Sanitary Engineering Notes

6th Semester

Prepared by: Er. Bilove Moktan

 Chapter 3

Characteristics and
Examination of sewage

2
Importance from Exam Point of View

▪ Carries 8-12 marks

▪ Theory + Numerical (BOD/Total Solids)

3
 What is Sewage??
▪ Sewage is the collective term for all kinds of liquid wastes or
wastewater produced from the community.

▪ It consists of domestic and industrial mixtures of

wastewater.

▪ Domestic sewage comprises wastewater from

kitchen, bathroom, lavatory, etc.

▪ Industrial sewage comprises wastewater from

different industries or factories.

▪ Characterization of wastewater is essential for effective

4

and economical wastewater management program.

Why Sanitation Engineering??
▪ Branch of public health engineering which deal with all
the aspects of management of waste (liquid, sludge and
solid) stating from their collection, conveyance,
transportation, treatment and disposal and preserve
environment and public health.

▪ Sanitation: Sanitation generally refers to the provision

of facilities and service for the safe disposal of human
excreta/urine and maintains hygienic condition by
collection and management of solid waste also.
Scope of Sanitation Engineering
▪ Environmental consulting engineer

▪ Water resources engineer

▪ Waste management engineer

▪ Air pollution control engineer

▪ Environmental Scientist
 Types of Sewage
▪ Storm water

▪ Sanitary Sewage: Wastewater derived from residential

building or industrial establishment. Based on the type
of source, It can be classified as:

1. Domestic Sewage
- Includes sewage from basins, water closets of
houses, offices, theatres, malls and other institutions.
- Consists of human excreta, so is foul in nature.

2. Industrial sewage
- Wastewater obtained from industries or factories
via processing of during goods or materials. 7
 Types of Sewage
3. Combined Sewage : mix of domestic and industrial
sewage

▪ Raw Sewage: Untreated sewage

▪ Weak Sewage: contains less amount of solid suspended

solid impurities

▪ Fresh Sewage: Recently produced sewage

▪ Septic Sewage: Sewage undergoing treatment process

▪ Night Soil: human excreta 8

3.1 Sewage Sampling
 Sampling of sewage
▪ Sampling is the process of collection of the
representative sample from sewage.

▪ Representative sample means a sample in

which relative proportions or concentration of
all pertinent components will be the same as in
wastewater being sampled.

▪ The quantity and characteristics of sewage may

changes with respect to time.

▪ It is recommended to take 24 hours sample at

one-hour interval. 10
Sampling of Sewage
Sampling of Sewage
 Sampling of sewage
▪ As per testing the sample can be classified as:

(a) Grab sample

(b) Composite sample

 Grab Samples
▪ Grab samples are collected at a specific spot over a short
period of time typically filling time of sampling vessel.

▪ If a source is relatively constant in composition, then

grab sample may represent the entire source.

▪ Suitable for protected groundwater supplies, water

supplies receiving conventional treatment, some well-
mixed surface waters.

▪ Grab sample represent the condition of sewage at

particular time and location.
Grab Samples ▪ Sampling containers must be
made from a material which
is corrosion-resistant and
leak-proof, will withstand
repeated refrigeration and
cleaning, and will not interact
with the sample water.

▪ In general, plastic or glass

should be used for sample
containers. Do not use metal
containers such as coffee
cans since they will corrode,
cannot withstand repeated
use, break easily, and cannot
be acid cleaned.
Sample Bottles
 Composite Samples
▪ Composite sample are used when grab samples are
inadequate to characterize the sewage quality in case of
fluctuations in characteristics of wastewater.

▪ Composite samples can be obtained by combining portions of

multiple grab samples.

▪ Composite Sample represent the average strength and

composition of sewage.

▪ Sequential (time) composite samples are collected by mixing

equal water volumes collected at regular time intervals.

▪ Flow-proportional composites are collected by mixing

volumes of water proportional to the flow collected at
▪ Composite samples are
often taken using
automatic sampling
devices.

▪ These may be set to take

a sample every 8, 12, or
24 hours, with the
frequency depending on
test requirements, on the
size of the treatment
plant, and on permit
requirements.
Sample bottles in Cooler
 Collection, preservation and storage of
samples
▪ It is necessary to ensure that all sampling equipments are
quality assured before use.
▪ Sample containers should be clean and free of contaminants.
▪ For organic and biological test, sample container or bottles to be
used should be baked at 450°C.
▪ If the sample bottle already contains preservative, fill sample
bottles without pre-rinsing with sample. Pre-rinsing may loss
of pre-added preservative and sometimes can bias results
high when certain components adhere to the sides of the
container.
▪ Depending on analysis to be performed, fill the bottle full (organic
compound analysis) or leave space for aeration, mixing, etc.
(microbiological and inorganic analyses).
 Collection, preservation and
storage of samples
▪ Depending on the analysis to be performed, suitable
preservatives such as chloroform, sulphuric acid,
formaldehyde etc. are added in the sample to prevent
change in quality of sewage if sampling bottle do not contain
preservative.
▪ If the analysis required is for determination of alkalinity;
sulphuric acid should not be used as preservative.

▪ Similarly, for organic matters and grease, chloroform should

not be used.

▪ For BOD test, no preservatives should be used. Collected

samples should be kept in a cool place so that bacterial
activity may not change the characteristics of sewage before
its examination.
 Collection, preservation and
storage of samples
▪ Each sample should have label with following information:
General Information Specific Information
Sample identification number Water temperature

Collector’s identity Weather

Sample collector Stream flow

Date and time Water level

Sample type (Grab or composite)

Source
Location
How to take Samples?
3.2 Different Characteristics of
Sewage
(Physical, Chemical, Biological)
Characteristics of Sewage
1. Physical Characteristics

2. Chemical Characteristics

3. Biological Characteristics

26
Characteristics of Sewage
Physical characteristics
1. Colour
2. Odour
3. Temperature
4. Turbidity
5. Solids
Er Dinesh Bhatt
27
 1. Color
▪ Fresh sewage is typically light brownish gray or
gray in color.

▪ The color of wastewater changes from gray to

dark gray and ultimately to black (septic) as time
from its production increases.

▪ Color of industrial sewage depends on the

nature and type of industrial process and
chemical present in industrial wastewater. 28
Color of Sewage
Color
 2. Odor
▪ Fresh domestic wastewater has the odor of
kerosene or freshly turned earth or soap
odour, which is less objectionable.
▪ Aged, anaerobic, septic sewage is considerably
more offensive having rotten-egg odor of
hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
▪ Industrial wastewater may contain either
odorous compounds or compounds that
produce odors during the process of wastewater
treatment.
▪ The importance of odors at low
concentrations in health terms is related to
31
the psychological stress.
 3. Temperature
▪ Generally, sewage has slightly higher temperature than
water.

▪ The temperature of wastewater changes depending on the

geographic location and season.

▪ The temperature of sewage is useful in indicating

solubility of oxygen.

▪ It affects chemical reactions and reaction rates, aquatic

life, and the suitability of the water for beneficial uses.

▪ Oxygen is less soluble in warm water than in cold water.

▪ Extremely low temperature affects adversely on32 the

efficiency of biological treatment systems.
If someone offered you water, which one would
you take?

1 2 3
 4. Turbidity (Muddiness or Murkiness)
▪ Turbidity measures water clarity.

▪ Wastewater is turbid than water due to the presence of

high suspended and other matters.

▪ Turbidity in wastewater is caused by suspended matter,

such as clay, silt, finely divided organic and inorganic
matter.

▪ Turbidity is used as an easily monitored parameter for

monitoring solids in water. 34
▪ Clearer the water, lower is the turbidity and higher
the turbidity, more murkier or muddier the water.
 5. Solids

▪ The total amount of solid particles present in

the wastewater.

▪ All contaminants in wastewater contribute to

total solid load of wastewater.

▪ Wastewater primarily consists of several types

of solids, including : total, dissolved,
suspended, organic, inorganic and floatable.
5. Solids
 Laboratory Tests to
determine amount of
different solids
 APPARATUS REQUIRED
To determine the amount of solids in wastewater:

1. CRUCIBLE
 APPARATUS REQUIRED

2. WHATMANFILTER PAPER
APPARATUS REQUIRED
APPARATUS REQUIRED
 APPARATUS REQUIRED

5. BEAKER
 APPARATUS REQUIRED

6. Weighing Machine
 APPARATUS REQUIRED

7. Standard Digital Oven

Quantity of Total Solids
QUANTITY OF TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS
 SIGNIFICANCE OF TDS
▪ TDS is undesirable in Water.

▪ Dissolved minerals, gases, and organic

constituents produces aesthetically
displeasing odour.

▪ In Industries high concentration of TDS causes

Scaling and corrosion in boilers.
▪ High Voltatile Solids are not suitable for drinking.
 Solids
S.N Test Description
.

1 Total solids The residue remaining after a wastewater sample has

been evaporated and dried at 103 to 1050C

2 Settleable solids The solids that settle to the bottom of Imhoff

cone
within 2 hour
3 Non Settleable The solids that do not settle to the bottom of
solids Imhoff
cone within 2 hour
4 Total suspended Portion of the TS retained on a Whatman GF/C filter
solid (TSS) having pore size of about 1.58 μm measured after
being dried at 1050C.
5 Total dissolved The solids that pass through Whatman GF/C filter,
solid (TDS) and are then evaporated and dried at 1050C. These are
Er Dinesh Bhatt
1/22/2020 composed ofPant
Er Laxmi colloidal
Bhatt and dissolved solids. 62
S.N Test Description
.

6 Total volatile The solids that can be volatilized and burned off when
solids the TS are ignited at 500 ± 500C

7 Total fixed solids The residue that remains after TS are ignited at 500
±500C
8 Volatile The solids that can be volatilized and burned off when
suspended solids the TSS
are ignited (500±500C)
9 Fixed suspended The residue that remains after TSS are ignited at
solids 500±500C

10 Volatile dissolved Those solids that get volatilized and burned off when
solids the TDS
are ignited (500±500C)
11 Fixed dissolved The residue that remains after TDS are ignited
solids (500±500C)
1/2 /2020
2
 Chemical Characteristics
▪ The chemical constituents of wastewater are classified as
inorganic and organic.

▪ Inorganic chemical constituents of concern include

nutrients, metals, non-metals and gases.

▪ Organic compounds are usually composed of a

combination of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, together
with nitrogen in some cases.

▪ The chemical characteristics of constituents those which

affect the selection and operation of treatment plants are
pH, nitrogen, chloride, sulphide, sulphates and H2S,
dissolved oxygen, fat, grease and oil etc.
 Chemical Characteristics
▪ Important chemical parameters of sewage are:

❖ pH

❖ Dissolved Oxygen

❖ Organic Matter

❖ Inorganic Matter
 1. pH
▪ The hydrogen-ion concentration that is measured in terms
of pH, is an important quality parameter of wastewater.

pH = −log [H+]
▪ pH indicates the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
▪ Extremely less or high pH indicates the presence of
industrial sewage.
▪ Wastewater with an extreme pH (low or high) is difficult to
treat by biological means and safe disposal in the natural water
bodies becomes difficult.
▪ The pH range suitable for the existence of most biological
life is typically 6 to 9.
 1. pH
▪ The hydrogen-ion concentration that is measured in terms of pH, is
an important quality parameter of wastewater.

▪ The pH range suitable for the existence of most biological life is

typically 6 to 9.
 1. pH
▪ The hydrogen-ion concentration that is measured in terms of pH, is
an important quality parameter of wastewater.

▪ The pH range suitable for the existence of most biological life is

typically 6 to 9.

Slightly Alkaline
Slightly Acidic
 1. pH
▪ The hydrogen-ion concentration that is measured in
terms of pH, is an important quality parameter of
wastewater.
▪ The pH range suitable for the existence of most biological
life is typically 6 to 9.
▪ Fresh sewage is normally slightly alkaline in nature.
▪ It becomes acidic due to the production of acids by
bacterial activities during the course of time.
▪ Again, it becomes alkaline after oxidation of acidic
matters.
 2. Dissolved Oxygen
▪ Dissolved oxygen (DO) is the amount of oxygen present in
dissolved state in the wastewater /water.

▪ The sewage contains little amount of oxygen as compared

with fresh water.
▪ While discharging the wastewater in receiving water
bodies, it is essential to ensure that at least 4 ppm of DO is
maintained.

▪ If DO is reduced from this limit; aquatic life are highly

affected.

▪ Presence of DO indicates the sewage is fresh or oxidation

has been occurred after treatment.
Importance
of DO
 Pic: Fishes swimming in side
drainage canals in Shimabara, Japan
(due to sufficient amount of
dissolved oxygen present in water)
Bagmati Cleaning Campaign
Dissolved Oxygen

“Fish have started swimming in Bagmati some thirty

years after the cleanliness campaign was launched.”

-Chairman of Pudasaini Maitri Samaj Uttam

Pudasaini
 3. Organic Matter
▪ Organic solids in wastewater are derived from animal
and plant life.

▪ Organic compounds are normally composed of a

combination of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen,
together with nitrogen in some cases.

▪ Wastewater of medium strength contains about 75% of

the organic matter in suspended solids.

▪ Wastewater contains small quantities of a large

number of different synthetic organic molecules
ranging from simple to extremely complex in structure.
4. Inorganic Matter
▪ The major inorganic matters or pollutants in
wastewater are heavy metals (mercury, lead), non-
metallic salts like Selenium, Arsenic, etc. Others are:
sand, gravel, chlorides, etc.

▪ The sources of inorganic nonmetallic and metallic

constituents in wastewater are water supply and
additions from domestic and industrial use.

▪ Domestic and industrial water softeners also

contribute significantly to the increase in mineral
content.

▪ Groundwater infiltration also adds mineral

concentration in the wastewater.
 5. Nitrogen
▪ Nitrogen and phosphorus are essential elements required
for growth of micro-organisms, plants and animals.
▪ Ammonia (NH3), Ammonium (NH4), Nitrogen gas (N2),
Nitrite ion (NO2), and Nitrate ion (NO3) are most
commonly found forms of Nitrogen in wastewater.
▪ Nitrogen data are required to assess the treatability of
wastewater by biological processes.
▪ Removal or reduction of nitrogen in wastewater may be
required to reduce algal growths in the receiving water.
Nitrification
3. Biological Characteristics
▪ The wastewater has very high microorganism
content.

▪ Many of the waste substances present in

domestic wastewater are organic and serve
as food for saprophytic (derive nutrition from
dead and decaying organic matter)
microorganisms.

▪ Almost all types of microorganism are found in

sewage. Out of the microorganisms present in
sewage, bacteria, protozoa, fungi, algae and
viruses are of the greatest significance.

▪ Bacteria play a fundamental role in the

decomposition and stabilization of organic
matter both in nature and in wastewater
treatment plants.
 Biological Characteristics
▪ Bacteria present in sewage can be classified as:
(i) Aerobic bacteria - need oxygen to survive
(ii) Anaerobic bacteria - can survive in absence of oxygen
(iii) Facultative bacteria - can survive in presence as well as in
absence of oxygen

▪ Bacteria present in sewage can also be classified as:

(i) Pathogenic bacteria - disease causing bacteria
(ii) Non-pathogenic bacteria - do not cause any harm
 3. Biological Characteristics
▪ Bacteria are the most numerous microorganism found in
wastewater.
▪ Pathogenic bacteria are responsible for diseases.
▪ Fungi are molds that have the ability to survive at low pH values.
▪ They play important role in treatment of some industrial
wastewater and composting solid organic wastes.
▪ Algae are significant to control due to their ability to
reproduce rapidly under the suitable conditions.

▪ They create algal blooms in surface waters.

▪ The nuisance associated with algal bloom, algae creates taste
and odor problems when present in water.
Indicator Organisms (Water Supply)
▪ The numbers of pathogenic organisms present in
wastewater are few and difficult to isolate and identify

▪ Each person discharges from 100 to 400 billion coliform

organisms per day, in addition to other kinds of bacteria.
▪ Thus, the presence of coliform organisms is taken as an
indication that pathogenic organisms may also be present.

▪ The absence of coliform organisms is taken as an indication

of water is free from disease producing organisms.
3.3 Decomposition of
Sewage, Aerobic and
Anaerobic Reactions
 Decomposition of Sewage
▪ Sewage contains organic matters as well as
microorganisms.

▪ The microorganisms in sewage take their food from

organic matter present in sewage or sewage get
decomposes by microorganisms using biological and
chemical process.

▪ This process is called biochemical decomposition.

▪ The bacteria splits the complex organic compound to

gases like Co2, CH4, NH3, etc.

▪ The organic matters those get decomposed by bacterial

action are called biodegradable matters.
 Decomposition of Sewage
▪ Depending upon bacteria and their actions on
organic compounds biological decomposition
are classified as:
(a) Aerobic decomposition
(b) Anaerobic decomposition
 1. Aerobic Reaction/Decomposition
▪ Aerobic and facultative bacteria operating aerobically in
presence of oxygen perform aerobic decomposition.
▪ Aerobic decomposition is a biological process, in which,
organisms use available organic matter and oxygen to
support biological activity.

▪ Oxygen is available in wastewater in dissolved form or

artificially supplied in treatment plants.

▪ This process uses organic matter, nutrients, and dissolved

oxygen, and produces stable solids, CO2, H2O, SO4, NO2
and more organisms.
▪ During this process, organic matter is broken up and
oxidized into non objectionable end products.
1. Aerobic Reaction/Decomposition
▪ Aerobic treatment usually yields better effluent
quality than that obtained in anaerobic
processes.
▪ The aerobic decomposition also releases a
substantial amount of energy.
▪ A portion of this energy is used for synthesis
and growth of new microorganisms.
▪ Examples of aerobic reactions in sewage
treatment are oxidation ponds, aeration tank,
trickling filter, contact beds etc.
1. Aerobic Decomposition

Fig: Process of Aerobic Decomposition

2. Anaerobic Decomposition
▪ Anaerobic decomposition is performed by anaerobic or
facultative bacteria, operating an-aerobically, in
absence of oxygen after exhausting of DO in aerobic
action.
▪ Anaerobic decomposition is a biological process, in
which, decomposition of organic matter occurs without
oxygen.
▪ Anaerobic bacteria survive by extracting and
consuming bounded molecular oxygen present in the
organic compounds such as nitrites, nitrates, sulphates
etc.
 2. Anaerobic Decomposition
▪ Anaerobic decomposition occurs in two steps:
▪ Initially, facultative acid forming bacteria use organic
matter as a food and produce volatile fatty acids, gases
(CO2, H2S), stable solids and more facultative organisms.

▪ These volatile fatty acids are acted upon by anaerobic

methane forming bacteria as a food source and they
produce methane gas, other gases (CO2, H2O, H2S, NH3,
N2), stable solids and more anaerobic methane formers.

▪ The methane gas produced by the process is usable fuel.

The end products of an anaerobic are likely to be odorous.
▪ Examples of anaerobic treatment units are septic tanks,
imhoff tank, sludge digestion tank.
2. Anaerobic Decomposition

Fig: Process of Anaerobic Decomposition

Difference between Aerobic and
Anaerobic Decomposition
S.N. Aerobic Decomposition Anaerobic Decomposition
1. This decomposition takes place in This decomposition takes place in
presence of oxygen. absence of oxygen.

2. Aerobic and facultative bacteria are Anaerobic and facultative bacteria are
responsible for aerobic decomposition. responsible for anaerobic decomposition.

3. The end products from aerobic The end products from anaerobic
decomposition are stable like CO2, decomposition are odorous like H2S,
H2O, SO4, NO2, etc. CH4, NH3, CO2, H2O, N2, etc.

4. Examples of aerobic decomposition Examples of anaerobic decomposition

are oxidation ponds, aeration tank, are
trickling filter, contact bats, etc. Septic tank, Imhoff tank, sludge digestion
tank, etc.
3.4 Biochemical Oxygen
Demand (BOD) and
Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD)
 Bio Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
▪ The biochemical oxygen demand or BOD is defined
as amount of oxygen required for oxidation of the
organic matter present in a wastewater sample
through the action of aerobic bacteria.

▪ BOD is an indirect measure of the concentration of

organic contamination present.

▪ The greater oxygen demand shows that there is larger

amount of organic matter in sewage.

▪ It is the most widely used parameter of organic

pollution applied to both wastewater and surface water.
 Bio Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
▪ BOD is defined as the oxygen requirement of microorganisms
to carry out biological decomposition of organic matter in
wastewater under aerobic conditions at standard temperature.

▪ Temperature plays significant role on oxygen uptake, as metabolic

activity increases significantly at higher temperature.

▪ Again, time allotted for the test is also important, as the amount of
oxygen used increases with time. A constant temperature of 20
degree cel. is maintain during the incubation.

▪ BOD is slow process and theoretically takes an infinite time to

go complete decomposition.

▪ Therefore, generally 5 days period is chosen for standard BOD

test during which about 60 -70% oxidation is completed.
Bio Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Expressions for BOD (Derivation)
Deoxygenation Constant (k)
𝑇 −20
▪𝐾𝑡 = 𝐾20 (𝜃)
where;
𝐾𝑡 = rate constant at T °C temperature
𝐾20 = rate constant at 20 °C
= 0.1/day (for base 10)
= 0.23/day (for base e)
𝜃 = 1.056 (for temperature = 20 °C to 30 °C)
= 1.135 (for temperature range = 4 °C to 20 °C)
= 1.047 (generally used in literature)
Numericals
1. A typical wastewater has a value of
base 10 rate constant at a temperature,
20°C is 0.1/day. Find its value at 30 ° C.
= (Ans: 0.172/day)

2. A typical wastewater has a 6 day BOD

at 20°C is 70% of ultimate BOD. Find
the (base 10) rate constant k.
= (Ans: 0.087/day)
 Numericals
3. A typical wastewater has a BOD5, 20°C is 220
mg/L. If the k for it is 0.23 day-1 (base e), what is
the ultimate BOD ? What is the 3 day BOD ?

4. A sewage sample incubated for one day at 30°C

has BOD of 150mg/l. What will be its 5 day BOD at
20°C if the value of the de-oxygenation constant is
0.13 per day (base 10) for 20°C.
Numericals
3. A typical wastewater has a BOD5, 20°C is 220
mg/L. If the k for it is 0.23 day-1 (base e), what is
the ultimate BOD ? What is the 3 day BOD ?
= (Ans: 321.94 mg/L, 160.46 mg/L)

4. A sewage sample incubated for one day at

30°C has BOD of 150mg/l. What will be its 5 day
BOD at 20°C if the value of the de-oxygenation
constant is 0.13 per day (base 10) for 20°C.
= (Ans: 288.906 mg/L)
 Numerical
2022 Q.2 (a)
▪ The BOD of a sewage incubated for 3
days at 27°C was measured 110 mg/L.
Calculate the ultimate BOD and 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 at
20°C. Consider k = 0.23 per day (base e)
 Numericals
2019 Q.2 (b)
▪ If 5 days BOD of sewage is 220 mg/L and
rate reaction constant with base “e” is 0.23
per day, calculate ultimate first stage BOD?
What portion of ultimate first stage BOD
will get oxidized after 20 days at 24°C?
Numericals 2019 Q.2 (b)
5. The BOD5 of sewage sample at 20 °C is 300
mg/L. If K =0.23 (base e), what is the ultimate
BOD? What portion of ultimate BOD would
remain un oxidized after 20 days?

= (Ans: 439 mg/L, 1.1 %)

6. If 3 day BOD of sewage sample is 200mg/L at
25 °C, calculate its 5 day BOD at 20 °C. Assume k
= 0.12 per day (base 10) at 20 °C.
= (Ans: 225.46 mg/L)
Numericals
7. The BOD5 of a sewage incubated for one day
at 30 °C has been found to be 170mg/l. What
will be the 5 day BOD at 20 °C? Assume K = 0.12
per day (base 10) at 20 °C.
= (Ans: 335.762 mg/L)
8. If one day BOD of a sewage sample at 23 °C is
105 mg/l. What will be its first day BOD at 30
°C? Assume k20 = 0.1 per day.
= (Ans: 144.32 mg/L)
Numericals 2018 Q.1 (b)
9. A wastewater sample is taken from a sewer.
The 5- day BOD was found to be 180 mg/l at 20 °
C mg/L which is 70% of the ultimate BOD.
What will be 4- day BOD of the wastewater at 30
° C?
= (Ans: 208.6 mg/L) 2016 Q.2 (c)
10. If BOD at 15 °C is 220 mg/L, find BOD7 at 25°
C.
= (Ans: 630.74 mg/L)
Numericals
11. Calculate the value of (base e) rate constant
K if 80% of ultimate BOD is satisfied in 5 days.
= (Ans: 0.321 per day)

2017 Q.3 (b)

12. If the seven day BOD at 20 °C is 280 mg/L,
and one day BOD at 20 C is 35 mg/L. Calculate
the rate reaction constant k at 20 °C and find
five day BOD at 25° C.
= (Ans: k = 0.02, 262.9 mg/L)
Numericals
13. If the five day BOD at 20 °C is 280 mg/L, and
one day BOD at 20 °C is 111.80 mg/L. Calculate
the rate reaction constant k at 20 °C and seven
day BOD at 25° C.
= (Ans: k = 0.19, 309.7 mg/L)
 Chemical Oxidation Demand (COD)
▪ In industrial sewage, biologically active materials (i.e.
those which can be decomposed by bacteria) are very less
and hence sewage cannot by bacteria alone.
▪ Hence, biologically inactive organic matters are
decomposed with the help of chemicals.
▪ The equivalent amount of oxygen required for the
chemical oxidation of organic compounds present in
the sewage by means of a strong chemical oxidizing
agent used in an acidic medium is called chemical
oxygen demand (COD).
▪ This is the amount of oxygen required for chemical
oxidation of organic matter, carbonaceous matter and
other substances present in the sewage.
 Chemical Oxidation Demand (COD)
▪ Potassium dichromate in presence of concentrated
sulphuric acid is used is used as oxidizing agent.
▪ COD analysis is relatively fast compared with the BOD
analysis (3 hours versus 5 days).
▪ Nearly all organic compounds are oxidized in the
COD test and only some are decomposed during the
BOD test.
▪ COD values are always higher than BOD values. A
higher value of COD than BOD indicates that the
sewage is difficult to biodegrade.
▪ Wastewater treatment technician use COD analysis
to obtain information quickly for plant operation.
BOD vs COD
BOD vs COD
 Examination of Sewage
▪ The process of analyzing the wastewater that
involves various tests carried out for determining
the characteristics of wastewater is called
Examination of Sewage.
▪ This analysis is done for both raw wastewater as well as
treated wastewater.
▪ Examination of raw sewage enables to determine the
outline of process of wastewater treatment and
treatment plant design.
▪ It is also done to know whether analysis of treated
wastewater effluent characteristics have reached to
standard values to disposal on water bodies or not.
Examination of Sewage
 Necessities of Examination
of Waste Water
▪ The physical, chemical and biological characteristics of domestic
wastewater are quite variable with respect to time, season and
flow.

▪ Following are the purposes of examination of wastewater:

1. Determination of strength of sewage
2. Determination of various substances and their concentration in
wastewater
3. Determination of degree of treatment required
4. Determination of approximate quantity of oxygen required for
stabilizing the organic matter present in waste
5. Measurement of efficiency of treatment plant
3.5 Wastewater Tests: pH-
value, DO, BOD, COD,
Nitrogen, Chloride
demand, Chlorine
3.5 Wastewater Test
▪ The tests of wastewater are classified as the
following:

1. Physical Test
2. Chemical Test
3. Biological Tests
Wastewater Test
1. Physical Test
i. Temperature:
▪ Measured by digital or ordinary thermometer.
▪ Temperature of wastewater is commonly higher
than that of normal water.
▪ Temperature plays a vital role in chemical
reactions, oxygen solubility, bacterial activity as
well as aquatic life.
▪ Oxygen solubility is less in warm water than cold
water.
Temperature Measurement
 Temperature
▪ Optimum temperature for bacterial activity is in
the range of 25°C to 35°C.

▪ Aerobic digestion and nitrification stop when the

temperature rises to 50°C.

▪ When the temperature drops to about 15 °C,

methane-producing bacteria become inactive.

▪ Nitrifying bacteria stop activities at 5°C.

Physical Test
2. Color
▪ Color is measured by Tinto-meter.

▪ The intensity of colour is measured on

platinum-cobalt scale.

▪ Normally, fresh wastewater has light

brownish gray colour.

▪ It converts dark gray with time that

again converts in black when it get
septic.

▪ Sometimes sewage has pink colour due

to algae or due to industrial colors.
Physical Test
2. Color
Physical Test
3. Odour
▪ Odour is produced by gas production due to the
decomposition of organic matter or by
substances added to the wastewater.
▪ The odour of wastewater is measured by
threshold odour test.
▪ Odour may be measured by special instruments
such as the Portable H2S meter that is used for
measuring the concentration of hydrogen
sulfide.
Odour Test
Physical Test
4. Turbidity
▪ Turbidity is measure of the light-transmitting
property of wastewater.
▪ The measurement of turbidity is based on
comparison of the intensity of light scattered by
a sample as compared to the light scattered by a
standard suspension under the same conditions.
▪ Turbidity can be measured by Turbidity rod or
Jackson’s Turbidity Meter.
▪ Turbidity is measured in terms of NTU
(Nephelometric Turbidity Unit).
Turbidity test in Lab
 Chemical Test
▪ Tests carried out to find the chemical properties of
wastewater are known as chemical tests.
▪ The chemical tests includes:
❑ Total solids,

❑ Different type of solids,

❑ pH,
❑ Dissolved oxygen,
❑ Oxygen demand (BOD, COD),

❑ fat and oil test,

❑ pesticide test,

❑ chloride, nitrogen, etc.

1. Solids
 1. Solids
Total Solids (TS):
▪ Total solids mean the solid in suspension, colloidal and dissolved
forms.

▪ Total solids are obtained by evaporating a sample of wastewater to

dryness and measuring the mass of the residue.

Method:
a) Weigh a porcelain or or crucible or aluminium dish.
b) Add a specific volume of well mixed wastewater sample.
c) Put in oven at 104°C for 4 hr to remove water.
d) Weigh dish again after cooling.
e) Difference of weight from (a) and weight from (d) is total solids.
 1. Solids
Total Solids (TS):
▪ Total solids mean the solid in suspension, colloidal and
dissolved forms.
▪ Total solids are obtained by evaporating a sample of
wastewater to dryness and measuring the mass of the residue.
▪ Formulae:

𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒎𝒈 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐝𝐬 𝐦𝐠/𝐥 𝒐𝒓 𝒑𝒑𝒎 =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 (𝒎𝒍)
 Chemical Test - Solids
Total Suspended Solids (TSS):
▪ A filtration step is added in to above test to separate the
Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Dissolved Solids
(TDS).
▪ After filtering the sample from Whatman filter paper no 44
the residue remained on the filter paper is total suspended
solids.
Chemical Test - Solids
▪ Total Dissolved Solids (TDS): The filtered sample from
above test is again evaporated to determine the dissolved
and colloidal substance and residue is weighed.
 Chemical Test - Solids
Volatile Solids (VS) and Fixed Solids (FS):
▪ TS, TSS and TDS are comprised of both fixed solids and volatile
solids.
▪ Material that can be volatilized and burnt off when ignited at
500±50°C is classified as volatile.

▪ Generally, volatile solids (VS) are organic matter.

▪ However, some organic matter will not burn and some
inorganic solids break down at high temperatures.
▪ Fixed solids (FS) comprise the residue that remains after a
sample has been ignited.
 Chemical Test - Solids
Volatile Solids (VS) and Fixed Solids (FS):

▪ Method:

A. Take residue from TSS or TDS in above test separately

B. Put residue in oven at 550°C for 4 hr.

C. Cool and weigh.

D. The weight lost during this process is the volatile solids and
remained is fixed solid.
 Chemical Test - Solids
▪ Settleable and non- settleable solids: Settleable solids are
those solids that will settle to the bottom of a cone-shaped
container, called an Imhoff cone in 2 hours.
▪ Imhoff cone is a conical shaped glass vessel of 1 liter capacity
having graduated up to 50ml.
▪ Method:
i. To find settleable solids 1 liter sewage sample is filled in cone
and allowed quiet for two hours.
ii. Quantity of settleable solids can be directly read in ml from
graduated scale.

iii. However, to find quantity of settleable solids in mg/l; liquid

from cone is decanted off gently and settled solids collected in
the bottom of the cone are dried in oven for 105°C and weighed.
Chemical Test - Solids
iv. The amount of non-settleable solids can be estimated
by subtracting settable solids from total suspended solids.

Fig: Imhoff Cone

Chemical Test - Solids

Fig: Imhoff Cone

 Numerical #1
1. Following are results of a wastewater sample test.

Weight of sewage sample ＝ 1000 gm

Weight of solids after evaporation of sample at 1040C =0.850 gm
Weight of dry residue after ignition at 550°C＝0.450 gm

Determine total, fixed and volatile solids of wastewater sample in

ppm.
 Numerical #1
1. Following are results of a wastewater sample test.

Weight of sewage sample ＝ 1000 gm

Weight of solids after evaporation of sample at 1040C =0.850 gm
Weight of dry residue after ignition at 550°C＝0.450 gm

Determine total, fixed and volatile solids of wastewater sample in

ppm.
Solution:

1.Total Solids = 850 ppm

2.Fixed Solids = 450 ppm
3.Volatile Solids = 400 ppm
 Numerical #2
2. Following are results of a wastewater sample test.

▪ Weight of dry crucible= 50 gm

▪ Weight of crucible with residue after evaporation of sample
at 104°C=50.084 gm
▪ Weight of crucible with residue after ignition at 550°C=
50.450gm
▪ Volume of sample= 100 ml
Determine total, fixed and volatile solids of wastewater sample in
ppm.
 Numerical #2
2. Following are results of a wastewater sample test.
▪ Weight of dry crucible= 50 gm
▪ Weight of crucible with residue after evaporation of
sample at 104°C=50.084 gm

▪ Weight of crucible with residue after ignition at

550°C= 50.450gm
▪ Volume of sample= 100 ml
Determine total, fixed and volatile solids of wastewater
sample in ppm.
1.Total Solids = 840 ppm
Solution: 2.Fixed Solids = 450 ppm
3.Volatile Solids = 390 ppm
 BOD Test
▪ The BOD test is standardized to be run in the dark at
incubator at 20°C for 5 days.
▪ The 5-day BOD is the oxygen used by
microorganisms in the water sample during the
first 5 days after sampling.
▪ The BOD test is usually carried out in standard
BOD bottle having volume 300 ml generally.
▪ In this test initial DO and DO after 5 days are
measured. Simply, the difference in initial DO
and DO after 5 day is BOD.
 Purpose of BOD Test/ Significance
1. Determination of approximate quantity of oxygen required
to stabilize the organic matter present in wastewater.
2. Determination of treatment process required and design
wastewater treatment plants.
3. Assess the efficiency and performance of wastewater
treatment plant.
4. Determination of strength of sewage.
5. Determination of amount of clear water required for
efficient disposal of wastewater by dilution.
6. To set and monitor effluent discharge limit parameter for
different industries and receiving water bodies.
 BOD Test
It can be determined by following two methods:

（a) Direct method

（b) Dilution method
 BOD Test

(a)Direct Method:
▪ In this method, initially wastewater sample (300ml)
is taken and its DO is measured.
▪ This sample is kept in incubator at 20°C for 5 days.
After 5 days, sample is taken out from incubator
and measured for its DO content again.
▪ The difference of initial DO and DO after 5 day is
the BOD of the sample.
 BOD Test
(b) Dilution Method:
▪ It is the common method for BOD test in wastewater those
have high BOD concentration, where direct methods cannot
be used.
▪ For example, if a wastewater sample has an initial DO of 7
mg/l. Suppose the oxygen is used so fast that it drops to zero
by the third day. Then, there is no measurable DO left after 5
days or it seems to be zero. The BOD of sample must be
more than 7 - 0 = 7 mg/l.
▪ It is unknown how much oxygen may be consumed by the
organisms in the sample, if it had been available. In this
case, dilution method is required.
BOD Test
 BOD Test
(b) Dilution Method:
▪ In dilution method, the sample must be suitably diluted with a
specially prepared dilution water so that required oxygen will be
available during the incubation period.
▪ Normally, several dilutions are prepared to cover the complete
range of possible values.
▪ For Dilution Method:

𝐷𝑂𝑖 −𝐷𝑂𝑓 𝑥 𝑉𝐵
BOD5 =
𝑉𝑠
BOD Test
𝐷𝑂𝑖 −𝐷𝑂𝑓 𝑥 𝑉𝐵
BOD5 =
𝑉𝑠
▪ BOD5 = DO consumed x dilution ratio or factor
Where, BOD5= Biochemical Oxygen Demand at 5 day(mg/l)

𝐷𝑂𝑖 ＝ Initial Dissolve oxygen in sample bottle (mg/I)

𝐷𝑂𝑓 ＝ Final Dissolve Oxygen (after 5 day) in sample bottle
(mg/l)

𝑉𝐵 ＝ Sample bottle volume (generally 300ml is taken)

𝑉𝑠 ＝ Sample volume of waste water (ml)
Vb/Vs is also known as dilution factor
 BOD Test
▪ If sample wastewater contains a large population of
microorganisms, seeding is not necessary.
▪ If population of microorganisms is low, the dilution water
is seeded with a bacterial culture.
▪ The seed culture that is used to prepare the dilution water
for the BOD test is a mixed culture.
▪ A variety of commercial seed preparations are available in
market.
▪ Such cultures contain large numbers of saprophytic
bacteria and other organisms that oxidize the organic
matter.
 pH Test
▪ pH is a measurement of the acidity or basicity of a
solution and ranges from 0 to 14, with 0 being the most
acidic and 14 being the most basic.
▪ Determination of pH is important because efficiency of
certain treatment methods depends on it. Especially the
biological treatment, for better result the pH of sewage
should be around 7 (6-8) in biological treatment as
microorganisms can flourish in that pH range.

▪ pH can be determined by using pH meter

(Potentiometer).
 pH Test – Apparatus Required
i. pH meter

▪ A pH meter is a scientific
instrument that measures
the hydrogen-ion activity in
water-based solutions,
indicating its acidity or
alkalinity expressed as pH.

▪ The pH electrode used in the

pH measurement is a combined
glass electrode. Fig: pH meter
pH Test – Apparatus Required
ii. Beaker
 pH Test – Apparatus Required
iii. Buffer Solutions
▪ Buffer solution is one which resists
changes in pH when small quantities of an
acid or an alkali are added to it.

▪ An acidic buffer solution is simply one

which has a pH less than 7. Acidic buffer
solutions are commonly made from a weak
acid and one of its salts - often a sodium
salt.

▪ An alkaline buffer solution has a pH greater

than 7. Alkaline buffer solutions are
commonly made from a weak base and
one of its salts.
pH Test - Calibration

▪ Calibration is a comparison between a known

measurement (the standard) and the measurement using
your instrument.

▪ It checks the accuracy of the instrument and it determines

the traceability of the measurement.
pH Test – Procedure
Nitrogen
▪ The presence of nitrogen in the wastewater indicates
the presence of organic matters in the wastewater.

▪ Total Nitrogen (TN) is the sum of ammonia-nitrogen

(NH3-N), organically bonded nitrogen, nitrate-
nitrogen (NO3-N), and nitrite-nitrogen (NO2-N).

▪ Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN) is the sum of

ammonia-nitrogen and organically bound nitrogen.
▪ Organic nitrogen can be determined analytically using
the Kjeldahl method.
 Nitrogen - Kjeldahl Method
Principle:
Basic principle behind Kjeldahl method is acid-base titration.
The Kjeldahl method involves a three-step approach to the
quantification of protein: digestion, distillation, and titration.
Procedure:

▪ First Step: Digestion

▪ Second Step: Distillation
▪ Third Step: Titration
▪ Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) is determined by same process as
organic nitrogen, except that the ammonia is not driven off
before the digestion step.
Nitrogen - Kjeldahl Method
Nitrogen - Kjeldahl Method

NH3
Nitrogen - Kjeldahl Method

NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4 + H2SO4

NH3 + HCL NH4CL + HCL

 Nitrogen – Nitrite Concentration
▪ Nitrite nitrogen is relatively unstable and is easily oxidized
to the nitrate form.
▪ It is an indicator of past pollution in the process of
stabilization and seldom exceeds 1 mg/l in wastewater or 0.1
mg/l in surface waters or groundwater.
▪ Although present in low concentrations, nitrite can be very
important in wastewater or water pollution studies because
it is extremely toxic to most fish and other aquatic species.

▪ Test Method: It is determined by colorimetric method. In this

method sulphanilic acid/napthylamine solution and
sodium acetate solution is added to the sample. This produces
reddish purple colour that is compared with colorimeter to
get the nitrite concentration.
Colorimetric method
 Nitrogen - Nitrate
▪ Nitrate nitrogen is the most oxidized form of nitrogen found
in wastewater.
▪ As Nitrates represent fully oxidized matter its presence in
sewage is not dangerous. But if the sewage contains higher
nitrates and if it is disposed of in a water body without proper
treatment, then the nitrates content in the water body would
increase.

▪ Higher quantity of nitrates adversely the health of infants,

causing a disease called mathemoglobinemia.
▪ The nitrate concentration is typically determined by
colorimetric methods or with specific-ion electrodes.
Methemoglobinemia
 Chlorine
▪ Chlorine may be present in wastewater from residual
disinfectant used in water treatment process.

▪ Chlorine content can be determined with the help of starch

(C6H10O5) iodide test that is one of the oldest method for
determining chlorine.
▪ Potassium iodide (KI) and starch solution are added to the
sample that gives blue color. Chlorine will liberate free iodine
from potassium iodide (KI) solutions.
▪ Add 5 ml acetic acid to acidify the sample if required. The
liberated iodine is titrated with a standard solution of N/100
sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3) with starch as the indicator.

▪ The end point of the titration is indicated by the

disappearance of the blue color.
Chlorine Test
 Chlorine
▪ Chlorine content can be calculated by :
(𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑡𝑒 (Na2S2O3) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑥 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝐸𝑞.𝑊𝑡.𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑙)
𝑥 1000
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

For example: if 200 ml sample is titrated with a standard solution of

N/100 sodium thiosulphate and sodium thiosulphate consumed in
titration is 1.4ml, then chlorine content of wastewater sample is:
Chlorine Test
 Chlorine
▪ Chlorine content can be calculated by :
(𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑡𝑒 (Na2S2O3) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑥 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝐸𝑞.𝑊𝑡.𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑙)
𝑥 1000
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

For example: if 200 ml sample is titrated with a standard solution of

N/100 sodium thiosulphate and sodium thiosulphate consumed in
titration is 1.4ml, then chlorine content of wastewater sample is:
𝟏.𝟒 𝒙 𝟎.𝟎𝟏 𝒙 𝟑𝟓.𝟒𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
Chlorine Content =
𝟐𝟎𝟎

= 2.4878 mg/L
Chlorine
 Chlorides
▪ Chlorides are generally found in sewage and are derived
from kitchen wastes, human feces and urinary discharges. The
normal chloride content of sewage is 120 mg/lit, whereas the
permissible limit of chloride content in water is 250 mg/lit.
▪ However, large amount of chlorides may enter from
industries like ice cream plants, meat salting etc. Hence,
when the chloride content of a given sewage is found to be
high, it indicates the presence of industrial wastes or
infiltration of seawater, thereby indicating strength of sewage.
▪ The concentration of the chlorides can be reduced by
dilution process.

▪ The amount of chloride present can be found by titrating

the sample against Silver Nitrate (N/35.5 AgNO3) using
Potassium Dichromate (K2 Cr2 O7) as indicator.
Chloride Contents
 Dissolved Oxygen
▪ Dissolved oxygen is used as an indicator of organic pollution of
water body.

▪ High dissolved oxygen concentrations refers little pollution and

vice versa.
▪ Dissolved oxygen (DO) can be measured using an
electrochemical DO meter and probe or using the Winkler
method (iodine/thiosulfate titration).
▪ The Winkler Method is a technique used to measure
dissolved oxygen in water/ wastewater. This method should
be performed in the field to avoid delays which could alter
the oxygen content of the sample being tested.
▪ The Winkler Method uses titration to determine dissolved
oxygen in the water sample.
 Winkler Method - DO
▪ The Winkler titration method measures the
amount of dissolved oxygen in water. It
involves adding chemicals to the water to react
with the oxygen molecules, to form an acidic
solution.
▪ The amount of neutralizing agent required to
neutralize the solution until the sample
becomes clear in color, indicates how much
oxygen was in the original water sample.
Winkler Method - DO
Winkler Method - DO
▪ Step 1:
Using a 300 ml sample bottle, 300 ml of the water being
analyzed is added and sealed.
With a calibrated pipette, 2 ml of manganese sulfate and
2 ml of alkali-iodide-azide are added to the sample
bottle.
The pipette must be placed just below the water’s surface to
avoid bubbles entering the sample.

The sample bottle is then closed with a stopper to avoid

external air becoming trapped. The sample bottle is then
inverted a few times.
 Winkler Method - DO
▪ After inverting the bottle, if any bubbles are seen in the
water, it must be discarded, and a new water sample needs to
be collected.
▪ If the water contains oxygen, an orange-brown
precipitate will be visible in the sample. Once the
precipitate has settled, the sample bottle is inverted again
and left to settle, once again.
▪ Using a calibrated probe, 2 ml of concentrated sulfuric
acid is added to the water, just above the water’s surface.
The stopper is then placed back onto the sample bottle and
inverted several times to allow the sulfuric acid to dissolve the
precipitate.

▪ At this stage, the water is now fixed, as it has successfully

reacted with the chemicals above.
Winkler Method - DO
 Winkler Method - DO
▪ Step 2:
The next step is to start the titration process to neutralize the acid.
Using a new flask, 201 ml of the treated water sample is titrated with
sodium thiosulfate (alkali) until the water turns a pale yellow
color.

Step 3:
Next, 2 ml of a starch solution (indicator) is added, initially turning
the sample blue.

Step 4:

Finally, the neutralizing agent is added using a burette, ensuring the

burette tip is centered and not touching the sides of the beaker.
When the water sample turns from blue to clear, the endpoint has
been met, and the titration is stopped.
Winkler Method - DO
Winkler Method - DO
▪ Step 5 (Result):
The amount of neutralizing agent added is directly
proportional to the amount of dissolved oxygen in the
original water sample.
Each ml of neutralizing agent added to the sample equals 1
mg/L of dissolved oxygen.
For example, if 5 ml of the neutralizing agent was
added to the water sample, the amount of dissolved
oxygen would be 5 mg/L.
THANK YOU