ETHNOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION

(Ethnography of Speaking)

PARTS:

1. INTRODUCTION
- introducing ourselves
- icebreaker
- defining what ethnography of communication is

ETHNOGRAPHY - Based on Oxford Languages, it is the scientific description of the

customs of individual peoples and cultures.

COMMUNICATION - Based on Oxford Languages, it is the imparting or exchanging of

information or news.

ETHNOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION - an approach to language research which has its

origin in the development of a view in anthropology that culture to a large extent is
expressed through language and of the view in linguistics that language is a system of
cultural behaviors (Hymes, 1974; Geertz, 1973; Hymes, 1968). | in other words, its the study
of the cultures found in the way we communicate/speak

Some Linguists studied languages to discover the structural differences between them and
to learn about their historical development ; Anthropologists studied human societies in order
to understand the workings of their cultures.

But culture and the use of language are not two completely separate concepts. In fact,
people use language in order to accomplish a wide variety of culture-specific goals. So, in
order for societies to function smoothly, their members must have not only LINGUISTIC
COMPETENCE—the knowledge of the grammatical rules of their mother tongue,
acquired well before adulthood—as Chomsky argued (see Chapter 2 ); they must also
have COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE—the knowledge of what is and what is not
appropriate to say in any specific cultural context. This means that communicative
competence is very much action-oriented; what you do is emphasized more than what you
theoretically know. In other words, where autonomous linguists like Noam Chomsky stressed
linguistic competence, linguistically oriented anthropologists found that the more interesting
questions lie in performance.

In its modern form, ethnography of communication dates back to Hymes’s 1962 article “The
Ethnography of Speaking.” John Gumperz (1922–2013) is also widely recognized as the co-
founder (though sometimes his approach is termed interactional sociolinguistics). Inasmuch
as this relatively new field focuses on those aspects of human behavior in which
communication meets culture, research in ethnography of communication contributes to the
interdisciplinary studies that are proving to be of increasing value in modern scholarship.
- speech community and related concepts

Language and speech are characterized by a lack of uniformity. In general, any particular
society is associated with a specific language, and multinational societies are associated
with several. But no language is ever uniform or the same for all speakers of a society
(people, community, tribe). As seen in the previous reportings, certain ways of speaking the
same language may differentiate men from women, the young from the old, the poor from
the rich, and the like.

SPEECH COMMUNITY - All those who share specific rules for speaking and interpreting
speech and at least one speech variety.

However, it is important to remember that people who speak the same language are not
always members of the same speech community.

Example #1: An elderly person may have considerable difficulty following what students talk
about among themselves. But a student can easily make the adjustment necessary to
engage in a conversation with the elderly person and be fully understood; all they have to do
is to share enough characteristic patterns of pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and
manner of speaking to belong to the same speech community.

Example #2: It may also be that people live in different countries and speak different
languages but share some rules for speaking, as do the Czechs and the Austrians. As an
example, the commonly used phrase for greeting or taking leave of a woman who is
economically and socially well situated was (and to some extent still is) “Rukulíbám,
milostivá paní!” in Czech and“Küss’ die Hand, gnädige Frauǃ” in German. The English
translation, “I kiss your hand, gracious lady,” clearly indicates how different such rules of
speaking are from those used, say, in Britain or the United States.

Example #3: Gay lingo; non-members of the LGBTQ+ community or those who are simply
unaware of such a language may be confused when someone speaks this language to them
or in front of them. But, this barrier can easily be resolved if that someone who is well-versed
in the language teaches how these words were created.

SPEECH AREA - This is what linguists refer to as an area in which speakers of different
languages share speaking rules.

2. Units of Speech Behavior

To distinguish among different levels of speech activity, Hymes made use of three terms for
the ethnographic analysis and description of speech behavior:

- Speech Situation
The context within which speaking occurs—that is, any particular set of circumstances
typically associated with speech behavior (or its absence).
Ex. family meal, birthday party, baby shower, seminar meeting, auction, or fishing trip
- Speech Act
The minimal unit of speech for purposes of an ethnographic analysis or in simple words, are
verbal actions that are meant to accomplish something.

Ex. a greeting, apology, question, compliment, or self-introduction.

Although normally attributable to a single speaker, collective speech acts also exist, such as,
for example, the “Amen” said during Mass or the reciting of the XU Vision and Mission by
Ateneans.

- Speech Event
A combination of Speech acts that follow each other in a recognized sequence and are
governed by social rules for the use of speech.

Ex. a conversation, a confession to a priest, an interview, or dialogue with a salesperson.

One example that encapsulates all three of these units is an Alumni Reunion. The gathering
itself is an example of a SPEECH SITUATION: It has a beginning and an end and lasts
usually only part of one day; the participants are restricted to former members of a class and
their spouses or partners. Within such a speech situation, a number of SPEECH EVENTS
invariably take place: for example, one group may be reminiscing about favorite
teachers and classroom antics, those in another group may be giving brief accounts
of what they have been doing since graduation or the last reunion, and still others
may be simply swapping jokes and stories. Within these speech events, the telling of a
single joke or personal experience is a SPEECH ACT.

Just as native speakers of any language are expected to produce sentences that are
grammatically acceptable and meaningful, speech acts are judged according to how
appropriate they are to any specific speech situation or speech event. It would be considered
odd if one were to say to a stranger in the street, “My name is John Smith; what time do you
have?” Similarly, at a baby shower it would be out of place to bring up the increasing infant
mortality rate. When inappropriate speech acts do occur, participants in the speech event or
situation are later likely to comment on them: “Did you hear what she said? How
inconsiderate!” or “What a crazy thing for Bill to say. Has he lost his mind?”

3. Components of Communication (SPEAKING acronym)

Does anyone still remember the SPEAKING model by Dell Hymes that was introduced to us
last 1st semester? Well, its actually a part of this lesson since it deals with the structure of
how we communicate with one another and helps us be able to understand how to
effectively speak with each other.

S - Setting
Any communicative act or event happens at a particular time and place and under particular
physical circumstances. Basically, it is the location in which the communication takes place.
Example: when doing presentations such as this, it is informal language should not be
employed when relaying information. However, if we are in cafes with friends, informal
language is okay. When we are in public, we tend to not reveal too much information when
talking about personal subjects. But, if we are in a more private and intimate set-up, we are
able to open up more about our personal life.

P - Participants
Includes not only the sender of a message and the intended receiver but anyone who may
be interested in or happens to perceive (hear, see) the message—the audience. That means
it could be a group of people in a conference room and an audience you are addressing but
it can also be people you’re telling a story to or a colleague you’re doing a zoom call with.

E - Ends (or Purpose)

Also known as the purpose of speaking which is not always to transmit information or to
exchange ideas. Sometimes it is to establish an atmosphere of sociability and is the
equivalent of a hug or a hearty handshake. It answers questions such as why are you
talking? What is the point of having this conversation? Are you trying to convince someone
of something and change their mind? Are you trying to get hired by a company?

A - Act Sequences
The arrangement of components or speech acts or simply the order that the communication
occurs. For example, when giving a speech, you’ll have a hook, opening, discussion of main
points, and conclusion.

K - Keys
Hymes referred to this as the “tone, manner, or spirit in which an act is done”. It is basically
the way something is being communicated. For example, you might address someone in a
more serious manner if you are apologizing or you might be animated and enthusiastic when
pitching a product to a potential customer.

I - Instrumentalities (channels, codes and message form)

The linguistic and non-linguistic tools used to make the speech act possible. Example: in the
movie Past Lives, the use of gadgets by Hae Sung and Nora in order to communicate
despite the distance and the speaking of the English language done by Hae Sung when he
meets Nora’s husband, Arthur in New York are examples of instrumentalities.

N - Norms (of interaction and interpretation)

Of interaction and interpretation; the social rules that govern the communication event.
When we talk about Norms of Interaction, this refers to the rules that surround a certain
interaction. Example: among members of the middle class in the United States, interruptions
are not considered appropriate except among close friends or family members, but if
someone monopolizes a conversation, there are acceptable ways of breaking in. A
compliment addressed to another person is usually gratefully acknowledged, or some
remark is made to the effect that the compliment may not be fully deserved. When we talk
about Norms of Interpretation on the other hand, this focuses on how the receiver interprets
the interaction. Thus, it varies from person to person and culture to culture. Deborah Tannen
(1982:219) gave an example of shared norms of interpretation that differ subtly from those
employed by most Americans. (Reference is to a Greek family.) Before marriage, a Greek
woman “had to ask her father’s permission before doing anything. … If she asked, for
example, whether she could go to a dance, and he answered, ‘An thes, pas (If you want, you
can go), ’ she knew that she could not go. If he really meant that she could go, he would say,
‘Ne. Na pas (Yes. You should go).’” In addition to the manner in which the father phrased his
answer, his intonation (a rise on the if clause) reinforced his meaning of disapproval.

G - Genres
Refers to speech acts or events associated with a particular communicative situation and
characterized by a particular style, form, and content. Poems, proverbs, riddles, sermons,
prayers, lecture, and editorials are examples of this component of communication.

4. Attitudes towards the Use of Speech (can be accessed in the LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND
SOCIETY: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology by Zdenek Salzmann, James Stanlaw, and Nobuko Adachi)

In this cultural context, men are expected to be vocal and articulate. This emphasis on verbal
communication is likely from traditional notions of masculinity, where being able to express
oneself confidently and persuasively is seen as a sign of strength and leadership.

On the other hand, Araucanian women are socialized differently when it comes to speech.
They are taught to be more reserved in public settings and to speak quietly. Additionally,
there is an expectation for women to maintain silence in the presence of their husbands.
This discrepancy in speech patterns between genders may reflect broader societal beliefs
about gender roles and power dynamics within relationships.

The saying "Still waters run deep" implies that quiet individuals may possess hidden depths
or surprising qualities beneath their reserved exterior. , even though they don't talk much.
So, it means that just because someone is quiet doesn't mean they're boring; they might
have a lot going on that you don't know about yet.

Meeting strangers: When they meet people they don't know well, they often stay quiet at
first.
Early in romantic relationships: During the beginning of dating or courting someone, they
may not speak much.
When Western Apache parents meet children returning from boarding schools: When
parents see their kids again after they've been away at school, they might not talk much right
away.

Many people see their own language as the best for communication. For example, Czechs
think their language is rich and expressive, which many writers and poets celebrate.
However, some Czechs don't respect Slovak, even though it's similar to Czech. They find
Slovak expressions that differ from Czech as strange or even ugly. They may see Slovak
words they don't understand right away as weird or monstrous.

Speech attitudes vary widely across cultures, shaped by social norms, gender roles, and
perceptions of language. Understanding these attitudes provides insight into cultural values
and communication dynamics.
5. Recent Trends in the Ethnography of Speaking
In Ngandi, "jara" is a filler word used when a speaker is searching for a specific noun. Unlike
in English, it's fully acceptable and even has grammatical features like noun-class prefixes
and suffixes. If a speaker uses it twice in one sentence, they might add "ŋuni" to show
impatience.

In linguistic studies, "context" traditionally refers to the conditions surrounding

communication. However, there's a shift towards using "contextualization" instead. Some
linguistic anthropologists prefer this term because it highlights context as a dynamic process,
something that evolves and may change during interaction. Contextualization cues are
elements in the setting used to interpret content at different stages of interaction.

6. Summary and Conclusion

The ethnography of communication is a recent addition to the study of cultures by
anthropologists and languages by linguists. Its primary objectives are to provide
comprehensive accounts of how speech is used socially in various societies and to conduct
historical and comparative studies (known as ethnology of communication). While the focus
has mainly been descriptive and on the present moment, there are plans to expand into
cross-cultural comparisons and investigations into how speech patterns evolve over time.