Chapter 4

Output Stages and Power

Amplifier

Chapter 4 Output Stages and Power Amplifier By:Er. MB Sah

Introduction
Output stages are an essential component of electronic circuits and systems, responsible for delivering
the final amplified signal to the load. They play a crucial role in audio amplifiers, power amplifiers, and
other electronic devices where signal amplification is necessary.
The primary objective of an output stage is to drive the load with sufficient power while maintaining
fidelity and efficiency. The design of the output stage depends on various factors such as the type of
load, power requirements, distortion considerations, and impedance matching.
A power amplifier is simply an amplifier with a high power output stage.

Classification of Output Stages

Output stages can be classified into several types based on their configuration and operational
characteristics. Here are some commonly used classifications:

Class A:
Class A output stages are known for their high fidelity and low distortion characteristics. In this
configuration, the output devices operate in the active region throughout the entire signal cycle i.e. the
conduction angle is 360o. Class A amplifiers are characterized by low efficiency and generate significant
heat due to continuous current flow, even when there is no input signal. Class A amplifiers have
maximum efficiency of 25% (without transformer) and 50% (with transformer).

Figure – Output waveform for Class A Amplifier

Class B:
Class B output stages are designed to improve efficiency compared to Class A stages. It has maximum
efficiency of 78.5%. They use a pair of complementary output devices (transistors or tubes) that handle
the positive and negative halves of the input signal i.e the conduction angle is 180o. Each device
operates in the active region for only half of the signal cycle, reducing power dissipation. However,
Class B stages introduce some crossover distortion due to the non-linearity at the zero-crossing points.

Figure – Output waveform for Class B Amplifier

Class AB:
Class AB output stages aim to minimize the crossover distortion present in Class B stages. They use a
biasing scheme that keeps both output devices conducting a small amount of current even when no input
signal is present. The conduction angle is greater than 180o but less than 360o. This biasing helps to
reduce the non-linear transition between the devices, resulting in improved linearity. Class AB stages

Chapter 4 Output Stages and Power Amplifier By:Er. MB Sah

offer better efficiency compared to Class A, but not as high as Class B. So its efficiency lies between
25% to 78.5%.

Figure – Output waveform for Class AB Amplifier

Class C:
Class C output stages are highly efficient but not suitable for high-fidelity applications. They are
typically used in radio frequency (RF) amplifiers, oscillators, and other applications where waveform
distortion is acceptable. Class C stages operate the output devices for less than half of the input signal
cycle (i.e. the conduction angle is less than 180o), resulting in high efficiency but significant distortion.

Figure – Output waveform for Class C Amplifier

Class D:
Class D output stages, also known as switching amplifiers, achieve high efficiency by using a pulse-
width modulation (PWM) technique. The input signal is converted into a high-frequency square wave,
and the output devices (usually MOSFETs) rapidly switch between on and off states. The output is then
filtered to reconstruct the amplified signal. Class D stages are commonly used in audio amplification,
particularly in portable devices and subwoofers.

Class E, F, and G:
These are specialized output stage configurations used in specific applications. Class E stages are
commonly found in RF amplifiers and are designed for maximum power efficiency. Class F stages
further optimize efficiency by shaping the transistor waveforms to reduce power losses. Class G stages,
often used in audio amplifiers, utilize multiple power supply rails to improve efficiency at low output
levels.
Class A Output Stage
Class A output stage is also known as Class A Amplifier. In this type of Amplifier the output waveform
is the exact replica of input waveform. The transistor conduct in the complete cycle i.e the conduction
angle is of 360o. There are basically two configuration of Class A amplifier i.e. Series fed Class A
amplifier and Transformer coupled class A amplifier.

Series fed Class A amplifier

The figure shows the Series fed class A amplifier. It is called series fed amplifier as the load RC
connected in series with the transistor output.
The differences between large signal (series fed) and the small-signal are that the signals handled by the
large-signal circuit are in the range of volts and the transistor used is a power transistor that is capable of
operating in the range of a few to tens of watts.
β is generally less than 100 for a power transistor( large power or current and low voltage gain).
Chapter 4 Output Stages and Power Amplifier By:Er. MB Sah
The circuit is not the best to use as a large-signal amplifier because of its poor power efficiency.

Figure – Series Fed Class A Amplifier Circuit

DC Bias Operation of series fed class A amplifier:
The dc bias set by Vcc and RB fixes the dc base-bias current at

From output loop, we can write

0

When IC= 0,
When VCE = 0,
Now from these values we can draw a DC load line on the output characteristic of the transistor as
shown in figure:

Figure – DC load line on the characteristic curve

AC Operation of series fed class A amplifier

When the small input applied to the Amplifier, the output will vary from its dc bias operating voltage
and current. A small input signal causes the output voltage to swing to a maximum of VCC and a
minimum of 0V. The current can also swing from 0 mA to ICQ (VCC /RC).

Chapter 4 Output Stages and Power Amplifier By:Er. MB Sah

 Figure – Input and output signals superimposed upon bias current and voltage

Input power
The DC input power to the amplifier is given as:

2
Where,

2
Output Power
The AC output power is given as
"#" "#" "#" "#"

√2 √2 2√2 2√2 8
%&' ( &(
Where, ,
√ √
%&' )*) & )*)
,
%&' )*)
"#"

"#" "#" "#"

8 8
"#"
8
General efficiency:
The efficiency is defined as the ratio of output ac power to input dc power.
"#"
8
+
2
+
"#"
4

Chapter 4 Output Stages and Power Amplifier By:Er. MB Sah

From figure we can write,
"#" -.
And
-. /
By substituting these values in equation (iii), we get general efficiency:
1
+
-.
4 -. /

+ 0.25
-.

-. /

3
Maximum efficiency:
From the characteristics curve, we can see that "#" .
From equation (iii), we get

+ 0.25 25%
"#"
4 4
-.

+ -. 25%
Hence the maximum efficiency of class A amplifier is only 25%. The low efficiency makes class A
amplifier unusual in designing audio and power amplifiers.

Transformer Coupled Class A Amplifier

The efficiency of class A amplifier can be increased by transformer to couple the load. The efficiency is
increased due to
Transformer at the output provides impedance matching therby causing maximum power
transfer.
The DC resistance of the primary coil of transformer is very low (ideally zero).

Figure – Transformer coupled class A amplifier

In the amplifier, transformer is used to couple the output to the load resistance RL. the output reistance
as seen by transformer at the collector end is RL’.

6
We know transformer behavior.
→ 89:;<= :>;?3@8>A;: 8?
5 65
65
→ BC>>=?: :>;?3@8>A;: 8?
5 6
Chapter 4 Output Stages and Power Amplifier By:Er. MB Sah
 → AF=G;?H= :>;?3@8>A;: 8?
D 5
E
D 5
6 6 6
. I J
D 5

D
E
5 65 65 65
65
E
I J K
D
6 D D

Where, K
LM
LN
= Turn ratio of the transformer
DC analysis: at DC analysis the winding resistance is ideally zero so the DC load line is a straight
vertical line as shown in figure
0
∴

Similarly, transformer’s primary coil in the collector of transformer provides an AC load of

resistance D E . Therefore the AC load line corresponding to D E is shown in figure. The AC load line
extends upto 2VCC and (2VCC/ D E ) in vCE and iC axis respectively. This is due to counter emf effect of
the transformer. Q point is obtained at the intersection of DC and AC load line. The output signal swing
across the q point as shown in figure.
Input power
The DC input power to the amplifier is given as:
E
D

Where, Q
P

E
D
Output Power
The AC output power is given as

E E
D D

Chapter 4 Output Stages and Power Amplifier By:Er. MB Sah

 %&' (
Where, ,
√
%&' )*)
,

I J
"#"
2√2 "#"

D
E
8 DE
"#"
8 DE
General efficiency:
The efficiency is defined as the ratio of output ac power to input dc power.
"#"
8 E
+ D

E
D

+
"#"
8
From figure we can write,
"#" -.
And
2 -. /
By substituting these values in equation (iii), we get general efficiency:
4
+
-.
8 -. /

+ 0.5
-.

-. /

32
Maximum efficiency:
From the characteristics curve, we can see that "#" .
From equation (iii), we get
4
+ 0.5 50%
"#"
8 8
-.

+ -. 50%
Hence the maximum efficiency of transformer coupled class A amplifier is only 50%.

Class B output stages

Before going to study class B output stages, we have to know about push pull circuits for class B
amplifier.

Push Pull circuits

Two signals of opposite polarity are known as push pull signals. Push pull signal are widely used in the
input of class B amplifier. The circuits which produce push pull signal is called phase splitters. There
are different methods of generating push pull signal

Chapter 4 Output Stages and Power Amplifier By:Er. MB Sah

Using BJT Using Transformer

Using Opamp

Complementary symmetry Class B Push pull Amplifier

The complemenary symmetry class B amplifier is configure by connecting two complementary
transistor i.e. one NPN (QN) and other PNP (QP). The NPN (QN) transistor uses +VCC whereas PNP (QP)
transistor uses –VCC as a DC supply as shown in figure. These transistor are connected in push pull
fasion, it means the NPN transistor QN pushes the current to the load RL where as the PNP transistor QP
pull the current from the load RL. that’s why it is called comlementary symmetery Class B Push Pull
amplifier. In this amplifier only one transistor is on at a time.

Operation
When input is zero (vI=0)
When the input is zero, the base emitter junctions of both the transistors
are reverse biased so both the transistor are in cutoff region and the
output voltage (vo) is zero.

When input is positive

During the positive half cycle, the input exceeds about 0.5v, the base
emitter junction of QN is forward biased hence QN conducts. In this case
vo follows vI (i.e., vo= vI – vBEN ) and QN supplies the load current. On
the other hand, the emitter base junction of QP will be reverse biased
thus QP will be cutoff.
When input is Negative
During the negative half cycle, the input exceeds about –0.5v, QP turns on and acts as an emitter
follower. Again vo follows vI (i.e., vo= vI + vEBP), but in this case QP supplies the load current ( in the
direction opposite to that of iL, since vo will be negative), and QN will be cutoff.

Transfer characteristics of class B Amplifier

The figure shows the transfer characteristics of the class B amplifier.in this figure we can see that both
the transistors are not ON state within 0.5V on either side. This region is known as dead band. This
region will give rise to the cross over distortion.
Chapter 4 Output Stages and Power Amplifier By:Er. MB Sah
 Figure – Transfer characteristics of class B amplifier

Efficiency of Class B amplifier

Let VoP be the peak output voltage produced by class B amplifier and RL (or rP) be the equivalent load
resistance in the output circuit. Then,
I RS
J
√2 RS
-
D D 2 D
Let VCC be the DC source voltage and the equivalent dc current supplied by the dc source is the average

2 2 RS 2 RS
dc value of the ac output current which may be expressed as

T RS
T D T D

2 RS
Thus, DC power supply by source is

T D
Now, the efficiency is given as
RS
2
+ T
- D RS
2 RS 4
T D
The general efficiency of class B amplifier is given by below equation.
+ T ∗ 100%
RS
4
RS V
T
For maximum efficiency,
+ T ∗ 100% T ∗ 100% ∗ 100%
RS
-.
4 4 4
+ -. 78.5%
Condition for Minimum efficiency
Power loss (dissipation) by class B amplifier
D -
2 RS RS
T D
D
2 D

G D 2
Differentiating with respect to output voltage VOP
RS
G RS T D D
For maximum power loss,
Chapter 4 Output Stages and Power Amplifier By:Er. MB Sah
 G D
0
G RS
2
0
RS
T D D
2
∴ 0.6366
RS
T

Thus, when the output peak voltage is 0.6366VCC, then the efficiency of class B amplifier becomes

2 T
minimum and is given by the expression
+ T ∗ 100% ∗ 100%
RS
4 T 4
+ 50%

Figure – Power dissipation verses peak output voltage of class B amplifier

Cross over distortion in Class B Amplifier

Whenever the transistors start conduction just after the amplitude of the input signal has increased above
0.7V, then the input signal regions where the amplitude is below 0.7V will be not there with the output
signal, known as cross-over distortion. The cross-over distortion waveform is shown below. So in this
diagram, you can notice that the input waveform regions which are below 0.7V are not there within the
o/p waveform.

Figure – Cross over Distortion in Class B Amplifier

Elimination of Cross over distortion

The crossover distortion of class B amplifier can be reduced substantially employing a high gain op-amp
and overall negative feedback as shown in figure. The ±0.7V dead band is reduced to ±0.7/Ao V, where
Ao is the dc gain of the op-amp.
Chapter 4 Output Stages and Power Amplifier By:Er. MB Sah
 Figure – Elimination of the Crossover distortion
Nevertheless, the slew-rate limitation of the op-amp will cause the alternate turning on and off of the
output transistor to be noticeable, especially at high frequencies. A more practical method for reducing
and almost eliminating crossover distortion is found in the class AB operation.

Transformer coupled class B push pull amplifier

The transformer coupled class B push pull amplifier consists of two identical transistors Q1 and Q2
whose bases are connected to the secondary of the center-tapped input transformer Tr1. The emitters are
shorted and the collectors are given the VCC supply through the primary of the output transformer Tr2.

Figure – Transformer coupled class B push pull amplifier

Operation
The circuit of class B push-pull amplifier shown in the above figure clears that both the transformers are
center-tapped. When no signal is applied at the input, the transistors Q1 and Q2 are in cut off condition
and hence no collector currents flow. As no current is drawn from VCC, no power is wasted.
When input signal is given, it is applied to the input transformer Tr1 which splits the signal into two
signals that are 180o out of phase with each other. These two signals are given to the two identical
transistors Q1 and Q2.

Chapter 4 Output Stages and Power Amplifier By:Er. MB Sah

For the positive half cycle, the base of the transistor Q1 becomes positive and collector current flows. At
the same time, the transistor Q2 has negative half cycle, which throws the transistor Q2 into cutoff
condition and hence no collector current flows. The waveform is produced as shown in the above figure.

For the next half cycle, the transistor Q1 gets into cut off condition and the transistor Q2 gets into
conduction, to contribute the output. Hence for both the cycles, each transistor conducts alternately. The
output transformer Tr3 serves to join the two currents producing an
almost undistorted output waveform.

Cross over distortion in Class B Amplifier

In the result of small currents for V<Vthreshold , the output is nonlinear
and is much smaller that it would be if response were linear. This effect
is called cross over distortion.
When unbiased, a class B push pull amplifier has no output until the
input voltage exceeds approximately 0.7 or 0.5 V. this result in clipping
between positive and negative half cycles. This effect is called cross
over distortion.
Elimination
We need to apply slight forward bias to each diode of transistor i.e. the Q point should be slightly above
cutoff to avoid this distortion. In order to minimize crossover distortion, transistors must operate in a
class AB mode, where a small standby current flows at zero excitation.

Power Efficiency of Class B Push-Pull Amplifier

Here,
I J
√2
-
D D

-
2 D
A;Z ACA 8C:FC: F8[=>

2 RS 2
T T D
2
T D
Efficiency is given by
T T
+
- D
2 D 2 4
T
+ ∗ 100% 78.5%
4
A;Z ACA =@@ H =?H\

Q.1. It is required to design a class B output stage to deliver an average power of 20W to an 8 Ω load.
The power supply is to be selected such that VCC is about 5 V greater than the peak output voltage. This
avoids transistor saturation and the associated nonlinear distortion, and allows for including short-circuit
protection circuitry. Determine the supply voltage required, the peak current drawn from each supply,
the total supply power, and the power-conversion efficiency. Also determine the maximum power that
each transistor must be able to dissipate safely.

Chapter 4 Output Stages and Power Amplifier By:Er. MB Sah

Solution: – we know that the output ac power is
RS
-
2 D
Then, RS ]2 D - √2 ∗ 8 ∗ 20 17.9 V 18
Therefore, RS / 5 18 / 5 23

18
The peak current drawn from each supply is
2.25_
RS
RS
D 8
Since, each supply provides a current waveform of half-sinusoids, the average current drawn from each
`
supply will be abc
. Thus the total supply power is
2 RS 2 ∗ 2.25
23 ∗ 32.9 d
T T

20
The power conversion efficiency is
+ ∗ 100% ∗ 100% 60.8%
-
32.9
The maximum power dissipated in each transistor is given by
23
6.7d
L -. S -.
T D T 8
Q.2. For class B amplifier providing a 14V peak signal to 16 Ω load and power supply of VCC= 24V,
determine input power, output power and circuit efficiency.
Solution: –
Given, RS 14
D 16Ω
24

2 RS 2 ∗ 14
We know that the input power is
24 ∗ 13.36d
T D T 16
The output power is
14
6.125d
RS
-
2 D 2 ∗ 16

6.125
The efficiency of the circuit is given by
+ ∗ 100% ∗ 100% 45.84%
-
13.36
Darlington Transistor
A Darlington transistor (or Darlington pair) is an electronics component made via the combination of
two BJTs connected in such a way that it allows a very high amount of current gain. The Darlington
transistor was invented by Sidney Darlington in 1953.

The Darlington Transistor consists of two PNP transistors or

NPN transistors connected back to back. It is a single package
with a common collector terminal for both transistors.

The Emitter terminal of the first transistor is connected with the

base terminal of the second transistor. Hence, the base supply is
given only to the first transistor, and the output current is taken
only from the second transistor. Therefore, it consists of only
one base, emitter, and collector as shown in the figure.

Chapter 4 Output Stages and Power Amplifier By:Er. MB Sah

Complementary symmetry class B Push pull amplifier
A more practical version of complementary push pull amplifier
is shown in figure. Note that the load is driven as the output of
an emitter follower so that the resistance of the load is matched
by the low output resistance of the driving source. The circuit
uses complementary Darlington connected transistors to
provide higher current and lower output resistance.

Quasi complementary class B amplifier

The figure shows the circuit of quasi complementary class B amplifier. It is one of the most popular
configurations for power amplifier. In this circuit push pull action is achieved by the NPN and PNP
transistors Q1 and Q2 while the output is provided by the two matched NPN transistors Q3 and Q4.

Figure – Quasi complementary class B amplifier

The connection of Q2 and Q4 is called feedback pair. Its main purpose is to reduce the output impedance
of the circuit so as to effectively drive the load. Variable resistor R2 can be adjusted to reduce cross over
distortion.
Class AB Output Stage
Crossover distortion can be virtually eliminated by biasing the complementary output transistors at a
small nonzero current. The result is the class AB output stage shown in figure. A bias voltage VBB is
applied between the bases of QN and QP. For vi =0, vO=0, and a voltage VBB/2 appears across the base–
emitter junction of each of QN and QP. Assuming matched devices,
gg
L S f= h

The value of VBB is selected to yield the required quiescent current IQ.

Circuit operation
When goes positive by certain amount, the voltage at the base of QN increases by the same amount,
and the output becomes positive at an almost equal value
/
2 L

The positive causes a current D to flow through RL, and thus L must increase i.e.
L S / D

Chapter 4 Output Stages and Power Amplifier By:Er. MB Sah

 Figure – Class AB amplifier Figure – Transfer characteristics of Figure – Class AB amplifier

The increase in L will be accompanied by a corresponding increase in L (above the quiescent value
of VBB/2). However, since the voltage between the two bases remains constant at VBB, the increase in
L will result in an equal decrease in S and hence in S .
L / S

ln / ln 2 ln
L S
i i i
f f f
L S
From the equation above, we can see that for positive output voltage, the load current is supplied by QN ,
which acts as the output emitter follower. Meanwhile, QP will be conducting a current that decreases as
increases; for large the current in QP can be ignored altogether.
For Negative input voltages the opposite occurs: the load current will be supplied by QP, which acts as
the output emitter follower, while QN conducts a current that gets smaller as becomes more negative.

Complementary symmetry class AB push-pull amplifier

In Class AB amplifier, The transistors are biased into conduction by applying voltage divider biasing
even when there is no input signal.

Figure – Complementary symmetry class AB push-pull amplifier

Chapter 4 Output Stages and Power Amplifier By:Er. MB Sah
During the positive half cycle, Q1 (NPN) will be biased into conduction whereas Q2 (PNP) is cut-off. So,
current ICQ1 flows from +VCC to ground through load.
During the negative half cycle, Q2 (PNP) will be biased into conduction whereas Q1 is at cut off. So
current ICQ2 flows from ground to – VCC. Both the currents are same in magnitude i.e. ICQ2= ICQ1.

Figure – Characteristics of class AB amplifier

The class AB amplifier operates in nearly same manner as the class B amplifier with one exception. For
small vi, both transistors conducts, and as vi increased or decreased, one of the transistor at a time takes
over the operation by providing the forward bias of ±0.5V to each diode of the transistor. since the
transition is a smooth one, crossover distortion will be almost totally eliminated.

Complementary symmetry Class AB Push Pull Amplifier using Darlington pair

Complementary symmetry Class AB Push Pull Amplifier using Darlington pair is shown in figure.
There are four diodes, which are required in the bias circuit to match the four base-emitter junctions of
the two Darlington pairs. Q1 and Q2 transitor form NPN darlington pair whereas Q3 and Q4 transitor
form PNP darlington pair.

Figure – Complementary symmetry Class AB Push Pull Amplifier using Darlington pair

Chapter 4 Output Stages and Power Amplifier By:Er. MB Sah

Quasi complementary class AB Push pull Amplifier
Figure shows a Quasi complementary class AB push-pull amplifier with two npn output power
transistors (Q2 and Q4). The upper part of the push-pull configuration is a traditional Darlington, and the
lower part is a complementary Darlington (or feedback pair or Sziklai pair). Here only three diodes are
used to bias the base emitter junction of the transistors Q1, Q2 and Q3.

Figure – Quasi complementary class AB push-pull amplifier

Biasing the Class AB Stage

Figure shows a class AB circuit in which the bias voltage VBB is generated by passing a constant current
IBIAS through a pair of diodes D1 and D2. In circuits that supply large amounts of power, the output
transistors are large-geometry devices.

Figure – Class AB Amplifier with diode biasing

The biasing diodes, however, need not be large devices, and thus the quiescent current IQ established in
QN and QP will be IQ=nIBIAS, where n is the ratio of the emitter–junction area of the output devices to the
junction area of the biasing diodes. In other words, the saturation current IS of the output transistors is n
times that of the biasing diodes.

Chapter 4 Output Stages and Power Amplifier By:Er. MB Sah

Power BJTs
As a normal BJT, the power BJTs are also a three terminal device and the terminals are emitter, base and
collector. The Power Transistor (BJT) is a vertically oriented device having a large area of cross-
sectional with alternate P and N-type layers are connected together. As a normal BJT, power BJTs are
also of two types i.e. NPN and PNP.

Figure – Symbol of Power BJT NPN and PNP

Characteristics of a Power BJT
It has a larger size, so that maximum current can flow through it
The breakdown voltage is high
It has higher current carrying and high-power handling capability
It has a higher on-state voltage drop
High power application.

Structure of Power Transistor

The figure shows the structure of NPN power BJT. In the vertical configuration for power BJT, the
collector terminal is at the bottom of the device. This configuration is preferred as it maximizes the
cross-sectional area through which the current flows in the device. In addition, the doping concentrations
and dimensions are different from those of small switching transistors.

Figure – Structure of Power transistor

The primary collector region has a lightly doped impurity concentration so that a large base-collector
voltage can be applied without initiating breakdown. Another N region, with a highly doping
concentration, reduces collector resistance and makes contact with the external collector terminal. The
base region is also much wider than normally encountered in small devices. A large base-collector
voltage implies a relatively large space charge width being induced in both the collector and base
regions. A relatively large base width is required to avoid punch through breakdown.

Chapter 4 Output Stages and Power Amplifier By:Er. MB Sah

V-I Characteristics of a Power Transistor
The V-I characteristics of Power transistor is shown in the figure. From figure, we can see that there are
four regions. They are cut-off region, active region and saturation region is further divided into two
regions i.e. Quasi saturation and Hard saturation region.

Figure – V-I characteristics of Power transistor

Cut-off region
A power transistor is said to be in a cut off mode if the NPN power transistor is connected in reverse
bias i.e. base-emitter and collector-base are connected in reverse bias. Hence,
IB = 0, IC = βIB = 0
This indicates that transistor is in off state and in a cut off region. But a small fraction of leakage current
flows throw the transistor from collector to emitter i.e, ICEO.
Active region
A transistor is said to be in active region only when the base-emitter region is forward bias and
collector-base region is reverse bias. Hence there will be a flow of current IB in the base of transistor and
flow of current IC through the collector to emitter of the transistor. When IB increases IC also increases.
Quasi saturation region
A transistor is said to be in the quasi saturation stage if base-emitter and collector-base are connected in
forwarding bias. The Quasi saturation region is available only in Power transistor characteristic not in
signal transistors. It is because of the lightly doped collector drift region present in Power BJT. In this
region, the power transistor take less time for transition from ON to OFF state (Saturation to cut-off).
Hard saturation region
A transistor is said to be in hard saturation if base-emitter and collector-base are connected in
forwarding bias. . In this region, the power transistor take more time for transition from ON to OFF state
(Saturation to cut-off).

Power dissipation in transistor and Heat sink

The temperature at the collector junction of the transistor limits its maximum power attainable because,
when the power dissipation in the transistor exceeds the maximum temperature limit of the junction, it
will be damaged. Normal maximum temperature ranges from 150o to 200o for silicon devices. Therefore
it is necessary to provide some method of removing heat from the transistor.
The usual method is to mount the transistor on a sheet of metal (copper or aluminum) known as heat
sink. The heat produced at the collector junction of the transistor passes from its metal face casing into
heat sink body and from heat sink body it radiates in the surrounding atmosphere. Thus, the junction
temperature is always higher than the surrounding air and the difference of the temperature is
proportional to the power dissipated in the transistor. It may be expressed mathematically as,
lm l- n o
This is called thermal ohm’s law.
Chapter 4 Output Stages and Power Amplifier By:Er. MB Sah
Where,
lm is temperature at collector junction
l- n is temperature of surrounding air or ambient temperature.
is power dissipation
o is a constant called thermal resistance (oc/w)
Thus, the temperature at junction may be expressed as
lm l- n / o
Design of Heat sink
For a particular power transistor of a power amplifier, the effective total thermal resistance between
collector junction and surrounding air is made up of the following components.
I. The thermal resistance o5 between collector junction and transistor body (say 1.2 oc/w)
II. The thermal resistance o of the mica washer which is generally used between the transistor case
and heat sink to isolate the collector terminal electrically from heat sink yet thermally connected
(say 0.5 oc/w)
III. The thermal resistance op of the heat sink itself. Thus depends upon mass and area of the heat
sink. Therefore, the total thermal resistance is
o o5 / o / op
So, equation becomes
lm l- n / o5 / o / op
Tuned Amplifier
An amplifier circuit, in which the load circuit is a tank circuit such that it can be tuned to pass or amplify
selection of a desired frequency or a narrow band of frequencies, is known as Tuned Circuit Amplifier.
it works only at resonance frequency. Resonant LC circuit as a load provides high impedance and so
tuned amplifier can provide high gain.

Figure – simple class A tuned amplifier

Figure – parallel resonance circuit

1
For the parallel resonance circuit as shown in above figure, the admittance is given by,
q s / tu
r
1 1
Where, G = conductance and B = Suspectance
q / t Ivw B J
vw x
Chapter 4 Output Stages and Power Amplifier By:Er. MB Sah
 1 1
We have,
wq y / t Ivw B Jz
w
vw x
The equation (i) says that at near zero and near infinity frequency, the admittance is very high. And as a
result output voltage is very low near zero.
When the frequency increases from near zero, the output voltage raises upto a certain frequency called
resonance frequency and beyond that, the output voltage falls down. At resonance frequency, the output
voltage is highest. But at a resonant frequency, the Susp

1
ectance (B) is equal to zero or the capacitive reactance is equal to inductive reactance.
vw B 0
vw x
1 1
vw 8>, @w
√xB 2T√xB
At cut-off frequency of -3db, vw we have
|s | |u |
s u
1 1
Ivw B J
vw x
1 1
Ivw B J }
vw x
At lower cutoff frequencyv 5 , we have from equation (ii)
1 1
Iv 5 B J
v 5x

1 1
At higher cutoff frequencyv , we have from equation (ii)
Iv B J /
v x

1 1 1 1
Adding equation (iii) and (iv), we get
Iv 5 B J / Iv B J
v 5x v x
1 1 1
v 5/v B I / J 0
x v 5 v
1 1 1
v 5/v I / J
xB v 5 v
1 v 5/v
v 5/v I J
xB v 5 v
1
v 5v
xB
1
∴v 5
v xB

1 1
From equation (iv) and (v), w get
Iv B J /
v x
1
v B v 5B /
1
∆v v v 5
B
1
Band width of the resonant circuit is
ud
B
Chapter 4 Output Stages and Power Amplifier By:Er. MB Sah
Quality factor (Q)
Quality factor is the measure of the selectivity or sharpness of the tuning of the resonant circuit. It can be

>=38?;?: @>=€C=?H\ vw
expressed as
• vw B
•;?G[ G:‚ 1
B
But, vw
5
, we get
√D

1 B
• B ƒ
√xB x
Synchronous tuning
Synchronous tuning is used to get sharp curve having least bandwidth (BW). Consider a case of N
identical resonant circuits. Figure shows the response of the individual stage and overall response. The
bandwidth was observed “shrinkage” of overall response.
The 3 dB bandwidth B of the overall amplifier is related to that of the individual tuned circuits, vw /•,
vw 5/L
by
ud ]2 1
•
Where,
N is the number of stages
√2 5/L 1 is bandwidth shrinkage factor

Figure – Response of the synchronous tuning

Stagger tuning
Staggered tuned amplifier is an amplifier that is used to improve the total frequency response of the
tuned amplifier. Usually, these amplifiers are designed to exhibit an overall response for maximal
flatness in the region of the center frequency. This amplifier uses tuned circuits to operate in union.

Key features
It has better overall response
The tuning of this amplifier is very easy.
It has better flat wideband characteristics.
The bandwidth is increased √2 times when compared to a single tuned amplifier.
The overall gain is increased due to the cascading of two single tuned amplifiers.
Chapter 4 Output Stages and Power Amplifier By:Er. MB Sah
 Figure – Response of the stagger tuning

Difference between synchronous tuned and stagger tuned amplifier

There are some basic difference between synchronous tuned and stagger tuned amplifier.

Synchronous tuned amplifier Stagger tuned amplifier

It is used for shrinking or narrowing of bandwidth
It is Frequency-selective to filter out noise and
interference
Coherent detection for accurate signal recovery
Used in AM and SSB demodulation applications
It is used for broadening of bandwidth
It has Extended bandwidth and improved
selectivity
Multiple tuned stages with slightly different
resonant frequencies
Used in multi-channel communication systems for
FDM and similar applications

Q.1. Calculate the efficiency of transformer coupled push pull power amplifier for a supply voltage of
20V and output of: Vp=20V and Vp=16V.
Solution:-

T RS
We know that the efficiency of transformer coupled push pull power amplifier is given as
+ ∗ 100%
4

T20
When Vp=20V,
+ ∗ 100% 78.5%
4 ∗ 20
T16
When Vp=16V,
+ ∗ 100% 62.83%
4 ∗ 20

Q.2. A transformer coupled class A large signal amplifier has maximum and minimum values of
collector-emitter voltages of 25V and 2.5V. Determine its collector efficiency.
Solution:-
Given
-. 25
2.5
We know that the efficiency of the transformer coupled class A amplifier is given as

Chapter 4 Output Stages and Power Amplifier By:Er. MB Sah

 25 2.5 22.5
+ 0.5 0.5 0.5 33.47%
-.

-. / 25 / 2.5 27.5

Q.3. A transformer coupled class A amplifier uses 25:1 transformer to drive 4Ω load. Calculate the
effective load as seen by the collector of the transistor.
Solution:- Given
Load resistance (RL) = 4Ω
Turn ratio (α) = 25:1
Effective load (RL’) = ?
We know that the effective load resistance as seen by the collector side of the transformer is given as
RL’ = α2 RL = 252 *4 = 2500 Ω = 2.5K Ω

Q.4. For a class B amplifier using a supply of VCC = 30V and driving a load of 16 Ω. Determine the
maximum input power, output power and transistor dissipation.
Solution:- Given
Load resistance (RL) = 16 Ω
Supply voltage (VCC) = 30V
We know, for class B amplifier
ab
Input power,
c P
N
ab
Output power, -
P
For maximum input and output power, VP = VCC
Therefore,
Maximum input power,
2 RS 2 2 ∗ 30 1800
35.81 d;::3
-.
T D T D T 16 50.2655
Maximum output power,
30 900
28.125 [;::3
RS
- -.
2 D 2 D 2 ∗ 16 32
Power dissipation in two transistors,
… †n‡ -. - -. 35.81 28.125 7.685 [;::3

7.685
Power dissipation in single transistor,
3.8425 [;::3
… †n‡
ˆ‡
2 2

Q.5. A silicon power transistor is operated with a heat sink (θSA=1.5 oC/W). The transistor rated at 150
w (25 oC) has θJC= 0.5 oC/W and the mounting insulation has θCS= 0.6 oC/W. what maximum
power can be dissipated if the ambient temperature is 40 oC and TJmax = 200 oC.
Solution:- we know that
lm l- n / o
lm -. l- n / -. o
lm -. l- n
-.
o
Now, we have
o o‰ / o f / of 0.5 / 0.6 / 1.5 2.6 C/W

lm -. l- n 200 40
Therefore,
61.53 [;::3
-.
o 2.6

Chapter 4 Output Stages and Power Amplifier By:Er. MB Sah

Q.6. A BJT is specified to have maximum power dissipation of 2 watts at an ambient temperature of
25oC, and a maximum temperature TJmax of 150 oC. find the
a. The thermal resistance
b. The maximum power that can be safely dissipated at an ambient temperature of 50 oC
c. The junction temperature if the device is operating at TA = 25oC and is dissipating 1watt.
Solution:-
We know that
lm l- n o

lm -. l- n 150 25
a. The thermal resistance is given as
o 62.5 C/W
-. 2

b. The maximum power that can be safely dissipated at an ambient temperature of 50 oC

lm -. l- n 150 50
1.6 [;::3
-.
o 62.5
c. The junction temperature if the device is operating at TA = 25oC and is dissipating 1watt.
lm l- n / o 25 / 1 ∗ 62.5 87.5 C

Chapter 4 Output Stages and Power Amplifier By:Er. MB Sah