Codes and Standards

Codes & Standards
FA LL ED I TI ON
Contents
3 — Electrical grounding and bonding per NEC
17 — 2023 National Electrical Code Changes: New energy

Landscape and Sustainability | Schneider Electric
18 — Back to basics: Medical gas storage under NFPA 99
32 — The NFPA® 70B standard just got overhauled
52 — A guide to upcoming changes in the 2024 edition of

NFPA 101
60 — NFPA 20: Fire pump design
73 — Back to basics: Introduction to dedicated outdoor

air systems
2
Electrical grounding and bonding
per NEC  Back to TOC
Understanding correct grounding and bonding design and construction is

crucial for proper electrical system operation and personnel safety
E lectrical grounding and bonding is one of the many misunderstood topics of dis-
cussion in the design and construction industry. There are two main reasons for
understanding grounding and applying the correct design for grounding and bonding:
safety and correct operation of sensitive electronic equipment.
NFPA 70: National Electrical Code Article 250 covers the minimum requirements for
grounding and bonding and, although the NEC lists requirements to abide by, it
should not be taken as a design manual. Some terms and requirements discussed
may be true for the European standards, however, the intent of this article is to clarify
grounding and bonding design seen in the United States.
Grounding and bonding requirements

Article 250 is a complex portion of the NEC and covers many different types of sys-
tems: grounded systems (less than 50 volts, 50 to 1,000 volts and greater than 1,000
volts), ungrounded systems, systems greater than 1,000 volts, impedance grounded
neutral systems, direct current systems, separately derived systems and grounding of
instrument and meters/relays. The intent of this article is to discuss the requirements of
solidly grounded, alternating current electrical systems less than 1,000 volts.
Grounding and bonding practices are important and required per NEC because when
done properly, it will protect personnel from electrical shock hazards and ensure elec-
3
Electrical grounding and bonding per NEC
 Back to TOC
trical system operation. These practic-

es perform the following functions:
• Keeps equipment enclosures and

other normal metal parts stable
and therefore, safe to touch.
• Limits unintended voltage on the

electrical system imposed by light-
ning, line surges or unintentional
contact with higher-voltage lines.
Figure 1: The illustration of grounding

• Bonds electrical equipment together to estab- systems shows connection from utility to
lish a low impedance path (effective ground-fault load. Courtesy: CDM Smith 4
current path) from the fault location back to supply source to facilitate the opera-  Back to TOC
tion of overcurrent devices.
• Establishes a stable voltage to ground during operation, including short circuits.
• Keeps electromagnetic interferences from causing misoperation.
• Prevents objectionable current.
The requirements for grounding and bonding begin at the service. The NEC requires
the grounded conductor(s) to be routed with the ungrounded conductors to the ser-
vice entrance equipment and it shall connect to the grounded conductor(s) terminal or
bus. The grounded service conductor is required to be connected to a grounding elec-
trode conductor at each service. The main bonding jumper shall connect the grounded
conductor to equipment-grounding conductors and the service entrance enclosure via
the grounded conductor’s terminal or bus.
The GEC shall be used to connect the EGCs, the service equipment enclosures and
where the system is grounded, the grounded service conductor to the grounding elec-
trodes. Figure 1 details the grounding system connections.
The minimum sizes of the grounded conductor, EGC and GEC are determined based
on NEC Table 250.102(C)(1), Table 250.122 and Table 250.66, respectively. The sizes for
the main bonding jumpers, supply side bonding jumpers and system bonding jumpers
can also be sized from Table 250.102(C)(1).
5
 Back to TOC
Although the grounded conductor is connected on the Figure 2: Ground rod spacing is shown in
this illustration. Courtesy: CDM Smith
supply side, it shall not be connected to the EGCs or
reconnected to ground on the load side of the service
disconnection means except as otherwise permitted in the 2017 NEC Article 250.142(B).
Common errors
There are a few errors commonly seen in design or during construction due to a lack of
understanding or misconception concerning grounding, bonding and the NEC Article
250. A few commonly seen errors are: 6
ERROR 1: Using the wrong tables for EGC, grounded conduc-  Back to TOC
tor or GEC.
The sizing methods detailed in the NEC are the minimum requirements and it may not
be adequate for the scope and size of the project. Large available short-circuit currents
may require larger conductor sizes than the minimum NEC requirements.
The EGC should be sized per Table 250.122. A full-sized EGC is required to prevent
overloading and possible burnout of the conductor if a ground fault occurs along one
of the parallel branches. The EGC is sized in accordance with Table 250.122 based on
the rating of the overcurrent protective device upstream that protects the conductors
routed with the EGC.
However, the sizes for EGC in Table 250.122 does not account for voltage drop. There-
fore, ungrounded conductors shall be sized while taking into account the voltage drop
and per 250.122(B), the EGC shall be increased in size proportionately to the upsized
ungrounded conductors. For example, given a 480-volt branch feeder circuit breaker
rated 150 amperes, the EGC shall be sized 6 AWG copper or 4 AWG aluminum for a
voltage drop of at most 3%.
The grounded conductor at the service should be sized in accordance with Table
250.102(C)(1), based on the size of largest ungrounded conductor or equivalent area
for parallel conductors. This table can also be used to size the main bonding jumper,
system bonding jumper and supply-side bonding jumper for AC systems. As stated in
the notes of Table 250.102(C)(1), for ungrounded conductors larger than 1,100 kcmil
copper or 1,750 kcmil aluminum, the conductor shall have an area not less than 12.5%
of the area of the largest ungrounded supply conductor or equivalent area for paral-
7
lel supply conductors. If the ungrounded conductors are installed in parallel in two or  Back to TOC
more sets, the grounded conductor shall also be installed in parallel.
For parallel sets, the equivalent size of the largest ungrounded supply conductor(s)
shall be determined by the largest sum of the areas of the corresponding conductors
of each set. For example, given that the electrical service is supplied by five sets of 500
kcmil copper conductors, the grounded conductor required in each set shall be 350
kcmil copper. The total equivalent area of the parallel supply conductors in each set is
2,500 kcmil (five times 500 kcmil given five parallel ungrounded conductors). Because
the equivalent area is above 1,100 kcmil for copper, the grounded conductor(s) shall
have an area not less than 12.5%. This is an area of roughly 312.5 kcmil, which accord-
ing to Table 8 of Chapter 9 in the 2017 NEC, is 350 kcmil copper.
The GEC should be sized per Table 250.66. The notes at the bottom of Table 250.66
needs to be considered if there are multiple service entrance conductors or no service
entrance conductors. Given the number of service entrance conductors, the size is
determined either by the largest ungrounded service-entrance conductor or the equiv-
alent area for parallel conductors. The size of the GEC is also dependent on the ma-
terial of the conductor and its connection to specified electrodes in Article 250.66(A)
through (C). The allowed materials are copper, aluminum, copper-clad aluminum and
items allowable in Article 250.68(C).
For example, given that the electrical service is supplied by one set of 500 kcmil cop-
per conductors, the GEC per Table 250.66 shall be 1/0 AWG copper. The location for
GEC installation is at the service, at each building or structure where supplied by a
feeder(s) or branch circuit(s) or at a separately derived system.
8
To reiterate, the GEC is the connection of the system grounded conductor or the  Back to TOC
equipment to a grounding electrode or to a point on the grounding electrode system.
This leads on to error No. 2, errors in the grounding electrode system, which is com-
monly seen in design and construction.
ERROR 2: Meeting only bare minimum NEC requirements for

grounding electrode system that may not satisfy project scope.
The grounding electrode system is made up of grounding electrodes that are present
at each building or structure served that are bonded together. The items that qualify as
a grounding electrode are detailed in Article 250.52, which includes concrete-encased
electrode, ground ring encircling the building or structure, rod and pipe electrodes,
plate electrodes and other listed electrodes. The NEC details the minimum require-
ments but not necessarily the design or construction requirement that allows for a
functional system depending on the project scope.
These are the commonly seen issues in grounding electrode system that follows the
NEC, but does not satisfy project scope:
• Not installing a third grounding electrode. The NEC requires a minimum of two
grounding electrodes, unless one electrode has a resistance to earth less than 25
ohms. However, commonly in construction, the ground resistance is not measured
again after a supplemental grounding electrode is installed. Therefore, the ground
resistance of 25 ohms is not confirmed as having been met. Per the NEC, two
electrodes would meet code, but this doesn’t guarantee a low electrode-to-earth
resistance. Including a grounding ring with multiple grounding electrodes is con-
sidered a best practice to ensure low resistance. Also, specifications should also
9
require ground resistance measurements to be taken after grounding electrode  Back to TOC
system is installed to determine if additional electrodes are required.
• Allowing 25 ohms ground resistance because it is allowed by code.
• The NEC only requires 25 ohms ground resistance; however, the industry
recognizes a lower resistance value may be more desirable. International
Electrical Testing Association ATS-201313 recommends 5 ohms or less
for large industrial systems.
• Installing grounding electrodes (in particular, rods) 6 feet apart because that is the
minimum separation required by code.
• Each ground rod has its own zone of influence as shown in Figure 2. The
optimal spacing between rods should be twice the length of the ground
rod. When the zones overlap, the net resistance of each rod increase,
thus making the ground system less effective.
There are many considerations that need to be taken into account when designing and
installing grounding electrode systems. These are:
• Size of service.
• Types of loads that will be connected.
• Soils: the resistivity is affected by salt, moisture, temperature and depth.

10
 Back to TOC
While considering all of the above factors, some of the Figure 3: This compares a separately
derived system (right) to a nonseparately
best practices seen in the industry are using ground
derived system. Courtesy: CDM Smith
rings around buildings, ground triangles at smaller ser-
vices, exothermic welds for concealed or buried connections and ground rods and install-
ing ground testing/inspection wells that allow easy access for ground resistance testing.
ERROR 3: Bonding grounded conductor (neutral) to ground

bar at multiple locations.
Per Article 250.142, the neutral to ground connection is allowed on the supply side or with-
in the enclosure of the AC service disconnecting means. This connection is also allowed at
separately derived systems. If the grounded conductor is grounded again on the load side
of the service, the connection between the grounded conductor and the EGC on the load
side of the service places the EGC in a parallel circuit path with the grounded conductor.
Another issue that can arise out of multiple bonding locations is the risk the ground-
ed conductor being disconnected on the line side of the service. This could cause the 11
EGC and all conductive parts connected to it to become energized because the con-  Back to TOC
ductive path back to the source that would normally allow the overcurrent device to
trip is not connected. In this case, the potential to ground of any exposed metal parts
can be raised to line voltage, which can result in arcing and severe shock hazard.
ERROR 4: Grounding and bonding design for separately de-

rived systems.
One common error in grounding and bonding design is the grounding of generators
and whether a three- or four-pole automatic transfer switch is used with a four-wire
power system. Grounding a separately derived system is detailed in Article 250.30.
The error in grounding and bonding design for separately derived systems stems from
understanding the definition of a separately derived system. As shown in Figure 3, a
system is considered separately derived when the system does not have a direct elec-
trical connection to the other supply system grounded conductor (neutral), other than
through the bonding and equipment grounding conductor.
The generator also requires to be directly connected to ground when it is considered

a separately derived system as shown below. If a four-pole ATS is used and the neutral
is switched, the generator or secondary backup source becomes a separately derived
system. It should be noted that a three-pole ATS can be used with a four-wire genera-
tor and also be considered a separately derived system if the electrical distribution sys-
tem is a three-wire system. In this situation, the generator neutral would be connected
to ground, but a grounded (neutral) conductor would not be brought to the ATS.
Grounding and bonding definitions

There are many requirements in NFPA 70: National Electrical Code Article 250. A com-
mon reason for confusion mainly stems from not understanding the proper definitions.
12
Therefore, the first step to understanding Article 250 is  Back to TOC

understanding the terminology within the NEC. Below
are some terms taken from the 2017 edition of NEC Arti-
cle 100 and clarifications for mentioned terms.
Bonded (bonding): Connected to establish electrical

continuity and conductivity. Bonding is not to be con-
fused with grounding. Two pieces of equipment bond-
ed together does not necessarily mean both pieces of
equipment are grounded. However, it assures that the
metallic parts of the bonded equipment can form an
electrically conductive path for electrical continuity.
Bonding jumper, supply side: A conductor installed

on the supply side of a service or within a service equip-
ment enclosure(s) or for a separately derived system that
ensures the required electrical conductivity between
metal parts required to be electrically connected.
Bonding jumper, system: The connection between

the grounded circuit conductor and the supply-side bonding Figure 4: This is a service
entrance main breaker with a
jumper or the equipment grounding conductor or both, at a
four-wire load. The line side
separately derived system. is at the top with the white
neutral conductors and the
load side is at the bottom
Bonding conductor or jumper: A reliable conductor to en-
with gray neutral conductors.
sure the required electrical conductivity between metal parts
required to be electrically connected.
Courtesy: CDM Smith
13
Bonding jumper, main: The con-  Back to TOC

nection between the grounded cir-
cuit conductor and the equipment
grounding conductor at the service.
Effective ground-fault current

path: An intentionally constructed,
low-impedance electrically con-
ductive path designed and intend-
ed to carry current under ground-
fault conditions from the point of
a ground fault on a wiring system
to the electrical supply source and
that facilitates the operation of the
overcurrent protective device or
ground-fault detectors. The earth
is not considered as an effective
ground-fault current path.
Equipment grounding conduc-

tor: The conductive path(s) that
provides a ground-fault current
path and connects normally non-
current-carrying metal parts of
equipment together and to the
system grounded conductor or to
14
the grounding electrode  Back to TOC

conductor or both.
Ground: The earth.
Grounded conductor: A
system or circuit conductor
that is intentionally ground-
ed (I.e., neutral conductor).
Grounding electrode: A
conducting object through
Figure 5: This is a delta-wye
which a direct connection to earth is established. Common
transformer with the high side
grounding electrodes include rods, plates, pipes, ground coming in from the bottom
rings, metal in-ground support structures and concrete-en- and the secondary coming out
from the top. As shown, the
cased electrodes. All grounding electrodes at each building
grounded conductor (neutral)
or structure shall be bonded together to form the grounding is grounded at the transformer.
electrode system. Courtesy: CDM Smith
Grounding electrode conductor: A conductor used to connect the system grounded

conductor or the equipment to a grounding electrode or to a point on the grounding
electrode system.
Ground-fault current path: An electrically conductive path from the point of a ground fault
on a wiring system through normally noncurrent-carrying conductors, equipment or the
earth to the electrical supply source. Examples of ground-fault current paths are any combi-
nation of equipment grounding conductors, metallic raceways and electrical equipment. 15
Grounded (grounding): Connected (connecting) to ground or to a conductive body  Back to TOC

that extends the ground connection. Grounding is not to be confused with bonding.
Equipment may be bonded together, but it is not considered grounded unless it is
connected back to the ground.
Grounded, solidly: Connected to ground without inserting any resistor or imped-

ance device.
Neutral conductor: The conductor connected to the neutral point of a system that is
intended to carry current under normal conditions.
Neutral point: The common point on a wye-connection in a polyphase system or mid-

point on a single-phase, three-wire system or midpoint of a single-phase portion of a
three-phase delta system or a midpoint of a three-wire, direct-current system.
Service: The conductors and equipment for delivering electric energy from the serving
utility to the wiring system of the premises served.
Service equipment: The necessary equipment, usually consisting of a circuit breaker

or switch and fuses and their accessories, located near the point of entrance of supply
conductors to a building or other structure or an otherwise defined area and intended
to constitute the main control and means of cutoff of the supply.
Joe Doughney and Lilly Vang

Joe Doughney is an electrical engineer with CDM Smith, where he focuses on design
and analysis of electrical power systems. Lilly Vang is an electrical engineer with CDM
Smith. She focuses on electrical power system design and power system studies. 16
2023 National Electrical Code Changes
 Back to TOC

2023 National Electrical Code Changes:
New energy Landscape and Sustainability |
Schneider Electric
Big changes were made around the energy management space in
the 2023 National Electrical Code. Learn more about how the code
is evolving along with technologies in the new energy landscape
— like backup power systems, microgrids, and more — and why
specifiers need to be aware of these changes from experts at
Schneider Electric and Gresham Smith.
17
Back to basics: Medical gas
storage under NFPA 99  Back to TOC
This covers the basics of medical gas storage and the requirements for health
care spaces detailed in NFPA 99
A t times, health care facilities use spaces to store medical gases — medical oxy-
gen, nitrogen, nitrous oxide and others — that are noncompliant based on the
requirements in the 2021 edition of NFPA 99: Health Care Facilities Code. This code
specifies many health care facility requirements including operational, mechanical,
electrical and architectural for the storage of such medical gases.
Misses on the code typically occur when closets, storage rooms and other spaces are repur-
posed for the storage of these gases. As a result, challenges for facility managers include:
• Unable to create designated spaces for medical gases.
• Efforts to maintain compliance become inconsistent.
• NFPA 99 requirements can be misinterpreted.
• Requirements may not be known.
The purpose of this article is to provide health care facility professionals with instruc-
tional guidance to help them reach NFPA 99 compliance associated with the storage of
medical gases. Readers are advised to consult the NFPA 99 text itself, and this article
will help with the initial understanding of the requirements.
18
Back to basics: Medical gas storage under NFPA 99
Medical gas definitions NFPA 99  Back to TOC

The following are critical definitions from NFPA 99-2021 to review before we go further.
• Container: A low-pressure, vacuum insulated vessel containing gases in liquid form.
• Cryogenic fluid central supply system: At a health care facility, an equipment

assembly supplies compressed gas with a cryogenic fluid that terminates at the
source valve.
• Cylinder: A supply tank for high-pressure gases with pressures that may exceed
13.8 kilopascals (kPa) or 2,000 pounds per square inch (psi) gauge.
• Medical gas: See medical support gas or patient medical gas below.
• Medical support gas: Nitrogen or instrument air used for any medical support
purpose (e.g., to remove excess moisture from instruments, to operate medi-
cal-surgical tools). This gas may be used in laboratories and is not respired as part
of any treatment. It falls under the general requirements for medical gases.
• Manifold: A device for connecting the outlets of one or more gas cylinders to the
central piping system for that specific gas.
• Nonflammable: Not readily capable of burning with a flame and not liable to ig-
nite and burn when exposed to flame.
• Oxidizing gas: A gas that supports combustion.

19
• Patient medical gas: Piped gases — such as oxygen, nitrous oxide, helium, car-  Back to TOC
bon dioxide and medical air — that are used in the application of or calibration of
medical devices for human respiration.
How medical gas storage rooms are used

Medical gas storage rooms are used to store frequently used medical gases. These
include but are not limited to: oxidizing gases, such as oxygen and nitrous oxide, and
inert gases, such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide and medical air. The use of medical gas
storage rooms is regulated by NFPA 99 (along with other codes), which establishes the
requirements for the design, construction, installation and use of medical gas storage
rooms in health care facilities.
In addition to supplying health care practitioners with essential resources, gas storage
rooms allow for safety in the storage and fulfillment of these gases. Although not cov-
ered in this article, medical gas storage compliance also requires an in-depth hazard
analysis which is outlined in NFPA 55: Compressed Gases and Cryogenic Fluids Codes,
2020 edition. These analyses take such subjects as flammability, toxicity and explosivity
of the gases into account.
• Reference Table 6.2.1 in NFPA 55 for the design and number of control areas per floor.
• Reference Table 6.3.1.1 in NFPA 55 for a list of all gases and the maximum allow-
able quantity (MAQ) of all varieties of gases within different sizes and types of
control areas.
There are several types of gas storage rooms and each has specific characteristics as
well as design and operational requirements depending on the type of gases being
20
stored. First, gas storage rooms are characterized as either indoor rooms — a room  Back to TOC
within the interior of the health care facility itself — or outdoor areas — an outdoor
enclosure that meets gas storage requirements.
Secondly, gas storage rooms are either with a central supply — a system for piping med-
ical gases to different functional areas within the health care facility — or without a cen-
tral supply, in which gases are stored independently and retrieved for use in other areas.
Requirements for all types of storage: All storage rooms (except for rooms with storage
only of less than 300 cubic feet of nonflammable gases at standard temperature and pres-
sure, known as STP) — whether they feature central supply systems or not — have shared
requirements in terms of signage, temperature
limits, accessibility, finishes and restraints.
Signage: For example, source locations contain-

ing both inert gases and positive pressure gases
other than oxygen and medical air must have
their doors labeled as follows (see Figure1):
Meanwhile, source locations containing only oxy-

gen or medical air must have their doors labeled
as follows:
Medical Gases
Figure 1: Example storage rooms.

No Smoking or Open Flame
Courtesy: Dewberry
21
Proximity: In terms of proximity, full containers and cylinders must be segregated from  Back to TOC
all others (empty cylinders, etc.) — a commonly missed requirement, especially consid-
ering the constant activity of medical practice.
High-temperature limit: All areas with cylinders, whether they have central supply or
not, must not exceed 125°F.
Finishes and racks: The finishes of the interior spaces or the exterior enclosures must
be made of noncombustible materials (interiors can be limited-combustible materials),
as well as any racks/shelves/supports for cylinders must be made of noncombustible
materials (or limited-combustible materials).
Other: In general, these areas should have access to move cylinders with hand trucks,
have lockable doors or gates and have proper restraints to prevent the cylinders from
falling (whether full or empty). Other requirements are exclusion of: any fuel-fired
equipment, heating elements greater than 266oF, flammable gas, flammable liquid or
flammable vapors.
Best practice: It is best to use oxygen sensors and alarms in gas storage rooms to
detect any harmful leaks and maintain 3 feet of clearance within each storage room
around cylinders/containers and walkways for easy movement of cylinders. Neither of
these suggestions is explicitly outlined in the language of NFPA 99.
Requirements for storage with a central supply included

A central supply system can be composed entirely of manifolds or the system may be
a combination of manifolds and stored cylinders or containers. These systems can be
22
located either within a single room in the health care facility (interior) or in an outdoor  Back to TOC
enclosure (exterior).
• Interior: Interior central supply systems locations are permitted to store manifolds
for gas cylinders, manifolds for cryogenic liquid containers, in-building emergency
reserves, instrument air standby headers, individual components on the oxygen
side of the concentrator sources. Design and construction of interior central sup-
ply rooms, excluding cryogenic fluid center supply systems, have specific require-
ments outlined in NFPA 99. To highlight one of the indoor requirements specifically,
rooms containing oxygen, nitrous oxide or other oxidizers shall be separated from
the rest of the building by walls or floors with one-hour fire ratings and with doors
and other openings with a ¾-hour rating. These rooms also require emergency
power and specific ventilation
which includes low-wall in-
takes (see Figure 2).
• Exterior: Exterior central

supply system locations are
permitted to store manifolds
for gas cylinders, manifolds for
liquid cryogenic containers,
cryogenic fluid central supply
and individual components
on the oxygen side of the
concentrator sources together. Exterior Figure 2: Interior storage with central supply for
storage locations with central supply have
23
carbon dioxide. Courtesy: Dewberry
less stringent, but unique requirements.  Back to TOC

Some of these unique requirements are
protection from prolonged contact with
moisture and soil, well drained area and
special considerations when associated
with natural elements (e.g., exposure to
the sun) (see Figure 3).
• Important limitations: The follow-

ing central supply systems are not
permitted to be located within any of
the interior or exterior storage rooms
with central supply mentioned in the
sections above: medical air central
compressor supply sources, medi-
cal-surgical vacuum central supply
sources, waste anesthetic gas disposal
central supply sources, instrument air
Figure 3: Exterior storage with central
compressor central supply sources, any other
supply for nitrogen. Courtesy: Dewberry
compressors, vacuum pump or electrically pow-
ered machinery and compressors, dryers and air receivers used to supply oxygen
concentrators.
Requirements for storage without a central supply included

Any storage that does not include a central supply system will feature cylinders or con-
tainers that are not in use. Similar to the central supply systems, these can be located
either within the interior of the health care facility or in an outdoor enclosure.
24
 Back to TOC
• Interior: Interior storage rooms have unique requirements based on the volume of
gases stored within those rooms. Specifically, storage spaces with fewer than 300
cubic feet of nonflammable gases
(at STP), 300 to 3,000 cubic feet of
nonflammable gases (at STP) or
greater than 3,000 cubic feet of
nonflammable gases (at STP) will
differ in requirements for the ven-
tilation, electrical and architectural
features. Rooms with greater than
3,000 cubic feet of nonflamma-
ble gases (at STP) require walls or
floors with one-hour fire ratings
and with doors and other open-
ings with a ¾-hour rating. Rooms
with greater than 300 cubic feet
of nonflammable gases (at STP)
Figure 4: Interior storage only for
require specific ventilation which includes low-wall medical air. Courtesy: Dewberry
intakes (see Figure 4).
• Exterior: Exterior storage locations without central supply have less stringent
requirements. One item to note is specific requirements for location as it relates
to building exits, wall openings, intakes, property lines and combustibles (see
Figure 5).
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Although there are many sim-  Back to TOC

ilarities in the requirements of
the different room types and
number of gases stored, health
care facility professionals need
to understand the differences
and limitations to each to con-
firm that their facility is con-
structed and operated within
the NFPA 99 requirements. A
matrix to review your facility’s
compliance with NFPA 99 can
be helpful (see Figure 6).
For user convenience, NFPA

99 outlines the typical medical
gas cylinder’s volume and weight at STP for common Figure 5: Exterior storage only
cylinders seen in health care facilities (example: B, D, E, for nitrogen and nitrous oxide.
Courtesy: Dewberry
H) in the appendix under Table A.11.3.5. This table pro-
vides an easy way to determine how much gas is stored
in each type of cylinder when evaluating spaces with various cylinder sizes. It is also
common for cylinders to list the content’s total cubic feet at STP on the exterior of
the cylinder.
What types of medical gas storage room problems exist?

Medical facilities that do not meet NFPA 99’s medical gas storage room requirements
often end up that way unintentionally. Specifically, requirements may not be com-
26
 Back to TOC
pletely understood or health care staff may place Figure 6: NFPA 99 medical gas
storage room design and construction
medical gas cylinders in a room not specifically requirements matrix. Courtesy:
designed for that use. In doing so, facilities may in-
advertently be out of compliance and at risk for penalties, citations and even human
injury or death.
Fortunately, facility professionals can develop a better understanding of the code to

keep their facilities in compliance. Additionally, they can become aware of some of the
most common misinterpretations and address them directly. The following list consists
of some common NFPA 99 storage room errors that the authors have seen in the field.
27
Rooms are misapplied or not understood: The NFPA 99 requirements for medical  Back to TOC
gas storage are different depending on the type of room involved. Additionally, non-
compliant storage rooms are often used for the storage of medical gases without tak-
ing compliance into consideration. It’s important to fully understand the type of room
in consideration and be familiar with the NFPA 99 requirements for that room type
based on the descriptions above.
Rooms do not have correct features, such as electrical, signage or exhaust/venti-

lation: In addition to the signage requirements described above that are often missed,
most storage rooms require ventilation. This ventilation can be achieved with natural
ventilation, but typically (due to building layout) is mechanical ventilation. This requires
low-wall exhaust, negative pressure and a means of makeup air. Mechanical ventilation
exhaust is required to be on the facility’s essential electrical system as well. Natural
ventilation requirements are in NFPA 99 Chapter 9.3.6.5.2 and requirements for me-
chanical ventilation can be found in Chapter 9.3.6.5.3. Rooms are often observed with-
out exhaust systems or not meeting the specific requirements of these code sections.
Emergency electrical provisions is also a requirement on most of the room types that is
frequently missed.
The quantity of gas or number of containers exceeds the limits of the rooms:
NFPA 99 has specific requirements regarding the amount of gas that can be stored in a
room, with respect to less than 300 cubic feet of nonflammable gases at STP, between
300 cubic feet and 3,000 cubic feet of nonflammable gasses at STP and greater than
3,000 cubic feet of nonflammable gasses. It is critical not to exceed these thresholds.
Often, it is missed that a room is designed for a certain threshold and is exceeding that
threshold with the total cubic feet of stored gases in the room (not counting empty
cylinder’s volume). 28
Manifolds or cryogenics are located too close to equipment in violation of re-  Back to TOC
quirements: Manifolds and cryogenics have unique requirements in terms of their
proximity to other containers. If located outdoors, they must be installed in an enclo-
sure used only for the enclosure of those containers and they must comply with min-
imum distance requirements. If located indoors, they must be installed within a room
used only for those types of containers.
Design or construction does not include appropriate fire-rated walls and doors:
As noted above, NFPA 99 requires that storage rooms with central supply of oxidizers
and storage rooms without central supply and greater than 3,000 cubic feet of non-
flammable gases at STP must be separated from the rest of the building by walls and
floors having a one-hour fire resistance rating. They must also feature doors and other
opening protectives having a ¾-hour fire protection rating. This is often missed when
medical gases are placed in a room without proper design.
Outdoor storage is too close to building exits or air intakes: NFPA 99 requires that
outdoor storage areas for medical gases must be located at a specific distance from
building exits and air intakes. This is to prevent the spread of gas should a leak occur.
Medical gases are not stored behind locked doors: NFPA 99 requires that storage
areas for medical gases must be locked when not in use. This is to prevent unautho-
rized access to the gases.
Medical gases lack restraints or fastening against tipping or falling: NFPA 99

requires that containers of medical gases are restrained or fastened against tipping or
falling. This is to prevent accidents or leaks should a container fall over.
29
Incompatible central supply systems stored together: As mention in a previous sec-  Back to TOC
tion, NFPA 99 outlines central supply systems that can and cannot be stored together.
This precaution prevents hazardous mistakes and potential risks if gases were to mix
with machinery-based equipment, etc.
Facilities and respiratory staff fail to communicate on appropriate storage: Facil-

ity professionals must provide respiratory staff with appropriate guidance as they ac-
cess and use medical gases. Respiratory staff may not understand the quantity limits of
a certain room based on the design and construction of the room.
Other medical gas regulations

Health care facility professionals should also take note of other regulations that may
apply to medical gas storage practices based on the type, location or region of facili-
ties, as well as any risks associated with those aspects (e.g., higher likelihood of natural
disasters).
For example, NFPA 55 has additional limitations on hazardous materials per control
area. It includes limitations on the number of control areas per floor that should be ob-
served in accordance with NFPA 99 requirements. Similarly, the local fire codes should
be referenced when looking for additional limitations on storage quantities. Typically,
the local fire codes expand upon the limitations outlined within NFPA 99 and NFPA 55.
Additionally, facility professionals should understand the code edition(s) currently en-
forced for their facility and study each edition. This article is written based on the 2021
edition of NFPA 99, which may have different requirements than what is enforced at a
particular facility.
30
Additionally, if a storage room was constructed under a different code edition and was  Back to TOC
compliant at the time of construction, it is allowed to remain as it was originally con-
structed as long as the local authority having jurisdiction has determined the system
is not a hazard to life. This can be found specifically in Chapter 1, Administration, of
NFPA 99. Therefore, it is be important to study the edition that was enforced at the
time of construction as well.
Nick Walters and Hailey Stewart-Hofer

Nick Walters, PE, CHFM, CHC, is an associate and senior project manager at Dew-
berry. He has more than 12 years of experience as a mechanical engineer and project
manager specializing in engineering for health care facilities. Hailey Stewart-Hofer,
EI, ASSE 6060 is a staff engineer at Dewberry. She works in the firm’s plumbing, fire
protection and medical gas department.
31
The NFPA 70B
® Is your electrical system still in compliance?
Introduction
standard just got This eGuide outlines the changes in the National Fire Pro-
tection Association (NFPA®) 70B: Standard for Electrical
overhauled Equipment Maintenance, 2023 edition – specifically,

its dramatic transition from a recommended to standard
practice – and how these changes can help reinforce a
culture of maintenance and safety within organizations.
These standards encourage a culture of preventative main-
tenance in facilities and highlight the advantages that
digitalized electrical networks can provide related to con-
dition-based maintenance.
The NFPA® 70B standard just got overhauled
• About NFPA 70B  Back to TOC

Safety is a top priority for
Schneider Electric™ – people
• Why NFPA 70B matters safety, electrical safety, and
process safety. We are also
• The role of an effective electrical main- committed to improving electrical
tenance program standards and ongoing initiatives.
Our innovative solutions through our

• How effective condition-based main- EcoCare membership plan help you
tenance programs can help save costs achieve business outcomes – from
and keep your people and your installa- safety and compliance, resilience and
tions safe reliability, efficiency and cost savings,
to sustainability and circularity.
• Examples and best practices

Discover EcoCare
• NFPA 70B as a pillar of your sustainability
commitments
NFPA 70B
NFPA 70B background
NFPA 70B was first published in 1975 to outline recommended electrical maintenance
practices and serve as a guideline for establishing and implementing an effective, safe,
and reliable maintenance program.
There are also two other standards related to NFPA 70B:
33
 Back to TOC
NFPA 70E, the “Standard NFPA 70, the National Electrical
1 for Electrical Safety in 2 Code ® (NEC), requires the safe
the Workplace,” provides installation of electrical wiring
requirements for protecting and equipment. The NEC®
workers from electrical hazards ensures electrical systems and
in the workplace. Primarily equipment are installed safely and
intended for those exposed reliably. It covers a wide range
to electrical hazards, it also of topics related to electrical
requires an electrical safety safety, including wiring methods,
program that must consider the grounding, and overcurrent
condition of maintenance. protection.
While NFPA 70B, NFPA 70E, and NEC have dif-

Did you know?
ferent focuses, these standards and regulations
work together to ensure all electrical systems OSHA ® requires employers to
and equipment are installed, operated, and provide a workplace free from
maintained safely. serious recognized hazards. A
proven approach is to follow
national consensus standards
A comprehensive approach
like NFPA 70E and 70B.
to electrical safety
34
NFPA 70B in 2023: A standard practice  Back to TOC

The 2023 edition of NFPA 70B positions maintenance at the forefront of organizations.
No longer a recommended practice, it is now standard. Its language has changed from
‘should’ or ‘should not’ to ‘shall’ or ‘shall not.’
This shift from recommendation to standard came about with dedicated cooperation
across all industries and support from member organizations and technical committee
members.
This is a major, transformational change from the previous version with far-reaching im-
pacts related to maintenance, regardless of facility type.
Guide Recommended practice
Informative, with advisories and Explanatory, outlining suggestions

how-tos and best practices
Standard Code
Compulsory, detailing procedures Industry-based law enacted by

required to meet the code national authorities
35
NFPA 70B in 2023: A standard practice  Back to TOC

To ensure compliance, read more about what businesses can expect:
Renewed focus on
2 maintenance
Creation and documentation
1 of an electrical maintenance Reduce operating costs by:
plan
• Minimizing repair and
• Survey and analysis of electrical replacement costs
equipment to determine
maintenance priorities • Optimizing energy efficiency
and extending equipment
• Developed and documented lifespan
maintenance procedures for
equipment • Reducing downtime
• Inspection, servicing, and • Improving human, electrical,

testing plans and process safety
• Equipment and personnel

documentation and records-
retention policy Risk management
3
• A program review and revision • Non-compliance may result in
process that considers failures potential insurance issues for an
and strategies for continuous organization, which could find
improvement its coverage costs intrinsically
linked to the new maintenance
standards compliance. 36
 Back to TOC
Improved safety
4
• The standard requires power
systems studies and system
one lines to be kept up-to-
date to ensure worker safety Training
in performing maintenance. 6
This also helps improve the • Facilities can expect to invest
safety of electrical systems by more in the education and
providing clear requirements training of their maintenance
for maintenance and ensuring personnel.
organizations create a well-
planned electrical maintenance
program, transition to digital
electric infrastructure, and
Support services
follow best practices. 7
• Companies providing
preventive and condition-based
maintenance services can
Shared benchmarks and ensure electrical infrastructure
5 results is optimized and can easily
adapt to changing standards to
• The new 2023 standards regulations.
also help formalize electrical
maintenance practices across
different organizations
and industries, making
benchmarking and comparing
performance and results easier.
37
Why NFPA 70B matters  Back to TOC

NFPA 70B provides a safe, reliable, and cost-effective electrical equipment maintenance
framework. By following the guidelines in NFPA 70B, your organization helps protect
employees, comply with regulations, and optimize operations.
Safety Compliance
 
• The main purpose of NFPA • NFPA 70B is now a national
70B is to promote safety by consensus standard for
identifying and addressing electrical equipment
potential electrical hazards maintenance. Many local,
before they cause harm. By state, and federal regulations
following the recommended reference NFPA 70B compliance
practices in NFPA 70B, to help organizations avoid
organizations can help prevent penalties and legal liabilities.
electrical accidents and injuries.
Cost savings Reliability

 
• Regular maintenance of • Proper maintenance of
electrical equipment can help electrical equipment can help
extend its lifespan and reduce ensure its reliable operations.
the need for costly repairs or By following the standard
replacements. Following the practices in NFPA 70B,
guidelines in NFPA 70B can organizations can minimize the
help organizations optimize risk of unexpected equipment
their maintenance schedules failures and disruptions to their
and reduce downtime. operations.
38
2023 NFPA 70B – Electrical equipment maintenance drives services and new  Back to TOC
provisions for EcoStruxure™ and Advisor platforms regulatory provision
• OSHA® regulations are federal and state laws for electrical worker safety
• NFPA 70E requires an electrical safety program
• NFPA 70E must contain elements that consider the condition of maintenance
• NEC has references to 70B (emergency systems and photovoltaic)
How do I consider the condition of maintenance
• Electrical equipment manufacturer’s

instructions Learn more about building energy
codes, standards, and regulations,
• NFPA 70B is the electrical equipment and how to design an electrical
system to help maximize energy
maintenance industry standard
efficiency and building performance.
• NFPA 70B requires an electrical

Download white paper
maintenance program
• NFPA 70B must contain elements that

consider the condition of maintenance
39
Areas of emphasis in the new standards  Back to TOC

The NFPA 70B standard details comprehensive standards for electrical maintenance, with
an emphasis on the following five areas:
Electrical equipment: standards for

maintaining all types of electrical
equipment, including transformers, circuit
breakers, and switchgear.
Maintenance
procedures:
Safety: the standard
standards for
prioritizes safety and
conducting
provides guidance on
regular
identifying and mitigating
maintenance,
electrical hazards.
such as visual
inspections,
cleaning,
lubrication, and
Training: the importance testing.
of training personnel
responsible for
maintenance tasks and
emphasizing the need for
ongoing education and
Maintenance documentation:
certification.
standards requiring detailed records
of all maintenance activities, including
test results, repairs, and replacements
to ensure compliance and facilitate
continuous improvement.
40
Compliance criticality  Back to TOC

Poor maintenance has a tremendous cost
All electrical installations need maintenance. There is a significant price to pay (beyond
violating new standards) for poor maintenance:
Downtime that causes loss of operations or disrupts

workflow and employee productivity
Costly repairs due to delaying simple repairs –

repairs can be significantly increased by waiting
for device failure before acting
Employee exposure to electrical hazards. Maintenance

helps ensure safety is at the forefront of your organization
Energy inefficiency through larger utility bills,

poorly optimized devices, and power quality issues
A reduced skilled workforce and a lack of resources also challenge today’s facilities. They
also may not have digitized their power network and don’t have digital communicating
devices placed at key areas or on critical loads within their electrical infrastructure.
The answer lies in the digital transformation of your power network that fully enables
condition-based maintenance.
41
A digitized electrical infrastructure optimizes maintenance  Back to TOC

A digitized electrical infrastructure provides real-time data and insights that can be used
to optimize maintenance schedules, reduce downtime, and improve overall system reli-
ability. For example:
Real-time monitoring of critical Condition-based maintenance is

components allows for early a preventive maintenance method
detection of potential issues. that monitors the condition of
This data can identify patterns equipment to determine which
and trends maintenance tasks
that can inform need to be carried
maintenance out and when.
schedules, helping
prevent failures
before they occur.
Improved
Predictive communication
analytics uses the between
data collected maintenance teams
to identify potential failure modes allows for better collaboration
and predict when components will and coordination. This can help
likely fail. Use this information to to ensure that maintenance
schedule maintenance activities in activities are scheduled efficiently
advance, reducing downtime and and that the right resources are
avoiding unexpected failures. available to complete the work.
Read our white paper about the benefits of

shifting from traditional to condition-based
maintenance
Learn more
42
How to get started  Back to TOC

How do we start?
Schneider Electric can help maintain and optimize your assets and equipment. Our
EcoStruxure™ platform and team of experts enable condition-based maintenance,
helping reduce downtime and extend the lifespan of equipment. We can help:
Strategize and explore Add digitized products

1 your options to decide on 2 and sensors at key locations
the actions to take, and remove or inter-ties. Digitalizing makes
any guesswork from your plan the invisible visible, gives you
by modeling the impacts of your access to important maintenance
strategy and new build or retrofit data, and allows connections to
scenarios. EcoConsult Electrical other plants, buildings, or energy
Digital Twin services can help. management systems.
Remotely monitor equipment Manage assets with a

3 in real time, from anywhere, to 4 complete view, including
help identify issues quickly and equipment performance,
recover faster. maintenance history, and real-
time status, for data-driven
decisions about when to repair,
replace, or retire equipment.
Reduction in maintenance Find out how our Consulting

activities by performing services can help you
condition-based maintenance. overcome your challenges.
Learn more 43
NFPA 70B also contributes to sustainability transformation  Back to TOC

While the ultimate goal of NFPA 70B is safety, compliance with its standards also helps
organizations become more sustainable. Most businesses today are committed to 2035
– 2050 net-zero goals. NFPA 70B can play a critical role, adding resilience and a ‘stan-
dard of care’ by ensuring facilities operate efficiently, reducing energy consumption and
waste, and reducing emissions.
Optimizing energy usage Using renewable energy

1 ensures that all equipment and 2 such as solar panels, wind
systems operate efficiently, turbines, and geothermal
reducing energy consumption systems. Maintenance can include
and waste. This includes cleaning installing and repairing renewable
and servicing components, energy systems, ensuring they
checking for wear and tear, and work efficiently, and producing
calibrating systems to ensure energy at optimal levels.
optimal performance - reducing
energy consumption and costs.
Identify potential efficiency

4 improvements such as
Preventing system failures
installing energy-efficient
3 can help avoid significant
lighting or upgrading to more
energy waste and increased
energy-efficient equipment. By
emissions. Regular inspections
addressing these areas, energy
and preventative maintenance
consumption can be reduced,
allow electrical systems to be
and sustainability commitments
maintained in good working
can be met.
order, preventing unplanned
downtime and energy waste.
44
 Back to TOC
Complying with regulations Extend the lifespan of the
5 and standards related 6 equipment by predicting
to energy efficiency and incidents, avoiding those
sustainability, including building equipment-damaging breakdowns,
codes, energy standards, and and extending the working life of
emission regulations. valuable electrical assets.
Benefits of an EcoCare for Electrical

Distribution Services membership
*These percentages are non-contractual

and are based on Schneider Electric’s
experience and expertise with respect
to the main root cause of downtime
observed and for which Schneider
Electric has developed solutions.
What is a circular electrical system and how

does it support sustainability?
Learn more
45
Maintenance checklist  Back to TOC

A safe, reliable electrical infrastructure requires a well-planned electrical maintenance
program:
Conduct an assessment Identify priorities

1 The first step in creating an 2 Based on the assessment,
electrical maintenance plan is prioritize which components,
to comprehensively assess the systems, and equipment require
facility’s electrical infrastructure. the most urgent attention.
This assessment should include Consider the risks associated with
a detailed review of all electrical the failure of these components
components, systems, and and their impact on business
equipment and an analysis of operations.
their performance, age, and
maintenance history.
Determine maintenance Create a schedule

3 tasks 4 Develop a maintenance schedule
Identify the tasks required to that outlines the frequency and
maintain each component, timing of each maintenance
system, and equipment. task. Consider factors such as
This should include routine equipment age, usage, and
inspections, preventive environmental factors that
maintenance, and repairs. may affect the maintenance
requirements.
46
 Back to TOC
Establish procedures
5 Develop procedures for
conducting each maintenance
task, including safety protocols,
required tools and materials, and
documentation requirements.
Assign responsibility
6 Determine who will be
responsible for each maintenance
task. This may include internal
staff or an external service
provider.
Establish a tracking system

7 Establish a system for tracking
maintenance tasks, including
completion dates and required
follow-up actions.
Get started on your checklist with the help

of an EcoConsult Audit.
Learn more
47
Success stories – EcoCare powered by the EcoStruxure  Back to TOC

Digital platform
Powerful insights from anywhere: BASF
Breakthroughs in connectivity, sensor technology, and advanced analytics create new
opportunities to improve maintenance strategies. Schneider Electric services like
EcoStruxure Asset Advisor and EcoStruxure Power Monitoring Expert provide
BASF with a consolidated view of its operations so they can remotely monitor and
manage their assets’ health from anywhere.
Results
Over 100 variables get measured
and computed through
EcoStruxure Asset Advisor to
provide accurate and reliable
condition monitoring for its new
Beaumont plant.
BASF now remotely monitors

“EcoStruxure Asset Advisor is helping to the pulse of its substation
prevent catastrophic failures. It’s getting assets through their customer
the right data at the right time. And in the dashboard with a global health
index and specific asset status.
end, data is valuable.”
EcoStruxure Asset Advisor

— Lee Perry, enables more predictable asset
Electrical Design Engineer, performance, helping prevent
BASF catastrophic failures, improve
plant safety, and increase
operational efficiency.
48
Always-on operational resiliency and efficiency: Nescafé  Back to TOC

Nestlé Nescafé is the largest soluble coffee facility in the world, responsible for
more than one million jars of coffee produced daily. They use Schneider Electric’s
EcoStruxure Asset Advisor for real-time visibility into their electrical equipment,
allowing their engineers to monitor assets remotely and use data analytics to imple-
ment predictive maintenance.
Results
EcoStruxure Asset Advisor allows
visibility into power systems and
is remotely managed around the
clock, delivering productivity,
efficiency, and maintenance
benefits.
“EcoStruxure Asset Advisor has allowed us
to identify hot spots and attack them be- Improved reliability of the
fore they become a problem – saving us facility’s electrical equipment
helps produce approximately one
costly downtime, greatly enhancing our
million jars daily.
ability to respond quickly to changes in
demand and ultimately better serve our Schneider Electric’s Connected
customers and reduce our operational car- Services Hub allowed engineers
bon footprint.” to react and avoid three
unplanned stoppages that could
have cost Nestlé up to $52,000
— Luis Gilberto López Páez,
per hour.
electricity specialist in Nestlé Toluca Cafés
49
Leveraging insights to avoid power failures:  Back to TOC

University of Rochester Medical Center
Maintaining a power infrastructure spanning 5 million square feet (464,500 square
meters) of hospital and healthcare research space with limited resources is
challenging – deploying staff to physically measure, survey, and perform preventive
maintenance on over 26,000 pieces of equipment is costly and time intensive.
Results
EcoStruxure services connect to
and monitor the University’s most
critical electrical distribution assets
via the cloud. Service experts analyze
performance data and provide
actionable insights to help facility
management deploy resources
efficiently and help avoid equipment
failure.
“In two incidents alone, we have saved sev- Optimized the energy infrastructure
eral hundred thousand dollars.” for predictive, condition-based
maintenance.
— Mark Schwartz,
Saved nearly $1 million through the
Director of Facility Operations, early discovery of equipment problems
URMC – a 20 to 1 return on investment (ROI).
Peace of mind for facility management,

knowing their equipment is continually
being monitored.
50
Conclusion  Back to TOC

NFPA 70B is a transformational opportunity
Leading the way to a more digitalized, well-maintained electrical infrastructure,
the 2023 standards help encourage a culture of maintenance in facilities and high-
light the advantages digitalized electrical networks can provide related to condi-
tion-based maintenance.
Schneider Electric Services can help unlock these business advantages and support
critical business outcomes, including:
 Safety and compliance
Efficiency and cost

 savings
 Reliability and resilience
Sustainability and
 circularity
Now’s the time to unlock the full potential of your

electrical equipment – and our EcoCare membership
plan can help get you there.
Learn more
51
A guide to upcoming changes in
the 2024 edition of NFPA 101  Back to TOC
Important changes in the 2024 edition of NFPA 101 include modular

rooms, portable fire extinguishers, carbon monoxide detection and
alternative care sites.
N FPA 101: Life Safety Code has long stood as one of the most widely used resourc-
es for protecting people and mitigating the impact of fire and related hazards.
The code is updated every three years, so it is important to understand the 2024 edi-
tion of NFPA 101 as jurisdictions begin to work the code into their regulations. Ahead
of implementation, it’s critical that engineers are aware of changes and additions con-
tained in the new edition.
Modular rooms and sleep pods in NFPA 101

Whether an office building or airport is looking to add a private space to take a phone
call, be used as a lactation station or provide sleeping arrangements, modular rooms
have become more popular. A modular room is an occupiable, prefabricated struc-
ture consisting of walls and a ceiling. It may or may not have an integrated floor and
integral electrical wiring, ventilation and furnishings. Modular rooms are limited to 100
square feet or less in area and 8 feet or less in height. Anything larger must be treat-
ed like any other portion of the building and comply with the applicable requirements
from NFPA 101 and the building code.
A sleep pod is also an occupiable, prefabricated structure that might include integral
electrical wiring, ventilation and furnishings. However, it is specifically designed and
used for sleeping purposes. When installing sleep pods, it is important to consider
52
A guide to upcoming changes in the 2024 edition of NFPA 101
how their addition impacts the occupancy classi-  Back to TOC

fication of the existing space. Because they add
sleeping accommodations, their use cannot be
considered incidental per NFPA 101.
For example, if an office building is adding sleep-

ing pods, additional safeguards may be required
because sleeping occupants are not expected in
a business occupancy. These pods are 32 square
feet or less in area, 8 feet or less in height, and
4 feet or less in width. Similar to modular rooms,
if the sleeping pod is larger, it must comply with
applicable requirements from NFPA 101 and the
building code.
Both modular rooms and sleep pods must be

listed and labeled in accordance with UL 962,
Figure 1: The 2024 edition of NFPA 101
Household and Commercial Furnishings. Careful
has updated requirements for interior
consideration must be given to where these prefab- exit discharge. Courtesy: NFPA
ricated rooms are installed. They cannot obstruct the
required means of egress for the existing space. Additionally, they must be installed in
accordance with the listing and the manufacturer’s instructions.
NFPA 101 changes to alcohol-based handrub (ABHR) dispensers

ABHR dispensers became increasingly popular during the pandemic, as the global
crisis highlighted the need for them in a variety of occupancies. There are two major
changes to ABHR dispensers in the 2024 edition of NFPA 101. The first is an increase in
53
the amount of ABHR permitted and the second is the addition of spill containment and  Back to TOC
maintenance requirements. The updates clarified that these provisions do not apply to
individual use containers that are 16.9 ounces or smaller in size.
It’s also important to note that the requirements for ABHR dispensers in health care
and ambulatory health care occupancies did not change. The changes mentioned here
only apply to occupancies, such as business, mercantile, educational and assembly
buildings that require compliances with the provisions in Chapter 8.
The amount of ABHR solution permitted to be in use in fully sprinklered buildings has
doubled. The previous limit was 10 gallons and is now up to 20 gallons that are permit-
ted. There was also an increase in the allowable size of individual dispensers:
• In corridors and areas open to corridors: increased from 0.32 gallons to 0.53 gallons.
• In corridors and areas open to corridors in buildings protected throughout by

sprinklers: increased from 0.32 gallons to 1.06 gallons
• In rooms or suites of rooms: Increased from 0.53 gallons to 1.06 gallons.
NFPA 101-2024 also adds requirements for spill containment and maintenance. Spill
containment must be provided and kept clear of trash and ABHR solution. If any ABHR
is spilled when refilling the dispensers, the spill must be cleaned up and removed as
soon as refilling is complete.
NFPA 101 increases portable fire extinguishers

While many occupancy classifications required fire extinguishers per a building or fire
54
code, they often were not a part of NFPA 101. Previous reasoning has been that NFPA  Back to TOC
101 is primarily concerned with getting occupants out of the building, and therefore
does not expect occupants to delay egress to try to extinguish a fire. However, in the
2024 edition of NFPA 101, both new and existing assembly occupancies now require
portable fire extinguishers.
This change was based on findings from research studies, which identified that occu-
pants will try to extinguish a fire in its early stages to avoid embarrassment, inconve-
nience and damage to the premises or property. The research also found that concerns
for people, pets and possessions are strong drivers of behavior in the event of a fire.
Studies have shown that people will almost always attempt to extinguish a fire if it’s
small enough and they believe they can mitigate the hazard. If a fire extinguisher is not
available, people typically use makeshift means to try to extinguish the fire, which is far
less safe than using a portable extinguisher. Thus, it is important to give the public the
tools necessary to be successful.
Carbon monoxide detection changes in NFPA 101

The scope of NFPA 101 has expanded over the years to include non fire-related emer-
gencies. Previous editions required certain occupancies to have carbon monoxide
detection, though it was often limited to residential occupancies.
A 2022 report from the Fire Protection Research Foundation, Carbon Monoxide Inci-
dents: A Review of the Data Landscape, led to some recommended changes in the
2024 edition of NFPA. Notably, the 2024 edition requires carbon monoxide detectors in
certain areas in existing educational and day care occupancies, as well as in new health
care, ambulatory and detention and correctional occupancies.
55
NFPA 101 now covers inflatable amusement devices  Back to TOC

The provisions will apply to inflatable amusement devices both inside and outside a
structure, but not to one- and two-family dwellings. Typically, these devices are con-
structed and maintained in accordance with the ASTM F2374, Standard Practice for
Design, Manufacture, Operation and Maintenance of Inflatable Amusement Devices.
There are two major concerns with such devices: anchoring and fire safety. ASTM F2374
primarily addresses the anchoring issue, although a variety of other topics are also
covered. The requirements in NFPA 101 were added to address the issue of fire safety,
including the materials of construction, the materials associated with electrical wiring
and portable generators if they are to be provided. Key points are:
• Devices must be constructed in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions and

ASTM F2374.
• Devices must be constructed of noncombustible materials or materials meeting the

flame propagation criteria of Test Method 2 of NFPA 701, Standard Methods of Fire
Tests for Flame Propagation of Textiles and Films.
• Any electrical equipment associated with the device must comply with NFPA 70:
National Electrical Code (NEC).
• If a portable generator is to be provided, it must comply with and portable fire ex-
tinguishers must be in accordance with NFPA 10: Standard for Portable Fire Extin-
guishers must be provided.
56
NFPA 101 defines alternate care sites (ACS)  Back to TOC

ACS changes were in response to the pandemic, when it became necessary for non
health care facilities to serve as health care facilities during patient surges. Per the
newly added definition, an ACS is any building, structure or portion thereof not cur-
rently being used for health care that is temporarily reoccupied, converted, construct-
ed or relocated for health care use to provide additional capability for an affected
community during urgent needs for increased capacity.
Newly created Annex expands the definition of ACS and provides the user with recom-
mendations for how to establish and operate these facilities as temporary health care
facilities. The information found in Annex D supports new language in Chapters 18 and
19, which permit ACS, provided they have an approved fire emergency plan and com-
ply with approved alternate construction, design, protection, operational and occupan-
cy classification requirements.
Annex D provides sections on the following:
• Site assessments: Considerations of a site assessment include the number and

type of patients supported, proximity to nearby hospitals, personnel staffing re-
quirements, utility requirements, air filtration and handling capacities, safety fea-
tures for emergency response and egress, staging of ambulances and parking.
• Construction: Considerations include coordination of construction, items neces-

sary to expedite construction related to design deliverables and product submit-
tals, alternate means of occupant safety when compliance with health care facility
requirements cannot be met, interim life safety measures for construction adjacent
to occupied areas and authority having jurisdiction approval.
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• Operations and maintenance: Considerations include maintenance of life safety  Back to TOC
systems, fire watch, building services, operating features and inspection, testing
and maintenance of fire protection systems.
• Facilities decommissioning: Upon completion of use of ACS, added utilities to

support ACS must be removed and the occupancy must be returned to original
existing occupancy classification.
Interior exit discharge requirement changes

Typically, exits must terminate directly outside. However, that is not always possible or
desirable. Prior editions of NFPA 101 had a couple of exceptions, one of which per-
mitted up to 50% of the required exit enclosures and 50% of the capacity to discharge
through the inside of a building.
The 2024 edition of NFPA 101 expands one of those conditions and allows up to 75%
of the required number of exit enclosures and capacity to be permitted to discharge
through the interior provided that:
• The level of discharge is protected throughout with automatic sprinklers
• The interior exit discharge only occurs in a vestibule or foyer that is separated from
the remainder of the floor by one hour fire-resistance rated fire barriers (existing
installations of wired glass in steel frames is permitted in lieu of the fire barriers)
• The vestibule or foyer is not more than 10 feet from the exterior of the building
and not more than 30 feet in length
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• The vestibule or foyer only serves as a  Back to TOC

means of egress and must exit directly
to the outside.
How NFPA 101 balances

security and life safety
In the past, there has been a misconception
that security and life safety are in opposition,
Figure 2: An effective exit
in that when prioritizing life safety, security is overlooked and vice strategy is important when
versa. Over the past few editions, changes have been made to ensuring safety during a
fire. Courtesy: NFPA
address this perceived conflict between security and life safety.
The 2024 edition of NFPA 101 requires that emergency action plans consider the secu-
rity features in place. This helps ensure both safety and security are considered when
developing plans for emergency response. New and existing educational and day care
occupancies added additional language, reiterating that both security and life safety
need to be considered and documented in the emergency action plan.
The future of life safety code

The changes listed in this article are by no means exhaustive, but they do hopefully
provide a helpful summary of key updates. NFPA 101 can be thought of as a living,
breathing document that evolves alongside construction and operational trends. The
changes made every three years are meant to create safer structures and environments
as well as address new challenges, making it critical for engineers to stay up to date.
Val Ziavras
Val Ziavras, PE, is a senior engineer in the NFPA technical services.
59
NFPA 20: Fire pump design
 Back to TOC
When designing a fire pump, there are a number of factors to keep in mind,
particularly NFPA 20
N FPA 20: Standard for the Installation of Stationary Pumps for Fire Protection pro-
tects life and property by providing requirements for the installation of fire pumps
to ensure that systems will work as intended to deliver adequate and reliable water
supplies in a fire emergency.
A fire sprinkler system is a critical component of life safety in a building. The Interna-
tional Building Code grants a number of exceptions when a building is “fully sprin-
klered,” such as reductions in rated separations, reductions in fire hydrant flow de-
mands, increased egress travel distances and increased building heights and areas.
These exceptions are permitted with an expectation that, in the event of a fire, the
sprinkler system will suppress the fire to a sufficient degree that occupants can safely
evacuate the building and the growth of the fire will be controlled until the fire depart-
ment arrives to fully extinguish it.
Often, the municipal water system has sufficient pressure to operate the sprinkler sys-
tem. A fire pump is required when the available water source does not have adequate
pressure. When a sprinkler system relies on a fire pump, the performance of the system
is dependent on the pressure created by the pump.
Because of the critical importance of the fire pump, careful consideration should be
employed when selecting and designing a fire pump.
Sizing a fire pump 60

A fire pump’s size is dictated by the most hydraulically demanding area of the fire pro-  Back to TOC
tection system. In many high-rise buildings, this can be the automatic fire standpipe
system demand which requires 500 gallons per minute at 100 pounds per square inch
at the top of the most remote standpipe, plus 250 gpm for each additional standpipe,
up to a maximum of 1,000 gpm for wet systems or 1,250 gpm for dry systems.
For nonhigh-rise buildings, the most demanding area could be any number of differ-
ent hazards. Though the IBC requires buildings with a highest finished floor located
more than 30 feet above the lowest fire department vehicle access to be equipped
with Class III standpipes or Class I if the building is fully sprinklered, NFPA 14: Stan-
dard for the Installation of Standpipe and Hose Systems allows the standpipes to be
manual type with the necessary pressure provided by the fire department pumper truck
through the fire department connection (2013 NFPA 14, Section 5.4.1.1), thus elimi-
nating the standpipe demand from consideration. It is important to perform a hazard
analysis of the building before attempting to size the fire pump.
For example, a new sprinkler system might be installed in a five-story medical office
building with a partial basement (overall building height of 69 feet). The building con-
struction is noncombustible, Type II-B and each floor is approximately 18,000 square
feet. The basement level contains electrical rooms, general storage rooms, a small ox-
ygen storage room (250 square feet) enclosed by a two-hour fire rating and a covered
exterior loading dock.
Floors one through four are comprised of offices, exam rooms and outpatient proce-
dure rooms. The fifth floor is a large mechanical penthouse with a roof slope of 3:12.
The center core areas on levels zero through four contain elevator lobbies, public cor-
61
ridors and public restrooms. The building is equipped with a Class I wet manual stand-  Back to TOC
pipe system.
The predominate hazard classification for the overall building is that of light hazard
occupancy, however, the building contains spaces that warrant higher hazard desig-
nations. While the oxygen storage room requires the highest density (0.30 gpm for
extra hazard occupancy), this space is not the most hydraulically demanding. The two-
hour rated enclosure provides an effective barrier to prevent fire spread outside of the
room. For this reason, the calculated area need only extend to the perimeter walls of
the room (NFPA 13-2013, Section 11.2.3.3).
The exterior loading dock requires the second highest density: 0.20 gpm for ordinary
hazard group 2. It also requires a 30% increase to the remote area size because the sys-
tem type must be dry due to exposure to freezing conditions (NFPA 13-2013, Section
11.2.3.2.5). The estimated flow demand for this area is approximately 507 gpm (0.20
gpm x 1,950 square feet = 390 gpm + 30% for sprinkler head overflow = 507 gpm). A
preliminary hydraulic calculation for this area indicates a required system pressure of
65 psi.
The most hydraulically demanding area in this example is the level five mechanical
room. Though the density for this remote area is only 0.15 gpm (ordinary hazard group
1), the top floor location requires additional pressure to overcome the head loss from
elevation. The remote area size is increased to 1,950 square feet due to a 30% increase
for slopes exceeding 2:12 (NFPA 13-2013, Section 11.2.3.2.4). The estimated flow de-
mand for this area is approximately 380 gpm (0.15 gpm x 1,950 square feet = 292.5
gpm + 30% for sprinkler head overflow = 380 gpm). A preliminary hydraulic calculation
62
indicates a required system pressure of 90 psi.  Back to TOC
Once a hazard analysis and preliminary hydraulic calculations have established the fire
flow and pressure required to meet the standpipe or sprinkler system demand, a re-
view of a recent water flow test can identify if a fire pump is necessary. The water flow
test used to size the fire pump is required to have been completed within the last 12
months (NFPA 20-2013, Section 4.6.1.2).
In the example scenario, the water flow test indicates pressures of 54 psi static, 48 psi
residual, flowing at 940 gpm. When the required outside hose demand is added to
the system flow demand (380 gpm + 250 hose = 630 gpm) and plotted on a graph, the
available city water pressure is approximately 49 psi when flowing at 630 gpm.
Typically, a minimum safety factor of 10 psi is required. To meet the demand, the fire
pump size should be at least 400 gpm rated at 51 psi (100 psi – 49 psi city pressure =
51 psi). Fire pumps are typically sized by pressure range, therefore a 400 gpm pump
with a revolutions per minute speed of 3,550 can deliver a rated pressure from 40 to 56
psi without increasing the size of the pump. Because there is no cost difference be-
tween the rated pressure of 51 and 56 psi, and high pressure is not a concern, the 400
gpm pump rated at 56 psi is acceptable. Fire pump pressures will be explored in fur-
ther detail later.
For exceptionally tall buildings, more than one fire pump may be necessary to deliver
the pressure required to the higher floors. NFPA 20 permits a maximum of three pumps
to operate in series (NFPA 20-2013, Section 4.19.2.1).
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Fire pumps cannot operate in parallel because the discharge check valve is forced  Back to TOC
closed when the pressure on the outlet side of the valve is higher than that on the inlet
side. For this reason, it is not possible to add a parallel fire pump to boost the pressure
and/or flow to a system.
Selecting a fire pump

Selection of the fire pump depends on the building infrastructure and available space.
The most common choices for fire pump drivers are electric motors and diesel engines.
Electric motors requiring high horsepower are commonly run on 460 volt or higher,
three-phase power. Steam turbines are also an option, but are fairly uncommon.
In buildings that are not equipped with enough power to supply an electric motor, a
diesel fire pump may be utilized. A fuel storage tank with the capacity to hold 1 gallon
of fuel per horsepower plus an additional volume to provide room for thermal expan-
sion is required. A dike must be provided beneath the fuel storage tank to contain any
potential fuel spills. Often, a pressure–relief valve is required on the discharge side of
the pump to relieve excess pressure in the event the engine revs out of control or if
a combination of suction pressure and pump pressure rise above a certain threshold.
The diesel motor exhaust must be routed through a muffler to the outside.
A diesel fire pump must be located in a separate enclosure or in a room with direct
access to the exterior. The enclosure size is substantially larger than normally required
for an electric fire pump because of the stored fuel and batteries necessary to provide
a backup power source. Diesel fire pumps are more expensive to install and maintain
because of the large number of mechanical parts, which can be prone to failure.
64
In buildings where the electrical capacity is not a concern, an electric driver is the pre-  Back to TOC
ferred choice. Electric motors are more compact, require fewer mechanical parts and
produce fewer negative environmental impacts.
Though NFPA 20 provides guidelines for various types of pumps (centrifugal, vertical
shaft turbine, positive displacement and multistage multiport), centrifugal fire pumps
are — including horizontal split case and vertical in-line — the most common among
commercial buildings and thus highlighted in this example. Vertical in–line pumps are
generally more compact, with a smaller footprint. While horizontal split case pumps
must be mounted on a concrete housekeeping pad, vertical in-line pumps can instead
be mounted on pipe stand supports. For these reasons, vertical in–line pumps are of-
ten a preferred choice for replacements or retrofits.
The impeller rotation in a vertical in-line pump is less susceptible to mechanical dam-
age from water turbulence, allowing for more flexibility in the piping arrangement on
the suction side of the pump. Horizontal split case pumps are only permitted to have
elbows and tees installed perpendicular to the pump when the fitting is located at
least 10 pipe size diameters from the suction flange (NFPA 20-2013, Sections 4.14.6.3.1
to 4.14.6.3.3). These requirements are not applicable to vertical in-line styles.
The impeller on a horizontal split-case pump is located in a separate casing in front

of the motor, allowing for easy access if maintenance is required. On a vertical in–line
pump, the impeller is beneath the motor, requiring the entire motor be raised and/or
removed to access the impeller. For this reason, it is recommended that a hoist beam
or another means of lifting is provided for vertical inline pumps greater than 30 horse-
power.
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 Back to TOC
Fire pump pressures
The total head of a fire pump is the energy imparted to the liquid as it passes through
the pump, usually expressed in psi. For fire pumps such as horizontal split-case and
vertical in-line centrifugal pumps that are required to operate under net positive suc-
tion head, the total head of a fire pump is calculated by adding the suction head (city
pressure) to the discharge head. The discharge head of the pump varies along a per-
formance curve that is determined by three limiting points: the shut-off, the rating and
the overload.
The shut-off represents the maximum allowable total head pressure when the pump
is operating at zero flow; this is sometimes also referred to as the churn pressure. The
rating is the listed pressure and flow that the pump should produce when operating
at 100% of pump capacity. The total head pressure should not be less than 65% of the
rated total head when the pump is operating at 150% of rated flow capacity, this is the
overload point. System flow demands that exceed the overload point can expose the
pump to possible cavitation and damage.
A fire pump performance curve has an allowable operating range not to exceed 140%
of the rated pressure of the pump. Consider the previous example of a 400 gpm pump
rated at 56 psi. This pump will produce 400 gpm at 56 psi when operating at 100%
of pump capacity. It also can produce a maximum volume of 600 gpm at 36 psi when
operating at 65% of pump capacity. The available volume and pressure vary along the
pump curve.
Referring back to the medical building example, the loading dock required an estimat-
66
ed 507 gpm at 65 psi. From the pump curve in Figure 3, the pump will deliver approx-  Back to TOC
imately 47 psi when flowing 507 gpm. When this discharge pressure is combined with
the city supply (47 + 48 psi = 95 psi), it is evident that the selected pump can easily
satisfy the hydraulic demand for the loading dock dry system.
A fire pump’s churn pressure is the amount of pressure generated when the pump is
operating at zero flow. The churn pressure is combined with the static water pressure
from the connected source, resulting in a combined static pressure for which all com-
ponents must be rated. As an example, a churn pressure rating of 126% will produce
71 psi of static discharge pressure from the aforementioned pump. When the churn
pressure is combined with the static city pressure, the total amount of static pressure
expected on the discharge side of the pump is 122 psi (71 psi discharge pressure + 51
static city pressure = 122 psi).
If the static pressure exceeds 175 psi (the pressure rating for standard sprinkler com-
ponents and maximum pressure allowed for fire hose valve connections), pressure–re-
ducing valves may be required unless all components of the system are rated for high
pressure. It is important to include the pump churn rating in the factors to consider
when weighing all of the options to make a proper pump selection.
The cost of a fire pump is largely based on the horsepower rating of the pump and the
type of controller. Vertical inline pumps are usually more cost effective when compared
to horizontal split-case pumps in smaller sizes (less than 1,000 to 1,250 gpm ratings). It
is recommended to consult a local fire pump representative to compare the horsepow-
er ratings between horizontal split-case and vertical in-line pumps, as the horsepower
rating can drive up costs related to controls and electrical connections.
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Controllers  Back to TOC

NFPA 20 requires that a fire pump be supplied by a continually available power source,
usually identified as an uninterrupted power source (NFPA 20-2013, Section 9.1.5 and
9.2.1). In many cases, this requirement necessitates that a backup generator be provid-
ed as a secondary source in the event of a power failure, in which case the fire pump
controller must be equipped with an automatic transfer switch. An ATS is an option
on a fire pump controller that must be specified; a controller does not come normally
equipped with an ATS.
The least costly type of fire pump controller is an “across-the-line” direct–voltage

controller without an ATS. This is the default controller that will usually be supplied
unless a different style has been specified. Many electrical engineers prefer “soft start”
reduced-voltage controllers instead, because these controllers reduce the immediate
power draw on the backup generator by slowly ramping up the voltage, allowing for a
reduction in generator size.
Consult with the electrical engineer to discuss the pros and cons of the different con-
troller styles. The cost savings to the overall project may be greater by selecting the
more expensive soft start controller to reduce the size of the generator.
Fire pump design

An outside screw and yoke gate valve must be installed in the suction pipe to provide
a means of isolation from the incoming supply line (NFPA 20-2013, Section 4.14.5.1).
This is the only device that is explicitly permitted to be installed in the suction line
within 50 feet of the pump suction flange, though NFPA 20 does provide allowances
for other equipment, which may be required by the authority having jurisdiction or by
68
other sections of the standard. These valves must be electrically supervised through  Back to TOC
the fire alarm system.
Where the local AHJ and/or municipal water department requires a backflow preventer
to be installed in the fire pump suction line, it must be located a minimum distance of
10 times the pipe size diameter from the pump suction flange (NFPA 20-2013, Section
4.27.3). This distance requirement is specific to backflow preventers equipped with
outside screw and yoke gate valves. If a backflow preventer is equipped with butterfly
valves, the minimum distance to the suction flange is increased to 50 feet (NFPA 20-
2013, Section 4.27.3.1). This increased distance is provided to allow for dissipation of
air bubbles that may form as water passes across the center disk of a fully open but-
terfly valve. Other nontraditional methods of backflow prevention, such as break tanks,
are not addressed within the purview of this article.
NFPA 20 also provides an exception for a pressure–sensing line connection to the

suction line when the AHJ requires a low–suction throttling valve to maintain positive
pressure on the suction piping (NFPA 20-2013, Section 4.15.9.1). The low–suction throt-
tling valve is installed on the discharge side of the pump before the discharge check
valve.
On the discharge side of the pump, a check valve and an indicating control valve are
required. The control valve must be installed after the check valve (NFPA 20-2013, Sec-
tion 4.15.7). If the fire pump is equipped with a flowmeter bypass, the bypass connec-
tion to the discharge pipe should be between the check valve and control valve. Where
fire pumps are installed in a series, butterfly valves are not permitted to be installed
between the pumps.
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 Back to TOC
A fire pump bypass is required on all fire pumps where the suction supply is of suffi-
cient pressure to be of material value without the pump (NFPA 20-2013, Section 4.14.4).
The bypass must be at least as large as the discharge pipe and should be equipped
with a check valve installed between two normally open control valves oriented in a
manner to prevent backflow to the suction side of the pump. The bypass line should
be connected before the outside screw and yoke on the suction side and after the con-
trol valve on the discharge side of the pump.
Every fire pump must be equipped with a metering device or fixed nozzles to accom-
modate pump testing. This equipment must be capable of water flow not less than
175% of rated pump capacity (NFPA 20-2013, Section 4.20.2.2). When the metering
device is installed in a loop arrangement for fire pump flow testing, an alternate means
of measuring the flow must also be provided.
A flowmeter bypass is preferred in some municipalities as part of a water conservation

effort. The flowmeter bypass allows routine tests to be performed without discharging
water to the environment. The bypass line is equipped with a Venturi flowmeter locat-
ed between two normally closed butterfly valves. To achieve proper performance of the
flowmeter, manufacturer–specified minimum distances must be maintained between
the flowmeter and the adjacent normally closed butterfly valves. The flowmeter bypass
must be connected after the outside screw and yoke on the suction side and between
the check valve and the control valve on the discharge side of the pump.
The minimum pipe diameter and number of outlets required for a fire pump test head-
er is dictated by the flow capacity of the pump. These minimum requirements are
70
outlined in NFPA 20 (NFPA 20-2013, Table 4.26(a)). When the pipe between the test  Back to TOC
header and the pump discharge flange exceeds 15 linear feet, the pipe diameter must
be increased to the next size up.
When transitional fittings are required to reduce or increase the pipe diameter at the
pump flange, care should be taken to select the proper reducing fitting. On the suction
side of the pump, the flanged reducer must be the eccentric tapered type, installed in
a manner to avoid air pockets. The reducer on the discharge side of the pump should
be the concentric type.
The fire department connection should tie into the system on the discharge side of the
pump. When an FDC is located upstream of a fire pump, the result can be high veloci-
ties that increase water turbulence and expose the fire pump to damaging conditions.
Many fire pumps have maximum suction pressure ratings that can be exceeded by the
pressures distributed through the FDC.
Fire pump enclosure

Lastly, when determining a location for a new fire pump enclosure, it is important to
consider service accessibility and proximity to the building exterior. A fire pump room
should be located on an exterior wall adjacent to the fire lane and above the flood-
plain. If the enclosure must be located inside, it shall be accessible by a passageway
with a fire rating equal to that of the fire pump enclosure. NFPA 20 requires the fire
pump room to have a minimum two-hour fire rating when located in a high-rise build-
ing. The fire rating can be reduced to a one-hour rating when the fire pump enclosure
is located in a fully sprinkled, nonhigh-rise building.
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The enclosure should be large enough to provide adequate clearance for installation  Back to TOC
and maintenance of the fire pump and related components. A good rule of thumb is to
provide at least 12 inches of clearance behind the fire pump and a minimum distance
of 12 inches from the edges of the entire fire pump assembly, piping and valves to the
walls. If the room consists of multiple sprinkler and/or standpipe risers, a minimum
clear distance of 12 inches between risers should be maintained to allow for easy ac-
cess to equipment. An approach clearance of at least 3 feet should be maintained in
front of the fire pump and related equipment. Minimum clearances in accordance with
NFPA 70 must be maintained around energized electrical equipment.
The fire pump room is intended solely for fire protection equipment and is not to be
shared by other mechanical trades. This rule is applicable to all equipment that is
nonessential to the operation of the fire pump except equipment related to domestic
water distribution. NFPA 20 provides an exception for domestic water equipment to be
located within the fire pump room.
There are many factors to consider when designing a fire pump. NFPA 20 contains
valuable requirements, which should be strictly followed to ensure that the fire pump
will perform as intended, should it ever be needed.
Tracey Foster, SET, CFPS, Dewberry, Raleigh, North Carolina

Tracey Foster is a senior fire protection designer for Dewberry. She is a NICET level
IV fire protection designer and an NFPA certified fire protection specialist. Foster has
more than 17 years of experience in the fire sprinkler industry as a designer, estimator,
design manager, project manager and company license holder.
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Back to basics: Introduction to
dedicated outdoor air systems  Back to TOC
Outdoor air is an important component of a building’s overall health and

well-being
M ost building codes require mechanical ventilation with few exceptions. Many
building occupancy types require large volumes of outdoor air. Dedicated out-
door air systems (DOAS) provide 100% fresh outdoor air to a building or space. Unlike
traditional heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, which usually recir-
culate air inside the building, DOAS units bring in outdoor air and condition it before
distributing it throughout the building.
DOAS usually run alongside other HVAC equipment serving the building or space
to meet the need for outdoor air. Where traditional cooling and heating equipment
can’t meet latent loads, special equipment is needed, increasing costs and space
requirements.
According to the ASHRAE Handbook 2020: Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning
Systems and Equipment, DOAS can help bridge that gap by centralizing the conditions
of the outdoor air and in some cases incorporating an energy recovery ventilator (ERV).
Benefits of DOAS
Although the main reason for using a DOAS unit is to meet minimum ventilation re-
quirements, these systems also provide other benefits. Conditioning the outdoor air
separately from recirculated air makes it easier to verify that each zone is being provid-
ed with sufficient outdoor air.
73
Back to basics: Introduction to dedicated outdoor air systems
 Back to TOC
Figure 1: This figure displays a typical

DOAS also improve indoor air quality (IAQ) by fil- dedicated outdoor air systems (DOAS)
tering outdoor air contaminants before dispersing unit configuration. Courtesy: CDM Smith
the fresh air to occupied spaces. DOAS units are
also effective dehumidifiers. DOAS units can help keep building pressurized properly.
This can prevent unwanted odors, moisture and impurities from entering the building
through infiltration. Because DOAS units can handle larger latent loads, other local or
central HVAC units can be reduced in size to just handle the building’s sensible load.
Preconditioning outdoor air at the DOAS unit can also lead to significant energy sav-
ings, which can lead to monetary savings when implemented correctly.
The requirements for ventilation rates by building codes and other standards are the
main driving factors for installing DOAS. With the growing popularity of DOAS to meet
ventilation needs, these systems are provided by various manufacturers and suppliers.
Manufacturers are beginning to provide an array of configurations that meet different
design needs.
74
The type of equipment used with a DOAS unit may vary depending on building type,  Back to TOC
spatial constraints and end-user needs. The benefit of a DOAS is that it, unlike a lot of
other HVAC equipment, can meet these high ventilation rate requirements.
Different DOAS types and configurations

DOAS units are provided by several manufacturers in the HVAC industry. These manu-
facturers offer units in multiple configurations such as a split option or packaged. The
split option is composed of an indoor unit with a remote condenser. The packaged op-
tions are self-contained and located outside on a building’s roof or on a concrete slab
on the ground. Hydronic DOAS units can be installed within a building with outdoor air
ducted to the exterior through a louver.
DOAS units are designed to accommodate a diverse range of entering air conditions,
ranging from the hottest summer days to the coldest winter nights. Units can temper
the outdoor air using different methods. The system configuration types include water
source heat pumps, air source heat pumps, water-cooled direct expansion, air-cooled,
direct expansion or chilled water. These configuration options are chosen based on
client site utilities, client preference and even an energy model’s least-cost estimates.
Manufacturers also provide customization options for DOAS units. Cabinets can be
outfitted with insulated foam to reduce heat transfer losses and corrosion-resistant
coatings to withstand challenging environments. There is also the option to provide
human machine interface, which allows a simpler way to program different unit settings
such as temperature and humidity.
The DOAS unit typically cools and dehumidifies air in the summer and humidifies and
75
heats air in the winter. The most basic unit consists of a preheating coil, a cooling coil,  Back to TOC
a reheating coil and a humidifier. DOAS units can also be provided with a wide range
of additional components to meet specific design needs and climate conditions. The
below outlines common equipment components:
Supply and/or exhaust fans. DOAS units come standard with supply fans and also
can be equipped with an optional exhaust fan and/or heat recovery component. Ple-
num supply fans are also common in DOAS applications.
Variable-speed drives or electronically commutated motors (ECM). Fans equipped

with ECMs offer 10:1 turndown. This allows for fan speed reduction as ventilation
needs vary. Variable speed compressors allow for the DOAS unit to adjust its heating
and cooling capacity to match the required load. In doing this, the unit provides a con-
sistent temperature throughout the space and avoids large temperature swings.
Cooling modules. Cooling modules are useful for cooling and/or dehumidifying out-
door air.
Heating modules. When a space requires heat greater than what the base unit can
provide, DOAS units can be provided with electricity, natural gas, liquefied petroleum
gas (propane), steam or hot water as a heating source. The heating systems have multi-
ple options for control including multistage, silicon-controlled rectifier or modulating.
Humidifiers. DOAS units can be fitted with humidifiers to be used during the dry out-
door conditions to bring moisture into the air, providing greater occupant comfort.
76
Hot gas reheat. Manufacturers offer hot gas reheat options on their units for dehu-  Back to TOC
midification purposes. On a mild but humid day when air needs to be dehumidified,
the only way to remove moisture is to cool the air. To avoid creating cold clammy air
if it is not warm enough, this additional option allows cooled, dehumidified air to be
heated to a more comfortable temperature, providing neutral dry air. Heating and heat
recovery of air above 60°F in DOAS units that provide ventilation air to multiple zones
and operate in conjunction with zone heating and cooling systems when building loads
or outside air temperature indicate the majority of zones are in cooling is prohibited
by ASHRAE Standard 90.1: Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential
Buildings. In other words, heated “room neutral” air from a DOAS can cause energy
waste when downstream units must recool it to meet zone temperature setpoints.
Air-to-air energy recovery devices. Energy recovery for these units is typically air-to-
air. This can be provided through polymer enthalpy wheels, aluminum enthalpy wheels
or enthalpy plate heat exchangers. Energy is recovered when two streams of air —
fresh air and return air — pass through the energy recovery device and transfer mois-
ture and heat from one air source to the other.
Filters and other cleaning devices. Air purity can be improved through different fil-
tration options provided for units including MERV 8, 11 or 14 filters; metal mesh filters;
or some manufacturers even offer bipolar ionization. Bipolar ionization systems gen-
erate positively and negatively charged particles to help HVAC systems remove them
from the airstream.
Space/building air temperature and humidity sensor. This component helps in

monitoring the air temperature and humidity within a space or building and is available
77
 Back to TOC
in various measurements, which include, outdoor, dis- Figure 2: This figure provides a
basic arrangement of a dedicated
charge, space and return humidity and air temperature
outdoor air systems (DOAS) unit
measures. in combination with a variable air
volume system to condition a building
space. Courtesy: CDM Smith
Unit configurations. Unit orientations can be modified
to meet space requirements. This is especially useful
in retrofit applications where available space is limited. Manufacturers typically allow
either vertical or horizontal supply air discharge placement and vertical, horizontal or
no return air arrangements.
When designing a building’s HVAC system, the engineer or designer may opt to provide
multiple smaller units to have more zone controllability in lieu of single, large units.
Air distribution
DOAS units can be integrated with almost any type of heating and cooling system de- 78
sign. DOAS units are often used in conjunction with fan coil units, variable air volume  Back to TOC
(VAV) systems, variable refrigerant flow systems or packaged terminal air conditioners.
In any configuration type, the DOAS selection would consider the outdoor air and latent
loads for the building and the local equipment would be sized for each space’s sensible
loads. This allows for a reduction in the local equipment’s sizing because it will only need
to be sized to handle the sensible load generated within the space. One configuration
type is ducting directly from the DOAS unit to each space the unit serves.
Another system configuration for the DOAS is to duct the outdoor air directly to the
return of the local unit. When the DOAS is ducted directly to the return, it allows the
local unit to mix the outdoor air with the recirculated air and condition this mixture.
The final HVAC system configuration discussed occurs where the DOAS is ducted to
a ceiling plenum, closet or mechanical room plenum, which the local unit uses as an
intake. This method is typically not recommended as it is challenging to guarantee that
each space receives its allotted outdoor air requirement.
DOAS Controls
In different design climates, DOAS can provide different modes of operation. For hot
and humid areas, the DOAS unit should run in dehumidification and cooling mode. In
other climate zones where ambient conditions are hot and dry, the DOAS unit may only
need to run in sensible cooling mode. In cold climate areas, the DOAS may need to
heat the incoming outdoor air in heating mode and provide humidification.
During occupied hours, the DOAS may need to run in these different operating modes
79
and provide ventilation air. During unoccupied hours, because ventilation is not re-  Back to TOC
quired, the DOAS may only need to provide dehumidification to ensure the building
stays dry. This is done by closing the outdoor air intake damper and just recirculating
return air to allow it to be dehumidified. This control method reduces wasted energy
and provides cost savings for the building owner.
Code requirements
ASHRAE Standard 62.1: Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality was first pub-
lished in 1973 and provides industry standards for outdoor air requirements for various
occupied building types and spaces. ASHRAE Standard 62.1 is continuously updating
and evolving to ensure minimum IAQ is provided for building occupants.
In some cases, there is a benefit to providing more outdoor air to a space than mini-
mum required by code. One U.S. Green Building Council LEED point can be achieved
by providing 30% more outdoor air to each breathing zone than the minimum required
by ASHRAE Standard 62.1. LEED Certification is the most widely used global rating
system that recognizes the design and construction of high-performance buildings that
are better for occupants and the environment.
Another benefit of providing more outdoor air than is required by code minimums is
an increase in employee production by reducing quantities of carbon dioxide. Studies
have shown that higher concentrations of carbon dioxide may lead to slower reaction
times and increased tiredness. Providing additional outdoor air can also help reduce
the infection rate of viruses. By providing fresh air, the concentration of viruses in the
space also decreases.
80
 Back to TOC
DOAS units that provide 100% ventilation air are be- Figure 3: This figure displays four
dedicated outdoor air systems (DOAS)
coming more widely used. In building spaces where control modes. Courtesy: CDM Smith
outdoor air requirements are high due to energy
codes and ASHRAE standards, DOAS units are often most efficient. DOAS units are
also best used for buildings with large occupancies or zones that require all or large
amounts of air to be exhausted, such as commercial kitchens.
The below are common building and space occupancy types that are best served by
DOAS:
• Animal shelters.
• Churches and religious buildings.
• Conference rooms.
• Locker rooms.
81
 Back to TOC
• Multifamily housing.
• Nursing homes.
• Retail stores.
• Veterinary hospitals.
DOAS systems are an innovative approach for HVAC design that have proven to be
highly efficient while providing occupant comfort and meeting the needs for outdoor
air requirements. Many design applications benefit from the use of DOAS systems and
these systems can be used in a wide variety of building types.
Alexandria Stuart and Caley Johnson

Alexandria Stuart is a mechanical engineer at CDM Smith, focusing on the design of
HVAC and plumbing systems for wastewater and water treatment plants. Caley John-
son is a mechanical engineer at CDM Smith, focusing on the design of HVAC and
plumbing systems for wastewater and water treatment plants.
82
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Codes & Standards

3 — Electrical grounding and bonding per NEC

17 — 2023 National Electrical Code Changes: New energy

18 — Back to basics: Medical gas storage under NFPA 99

32 — The NFPA® 70B standard just got overhauled

52 — A guide to upcoming changes in the 2024 edition of

60 — NFPA 20: Fire pump design

73 — Back to basics: Introduction to dedicated outdoor

Understanding correct grounding and bonding design and construction is

Grounding and bonding requirements

trical system operation. These practic-

• Keeps equipment enclosures and

• Limits unintended voltage on the

Figure 1: The illustration of grounding

• Establishes a stable voltage to ground during operation, including short circuits.

• Keeps electromagnetic interferences from causing misoperation.

• Prevents objectionable current.

ERROR 2: Meeting only bare minimum NEC requirements for

• Allowing 25 ohms ground resistance because it is allowed by code.

• Types of loads that will be connected.

• Soils: the resistivity is affected by salt, moisture, temperature and depth.

ERROR 3: Bonding grounded conductor (neutral) to ground

ERROR 4: Grounding and bonding design for separately de-

The generator also requires to be directly connected to ground when it is considered

Grounding and bonding definitions

Therefore, the first step to understanding Article 250 is  Back to TOC

Bonded (bonding): Connected to establish electrical

Bonding jumper, supply side: A conductor installed

Bonding jumper, system: The connection between

Bonding jumper, main: The con-  Back to TOC

Effective ground-fault current

Equipment grounding conduc-

the grounding electrode  Back to TOC

Ground: The earth.

Grounding electrode conductor: A conductor used to connect the system grounded

Grounded (grounding): Connected (connecting) to ground or to a conductive body  Back to TOC

Grounded, solidly: Connected to ground without inserting any resistor or imped-

Neutral point: The common point on a wye-connection in a polyphase system or mid-

Service equipment: The necessary equipment, usually consisting of a circuit breaker

Joe Doughney and Lilly Vang

• Unable to create designated spaces for medical gases.

• Efforts to maintain compliance become inconsistent.

• NFPA 99 requirements can be misinterpreted.

• Requirements may not be known.

Medical gas definitions NFPA 99  Back to TOC

• Container: A low-pressure, vacuum insulated vessel containing gases in liquid form.

• Cryogenic fluid central supply system: At a health care facility, an equipment

• Oxidizing gas: A gas that supports combustion.

How medical gas storage rooms are used

Signage: For example, source locations contain-

Meanwhile, source locations containing only oxy-

Figure 1: Example storage rooms.

Requirements for storage with a central supply included

• Exterior: Exterior central

less stringent, but unique requirements.  Back to TOC

• Important limitations: The follow-

Requirements for storage without a central supply included

Although there are many sim-  Back to TOC

For user convenience, NFPA