MODULE 2

1. Application of carbohydrates in cellulose based water filters.

A) * Cellulose is a polymer made up of glucose subunits.

* cellulose filter papers are versatile and diverse tools for microfiltration, that work by
trapping particulars within a random matrix of cellulose fibers.

* cellulose is among the most commonly used fibers in filtration media.

* This versatile, proven and cost-effective material is made from renewable resources
and compatible with a multitude of filter production processes, such as embossing,
corrugating and pleating.

* cellulose filter media is widely used in a range of applications. Each product platform
has been highly engineered to optimize fiber content, structure, resin chemistry, and
other characteristics.

* Common applications for cellulose media are:

 Gas turbine filtration

 Fuel and oil filtration
 Engine air intake filters
 Coalescing filters
 Hydraulic filters
 Process liquid operations

* Similar to traditional papermaking, cellulose media is manufactured using a wet laid

process.

* The result is a filtration media platform suitable for a broad range of filtration
applications, with the ability to capture an array of particles down to nanoparticles.

* Cellulose filter media can be made from pure cellulose fibers or cellulose fibers mixed
with synthetic fibers or glass fibers for enhanced properties.

* It serves as a diverse and versatile filtration solution that functions by trapping

contaminants and other particles within a matrix of fibers.
* cellulose filtration media offers a host of benefits, including

 Renewable fiber sources

 High strength and durability
 Large surface area
 Chemical stability
 Temp stability
 Strong adhesion to glass
 Good value
* Cellulose can lose mechanical strength in certain chemical or high temp environments
and absorb water in high-humidity conditions, potentially altering its filtration properties.

2. Explain the process of manufacturing of DNA vaccines.

A) ~ A DNA vaccine is a type of vaccine that transfects a specific antigen-coding DNA

sequence into the cells of an organism as a mechanism to induce an immune response.

~ DNA vaccines which are often referred to as the third-generation vaccines, use
engineered DNA to induce an immunologic response in the host against bacteria,
parasites, viruses, and potentially cancer.

~ Like any other type of vaccine, DNA vaccines induce an adaptive immune response.
The basic working principle behind any DNA vaccine involves the use of a DNA plasmid
that encodes for a protein that originated from the pathogen in which the vaccine will be
targeted.

~ Plasmid DNA(pDNA) is inexpensive, stable, and relatively safe, thereby allowing this
non-viral platform to be considered an excellent option for gene delivery. Some of the
different virus vectors that have been used to source pDNA include onco-retrovirus,
lentiviruses, adenoviruses, adeno-associated viruses, and herpes simplex-1.

3. explain biodiesel production process, advantages and disadvantages.

A) Biodiesel is produced from vegetable oils or animal fats and an alcohol, through a
transesterification reaction.

Stages of transesterification :

~ Treatment of raw material

~ Alcohol catalyst mixing

~ Chemical reaction

~ Separation of reaction products

~ Purification of reaction products

 The fats and oils react with short-chain alcohols(typically methanol and ethanol).
The alcohols used should be low molecular weight.
 Ethanol is most used because of its low cost, however greater conversions into
biodiesel can be reached using methanol.
 Biodiesel has gained good reputation in the catalogue of renewable energy.
 Produced reduced toxic emission and can be blended with diesel and used in
conventional engines too.
 Its direct use to vehicle is impossible due to higher viscosity, low volatility &
reactivity of unsaturated hydrocarbon chains present.
 After transesterification of triglycerides, the products are a mixture of esters,
glycerol, alcohol, catalyst and tri-, di-, and mono-glycerides.
 The transesterification process is catalyzed by acids and these catalysts give very
high yields of alkyl esters, but the reactions are very slow.
 The homogeneous acid catalysts are H2SO4, HCL, BF3, H3PO4 and some organic
sulfonic acids -> upto 99% conversion has been reported.
 Advantages of Biodisel:

1. Renewable and Sustainable: Biodiesel is derived from renewable feedstocks such as

vegetable oils, animal fats, and waste cooking oil. It helps reduce reliance on fossil
fuels and contributes to diversifying the energy mix.
2. Lower greenhouse gas emissions: Biodiesel has lower CO2 emissions compared to
petroleum diesel. It has a lower carbon footprint, as the plants used as feedstocks
absorb CO2 during their growth, offsetting emissions during combustion.
3. Reduced air pollutants: Biodiesel produces fewer air pollutants such as sulphur oxides
(SOx), particulate matter (PM), and aromatic hydrocarbons. It contributes to better air
quality and reduces the negative impacts of diesel combustion on human health.
4. Compatibility with existing infrastructure: biodiesel can be blended with petroleum
diesel in various proportions, allowed it to be used in existing diesel engines, vehicles,
and infrastructure without requiring major modifications.

Disadvantages of biodiesel:
1. Feedstock availability and competiton with food production: The availability and cost
of biodiesel feedstocks can be influenced by factors such as land availability,
 competition with food crops, and seasonal variations. The competition for land
resources raises concerns about potential impacts on food production and prices.
2. Limited production capacity: biodiesel production capacity is currently limited
compared to petroleum diesel. Scaling up production to meet the growing demand
requires significant investment in production facilities and infrastructure.
3. Land use and environmental concerns: The expansion of feedstock cultivation for
biodiesel production can lead to land use change, deforestation, and habitat
destruction if not managed sustainaibility.
4. Cold weather performance: biodiesel can have higher cloud point and pour point
temperatures compared to petroleum diesel, which may affect its flow and
performance in cold weather conditions.

4. How is glucose oxidase enzyme used in biosensors?

 Glucose oxidase is one of the possible enzymes that a biosensor can use.
 Biosensors work by keeping track of the number of electrons that pass through the
enzyme by connecting it to an electrode and measuring the resultant charge.
 Alternatively, some biosensors use sensitive fluorescence measurements,
monitoring changes in the intrinsic FAD fluorescence of glucose oxidase.
 Its uses ranging from a glucose biosensor for the control of diabetes, to a food
preservative and colour stabilizer.
 Glucose oxidase has been used successfully to remove residual glucose and oxygen
in foods and beverages in order to prolong their shelf life.
 It can also be used to remove oxygen from the top of bottled beverages before
they are sealed.
 In addition, glucose oxidase is able to inhibit wine spoilage through its bactericidal
effect on acetic acid bacteria and lactic acid bacteria during the fermentation
process.

5. Explain about enzymes used in textile industry.

A) ~ Enzymes are biological catalyst that increases the rate of chemical reaction without
being consumed in the chemical process.

~ Enzymes work as isomerases, transferases, lyases, oxidoreductases, hydrolases, ligases.

 ~ Earliest it is used in the removal of starch by soaking starch-sized cloth with water
liquor containing barley.

~ Retting of bast fibres with the use of the microorganisms.

use of enzymes in textile industry:

 cellulase – denim finishing, cotton softening

 amylase – de-sizing
 pectase lyase – scouring
 catalase – bleach termination
 laccase – bleaching
 peroxidise – excess dye removal

~ Enzymes are eco-friendly and reactions catalysed are very specific with a focussed
performance as a consequence.

~ whereas chemical processes are less specific and often result in side effects.

~ use od enzyme save water and energy.

~ it improves product quality and potential process integration.

~ enzymes can be immobilized and repeatedly use.

~ non-toxic

~ reduce processing time, cost

Enzyme production process:

Screening: choosing an appropriate micro-organism for the desired enzyme.

Modification: possible application of genetic engineering to improve the microbial strain.

Laboratory scale pilot: to determine the optimum conditions for growth of micro-
organism.

Pilot plant: small scale fermentor to clarify optimum conditions.

Development in textile enzymatic processing:

1. Economical & Industrial viable enzymes/process

2. Supplementary enzyme assistance
3. Combined enzymatic pre-treatment
4. Immobilization of enzymes

MODULE 4
1. Explain the mechanism behind ultrasonography.

A) ~ Ultrasonography is a medical imaging technique that uses high-frequency sound

waves to produce images of the internal organs and tissues of the body. It is also known
as ultrasound imaging or sonography.

~ The ultrasound machine emits high frequency sound waves that travel through the
body and bounce back off of the internal organs and tissues. The returning echoes are
captured by the ultrasound machine and used to create images of the internal structures.

The working principle of ultrasonography is based on the reflection of high-frequency

sound waves.

~ Transducer: an ultrasonography machine consists of a transducer that is used to emit

and receive high-frequency sound waves. The transducer is placed in direct contact with
the skin or inserted into the body through a gel.

~ Emission of sound waves: The transducer emits high-frequency sound waves (usually in
the range of 2 to 18 MHz) into the body. These sound waves travel through the body and
encounter different tissues and organs, which have different acoustic properties.

~ Reflection of sound waves: The sound waves encounter boundaries b/w d/f tissues and
organs and bounce back, creating echoes. The strength of the echoes depends on the
acoustic properties of the tissues and organs, such as density and stiffness.

~ Reception of echoes: The transducer in the ultrasonography machine receives the

echoes and send the information to a computer, which processes the data to create
images.

~ Image formation: The computer uses the information from the echoes to create images
of the internal organs and tissues of the body. The images are displayed on a screen,
allowing the operator to see the structure and movement of the internal organs and
tissues.

Advantages of ultrasonography:

 Real-time imaging: Ultrasonography provides real-time images that can be used to

monitor the movement and function of internal organs and tissues in real-time.
 Cost-effective: Ultrasonography is a cost-effective imaging method that does not
require any special preparation or recovery time.
 Non-invasive: Ultrasonography does not involve any incisions or injections, making
it a safe and convenient imaging method.

2. How are the photovoltaic cells inspired by the process of photosynthesis?

A) * The connection b/w photosynthesis and photovoltaic lies in the conversion of light
energy into usable forms of energy.
* In photosynthesis, light energy from the sun is converted into chemical energy stored in
organic molecules such as sugars and starches.
In photovoltaic, light energy is converted into electrical energy.
* both photosynthesis and photovoltaics use the same basic principle of converting light
energy into usable forms of energy, but the end products are different. In
photosynthesis, the end product is stored chemical energy, while in photovoltaics the
end product is electrical energy.
* However, the similarities b/w photosynthesis and photovoltaics go beyond just the
conversion of light energy. Both processes also involve the use of specialized components
and materials, such as chlorophyll in photosynthesis and silicon in photovoltaics, to
absorb and convert light energy into usable form of energy.
* The development of photovoltaics has been heavily influenced by the natural process
of photosynthesis and many researches have sought to mimic and improve upon the
efficiency & effectiveness of photosynthesis in order to develop mare advanced &
efficient photovoltaic systems.
* The study of photosynthesis has thus played a significant role in the development of
sustainable energy systems and continues to be an important area of research in the field
of renewable energy.

3. Explain bird flying inspired technologies.

A) Birds fly for Aircraft Technology:
 Biomimicry, or the practice of using designs and processes found in nature to
solve human problems, has led to the development of various technologies inspired by
bird’s flight. Some ex include:

 Wing design: The shape of bird wings has inspired the design of aircraft wings,
which have evolved to be more aerodynamic and fuel efficient as result. The study
of bird flight has also led to the development of winglets, small structures at the
tip of wings that reduce drag and increase lift.
 Flapping-wing drones: Researches have developed drones that use flapping wings
to fly, mimicking the way birds and insects fly. These drones can be used for
various applications, such as monitoring crops and wildlife, inspecting buildings
and infrastructure and search & rescue operations.
 Soaring algorithms: Soaring refers to the flight technique used by birds and certain
aircraft to stay aloft and travel long distances with minimal energy expenditure. It
involves utilizing rising air currents such as thermals, ridge lift, wind shear, or
atmospheric waves, to gain altitude and minimum flight.
Birds use thermals, or columns of rising warm air to gain altitude and soar.
Researchers have developed algo inspired by bird flight to help gliders and others
aircraft use thermals more efficiently leading to longer and more sustainable
flights.
 Landing gear: the legs and feet of birds have inspired the design of landing gear for
aircraft with shock absorbing and retractable that help absorb impact upon
landing.

4. Explain the principle behind the lotus leaf effect which makes it a natural self
cleaning surface.
A) The principle of self-cleaning surfaces is based on two main mechanisms:
1. The reduction of surface energy and the modification of surface texture. These
mechanisms work together to minimize the adhesion of dirt, water.
2. contaminants, enabling the self-cleaning effect.
Here is the breakdown of the principle:
 Low surface energy: Self-cleaning surfaces often have low surface energy, which
means they have a reduced affinity for liquid and solid particles. This property is
typically achieved through the application of hydrophobic or oleophobic coatings,
such as fluoropolymers or other low surface energy materials.
  Lotus effect: The Lotus effect is a phenomenon observed in nature on the leaves of
lotus plants. It is a classic ex of self cleaning surfaces. Lotus leaves have a unique
micro/nanostructured surface covered with hydrophobic wax crystals. When water
droplets come into contact with the leaf surface, they form near-perfect spheres
and roll off, collecting dirt and contaminants along the way.
 Micro/nanostructured surfaces: Surface texture plays a crucial role in self-cleaning
surfaces. Microscopic or nanoscopic structures can be engineered or naturally
occurring on a surface to create a roughness that limits the contact b/w the surface
and contaminants.
 External factors: while the surface properties contribute to self-cleaning, external
factors like water, wind, or light often play a role in activating the self-cleaning
process. For ex, the presence of water, either through rainfall or manual washing,
can help remove loosely adhered particles from the surface. Sunlight or UV
radiation can activate photocatalytic reactions on certain surfaces, breaking down
organic matter and enhancing self-cleaning capabilities.

4. Explain Haemoglobin based oxygen carriers along with their applications, advantages
and disadvantages.
A) Haemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) are type of human blood substitute
that is designed to carry and deliver oxygen to the body’s tissues.
They are made by isolating haemoglobin, the protein responsible for carrying oxygen in
red blood cells, and formulating it into a solution or suspension that can be infused into
patient’s bloodstream.
APPLICATIONS:
 Emergency transfusions
 Ischemic conditions
 Critical care and anesthesia
 Remove medical care
 Organ preservation
 Blood substitutes for special cases
 Military and disasters
 High-altitude/deep-sea environments
ADVANTAGES:
 It helps transport oxygen in areas with limited blood access.
  It improves oxygen transport in low-oxygen situations.
 It stimulate oxygen transport for lab experiments.
 It deliver oxygen during strokes/heart attacks, reducing tissue damage.
 It assist in blood type and compatability testing without real blood.
 It enhance organ viability during transplantation by providing oxygen.
DISADVANTAGES:
 Unstable oxygen release can harm tissues.
 Vasoconstriction raises blood pressure.
 Triggers inflammation and immune reactions.
 Lower oxygen capacity than red blood cells.
 Varying oxygen affinity leads to imbalances.
 Metabolic and renal effects, impacting kidneys.
 Regulatory challenges due to safety concerns.
 Ethical issues as potential blood substitutes.