystal is suitably cut and mounted between two metallic plates. In reality, the
crystal behaves like a series RLC circuit, (formed by the components i.e. A low-valued resistor RS, A
large-valued inductor LS, and A small-valued capacitor CS) which will be in parallel with the
capacitance of its electrodes CP.

Figure – Quartz crystal and its equivalent electric circuit.

The frequency response of a crystal is as shown below. The graph shows the impedance (Z) versus
frequency (f). It is evident that the crystal has two closely spaced resonant frequencies.

Figure – Frequency response of a crystal.

Series Resonant Frequency, fs which occurs when the series capacitance CS resonates with the series
inductance LS. At this stage, the crystal impedance will be the least and hence the amount of feedback

1
will be the largest. Mathematical expression for the same is given as
∴ -^
2,WV^ .^

Parallel Resonant frequency, fP which is exhibited when the reactance of the LSCS leg equals the
reactance of the parallel capacitor CP i.e. LS and CS resonate with CP. At this instant, the crystal

1
impedance will be the highest and thus the feedback will be the least. Mathematically it can be given as
∴ -_
..
2,ZV^ G. ^ _. H
^ _

Crystal oscillators can be designed by connecting the crystal into the circuit such that it offers low
impedance when operated in series-resonant mode and high impedance when operated in anti-resonant
or parallel resonant mode as shown in figure below.
Chapter 5 Signal Generator and Waveform-Shaping Circuit By: Er. MB Sah
 (a) (b)
Figure – Cristal oscillator operating in (a) Series resonance and (b) Parallel resonance

In the circuits shown, the resistors R1 and R2 form the voltage divider network while the emitter resistor
RE stabilizes the circuit. Further, CE (Figure a) acts as an AC bypass capacitor while the coupling
capacitor CC (Figure a) is used to block DC signal propagation between the collector and the base
terminals.
Next, the capacitors C1 and C2 form the capacitive voltage divider network in the case of Figure b. In
addition, there is also a Radio Frequency Coil (RFC) in the circuits (both in Figure a and b) which offers
dual advantage as it provides even the DC bias as well as frees the circuit-output from being affected by
the AC signal on the power lines.

On supplying the power to the oscillator, the amplitude of the oscillations in the circuit increases until a
point is reached wherein the nonlinearities in the amplifier reduce the loop gain to unity.

Next, on reaching the steady state, the crystal in the feedback loop highly influences the frequency of the
operating circuit. Further, here, the frequency will self-adjust so as to facilitate the crystal to present a
reactance to the circuit such that the Barkhausen phase requirement is fulfilled.

In general, the frequency of the crystal oscillators will be fixed to be the crystal’s fundamental or
characteristic frequency which will be decided by the physical size and shape of the crystal.

However, if the crystal is non-parallel or of non-uniform thickness, then it might resonate at multiple
frequencies, resulting in harmonics.

Further, the crystal oscillators can be tuned to either even or odd harmonic of the fundamental
frequency, which are called Harmonic and Overtone Oscillators, respectively.

The typical operating range of the crystal oscillators is from 40 KHz to 100 MHz wherein the low
frequency oscillators are designed using OpAmps while the high frequency-ones are designed using the
transistors (BJTs or FETs). Crystal oscillators are compact in size and are of low cost due to which they
are extensively used in communication systems, guidance systems, microprocessors, etc.

Multivibrators
A multivibratror is a circuit which is used to implement simple two stage systems such as oscillators,
timers and flip flops. There are three types of multivibrators.
Astable Mulivibrator: In this type of multivibrator neither of two states is stable. Astable
multivibrators are used to make oscillators.
Monostable Multivibrator: In this type of multivibrator one of the two states is stable while the other
one is unstable. Monostable multivibrator are used to make timers.
Bistable Multivibrator: In this type of multivibrator both of the two states are stable. It can remains in
either state indefinitely. Bistable multivibrator are used to make flip flops.
Chapter 5 Signal Generator and Waveform-Shaping Circuit By: Er. MB Sah
Square Wave Generator using Astable Multivibrators
A square wave generator is an electronic circuit which generates square wave. It is also called Astable
multi-vibrator or free running multi-vibrator. The circuit diagram of an op-amp based square wave
generator is shown in the following figure.

Figure – Square wave generator using Op-amp

The operation of a square wave generator is explained below −
Assume, there is no charge stored in the capacitor initially. Then, the voltage present at the
inverting terminal of the op-amp is zero volts. But, there is some offset voltage at non-inverting
terminal of op-amp. Due to this, the value present at the output of above circuit will be +Vsat.
i.e. when, Vd= V1−V2, initially, VC = V2 = 0 then , Vd= V1 thus, V0 = +Vsat .
Now, the capacitor C starts charging through a resistor R. The value present at the output of the
above circuit will change to −Vsat, when the voltage across the capacitor C reaches just greater
than the voltage ( ^` ) across resistor R1.

^` ^`
!
The capacitor C starts discharging through a resistor R, when the output of above circuit is
−Vsat. The value present at the output of above circuit will change to +Vsat, when the voltage
across capacitor C reaches just less than (more negative) the voltage ( ^` ) across
resistor R1.

^` ^`
!
Thus, the circuit shown in the above diagram will produce a square wave at the output as shown in the
following figure −

Figure – Waveform of Square wave generator

Chapter 5 Signal Generator and Waveform-Shaping Circuit By: Er. MB Sah

Derivation for time period and frequency of oscillation
From the above figure we can observe that the output of square wave generator swings from
+Vsat to −Vsat during time period from t1 to t2 So, the process is repeating.

a 2
Let T be the time period of square wave, T=t 1 +t 2
We can see from figure, t1 = t 2 ,
From the transient analysis of RC circuit, the voltage across the capacitor at any instant is given by
3
9 ^` b ^` 9 `c dP "9
Initially the output of the Op amp is at Vsat. the voltage across the capacitor at this condition is -βVsat.

^` Q T 9
The voltage across the capacitor becomes +βVsat after time t1. Thus
9 `c ^`
So from equation (ii)
3 Y
^` ^` b ^` ^` dP "9
3 Y
^` ^` b ^` ^` dP "9
3 Y
1 b1 dP "9
3 Y
b1 dP "9 1
3 Y 1
P "9
1

1
Taking natural log on both sides, we get
ln 5 7
. 1
1
. ln 5 7
1
1
. ln 5 7
1

1
From equation (i),
∴a 2 2 . ln 5 7
1

1 1
The frequency of oscillation is given by
∴-
a 1
2 . ln 51 7
Triangular Wave Generator using Astable Multivibrators
Triangular Wave Generator Using Op amp can be formed by simply connecting an integrator to the
square wave generator as shown in the Figure

Figure – Triangular wave generator

Chapter 5 Signal Generator and Waveform-Shaping Circuit By: Er. MB Sah
Basically, triangular wave is generated by alternatively charging and discharging a capacitor with a
constant current. This is achieved by connecting integrator circuit at the output of square wave
generator.
if that V’ is high at +Vsat. This forces a constant current (+Vsat/R3) through C (left to right) to
drive Vo negative linearly.
When V’ is low at -Vsat, it forces a constant current (-Vsat/R3) through C (right to left) to drive
Vo positive, linearly.
The frequency of the triangular wave is same as that of square wave.
The amplitude of the triangular wave decreases with an increase in its frequency, and vice versa.
This is because the reactance of capacitor decreases at high frequencies and increases at low
frequencies.

Figure – waveform of triangular wave generator

In practical circuits, resistance R4 is connected across C to avoid the saturation problem at low
frequencies as in the case of practical integrator as shown in the Figure below

Figure – Practical triangular wave generator

To obtain stable triangular wave at the output, it is necessary to have 5R3 C2 > T/2, where T is the period
of the square wave input.

Another triangular wave generator, which requires fewer components, is shown in the Figure below.
It consists of a comparator (A) and an integrator (B). The output of comparator A is a square wave of
amplitude ± Vsat and is applied to the inverting (-) input terminal of the integrator B. The output of
integrator is a triangular wave and it is feedback as input to the comparator A through a voltage divider
R2 and R3.

Figure –Triangular wave generator

Chapter 5 Signal Generator and Waveform-Shaping Circuit By: Er. MB Sah
To understand circuit operation, assume that the output of comparator A is at + Vsat . This forces a
constant current (+ Vsat/R1) through C to give a negative going ramp at the output of the integrator.
Therefore, one end of voltage divider is at a voltage +Vsat and the other at the negative going ramp.
When the negative going ramp reaches a certain value -Vramp, the effective voltage at point p becomes
slightly below 0V.

Figure – Waveform of triangular wave generator

As a result, the output of comparator A switches from positive saturation to negative saturation (-Vsat).
This forces a reverse constant current (right to left) through C to give a positive going ramp at the output
of the integrator. When positive going ramp reaches + Vramp, the effective voltage at point p becomes
slightly above 0V. As a result, the output of comparator A switches from negative saturation to positive
saturation (+Vsat). The sequence then repeats to give triangular wave at the output of integrator B.

Amplitude and Frequency Calculations:

The frequency and amplitude of the Triangular Wave Generator Using Op amp wave can be determined
as follows :
Let comparator output is at V01, and the current following through R2 and R3 are same then we can write
& &

! 4

0 0
If, V01= – Vsat, and Vp=0 then we have,
& `
! 4
& `

! 4
!
& `
4
If, V01= + Vsat, and Vp=0 then we have,
!
& `
4
The peak to peak amplitude of the triangular wave can be given as
! !
& 3 ` 5 ` 7
4 4
2 !
& 3 `
4

The time taken by the output to swing from – Vramp to + Vramp (or from + Vramp to – Vramp) is equal to
half the time period T/2. This time can be calculated from the integrator output equation as follows:
Chapter 5 Signal Generator and Waveform-Shaping Circuit By: Er. MB Sah
 1
g T
& 3
.
2 ! 1 h/!
g ` T
4
`
. &
2 ! 1 a
4
`
. ` 2
4 ! .
a
4

1
Therefore, the frequency of oscillation can be given as,

-
4
a 4 ! .
Above equation is the required equation of frequency of triangular wave.

Integrated Circuit Timers

Integrated circuit timers are the IC chips which are basically used to implement mono stable and astable
multivibrator having precise characteristics. 555 timer IC is one of the popular integrated circuit timers.
It was introduced by Signetics corporation in 1971 AD.

Pin diagram of 555 timer IC

Figure – Pin diagram of 555 Timer IC

The figure shows the pin diagram of 555 Timer IC. This IC is made up of several components which is
further illustrated in the block diagram given below:

Figure – Block diagram of 555 timer IC

Chapter 5 Signal Generator and Waveform-Shaping Circuit By: Er. MB Sah
Figure shows the block diagram of 555 timer IC. It consists of two comparators namely comparator 1
and comparator 2, SR flip flop and transistor Q1 which operates as a switch. These resistors having
same magnitude R1 forms voltage divider configuration with supply voltage VCC and establish reference
!
voltages for two comparators. For first comparator reference voltage is 4 99 and for second comparator

4 99
reference voltage is .
Astable Multivibrator Using the 555 IC (square wave generator)
555 timer IC can be arranged to implement astable multivibrator so as to generate square waves at its
output. The figure shows the astable multivibrator implemented using 555 timer IC along with external
resistors RA and RB and capacitor C.

Figure – Astable multi vibrator using 555 timer IC

Operation

S=1, the output of RS flip flop are Q = 1 and ij 0 , So the transistor Q1 is cutoff and the capacitor
Suppose initially, the capacitor C is completely discharged i.e. VC = 0, R = 0, S = 1. When VC=0, R=0,

starts charge through (RA+RB) towards VCC.

When, 9 k 4ll Pm QR hM - n opQOQ O 2 , R = 0, S = 0, the output of the flip flop is same as
0

before (no change) and the capacitor continues to charge.

When, 9 k 4ll Pm QR hq - n opQOQ O 1 , R = 1, S = 0, the output of the flip flop are Q = 0
!0

and ij 1, So the transistor Q1 is ON and the capacitor starts discharge through RB from ll towards
!0
4
ground.
When, 9 r 4ll , R = 0, S = 0, the output of the flip flop is same as before (no change) and the capacitor
!0

continues to discharge.
When, 9 s 4ll Pm QR hM - n opQOQ O 2 , R = 0, S = 1, the output of the flip flop are Q = 1
0

and ij 0 , So the transistor Q1 is cutoff and the capacitor starts charging again through (RA+RB)
towards VCC.
0 !0ll
This action continues endlessly, and the capacitor charges and discharges between 4ll
4
and back.
Derivation of time period and frequency of oscilation
The below figure shows the wave forms for VC and Vo. the output is a square wave with TH>TL. VC
changes from VTL to VTH in time TH. The exponential rise of VC can be written as
3
9 99 99 hM P "t%"u 9
!0ll 0
and also since VTL = 4ll
4
From figure at t = TH, VC = VTH =

Chapter 5 Signal Generator and Waveform-Shaping Circuit By: Er. MB Sah

 Figure – waveform of the astable multi vibrator

2 99
Putting these values in equation (i) we get,
3hv
5 7 P
99 "t %"u 9
3 99 99
3
2 1 3hv
1 51 7 P "t %"u 9
3 3
3hv
2 P "t %"u 9
aq . w x ln 2 0.69. w x
Similarly VC changes from VTH to VTL in time TL. The exponential fall of VC can be written as
3
hq P u
" 9
9
0 !0
From figure at t = TL, VC = VTL = 4ll and also since VTH = 4ll

aM . x ln 2 0.69. x
Putting these values in equation (ii) we get,

∴ a aq aM 0.69. w 2 x
The total time period T for one complete cycle is given as:

1 1 1.45
The frequency of oscillation is given as
∴-
a 0.69. w 2 x . w 2 x

aq
Also, the duty cycle of thr output square wave is given as
∴ = z nznRP
w x
aq aM w 2 x
Note that the duty cycle will always be greater than 0.5 (50%); it approaches 0.5 if RA is selected to be
much smaller than RB.

Voltage controlled oscillator (CVO) using 555 timer IC

Voltage controlled oscillator is also called voltage to frequency converter because an input voltage can
change the output frequency. By adjusting potentiometer, we can change control voltage Vcon. VC varies
between + Vcon/2 and Vcon. If we increase Vcon, it takes capacitor longer to charge and discharge so
frequency decrease. So we can change frequency by varying control voltage.

Derivation for frequecy of oscillation

Let t1 and t2 be the time taken to charge and discharge capacitor C respectively. Then,

Chapter 5 Signal Generator and Waveform-Shaping Circuit By: Er. MB Sah

 (a) (b)
Figure – (a)Voltage controlled Oscillator using 555 Timer IC and (b) its waveform
3 Y
9 ` c {| } ` c {| 9 `c ~P
"t %"u 9
3 +
9 ! ` c {| } ` c {| 9 `c ~P u
" 9

For charging,
3 Y
• €P
9 "t %"u 9
9 99 99
2
…†Y
• „P
0l‚ƒ ‡t ˆ‡u l
Or, 99 ! 99 9
…†Y
P ‡t ˆ‡u l 0ll 30l‚ƒ
0ll 3&.‰0l‚ƒ
Or,
Taking natural log on both side
ln G0 ll3&.‰0l‚ƒ H
3 Y 0 30
%"
"t 9
Or,
u ll l‚ƒ

∴ . ln G H
0ll 3&.‰0l‚ƒ
w x 0ll 30l‚ƒ
For discharge,
3 +
0 b0 dP "u 9
9
2 9
3 + +
P "u 9 O, P "u 9 2
9
2 9

∴ x .ln 2 0.69 x.
Taking natural log on both side, we get
!

∴a
The total time period is given as
!
0.5
∴a . ln 5 7 0.69 x.
99 9
w x
99 9

1 1
The frequency of oscillation is given as
∴-
a 0.5
w x . ln 5 99 9
7 0.69 x.
99 9
Precision Rectifier Circuits
A precision rectifier is an electronic circuit that converts an alternating current (AC) signal into a direct
current (DC) signal, while minimizing errors and maintaining high precision. The primary function of a
rectifier is to allow the flow of current in only one direction (i.e., to rectify the signal) by blocking the
negative half of the AC waveform. There are two main types of precision rectifiers: the half-wave
precision rectifier and the full-wave precision rectifier.
Chapter 5 Signal Generator and Waveform-Shaping Circuit By: Er. MB Sah
Half-Wave Precision Rectifier:
The half-wave precision rectifier, as the name suggests, rectifies only half of the AC input signal. It is
based on an operational amplifier (op-amp) circuit and uses diodes to control the direction of the current
flow. The op-amp is configured in a non-inverting amplifier mode. This configuration is commonly
knows super diode.

Figure – (a) Precision Half wave circuit (b) Its transfer characteristics

During the positive half-cycle of the input AC signal, the op-amp output becomes positive, allowing the
current to flow through the diode and produce a positive output voltage.
During the negative half-cycle, the op-amp output becomes negative, causing the diode to be reverse-
biased, and no current flows.
The half-wave precision rectifier is straightforward and inexpensive, but it has some limitations, such as
not providing a full-wave rectification and introducing voltage drops across the diodes.

Full-Wave Precision Rectifier:

The full-wave precision rectifier overcomes the limitations of the half-wave rectifier by providing full-
wave rectification. It uses a combination of op-amps and diodes to rectify both the positive and negative
halves of the input AC signal. The circuit configuration typically involves two op-amps and multiple
diodes to achieve this. The figure shows the circuit of the precision full wave rectifier and it transfer
characteristics.

Figure – Precision Half wave circuit and Its transfer characteristics

During the positive half-cycle of the input AC signal, the op-amp A2 acts as a non-inverting amplifier,
while the op-amp A1 acts as an inverting amplifier. The upper op-amp output is positive, allowing the
current to flow through diode D2 and produce a positive output voltage. Simultaneously, the lower op-
amp output is negative, causing diode D1to reverse bias and not conduct, thus the resulting output is
positive.
Chapter 5 Signal Generator and Waveform-Shaping Circuit By: Er. MB Sah
During the negative half-cycle, the upper op-amp output becomes negative, and the lower op-amp output
becomes positive, effectively reversing the situation and producing a positive output voltage again.
The full-wave precision rectifier provides a more accurate and smoother DC output compared to the
half-wave rectifier. However, it requires more components and may be slightly more complex.

Precision rectifiers find applications in various electronic systems where accurate rectification of AC
signals is essential, such as signal processing, sensor interfacing, and instrumentation. They are often
used in circuits that require precise measurements and low-error operation.

Chapter 5 Signal Generator and Waveform-Shaping Circuit By: Er. MB Sah