Electronics Devices and Circuits

(EX501)
(BCT, BEX, BEL-II/I)

Chapter 1

Diodes

Chapter 1 Diodes By: Er. MB Sah

Semiconductor:
The semiconductor is a crystalline solid material, whose electrical conductivity lies between a conductor
and an insulator. The semiconductors are mainly used in the manufacturing of electronic devices like
capacitors, transistors, diodes, Integrated circuits, etc.
Holes and Electrons in Semiconductors:
There are two types of charge carriers i.e. Holes and electrons, which are responsible for the flow of
current in semiconductor. Holes (valence electrons) are the positively charged electric charge carrier
whereas electrons are the negatively charged particles. Both electrons and holes are equal in magnitude
but opposite in polarity.
In a semiconductor, the mobility of electrons is higher than that of the holes. It is mainly because of their
different band structures and scattering mechanisms.
Band Theory of Semiconductors:
The band theory of metals is based on the valence band and conduction band. It is also known as the
band theory of solids or zone theory of solids. Walter Heitler and Fritz London discovered the energy
bands.

Valence Band – The energy band involving the energy levels of valence electrons is known as the
valence band. It is the highest occupied energy band. When compared with insulators, the bandgap in
semiconductors is smaller. It allows the electrons in the valence band to jump into the conduction
band on receiving any external energy.
Conduction Band – It is the lowest unoccupied band that includes the energy levels of positive
(holes) or negative (free electrons) charge carriers. It has conducting electrons resulting in the flow of
current. The conduction band possesses high energy level and is generally empty. The conduction
band in semiconductors accepts the electrons from the valence band.
Forbidden Gap – The gap or energy difference between the valence band and conduction band is called
the forbidden gap.
Properties of Semiconductors:
There are some important properties of Semiconductor as follows.
Semiconductor acts like an insulator at Zero Kelvin. On increasing the temperature, it works as a
conductor.
Due to their exceptional electrical properties, semiconductors can be modified by doping to make
semiconductor devices suitable for energy conversion, switches, and amplifiers.
Lesser power losses.
Semiconductors are smaller in size and possess less weight.
Their resistivity is higher than conductors but lesser than insulators in the range of 10-5 to
106 Ωm.
Chapter 1 Diodes By: Er. MB Sah
 The resistance of semiconductor materials decreases with the increase in temperature and vice-
versa.
The current flow in the semiconductor is due to the flow of electrons and holes.
They have four valence electron in their atoms and lies in IV group of modern periodic table

Types of Semiconductor
The semiconductor can be classified into two types, intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
Intrinsic semiconductors:
The conductor which conducts electricity in a very pure form is called an intrinsic semiconductor
material. Pure germanium (Ge) or pure silicon (Si) are the most common type of intrinsic
semiconductors. These are insulators at absolute zero temperature but exhibit conduction properties at
rising temperatures.
When the temperature rises, some electrons move through the lattice due to collision. These free
electrons and holes are responsible for the conduction of electricity on these types of semiconductors.
Extrinsic Semiconductors:
An extrinsic semiconductor material is obtained by doping a specific impurity for the conduction of
electricity through it. The process of adding impurities to a semiconductor is called doping. Usually, the
conduction properties of intrinsic semiconductors are very poor and we cannot use them in electronic
devices. Therefore, we add some impurities within intrinsic semiconductors to increase conduction
properties.
According to the types of impurities or doping, extrinsic semiconductors are two types,
n type semiconductor
p type semiconductor
n type semiconductor:
n type semiconductor is an extrinsic semiconductor formed when very pure silicon or germanium is
dropped with pentavalent element such as phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), or antimony (Sb).
In an n-type semiconductor, electrons are the majority carrier, whereas holes are the minority carrier i.e.
electron concentration is more than hole concentration.

Silicon has four electrons while phosphorus has five electrons in their respective outer electronic shells.
Therefore, every substitution of silicon by phosphorus gives an extra electron to the silicon crystal
lattice. Such additional electrons go to the unfilled energy band of silicon. In the application of an
electric field, these electrons carry current and move within the crystal.
p type semiconductors:
A p type semiconductor is an extrinsic semiconductor formed when very pure silicon or germanium is
dropped with trivalent element such as boron (B), aluminum (Al), or gallium (Ga). In a p-type
semiconductor, holes are the majority carrier and electrons are the minority carrier. Also, hole
concentration is more than electron concentration.
Chapter 1 Diodes By: Er. MB Sah
Silicon has four electrons while boron has three electrons in their respective outer electronic shells.
When pure silicon is doped with boron, there is a shortage of one electron for each boron atom
substitution. There create a hole due to doping by boron. The hole which is created in the crystal lattice
carries a positive charge. These holes are moving around the lattice to show semi-conductivity. It is a p
type semiconductor because the carrier hole is positively charged.

P-N Junction Diodes:

A p-n junction diode is two-terminal or two-electrode semiconductor device, which allows the electric
current in only one direction while blocks the electric current in opposite or reverse direction. P-N
junction semiconductor diode is also called as p-n junction semiconductor device.
When P-type semiconductor is joined with N-type semiconductor, a P-N junction formed so it is known
as P-N junction diode. Positive terminal of the diode is Anode while Negative terminal is Cathode.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure-(a) symbol of P-N juction diode, (b) Structure of P-N juction diode (c) Real P-N juction diode.
Formation of depletion layer:
AS we know, In the N-type region, electrons are the majority charge carriers and holes are minority
charge carriers. In the P-type region, the holes are majority charge carrier and the electrons are negative
charge carriers. Because of the concentration difference, majority charge carriers diffuse and recombine
with the opposite charge. It makes a positive or negative ion. These ions are collected at the junction.
This region is completely free from charge carrier only the ions are present. A layer of positive ion
appears in N type and a layer of negative ions appears in P type material near the junction. These two
layers of positive and negative ion form a region which is known as the depletion region or barrier
junction. There occurs a potential difference due to the formation of ions, across the junction called
as Potential Barrier as it prevents further movement of holes and electrons through the junction.

Figure- formation of Depletion layer

Chapter 1 Diodes By: Er. MB Sah
Ideal Diode
The ideal diode or perfect diode is a two terminal device, which completely allows the electric current
without any loss under forward bias and completely blocks the electric current with infinite loss
under reverse bias. Ideal diodes actually do not exist. However, the V-I characteristics of ideal diodes is
used to study the diode circuits.
The symbol of forward biased and reverse biased ideal diode is shown in the below figure

The IV characteristics of ideal diode is shown in below figure

Let us consider a diode circuit, where V is the supply voltage, R is a load resistor and I be the current
flowing in the circuit.

When V ≥ 0, the current flowing in the circuit is

0
When V ˂ 0, the current flowing in the circuit is

Terminal characteristics of junction diode

The Terminal Characteristics of Junction Diodes is volt-ampere characteristic of junction diode. Here we
plotted IV characteristics of real silicon junction diode.
As shown in the figure, the Terminal Characteristics of Junction Diodes curve consists of three distinct
regions:
1. The forward-bias region, determined by V > 0.
2. The reverse-bias region, determined by V < 0.
3. The breakdown region, determined by V < – VZK.

Chapter 1 Diodes By: Er. MB Sah

 Figure – Terminal Characteristics of Junction Diodes
Forward-Bias Region:
The diode is forward biased if the applied voltage V is positive. From figure we can see that the current
is negligibly small for v ˂ 0.5v. This voltage is referred as the cut-in voltage. For “fully conducting”
diode, the voltage drop lies in the narrow range i.e. 0.6v – 0.8v. As soon as v=0.7v, the diode conduct
current and the current rapidly increases. This voltage is also called Knee voltage and denoted by VK. It
is assumed that a conducting diode has approximately 0.7 V drop across the diode.
The current flowing through the junction diode is given by Equation (i)
1 (i)

Where,
I = diode current
Is = Reverse saturation current or scale current
V = diode voltage
η= 1 to 2, emission coefficient
VT = =Thermal voltages = 26 mV at room temperature.
K = Boltzmann's constant = 1.38x10-23 joules/kelvin
T = Absolute temperature
q = electric charge = 1.6x10-19 coulombs
The equation (i) is called diode equation. The term ≫ 1 then eq. (i) becomes
(ii)

log
This relationship can be expressed alternatively in the logarithmic form
(iii)
From Eq. (ii), the currents I1 and I2 for voltages V1 and V2 are given respectively by equations
(iv)
(v)
Dividing Eq. (v) by Eq. (iv), we have
!

"# "$ %"& '() * +# #. -%"& '() $. +#

Taking natural log on both sides we get,
+ +
(vi)
$ $

Chapter 1 Diodes By: Er. MB Sah

Reverse-Bias Region:
The terminal voltage of the diode is negative i.e. v ˂ 0, then the diode is said to be revers bias.
The diode equation is applies equally in reverse bias region. In this case the voltage is negative. As a
result the exponential term becomes negligibly small as compared to 1. Thus
(vii)
Therefore the current in the reverse bias is approximately equal to the saturation current. That is why
called reverse saturation current.

Breakdown Region:
When the reverse voltage exceeds certain threshold value called breakdown voltage, then the diode is
said to be in breakdown region. The breakdown voltage is denoted by VZK. From VI characteristics
curve we can see that in breakdown region, there is sharp increase in the reverse current while very
small change in the voltage. After some value the voltage remains constant while a large change in
current so this region of operation can be utilized in voltage regulation.
Effect of temperature on I-V characteristics of diode
As we knows from the diode equation,
1 1
The diode equation shows that the diode current depends up on the temperature
As the temperature increases the diode current decreases
As the temperature decreases the diode current increases
Effect of temperature on forward characteristics:
The characteristics curve of a Si diode shifts to the left at the rate of -2.5 mV/°C change in
temperature in forward bias region
When temperature increases the characteristics curve shift towards the axis.
When temperature decreases the characteristics curve shift away from the axis or shift to the right.
Effect of temperature on reverse characteristics:
In the reverse bias region, the reverse saturation current of Si and Ge diodes doubles for every 10°
C rise in temperature.
When temperature increases the characteristics curve shift away from the both axis.
When temperature decreases the characteristics curve shift towards the both axis.

Chapter 1 Diodes By: Er. MB Sah

Analysis of the diode circuits
The analysis of the diode circuit depends upon the model of the diode. There are a variety of diode
models, of which we now know two: the ideal-diode model and the exponential model.
The Exponential Model
The most accurate description of the diode operation in the forward region is provided by the
exponential model. Unfortunately, however, its severely nonlinear nature makes this model the most
difficult to use. To illustrate, let’s analyze the circuit in Figure given below using the exponential diode
model.

Figure –A simple diode circuit for the analysis in which the diode is forward conducting.
Assuming that VDD is greater than 0.5 V or so, the diode current will be much greater than IS, and we
can represent the diode i–v characteristic by the exponential relationship, resulting in

/
The other equation that governs circuit operation is obtained by writing a Kirchhoff loop equation,
resulting in
// /
/

Assuming that the diode parameter IS is known, there are two equations and two unknown quantities ID
and VD. Two alternative ways for obtaining the solution are graphical analysis and iterative analysis.

Graphical Analysis Using the Exponential Model

Graphical analysis is performed by plotting both the equations on the i–v plane. The solution can then be
obtained as the coordinates of the point of intersection of the two graphs. The curve represents the
exponential diode equation, and the straight line represents linear diode current equation and such a
straight line is known as the load line. The load line intersects the diode curve at point Q, which
represents the operating point of the circuit. Its coordinates give the values of ID and VD.

Figure –Graphical analysis of the circuit in Fig. 4.10 using the exponential diode model.
Iterative Analysis Using the Exponential Model
Both the equations can be solved using a simple iterative procedure, as illustrated in the example given
below.
Q. Determine the current ID and the diode voltage VD for the circuit in Figure with VDD =5 V and
R=1kΩ. Assume that the diode has a current of 1 mA at a voltage of 0.7 V.

Chapter 1 Diodes By: Er. MB Sah

Solution

5 0.7
To begin the iteration, we assume that VD = 0.7 V and determine the current using below equation,
4.345
// /
/
1
We then use the diode equation to obtain a better estimate for VD.
2.3 log 7

Substituting 2.3VT = 60 mV, we have

8 0.06 log 7

Substituting V1 = 0.7 V, I1 = 1 mA, and I2 = 4.3 mA results in V2 = 0.738 V. Thus the results of the first

5 0.738
iteration are ID = 4.3 mA and VD = 0.738 V. The second iteration proceeds in a similar manner:
4.26245
/
1
4.262
8 0.06 log 7 0.738 8 0.06 log 7 0.738
4.3
Thus the second iteration yields ID =4.262 mA and VD =0.738 V. Since these values are very close to the
values obtained after the first iteration, no further iterations are necessary, and the solution is ID =4.262
mA and VD=0.738 V.

Modeling of the Diode

The process of representing the semiconductor diode (or any devices) by the basic circuit components
like resistor, capacitor, inductor along with the current and voltages sources without changing the
original functional behavior of the diode ( or any other devices) is called Modeling
Circuitry representation of the diode (or any other semiconductor device) with the equivalent element is
known as the model of the diode (or device model).
Generally there are two basic model of diode DC signal model and AC signal model.
DC signals which are generally used in electronics circuit are in the order of voltage and known as large
signals while AC signals are in the order of mV are known as small signals.

DC or Large signal model

In DC or Large signal model we deal with the application of large signals to the diode circuit. There are
three basic DC Models.
1. Ideal diode model
2. Constant voltage drop model
3. Piecewise linear model
Ideal diode model
The ideal model of a diode is the least accurate approximation and can be represented by a simple
switch. When the diode is forward-biased, it ideally acts like a closed (on) switch, when the diode is
reverse-biased, it ideally acts like an open (off) switch. Although the barrier potential, the forward
dynamic resistance, and the reverse current are all neglected, this model is adequate for most
troubleshooting when you are trying to determine if the diode is working properly.
Chapter 1 Diodes By: Er. MB Sah
The ideal V-I characteristic curve graphically depicts the ideal diode operation. Since the barrier
potential and the forward dynamic resistance are neglected, the diode is assumed to have a zero voltage
across it when forward-biased, as indicated by the portion of the curve on the positive vertical axis.
VF = 0 V
The forward current is determined by the bias voltage and the limiting resistor using Ohm’s law.
<=>
;
?=@=A
The reverse Current is neglected
IR = 0 A
The reverse voltage equals the bias voltage.
VR = VBIAS
You may want to use the ideal model when you are troubleshooting or trying to figure out the operation
of a circuit and are not concerned with more exact values of voltage or current.

Constant voltage drop model

In this model, a diode is replaced by the constant diode voltage drop. In this model, the diode resistance
is assumed to be zero. Since the diode is replaced by a constant voltage drop, this model is called
constant voltage drop model.

Figure – Equivalent circuit and V-I characteristics for constant voltage drop model of diode

Chapter 1 Diodes By: Er. MB Sah

Piecewise linear model
In piecewise linear model, a diode is replaced by the ideal diode with its internal resistance rD and
voltage drop VD. So this model is also known as battery plus resistance model.

Figure- Equivalent circuit for piecewise linear model of diode

In this model, the exponential curve is approximated by two pieces of straight lines, so this model is
known as the piecewise linear model.

Figure- V-I characteristics of the piecewise linear model of diode

Small or AC signal model of the diode
The application of ac signal or small signal to the diode circuit is small signal model. Generally small
signals are of 10mv or less in amplitude.

Figure – Circuit diagram for small signal model analysis of diode

From figure we can see that a signal source vd having triangular waveform is superimposed on the dc
voltage source VD. The total voltage vD across the diode is the summation of signal source and dc

∴ C/ / 8 CD EFG
voltage source.

Chapter 1 Diodes By: Er. MB Sah

Let iD be the total current flowing through the circuit. The total current iD is the sum of the dc current ID

∴ F/ / 8 FD EFFG
and ac current id

In small signal analysis, we used the dc voltage because to ensure that the diode to be forward biased
throughout the operation.

Figure – graphical analysis of small signal model

In the figure current due to dc source is 1mA and dc voltage is assumed to be 0.7v. These are typical
values for Si based diode and these voltage and current appear in the circuit even when signal source is
zero. The purpose is to forward bias the diode throughout the operation. The DC current and voltage in
the circuit defines a Q-point. The voltage signal vd and the current signal id(t) swings across the bias
point Q as shown in the figure.
From the diode equation, we can write,
HI
F/
I JHK
F/ from equation (i)
I HK
F/
I
Since, /
HK
F/ /
HK

/ 8 FD /
Chapter 1 Diodes By: Er. MB Sah
Expanding the exponential function, we get
HK H H P
N KO N KO
/ 8 FD / L1 8 8 8 8 ⋯……..T
! ! Q!

Since this is a small signal analysis and the signal voltage vd is very small. So in the above expression
we can neglect the higher power of vd.
/ 8 FD / U1 8 W
VK

8 FD U 8 W
VK
/ / /

FD
VK
/
VK
=K I

∴ XD
I
This is the required expression for the dynamic resistance or ac resistance of the diode.

Q.1. Find the voltage V and I of the following circuit. Use the constant voltage drop model of the diode.

Solution
The diode D1 is forward biased whereas D2 and D3 is reversed biased. Since we are using constant
voltage drop model the drop across the diode is 0.7v assuming Si based diode.
V= 3 – 0.7 =2.3v

0 2.3
Similarly the current I can be calculated as:
2.3 45
1 ∗ 10 Q 1 ∗ 10Q
Q.2. Find the voltage V and I of the following circuit. Use the constant voltage drop model of the diode.

Chapter 1 Diodes By: Er. MB Sah

Solution
In this case the diode D1 and D2 are reversed bias whereas D3 is forward biased. Since we are using
constant voltage drop model the voltage drop across the diode is 0.7v.
V= 1+0.7 = 1.7v

5 5 1.7
Similarly the current I can be calculated as:
3.3 45
1 ∗ 10Q 1 ∗ 10Q
Q.3. Find the value of the dynamic resistance if the voltage in the diode is 650mv and IRS is 10pA.
Given η=2 and VT =25mv.
Solution
Given, VD = 650mv =0.650v
IRS = 10pA = 10 x 10-12A
η =2
VT =25mv = 0.025 v
The current through the diode
I
/ Z

10 ∗ 10!
[.\][
/ ∗[.[ ] 4.42 ^5

XD 11312.2b
The dynamic resistance of the diode is
∗7.7 _
`.` ∗ 7a\
I
Q.4. A diode conducts 1mA at 20 C. if it is operated at 100 oC, what will be its current? Given data are
o

η = 1.8 and negative temperature coefficient value = – 1.8 mV/ oC.

Solution
Let ID1 and ID2 be the current through the diode at 20oC and 100 oC respectively. Let VD1 and VD2 be the
voltage across the diode at 20oC and 100 oC respectively.
Given
ID1= 1mA
η = 1.8
Negative temperature coefficient value = – 1.8 mV/ oC
ID2 =?
For the diode,
2.3 log 7 E G
/
/ /
/
According to the question, we can write
VD2 = VD1 + temperature coefficient x Change in temperature
VD2 = VD1 – 1.8 x10-3 x (100-20)
VD2 – VD1 = –0.144 V
Assume VT = 25mV =0.025 V
/ / 2.3 log 7 E I
G
I

– 0.144
e2 e2
2.3 x 1.8 x 0.025 x log10 E 3G 0.1035 log10 E 3G
1x10 1x10
– 1.39 log10 E e2
1x10 3
G

/ 10!Q x10! .Qg

0.040745 4.07x10! 45

Q.5. An a.c. voltage of peak value 20 V is connected in series with a silicon diode and load resistance of
500 Ω. If the forward resistance of diode is 10 Ω, find : (i) peak current through diode (ii) peak
output voltage (iii) What will be these values if the diode is assumed to be ideal ?
Solution: Given:

Chapter 1 Diodes By: Er. MB Sah

Peak input voltage = 20 V
Forward resistance, rf = 10 Ω
Load resistance, RL= 500 Ω
Potential barrier voltage, V0 = 0.7 V
The diode will conduct during the positive half-cycles of a.c. input voltage only.
The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig.(ii)

(i) The peak current through the diode will occur at the instant when the input voltage reaches positive

7 8 E h Gi >j EXh 8 ? G EFG

peak i.e. Vin = VF = 20 V.
;
Or,
E h Gi
; 7
EXh 8 ? G
>j

(ii) Peak output voltage:

Peak output voltage = (If)peak x RL =37.8 x 10-3 x 500 = 18.9V
Ideal Diode Case:

7 0 klm Xh 0 in equation (i)

E h Gi >j x
For an ideal diode,
; ?

20
Or,
E h Gi 40 45
;
>j
? 500
Peak output voltage E h Gi >j x ? 40 x10 3 x 500 20 V
Q.6. Find the current through the diode in the circuit shown in Figure. Assume the diode to be ideal.

Solution :
We shall use Thevenin’s theorem to find current in the diode.
VTH = Thevenin’s voltage

5
= open circuited voltage across AB with diode removed
x x 10 0.909
w
8 50 8 5
RTH = Thevenin’s resistance

Chapter 1 Diodes By: Er. MB Sah

 50 x 5
4.55Ω
w
8 50 8 5

0.909
Since the diode is ideal, it has zero resistance and From Thevenin’s equivalent circuit as in figure (ii)
yzXX l{ {|X}z~| mF}m 0.25 20045
w

w 4.55
Q.7. Use the ideal diode model and piecewise linear model to find the current through the diode (For
piecewise linear model rd = 0.5Ω)

Solution:
Using ideal diode model the equivalent circuit is

10
545
2 ∗ 10Q
/
Using the piecewise linear model, we redraw the circuit

The equivalent circuit is as follow

10 0.7 9.3
∴ 4.6545
/
2 ∗ 10Q 8 0.5 2000.5
Chapter 1 Diodes By: Er. MB Sah
Operation in the Reverse Breakdown Region-Zener Diodes
As we know that the ordinary diodes are not design to operate in breakdown region because in
breakdown region the diode cannot hold the high current in reverse direction and the diode get damage.
This is the region; we cannot use ordinary diode for voltage regulation. There is a special diode, which is
designed to operate in breakdown region known as breakdown diode or Zener diode. Zener diode can be
used in voltage regulation circuit so as to regulate the voltage.
Zener Diodes
A Zener diode is a semiconductor device that makes the current flow in the forward or in the backward
direction. The diode usually consists of a p-n junction which is heavily doped. The diode is designed to
conduct the flow of current in the reverse direction after reaching a specified voltage.

Figure – Symbol of Zener diode Figure – physical structure of zener diode

The Zener diode has a reverse-breakdown voltage at which the diode starts conductivity electric current,
and remains continuous in the reverse-bias mode. The voltage drop across the diode always remains
constant irrespective of the applied voltage, and this feature of the Zener diode makes it suitable for
voltage regulation.

Figure – I-V Characteristics of the Zener diode

From the I-V characteristics curve, it is seen that the forward characteristics are nearly identical to those
of any ordinary P-N junction diode. The Zener diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of
almost a constant negative voltage regardless of the value of the current flowing through the diode.
This voltage remains almost constant even with large change in current providing the Zener diodes
current remains between the breakdown current IZ(min) and its maximum current IZ(max).
This ability of the Zener diode to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilize a
voltage source against supply or load variations.
This property of the Zener diode is utilized in the design of the voltage regulator circuits so as to get
stable output voltage. The voltage at which Zener breakdown occurs is known as reverse breakdown
voltage or in specific Zener breakdown voltage. It is denoted by VZ.
Zener Diode Specifications
Some commonly used specifications for Zener diodes are as follows:
Zener/Breakdown Voltage – The Zener or the reverse breakdown voltage ranges from 2.4 V to 200
V, sometimes it can go up to 1 kV while the maximum for the surface-mounted device is 47 V.
Chapter 1 Diodes By: Er. MB Sah
 Current Iz (max) – It is the maximum current at the rated Zener Voltage (Vz – 200μA to 200 A).
Current Iz (min) – It is the minimum value of current required for the diode to break down.
Power Rating – It denotes the maximum power the Zener diode can dissipate. It is given by the
product of the voltage of the diode and the current flowing through it.
Temperature Stability – Diodes around 5 V have the best stability
Voltage Tolerance – It is typically ±5%
Zener Resistance (Rz) – It is the resistance to the Zener diode exhibits.

Zener diode as a voltage regulator

The Zener diode is a special diode and also able to work in reverse bias condition. Zener diode is
connected in parallel with the load and hence it is called Zener diode voltage regulator.

Figure – Zener diode voltage regulator

The resistance Rs is connected in series with the Zener to limit the current in the circuit and hence it is
called as series current limiting resistor. The output voltage (VL) is taken across the load resistor (RL).
When the input voltage is less than Zener voltage (VZ), the Zener diode does not conduct so all the flows
through the load resistor and output is taken across it.
The input voltage (Vs) is greater than Zener voltage (VZ) for proper operation. The current IZ flows
through the Zener diode maintaining the output voltage constant.
When IZ is increases, Zener resistance RZ decreases but VZ remains constant.
When IZ is decreases, Zener resistance RZ increases but VZ remains constant.
When the input voltage is low, the whole current transferred to the load.
When the input voltage is high, the excess current is bypassed by the Zener diode.
The output across the load resistor is stable and constant. In this way Zener diode acts as a voltage
regulator.

€ 8 ?
From the above circuit we can write
•
• 8 €
Steps for solving Zener diode circuits
The following steps are followed
i. Open circuit the Zener diode and find the voltage VL across the load resistor.
ii. If VL˃ VZ then the Zener diode conducts current and acts as a voltage regulator otherwise not,
iii. Replace the Zener diode with voltage source VZ.
iv. The input current (IS) is given by:
•

v. the current through the load resistor is given by:

?
?
?

€ 8 ?
vi. The input current is the sum of Zener current and load current
•
vii. The Zener current (IZ) is given by:
€ • ?

Chapter 1 Diodes By: Er. MB Sah

viii. The maximum current that can flow through the Zener diode is determined by maximum power

ƒ€@>‚
rating of the Zener diode and given by:
€@>‚
€
Ideal Zener diode model
The ideal model of a Zener diode in reverse breakdown and its ideal characteristic curve is shown in the
figure given below. It has a constant voltage drop equal to the nominal Zener voltage. This constant
voltage drop across the Zener diode produced by reverse breakdown is represented by a dc voltage
symbol even though the Zener diode does not produce a voltage.

Practical Zener diode model

The practical model of a Zener diode is shown in the figure given below. Since the actual voltage curve
is not ideally vertical, a change in Zener current (ΔIZ) produces a small change in Zener voltage (ΔVZ),
as illustrated in Below Figure. By Ohm’s law, the ratio of ΔVZ to ΔIZ is the impedance or resistance, as

„ €
expressed in the following equation:
X€
„€

Chapter 1 Diodes By: Er. MB Sah

Q.1. For the circuit shown in Figure, find: (i) the output voltage (ii) the voltage drop across series
resistance (iii) the current through Zener diode.

Solution:

10 … 120
If you remove the Zener diode in above circuit, the voltage V across the open-circuit is given by:
80C
?
8 ? 5 8 10
Since voltage across Zener diode is greater than VZ (50 V), the Zener is in the “on” state. It can,
therefore, be represented by a battery of 50 V.

120 50 70C
(i) The output voltage VZ = 50v
•
1445
(ii) The voltage drop across R =
†7
_… 7P
(iii) Current through R,
545
‡ _7
Load current ? Zˆ 7… 7P
The Zener current € ? 14 5 945

Q.2. For the circuit shown in Fig. (i), find the maximum and minimum values of Zener diode
current.

Solution:
The first step is to determine the state of the Zener diode. It is easy to see that for the given range of
voltages (80 − 120 V), the voltage across the Zener is greater than VZ (50 V). Hence the Zener diode
will be in the “on” state for this range of applied voltages. Consequently, it can be replaced by a battery
of 50 V as shown in Fig. (ii).
Chapter 1 Diodes By: Er. MB Sah
Maximum Zener current: The Zener will conduct maximum current when the input voltage is
maximum i.e. 120 V. Under such conditions:

Minimum Zener current: The Zener will conduct minimum current when the input voltage is
minimum i.e. 80 V. Under such conditions, we have,

Q.3. A 7.2 V Zener is used in the circuit shown in Figure and the load current is to vary from 12 to
100 mA. Find the value of series resistance R to maintain a voltage of 7.2 V across the load.
The input voltage is constant at 12V and the minimum Zener current is 10 mA.

Solution:

The voltage across R is to remain constant at 12 − 7.2 = 4.8 V as the load current changes from 12 to
100 mA. The minimum Zener current will occurs when the load current is maximum.

If R = 43.5 Ω is inserted in the circuit, the output voltage will remain constant over the regulating range.
As the load current IL decreases, the Zener current IZ will increase to such a value that IZ + IL = 110 mA.
Note that if load resistance is open-circuited, then IL = 0 and Zener current becomes 110 mA.

Chapter 1 Diodes By: Er. MB Sah