Chapter 2 the Bipolar Junction Transistors

Chapter 2
The Bipolar Junction

Transistor
Chapter 2 The Bipolar Junction Transistor By: Er. MB. Sah

Transistor
Definition: The transistor is a semiconductor device which transfers a weak signal from low resistance
circuit to high resistance circuit. The words Trans mean transfer property and istor mean resistance
property offered to the junctions. In other words, it is switching devices which regulates and amplify the
electrical signal likes voltage or current.
The transistor was invented in 1947–48 by three American physicists, John Bardeen, Walter H.
Brattain, and William B. Shockley, at the American Telephone and Telegraph Company’s Bell
Laboratories.
Constructional of a Transistor
The Transistor is a three terminal solid state device which is formed by connecting two diodes back to
back. Hence it has got two PN junctions. Three terminals are drawn out of the three semiconductor
materials present in it. This type of connection offers two types of transistors. They are PNP and NPN.
P-N-P Transistor: It is a type of BJT where one n-type material is introduced or placed between two p-
type materials. In such a configuration, the device will control the flow of current. PNP transistor
consists of 2 crystal diodes which are connected in series. The right side and left side of the diodes are
known as the collector-base diode and emitter-base diode, respectively.
N-P-N Transistor: In this transistor, we will find one p-type material that is present between two n-type
materials. N-P-N transistor is basically used to amplify weak signals to strong signals. In NPN transistor,
the electrons move from the emitter to collector region resulting in the formation of current in the
transistor. This transistor is widely used in the circuit.
Figure –Construction and symbol of PNP and NPN Transistor

The three terminals drawn from the transistor indicate Emitter, Base and Collector terminals. They have
their functionality as discussed below.
Emitter
The right hand side of the above shown structure can be understood as Emitter.
This has a moderate size and is heavily doped as its main function is to supply a number
of majority carriers, i.e. either electrons or holes.
As this emits electrons, it is called as an Emitter.
This is simply indicated with the letter E.
Base
The middle material in the above figure is the Base.
This is thin and lightly doped.
Its main function is to pass the majority carriers from the emitter to the collector.
This is indicated by the letter B.
Collector
The left side material in the above figure can be understood as a Collector.
Its name implies its function of collecting the carriers.
This is a bit larger in size than emitter and base. It is moderately doped.
This is indicated by the letter C.
Transistor Operating Conditions
When the emitter junction is in forward biased and the collector junction is in reverse bias, then it is said
to be in the active region. The transistor has two junctions which can be biased in different ways. The
different working conduction of the transistor is shown in the table below.
Mode of Emitter Base Junction Collector Base

Operation (EB) Junction (CB)
Active Forward-biased Reversed-biased
Saturation Forward-biased Forward-biased
Cut-off Reversed-biased Reversed-biased
Inverted Reversed-biased Forward-biased
Active mode – In this case, the emitter-base junction is connected in forward biased and the collector-
base junction is connected in reverse biased. The transistor is in the active region and the collector
current is depends on the emitter current. The transistor, which operates in this region, is used for
amplification.
Saturation mode – In this condition, both the junction is in forward biased. The transistor is in
saturation region and the collector current becomes independent of the base current. The transistors act
like a closed switch.
Cut-off mode – Both the junction are in reverse biased. The emitter does not supply the majority charge
carrier to the base and carriers current are not collected by the collector. Thus the transistors act like an
open switch.
Inverted active mode – The emitter-base junction is in reverse bias and the collector-base junction is
kept in forward biased. As the collector is lightly doped as compared to the emitter junction it does not
supply the majority charge carrier to the base. Hence poor transistor action is achieved.
Operation PNP Transistor in active mode
The PNP transistor can be operated in active mode by connecting emitter-base junction in forward
biased and collector-base junction in reverse biased.
The voltage VEE provides a positive potential at the emitter which repels the holes in the P-type material
and these holes cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the base region. There a very low percent of
holes recombine with free electrons of N-region. This provides very low current which constitutes the
base current IB. The remaining holes cross the collector-base junction, to constitute collector current IC,
which is the hole current.

As a hole reaches the collector terminal, an electron from the battery negative terminal fills the space in
the collector. This flow slowly increases and the electron minority current flows through the emitter,
where each electron entering the positive terminal of VEE, is replaced by a hole by moving towards the
emitter junction. This constitutes emitter current IE.
∴
Thus, the emitter current is the sum of the collector current and base current.
Hence we can understand that −
The conduction in a PNP transistor takes place through holes.
The collector current is slightly less than the emitter current.
The increase or decrease in the emitter current affects the collector current.
Operation NPN Transistor in active mode

The NPN transistor can be operated in active mode by connecting emitter-base junction in forward
biased and collector-base junction in reverse biased.
The voltage VEE provides a negative potential at the emitter which repels the electrons in the N-type
material and these electrons cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the base region. There a very low
percent of electrons recombine with free holes of P-region. This provides very low current which
constitutes the base current IB. The remaining electrons cross the collector-base junction, to constitute
the collector current IC.
As an electron reaches out of the collector terminal, and enters the positive terminal of the battery, an
electron from the negative terminal of the battery VEE enters the emitter region. This flow slowly
increases and the electron current flows through the transistor.
∴
Thus, the emitter current is the sum of the collector current and base current.
Hence we can understand that −
The conduction in a NPN transistor takes place through electrons.
The collector current is higher than the emitter current.
The increase or decrease in the emitter current affects the collector current.
Advantages
There are many advantages of a transistor such as −
High voltage gain.
Lower supply voltage is sufficient.
Most suitable for low power applications.
Smaller and lighter in weight.
Mechanically stronger than vacuum tubes.
No external heating required like vacuum tubes.
Very suitable to integrate with resistors and diodes to produce ICs.
There are few disadvantages such as they cannot be used for high power applications due to lower
power dissipation. They have lower input impedance and they are temperature dependent.
Transistor Configuration
We know that generally the transistor has three terminals – emitter (E), base (B) and collector. But in the
circuit connections we need four terminals, two terminals for input and another two terminals for output.
To overcome these problems we use one terminal as common for both input and output actions.
Using this property we construct the circuits and these structures are called transistor configurations.
Generally there are three different configurations of transistors and they are
Common Base (CB) Configuration,
Common Collector (CC) Configuration
Common Emitter (CE) Configuration
Common Base Configuration

In this configuration we use base as common terminal for both input and output signals. Here the input
is applied between the base and emitter terminals and the corresponding output signal is taken between
the base and collector terminals with the base terminal grounded.
Figure – Common base configuration symbol and circuit connection
Here the input parameters are VBE and IE and the output parameters are VCB and IC. The input current
flowing through the emitter terminal must be higher than the base current and collector current to
operate the transistor, therefore the output collector current is less than the input emitter current.
Figure – Common base transistor circuit

This transistor configuration has high output impedance and low input impedance. This type of
configuration has high resistance gain. The voltage gain for this configuration of circuit is given below.
AV = Vout/Vin = (IC*RL) / (IE*Rin)
Current gain in common base configuration is given as
α = Output current/Input current= IC/IE
The common base circuit is mainly used in single stage amplifier circuits, such as microphone pre
amplifier or radio frequency amplifiers because of their high frequency response.
Input Characteristics
Input characteristics are obtained between input current (IE) and input voltage (VBE) with constant output
voltage (VCB). The input resistance Rin is ratio of the change in input voltage to the change in input
current keeping output voltage constant.
Rin = ΔVEB / ΔIE (when VCB is constant)
Figure – input characteristics of Common base configuration

Output Characteristics
The output characteristics are obtained between output current (IC) and output voltage (VCB) with
constant input current (IE). The output resistance is the ratio of the change in output voltage (VCB) to
output current (IC) keeping input current (IE) constant.
Rout = ΔVCB / ΔIC (when IE is constant)
Figure –Output characteristics of Common base configuration
Common Collector Configuration

In this configuration we use collector terminal as common for both input and output signals. This
configuration is also known as emitter follower configuration because the emitter voltage follows the
base voltage. This configuration is mostly used as a buffer.
Here the input parameters are VCB and IB and the output parameters are VEC and IE. The common
collector configuration has high input impedance and low output impedance. The input and output
signals are in phase.
Here also the emitter current is equal to the sum of collector current and the base current. The Current
gain is given by: Ai = output current/Input current
Ai = IE/IB
Ai = (IC + IB)/IB
Ai = (IC/IB) + 1
γ=β+1
Figure –Common Collector configuration symbol Figure – Common Collector transistor circuit
The voltage gain for this circuit is less than unity but it has large current gain because the load resistor in
this circuit receives both the collector and base currents.
The input characteristics are obtained between inputs current (IB) and the input voltage (VCB) at constant
output voltage (VCE).
Figure – input characteristics of Common Collector configuration

The input characteristics of a common collector configuration are quite different from the common base
and common emitter configurations because the input voltage VCB is largely determined by VCE level.
VCE = VBE + VCB
VBE = VCE – VCE
The output characteristics are obtained between the output voltage (VCE) and output current (IE) at
constant input current (IB).
Figure –Output characteristics of Common Collector configuration

In the operation of common collector circuit if the base current is zero then the emitter current also
becomes zero. As a result no current flows through the transistor.
If the base current increases then the transistor operates in active region and finally reaches to saturation
region.
Common Emitter Configuration

In this configuration we use emitter as common terminal for both input and output. This common
emitter configuration is an inverting amplifier circuit. In this configuration the input parameters are
VBE and IB and the output parameters are VCE and IC.
Figure – Common Emitter configuration symbol and circuit connection
In this configuration the emitter current is equal to the sum of small base current and the large collector
current.
IE = IC + IB
Now let us see the relationship between these two current gains.
Current gain (α) = IC/IE
Current gain (β) = IC/IB
Collector current IC =α IE = βIB
This configuration is mostly used one among all the three configurations. It has medium input and
output impedance values. It also has the medium current and voltage gains. But the output signal has a
phase shift of 1800 i.e. both the input and output are inverse to each other.
Figure – Common Emitter transistor circuit

The input characteristics are obtained between input current (IB) and input voltage (VBE) with constant
output voltage (VCE). The input resistance Rin is the ratio of change in input voltage (VBE) to change in
input current (IB) keeping output voltage (VCE) constant .
Rin = ΔVBE/ΔIB (when VCE is at constant)
Figure –Input characteristics of Common Emitter configuration
The output characteristics are obtained between the output current (IC) and output voltage (VCE) with
constant input current (IB). The output resistance is the ratio of the change in output voltage (VCE) to
output current (IC) keeping input current (IB) constant.
Rout = ΔVCE/ΔIC (when IB is at constant)
Figure –Output characteristics of Common Emitter configuration
Summary of Transistors Configurations

Relation between different current gains
Relation between α and β:
As we know that, IE = IC + IB
Dividing both sides by IC, we get
, where, α , and β ,
1 1 β 1 β
1 , therefore, α
α β β 1 β
Similarly,
1 1 1 α α
1 , therefore, β
β α α 1 α
Relation between β and γ:
Dividing both sides by IB, we get
, where, β and γ
γ β 1 and β γ 1
Relation between α and γ:
As we know that, IE = IC + IB , Dividing both sides by IE, we get
, where, α , and γ
1 α , ,α 1 , therefore, α , !"# γ $
Bipolar Junction Transistor modeling

In any transistor circuit, there may be both AC and DC source. To analyze such a circuit, first
calculate the effect of the DC source and AC source respectively.
AC analysis is important because most of the natural sources are AC.
Consider common emitter circuit in which base terminal is input terminal with input current IB
and Collector terminal is output terminal with output current IC.
There are two components of voltage and current, such as AC and DC.
For DC biasing of transistor, DC components are used.
There are two sources VCC and VBB, which are used to forward bias Base emitter junction and
reversed bias the Collector base junction.
Notations used
In this circuit, Base current is total instantaneous base current
% %&
Where, IB is dc base current and ib is ac base current.
Similarly, % %' and % %(
Here , the voltages are
) * )&( and ) * )'(
Where, VBE and VCE are DC component while vbe and vce are AC components.
For DC part, we have
-. -.
+, and 0,
-/ -1
Similarly for AC part, we have
34 34
+2' and 02'
35 36
Note- AC components are denoted by lower case letters while DC components are denoted by upper
case letter.
The +, and +2' are not same but for simplification take both same.
Now the circuit analysis is done in two steps first DC analysis and then AC analysis.
DC analysis or Large signal analysis
For DC analysis we only consider DC components and remove all the AC components.
Figure shows the NPN transistor. It also indicate current flowing through different terminals of the
transistor and voltages between the different terminals.
When we look at the input terminal there is base current as an input current. Base emitter junction is
forward biased and behaves like a diode whose terminals are base and emitter as shown in figure below.
When we look at the output terminal there is collector current (IC) as an output current depending upon
the input base current (IB).
+
Thus, the equivalent circuit of transistor is as below circuit.
Also,
9/1
+ 78 :
9
Here, IC is controlled by voltage across base and emitter. The above equivalent circuit of transistor for
dc analysis is known as large signal model.
A General Large-Signal Model for the BJT: The Ebers-Moll Model
Ebers Moll model (EM model), is an ideal model, giving transistor's working in all modes of operation
that are active, reverse active, saturation and cut-off regions.
As you know a transistor has two PN junctions (or PN diodes). This can be viewed as two back to back
diodes with a common terminal in between two diodes. These are the emitter-base junction or diode and
collector-base junction or diode.
According to this model, the BJT can be replaced by
Two diodes DE and DC. These two diodes represent base-emitter and base-collector diodes
Two dependent sources. These current sources depend upon current through diodes.
Figure – Ebers Moll Model for NPN transistor

Ebers and Moll developed a composite model. This model is versatile and still, it is used. This model
can predict all four modes of BJT.
The diode DC shows collector-base junction, with current IDC and has a scale current ISC. Similarly, the
diode DE shows an emitter-base diode, with current IDE and has a scale current ISE.
The diode current IDC and IDE is written as
</1
, 7 ;8 <: 1= (1)
</.
, 7 ;8 <: 1= (2)
From figure we can write,
, 0> ,
Putting the value of IDE and IDC we get,

CD@ CDI
∴ ?@ ?A@ ;B CE F= GH ?AI ;B CE F= (3)
, 0J ,
CDI CD@
∴ ?I ?AI ;B CE F= GK ?A@ ;B CE F= (4)
;1 0J = , ;1 0> = ,

CD@ CDI
∴ ?D ;F GK =?A@ ;B CE F= ;F GH =?AI ;B CE F= (5)
The equations (3), (4) and (5) are the Eber’s Moll equations
Ebers Moll Model Equations For Different Modes Of Operations:
Forward Active Mode:

Base-emitter junction is forward biased (VBE is positive and greater than 1). Base-collector junction is
reversed biased (VBC is negative and less than 1). We can neglect all VBC terms from the above set of
equations.
9/1 9/.
8 9: ≫ 1 !"# 8 9: ≪ 1
9/1
∴ 7 ;8 9: 1=
9/1
∴ 0J 7 N8 9: 1O 0J
9/1
∴ ;1 0J = 7 N8 9: 1O ;1 0J =
Reverse Active Mode:
Base-collector junction is forward biased (VBC is positive and greater than 1). Base-emitter junction is
reversed biased (VBE is negative and less than 1). We can neglect all VBC terms from the above set of
equations.
9/1 9/.
8 9: ≪ 1 !"# 8 9: ≫ 1
9/.
∴ 0> 7 ;8 9: 1=
9/.
∴ 7 ;8 9: 1=
9/.
∴ 7 ;1 1= 0> = ;8 9:
Saturation Mode:
Base-emitter junction is forward biased (VBE is positive and greater than 1). Base-collector junction is
forward biased (VBC is positive and greater than 1).
9/1 9/.
8 9: ≫ 1 !"# 8 9: ≫1
9/1 9/.
∴ 7 ;8 9: 1= 0> 7 ;8 9: 1=
9/. 9/1
∴ 7 ;8 9: 1= 0J 7 ;8 9: 1=
9/1 9/.
∴ ;1 0J = 7 ;8 9: 1= ;1 0> = 7 ;8 9: 1=
VBE = 0.8V
VBC = 0.7V
VCE = VBC - VBE = 0.1V
Cut-off Mode:
Base-emitter junction is reversed biased (VBE = 0). Base-collector junction is reversed biased (VBC is
negative and less than 1).
9/1 9/.
8 9: ≡ 1 !"# 8 9: ≪1
9/.
∴ 0> 7 Q8 9: 1R 0> 7
∴ 7
∴ ;1 0> = 7
AC analysis or small signal model
For AC analysis we only consider AC components and neglect all the DC components. So after the
transistor is turned on from sleep, ac signal introduced into transistor and analyze the effect of ac signal
onto the transistor.
For base emitter junction, since this junction is forward bias, when looking from the input terminal there
will be a resistive path between base and emitter.
When looking at output terminal, the AC collector current flows into the collector at transistor and can
be related to Vbe . this gives, ic= gm Vbe
Now the equivalent circuit of the transistor is given below.
This equivalent circuit of the transistor for AC analysis is known as the small signal model.
Hybrid π -Model
As we know that,
*S *S *S +*S *S
%( %& %' TU *S +%& ;1 +=
S S S S S
*S ;1 += *S
%(
S (
Where,
S
(
;1 +=
S ;1 += (
TU *S TU S %& +%&
Where, + TU S
T Model
9V Y 9V 9V [
%( %& %' or, %& %( %' TU *S *S XW Z ;1 0= X1 Z
W6 6 W6 W6 W6 [\
*S 1 *S
%& N O
( + 1 S
Where, S ( ;1 +=
TU *&( TU ( %( 0%(
Hybrid π –Model and T model with early effect
When we consider early effect to the transistor the output resistance introduced which is denoted by ro.
9^
] -
, Where VA is called early voltage and ranges from 50 v to 100 v and IC is a collector current.
.

Graphical Load Line Analysis
Graphical load line analysis is a very simple method to calculate the collector current and collector
emitter voltage at any point on the output characteristics curve. In this method, calculate a point on both
axes making anther axis component zero and connect these two points. This line is called DC load line
and the point where it intersect output characteristics curve is called Q point (Quiescent point) or
operating point.
Figure – Transistor circuit Figure – Q point on the DC load line

The figure shows the simple transistor circuit and DC load line. From figure we write
*'' _ * 0
* *'' _
When VCE = 0,
Caa
?I
HI
When IC = 0,
Vcd Vee
After calculating these two value we get coordinate (VCE, 0) and (0, IC). by joining these two points we
get DC load line. These values represent the maximum output voltage and maximum output current.
Biasing BJT for Discrete-Circuit Design

Transistor Biasing is the process of setting a transistors DC operating voltage or current conditions to the
correct level so that any AC input signal can be amplified correctly by the transistor
Need for Biasing
A transistors steady state of operation depends a great deal on its base current, collector voltage,
and collector current and therefore, if a transistor is to operate as a linear amplifier, it must be
properly biased to have a suitable operating point.
Establishing the correct operating point requires the proper selection of bias resistors and load
resistors to provide the appropriate input current and collector voltage conditions.
There are some basic types of Transistor Biasing
Fixed Bias or Fixed Base Bias or Fixed Resistance Bias
Collector Feedback Bias
Emitter Feedback Bias
Voltage Divider Bias
Fixed Bias or Fixed Base Bias or Fixed Resistance Bias

The biasing circuit shown in Figure has a base resistor RB connected between the base and the VCC. Here
the base-emitter junction of the transistor is forward biased by the voltage drop across RB, which is the
result of IB flowing through it.
By applying KVL to the first loop we get,
*'' _ * 0
*'' *
_
+
Figure – Fixed bias transistor circuit

Here the values of VCC and VBE (0.3 for Ge and 0.7 for Si) are fixed, while the value for RB is constant
once the circuit is designed. This leads to a constant value for IB, resulting in a fixed operating point due
to which the circuit is named fixed base bias.
By applying KVL to the second loop we get,
*'' _ * 0
* *'' _
Collector Feedback Bias
Figure – Collector Feedback Bias Circuit
In this circuit Figure, the base resistor RB is connected across the collector and the base terminals of the
transistor. This means that the base voltage (VB) and the collector voltage (VC) are inter-dependent
because, * * _
Where, * * ; =_
From these equations, it is seen that an increase in IC decreases VC, which results in a reduced IB,
automatically reducing IC.This indicates that, for this type of biasing network, the Q-point (operating

point) remains fixed irrespective of the variations in the load current causing the transistor to always be
in its active region regardless of β value.
Furthermore, this circuit is also referred to as a self-biasing negative feedback circuit as the feedback is
from output to input via RB.
Applying KVL to the first loop, we get
* ; =_ _ * 0
As we know that,
+
Now putting the value of IC in above equation,
* ; + =_ _ * 0
* f ;1 + =_ _ g * 0
CII CD@
?D
; F h= HI HD
h;CII CD@ =
?I h?D
; F h= HI HD
Now for calculating VCE, applying KVL at second loop we get,
* ; =_ * 0
CI@ CII ;?D ?I =HI
Emitter Feedback Bias
Figure –Emitter feedback bias

As evident from Figure, this biasing circuit is nothing but a fixed bias network with an additional emitter
resistor, RE.
Here, if IC rises due to an increase in temperature, the IE also increases, increasing the voltage drop
across RE. This results in the reduction of VC, causing a decrease in IB, bringing IC back to its normal
value.
*'' _ * _ 0
IE = βIB + IB = (β+1) IB
Now from above equation, we get
*'' _ * ;1 + = _ 0
*'' * _ ;1 + = _
Caa CD@
?D
HD ; F h= H@

h;Caa CD@ =
?I h ?D
HD ; F h= H@
;h F=;Caa CD@ =
?@ ;h F= ?D
HD ; F h= H@
Now for calculating VCE, applying KVL at second loop we get,
* _ * _ 0
Since, ?@ i ?I we get,
* _ * _ 0
* * _ _
CI@ CII ;HI H@ =?I
Voltage Divider Bias
This type of biasing network employs a voltage divider formed by the resistors R1 and R2 to bias the
transistor. This means that the voltage developed across R2 will be the base voltage of the transistor,
which forward biases its base-emitter junction. In general, the current through R2 will be fixed to be 10
times the required base current, IB (i.e., I2 = 10IB).
Figure – Voltage divider bias

As IC increases due to a temperature rise, IE increases, causing an increase in the emitter voltage VE,
reducing the base-emitter voltage VBE. This results in the decrease of base current IB, which restores IC
to its original value.

Now we use thevenin theorem and find RTh and Vth
_ _m
_jk _ ||_m
_ _m
Now the current I in the loop is
*
_ _m
_m *
*jk
_ _m
*jk _jk * _ 0
*jk _jk * ;1 + = _ 0
*jk * _jk ;1 + = _
CEn CD@
?D
HEn ;F h=H@
h;CEn CD@ =
?I h ?D
HEn ;F h=H@
By applying KVL to the second loop we get,
* _ * _ 0
Since, ?@ i ?I we get,
* _ * _ 0
CI@ CII ;HI H@ =?I
General guideline for design of voltage divider biasing circuit (or β independent biasing)
There are basically two guidelines for designing voltage divider circuits.
Guideline 1 or 1/3rd rule (VCC≤10V)
This guideline is generally applicable for VCC≤10V.
In this guideline,
* *
*ok * , *> _
3 3
This condition will lead to R1=2R2.
For Firm biasing (used when high input impedance required)
t
Hqn r. FhH@ i Ht
u
Where, Rth=R1//R2 and R1 is selected such that R1=2R2.
Or equivalently
In this scheme current through R1 and R2 is assumed to be equal to 0.1IE (i.e. IR12=0.1IE).
R2 is calculated from, VB = IR12 R2
And using the value of R2, R1 can be calculated from, VCC = IR12 (R1 + R2).
For stiff biasing (used when less input impedance required)
2
_qn 0.01+_ i _m
3
Where, Rth=R1//R2 and R1 is selected such that R1=2R2.
Or equivalently
In this scheme current through R1 and R2 is assumed to be equal to IE (i.e. IR12=IE).
R2 is calculated from, VB = IR12 R2
And using the value of R2, R1 can be calculated from, VCC = IR12 (R1 + R2).
Guideline 2 or 1/10th rule (VCC≥15V)
This guideline is generally applicable for VCC≥15V.
In this guideline,

1 5 4
* _ * , * * !"# *> _ *
10 10 10
Since, * 0.1* ;* ≪ * =
The above condition will lead to: Hqn Ht .
For Firm biasing (used when high input impedance required)
In this scheme current through R1 and R2 is assumed to be equal to 0.1IE (i.e. IR12=0.1IE) and
Hqn Ht r. FhH@
With the help of the value of R2, R1 can be calculated from VCC = IR12 (R1 + R2).
For stiff biasing (used when less input impedance required)
In this scheme current through R1 and R2 is assumed to be equal to IE (i.e. IR12=0.1IE) and
Hqn Ht r. rFhH@
With the help of the value of R2, R1 can be calculated from VCC = IR12 (R1 + R2).
Note:
When 10< VCC<15 then one may choose any one of the guidelines.
Analysis of the Transistor circuit at DC

Q. Figure shows biasing with base resistor method. Determine the collector current IC and Collector-
emitter voltage VCE . Neglect small base-emitter voltage. Given that
β = 50.
Solution:
2 _ * 0
Neglecting the VBE
2
20{|
100 ∗ 10z
Collector Current
+ 50 ∗ 20 ∗ 10 } 1~|
Now applying KVL to output loop
*'' _ * 0
* *'' _ 9 1 ∗ 10 z ∗ 2 ∗ 10z 7*
Q. Figure shows a silicon transistor biased by collector feedback resistor method. Determine the
operating point. Given that β = 100.
Solution:
VCC = 20V, RB = 100 kΩ, RC = 1kΩ
Since it is a silicon transistor, VBE = 0.7 V.
Assuming IB to be in mA and using the relation,
* ; + =_ _ * 0
* f ;1 + =_ _ g * 0
* * 20 0.7
;1 + =_ _ ;1 100=1 ∗ 10z 100 ∗ 10z
19.3
0.096~|
201 ∗ 10z
+ 100 ∗ 0.096 ∗ 10 z 9.6~|
Collector-Emitter voltages
* *'' _ 20 9.6 ∗ 10 z ∗ 1 ∗ 10z 10.4*
Q. For the circuit shown in Figure, find the operating point. Given that β = 50 and VBE = 0.7V.
Solution:
Thesvenize the given circuit and redraw it with thevenin’s voltage and resistance.
150 ∗ 100
_jk 60‚ƒ
150 100

_m * 100 ∗ 10z ∗ 12
*jk 4.8*
_ _m ;150 100= ∗ 10z
*jk * 4.8 0.7

_jk ;1 + =_ 60 ∗ 10z 51 ∗ 2.2 ∗ 10z
4.1
0.0238 ~|
172.2 ∗ 10z
+ 50 ∗ 0.0238 ∗ 10 z 1.19~|
Considering, ?@ i ?I then,
* * ;_ _ = 12 ;4.7 2.2= ∗ 103 ∗ 1.19 ∗ 10 z
* 3.789*
Transistor as a Switch-Cut off and Saturation

A transistor can be used as a switch. If the transistor is operated in the saturation region then it acts as
closed switch and when it is operated in the cut off region then it behaves as an open switch.
Saturation State (Closed Switch)
Figure – Circuit diagram of BJT as Switch in Saturation region
The transistor operating in the saturation region exhibits following characteristics −

The input is connected to VCC.
Base – Emitter voltage is greater than cut – in voltage (0.7 V).
Both the base – emitter junction and base – collector junction are forward biased.
The transistor is fully – ON and operates as closed switch.
The collector current is maximum
9..
>.
And *… 0*
Cut Off State (Open Switch)
Figure – Circuit diagram of BJT as a Switch in cutoff region
When transistor operates in the cut off region shows the following characteristics −
The input is grounded i.e. at zero potential.
The VBE is less that cut – in voltage 0.7 V.
Both emitter – base junction and collector – base junctions are reverse biased.
The transistor is fully – off acting as open switch.
The collector current IC = 0 and output voltage Vout = VCC.
Figure – Transfer characteristics of the transistor as a switch

There are two things to remember here:
When Vi is low and the transistor is unable to forward bias, Vo is high (= VCC).
If Vi is sufficiently high to saturate the transistor, Vo is very low (~0).
It is also switched off when a transistor is not conducting. On the other side, it is turned on when it is in
a state of depletion. Bringing these components together, imagine a resistor that determines the low and
high values below and above those points of voltage.
Transistor as an Amplifier
For a transistor to work as an amplifier, we usually use the common-emitter configuration. The figure
below shows how the transistor is set up when it is connected to a circuit as an amplifier.
the input is connected in forward-biased, and the output is connected in reverse-biased. The input signal
is applied on the base-emitter junction, and the output is taken through the load in the emitter-collector
junction. There is also an application of DC voltage in the input circuit for amplification. Besides, a
small change in signal voltage results in the change of emitter current, which is mainly due to the low
resistance in the input circuit. The load resistance is of high value, which causes a large voltage drop.
Overall, the weak signal is thus amplified in the collector circuit.
Figure – Common emitter NPN transistor as a Amplifier

From the figure, it is clear that on the output side, V0 = VCC– ICRC,
Where, V0 is the output voltage,
Ic is the collector current,
Rc is the load resistance, and
Vcc is the fixed voltage on the output side.
If we consider ∆V0 and ∆Vi as small changes in output and input voltages, respectively, then ∆V0 / ∆Vi
is called the small-signal voltage gain, Av of the amplifier.
Therefore, ∆V0= 0 – Rc ∆IC = – Rc ∆IC
The gain in terms of voltage when the changes in input and output currents are observed is called
voltage gain.
Similarly, in the input side,
Vin = IB RB + VBE
Or, ∆Vin = ∆IBRB + ∆VBE
Or, ∆Vin = ∆IBRB since (∆VBE <<∆IBRB)
Or,
Av = ∆V0 / ∆Vin = – Rc ∆IC / RB ∆IB = – βac Rc / RB
Where, βac = ∆IC / ∆IB is the AC current gain.
When there is a gain in terms of current due to the changes in input and output currents, it is called
current gain. β value can range between 20 and 500.
The power gain of an amplifier is defined as the product of the current gain and voltage gain of the
amplifier. It is also defined as the rate of change in output power to the change in input power.
Mathematically, Ap = βac x Av.
The transfer characteristics of the BJT common emitter amplifier circuit is shown below. The amplifier
biased at point Q. the small voltage signal vbe is superimposed on the DC bias voltage VBE. The input
signal can swing across VBE. The resulting output signal vo appears superimposed on the DC collector
emitter voltage VCE. The output signal can swing across VCE. The amplitude of the output ac signal vo is
larger than the input signal vbe by the gain Av. as shown in figure the voltage gain of common emitter
amplifier is negative.

Figure –Transfer characteristics of the BJT common emitter amplifier circuit
Basic Single-Stage BJT Amplifier Configurations (C-B, C-E, C-C)

The BJT amplifiers are in different configuration like Common base, common emitter and common
collector configuration. For implementing the single stage BJT amplifier we utilize these three
configurations along with same basic structure and proper biasing arrangement.
Common emitter configuration
In the common emitter configuration, there are different amplifier configurations which we have to
study here.
Common emitter amplifier using fixed biasing
The first figure shows the common emitter amplifer without emitter resistance using fixes biasing
method. The second figure shows the ac equivlent circuit of the same amplifier.
Figure –Common emitter amplifer without emitter Figure –ac equivalent circuit of the common
resistance using fixes biasing emitter amplifer
For the analysis of the circuit we replace the transistor with its hybrid –π model of the transistor, we get

>ˆ‰
Here, )3 )†3‡ >
ˆ‰ \>Šˆ‹
Input impedance:
The input impedance of the amplifier can be found by looking into the amplifier input terminal.
_3& S
∴ _3Œ _ //_3& _ // S
Output Impedance:
The output impedance of the amplifier Rout is obtained by looking back into the amplifier so the output
impedance is given as
_]Žo _ // ]
We ignore the early effect, i.e. ] is absent in the circuit
∴ _]Žo _
Voltage gain:
The output voltage of the amplifier )] can be calculated as
)] TU )S ;_ // ] //_• =
We ignore the early effect, i.e. ] is absent in the circuit
)] TU )S ;_ //_• =
)]
The output voltage gain is given as
|•
)3
Since, )3 )S , we get
)] TU )S ;_ //_• =
∴ |• TU ;_ //_• =
)S )S
Also the open circuit voltage gain |•] can be obtained by setting _• ∞ , so we get
∴ |•] TU _
Current gain:
The output current %] can be calculated by ignoring the early effect as,
_ _
%] TU )S TU )3
_ _• _ _•
_
∴ %] TU %3 _3Œ
_ _•
The current gain is given as,
_
%] TU %3 _3Œ _ _•
|3
%3 %3
_
∴ |3 TU _3Œ
_ _•
The short circuit current gain |3† is calculated by considering _• 0, we get
∴ |3 TU _3Œ
β Independent common Emitter Amplifier with emitter bypass capacitor
Figure –CE amplifier with bypass capacitor Figure –ac equivalent circuit of CE amplifier with
bypass capacitor
Figure shows the common emitter amplifier with emitter bypass capacitor and its ac equivalent circuit.
When we perform the ac analysis the capacitors present in the circuit are short circuited so no current
flow through the emitter resistor and all the emitter current bypass through the short circuited path.
Now we take hybrid π model of the transistor for analysis of the circuit, we get the following circuit
Where, _ok _ //_m

Input Inpedance:
_3& S
_3Œ _ok //_3& _ok // S
∴ _3Œ _ //_m // S
Output Impedance:
∴ _]Žo _
Voltage gain:
The output voltage of the amplifier )] can be calculated by ignoring the early effect as
)] TU )S ;_ //_• =
)]
|•
)3
Since, )3 )S , we get
)] TU )S ;_ //_• =
∴ |• TU ;_ //_• =
)S )S
∴ |•] TU _
Current gain:
_ _
%] TU )S TU )3
_ _• _ _•
_
∴ %] TU %3 _3Œ
_ _•
_
%] TU %3 _3Œ _
_•
|3
%3 %3
_
∴ |3 TU _3Œ
_ _•
∴ |3† TU _3Œ
β Independent common Emitter Amplifier with emitter unbypass capacitor
Figure shows the common emitter amplifier with emitter unbypass capacitor and its ac equivalent
circuit. When we perform the ac analysis all the capacitors present in the circuit are short circuited. Here

in the circuit emitter bipass capacitor is not used so the emitter current flow through the emitter resistor
to the ground.
Figure –CE amplifier with unbypass capacitor Figure –ac equivalent circuit of CE amplifier with
unbypass capacitor
Now we take hybrid T model of the transistor for analysis of the circuit, we get the following circuit.
Where, _ok _ //_m

Input Inpedance:
)3 %( ; ( _ =
_3&
%& %&
Since %( ;1 +=%&
;1 +=%& ; ( _ =
∴ _3& ;1 +=; _ =
%& (
∴ _3Œ _ok //_3&

∴ _3Œ _ //_m //;1 +=; ( _ =
Output Impedance:
∴ _]Žo _
Voltage gain:
)] 0%( ;_ //_• =
)] 0;1 +=%& ;_ //_• =
[
Since, 0 ; \[=
)] +%& ;_ //_• =
Since, from current divider rule,
_ok
%& %3
_ok _3&
Putting the value of %& in above equation, we get

+%3 _ok
)] ;_ //_• =
_ok _3&
•ˆ
Since, %3 , we get
>ˆ‰
)3
+ _
_3Œ ok
∴ )] ;_ //_• =
_ok _3&
)] +_ok
;_ //_• =
)3 _3Œ ;_ok _3& =
Since, _3Œ ;_ok //_3& =
)] +_ok
|• ;_ //_• =
)3 _ok _3&
;_ok _3& =
;_ok _3& =
+
∴ |• ;_ //_• =
_3&
+_
∴ |•]
_3&
Current gain:
_ _
%] 0%( +%&
_ _• _ _•
%3 _ok _
∴ %] +
;_ok _3& = ;_ _• =
%] +_ok _
∴ |3
%3 ;_ok _3& = ;_ _• =
+_ok
∴ |3†
;_ok _3& =
Commom Base Configuration
β independent Commmon Base Amplifier
Figures shows the β independent common base amplifier and its ac equivalent circuit. When we perform
the ac analysis all the capacitors present in the circuit are short circuited.
Figure – β independent Common Base Amplifier Figure – AC equivalent circuit of β independent

Common Base Amplifier
In this configuration, input is applied through emitter terminal and the output is taken from collector
terminal. The base termonal is common to the both input and output.

The resistor Rth is grounded at both end so it is shorted. As we know when the emitter resistance is
present in the circuit we use T model for small signal analysis.
Where, _ok _ //_m

Input Impedance:
The input impedance of the amplifier is given as
∴ _3Œ _ // (
Output Impedance:
∴ _]Žo _
Voltage gain:
_
)] 0%( ;_ //_• = 0; %3 = ;_ //_• =
;_ (=
)3 _
)] 0 ;_ //_• =
_3Œ ;_ (=
)3 _
)] 0 ;_ //_• =
_ // ( ;_ (=
)3 _
)] 0 ;_ //_• =
_ . ( ;_ (=
;_ (=
)] 0
|• ;_ //_• = TU ;_ //_• =
)3 (
Y
Since, TU W
6
|• TU _
Current gain:
The output current %] can be calculated as,
_ _ _
%] 0%( 0; %3 =
_ _• ;_ (= _ _•
%] 0_ _
∴ |3
%3 ;_ (= _ _•
0_
∴ |3†
;_ (=

Common Base amplifier with Emitter Biasing
The figure shows circuit of the common base amplifier with emitter biasing. When we perform ac
analysis on the circuit, the base resistor is grounded at both the terinal and is neglected in analysis.
Figure – Common Base amplifier with Emitter Biasing
The expressions of Rin, Rout, Av and Ai for the Common Base amplifier with Emitter Biasing is same as
β independent Commmon Base Amplifier because after removing the base resistor the circuit becomes
same.
Common Collector Configuration: Emitter Follower
The common collector amplifier is also called as emitter follower because output is the exact replica of
the input.
β independent Commmon Collector Amplifier: RC Excluded
Figures shows the β independent common Collector amplifier and its ac equivalent circuit. When we
perform the ac analysis all the capacitors present in the circuit are short circuited.
Figure – β independent Common Collector Figure – AC equivalent circuit of β independent

Amplifier: RC Excluded Common Collector Amplifier: RC Excluded
In this configuration, input is applied through base terminal and the output is taken from emitter
terminal. The collector termonal is common to the both input and output. As we know when the emitter
resistance is present in the circuit we use T model for small signal analysis.
The below figure show the small signal analysis model for β independent Common Collector Amplifier:
RC Excluded. In this circuit the output resistance ro is reflected towards the output circuit. So lets redraw
this figure as shown in another figure.

Where, _ok _ //_m
Input Inpedance:
)3 %( ; ( _ // … //_• =
_3&
%& %&
Since %( ;1 +=%&
;1 +=%& ; ( _ // … //_• =
∴ _3& ;1 +=; _ // … //_• =
%& (
∴ _3Œ _ok //_3&

∴ _3Œ _ //_m //;1 +=; ( _ // … //_• =
Here we can seen that the input impedance depends upon the load resistor. Thus the emitter follower is a
non-unilateral amplifier.
Output Impedance:
The output impedance of the amplifier Rout is obtained by looking back into the amplifier with input
source grounded. For output impedance lets us draw the equivalent circuit as follows:
The output impedance is given as

_]Žo _‘‘ //;_ // … =
)’ %( ( %& _†3‡ //_ok
_‘‘
%( %(
_†3‡ //_ok
_‘‘ (
+ 1
_†3‡ //_ok
∴ _]Žo ; =//;_ // … =
(
+ 1
Voltage gain:
)] %( ;_ // … //_• = ;1 +=%& ;_ // … //_• =

;1 +=)3
)] ;_ // … //_• =
_3&
•ˆ
Since, %&
>ˆ5
)] ;1 +=;_ // … //_• =
)3 ;1 +=; ( _ // … //_• =
)] ;_ // … //_• =
|•
)3 ; ( _ // … //_• =
The voltage gain is nearly equal to unity. So
|• 1
The open circuit voltage gain is also nearly to unity, so
|•… 1
Current gain:
The output current %] can be calculated as,
;_ // … = ;_ // … =
%] %( ;1 +=%&
;_ // … _• = ;_ // … _• =
%3 _ok ;_ // … =
%] ;1 +=
_ok _3& ;_ // … _• =
%] _ok ;_ // … =
|3 ;1 +=
%3 _ok _3& ;_ // … _• =
_ok
|3 ;1 +=
_ok _3&
β independent Commmon Collector Amplifier: RC included

The figure shows common collector amplifier circuit with Rc included. In this configuration input is
appied through the base terminal and output is taken out from emitter terminal but the collector terminal
is common and connected to the ground. The collector resistance is not reflected in the output circuit.
The expressions of Rin, Rout, Av and Ai for the Common collector amplifier with collector resistance Rc
is same as the Commmon collector Amplifier without Rc. The expression are
∴ _3Œ _ //_m //;1 +=; ( _ // … //_• =
_†3‡ //_ok
∴ _]Žo ; ( =//;_ // … =
+ 1
;_ // … //_• =
|•
; ( _ // … //_• =
_ok ;_ // … =
|3 ;1 +=
_ok _3& ;_ // … _• =

Commmon Collector Amplifier with Emitter biasing
Figure the shows the common collector amplifier with emitter biaing. As it clear from figure it is same
as β independent common collector amplifier if we add R2 in the circuit.
The expressions of Rin, Rout, Av and Ai for the Common collector amplifier with emitter biasing quit
different. If we replace the resistor Rth by R1 we get the the final expressions and the expressions are
∴ _3Œ _ //;1 +=; ( _ // … //_• =
_†3‡ //_
∴ _]Žo ; ( =//;_ // … =
+ 1
;_ // … //_• =
|•
; ( _ // … //_• =
_ ;_ // … =
|3 ;1 +=
_ _3& ;_ // … _• =


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Chapter 2 the Bipolar Junction Transistors

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Chapter 2

The Bipolar Junction

Chapter 2 The Bipolar Junction Transistor By: Er. MB. Sah

Figure –Construction and symbol of PNP and NPN Transistor

Mode of Emitter Base Junction Collector Base

Chapter 2 The Bipolar Junction Transistor By: Er. MB. Sah

Operation NPN Transistor in active mode

Common Base Configuration

Figure – Common base configuration symbol and circuit connection

Figure – Common base transistor circuit

Figure – input characteristics of Common base configuration

Figure –Output characteristics of Common base configuration

Common Collector Configuration

Figure – input characteristics of Common Collector configuration

Figure –Output characteristics of Common Collector configuration

Common Emitter Configuration

Figure – Common Emitter configuration symbol and circuit connection

Figure – Common Emitter transistor circuit

Chapter 2 The Bipolar Junction Transistor By: Er. MB. Sah

Figure –Input characteristics of Common Emitter configuration

Figure –Output characteristics of Common Emitter configuration

Summary of Transistors Configurations

Chapter 2 The Bipolar Junction Transistor By: Er. MB. Sah

Bipolar Junction Transistor modeling

Figure – Ebers Moll Model for NPN transistor

Putting the value of IDE and IDC we get,

Putting the value of IDE and IDC we get,

Forward Active Mode:

Now the equivalent circuit of the transistor is given below.

Chapter 2 The Bipolar Junction Transistor By: Er. MB. Sah

Figure – Transistor circuit Figure – Q point on the DC load line

Biasing BJT for Discrete-Circuit Design

Fixed Bias or Fixed Base Bias or Fixed Resistance Bias

Figure – Fixed bias transistor circuit

Figure – Collector Feedback Bias Circuit

Chapter 2 The Bipolar Junction Transistor By: Er. MB. Sah

Figure –Emitter feedback bias

Chapter 2 The Bipolar Junction Transistor By: Er. MB. Sah

Figure – Voltage divider bias

Chapter 2 The Bipolar Junction Transistor By: Er. MB. Sah

Chapter 2 The Bipolar Junction Transistor By: Er. MB. Sah

Analysis of the Transistor circuit at DC

Chapter 2 The Bipolar Junction Transistor By: Er. MB. Sah

*jk * 4.8 0.7

Transistor as a Switch-Cut off and Saturation

Figure – Circuit diagram of BJT as Switch in Saturation region

The transistor operating in the saturation region exhibits following characteristics −

Cut Off State (Open Switch)

Figure – Circuit diagram of BJT as a Switch in cutoff region

Figure – Transfer characteristics of the transistor as a switch

Figure – Common emitter NPN transistor as a Amplifier

Chapter 2 The Bipolar Junction Transistor By: Er. MB. Sah

Basic Single-Stage BJT Amplifier Configurations (C-B, C-E, C-C)

Chapter 2 The Bipolar Junction Transistor By: Er. MB. Sah

Where, _ok _ //_m

Chapter 2 The Bipolar Junction Transistor By: Er. MB. Sah

Where, _ok _ //_m

∴ _3Œ _ok //_3&

Chapter 2 The Bipolar Junction Transistor By: Er. MB. Sah

jk 4.8 0.7