Product Design and Development Management Concept Generation

GENERATING IDEAS FOR DESIGN CONCEPTS

Introduction

For many designers, the greatest area of difficulty in the whole of the design process is
the ability to generate alternative solutions to design tasks. The mind can often be
fixed on one line of approach, usually based on one's knowledge and experience, at a
very early stage. This often has the effect of blocking out other and possibly better
avenues. Too much reliance on knowledge and experience can lead to stagnation in
design.

What is required is a more creative approach that will produce the maximum number
of solutions not only for general concepts but also at the detail design stage. It is only
by considering the significant number of alternatives and comparing how each meets
the established design parameters that the 'ideal' solution will be found.

Here are examined some of the methods and approaches sometimes described as
creativity techniques. These include Function-Listing, brainstorming, the inter action
of ideas, morphological analysis and an introduction to lateral thinking.

All of the methods discussed are design tools which, if used, improve the designer's
chances of producing more creative solutions to problems.

Concept Generation

The aim of all design should be:-

'The design or redesign of a product in such a way that its

manufacturing cost is kept to a minimum without loss of function or
sales appeal'.

This statement implies firstly:

- That the concept chosen as a solution is the simplest one possible to give all of the
required functions and customer satisfaction.

and secondly:

- That the methods chosen for manufacturing the product are the most economical
available.

Of these, the latter should cause the least concern, provided there has been adequate
collaboration between designers, production engineers and others associated with
manufacturing from the earliest stages of the design.

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If the concept itself is wrong, however, no amount of collaboration or effort on the

part of the manufacturing function can reduce costly requirements which are essential
to the concept chosen. These essentials may be exceptionally close working
tolerances, special materials or labour intensive assembly operations or other features.

It is the concept stage of the design, however, where 'design for economic production'
begins by the designer making sure that the concept chosen is the one that meets all of
the known criteria best.

It is only by considering the maximum number of solutions and comparing how each
one meets the established parameters of the design (including the ease of manufacture)
that the ideal solution will be found. In the case of a component or smaller assembly at
the detail stage of design, the number of alternative solutions may be few,
nevertheless, the principle remains the same if the overall assembly is to be considered
the best design.

Unfortunately, for many engineers and designers, the ability to generate alternative
solutions is the greatest area of difficulty in the whole of the design activity. This is
not surprising since our normal thinking processes are based on a logical approach.
We consider a situation in the light of our relevant experience and usually through a
process of negation we choose and accept the most feasible solution. There are two
areas of weakness with this approach. Firstly we only 'look' at those areas of our
experience which appears to be directly relevant to the problem and secondly there is
the tendency to reject immediately those ideas whose feasibility is at all suspect. In
these situations the mind often gets fixed on one line of approach, based on one's
knowledge and experience at a very early stage and this can effectively block out all
other possibilities.

Knowledge and experience are invaluable assets. They assist the designer to produce
designs that he knows will work and also help to avoid the repeat of past mistakes, but
by themselves they can lead to stagnation in design.

Knowledge and experience, however valuable in themselves, are worthless if they are
used instead of thought. They must be used as a basis for thinking.

The designer who must 'keep up to date and use the latest technology' often blocks out
the thought processes which could lead him to equally suitable but less expensive 'old
fashioned' solutions.

This can be illustrated by a simple example. It was required to obtain quickly the
results of a load cycling test on a wax-filled 'thrustat' used in thermostatic valves. The
test required that the 'thrustat' should have a load gradually applied to the push rod up
to a maximum and then released to allow the rod to return freely. Several thousand
cycles were required and the system had to be fail-safe so that it could be left
unattended for long periods. The engineer concerned had most facilities such as
pneumatic components, electric motors, pumps etc. at his disposal in the laboratory.
After spending some time working out a system and checking on the availability of
the parts he needed, he went into the laboratory and found the test in progress. A

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young technician with imagination had produced his own answer which is shown
opposite:

This simple solution satisfied the test requirements adequately and was used to
complete the test.

There is another major difficulty with reliance on knowledge and experience - the
information is not always accessible when required. We have all experienced the
situation where we struggle with a problem but cannot solve it - somebody else solves
it and the solution is immediately 'obvious' to us. The information required for the
solution must have been available in our minds but for one reason or another it was
just not accessible at the time when it was needed.

In situations involving problems which are well encompassed by existing knowledge,

computers can be of great help. The computer can be programmed to solve problems
by drawing on memory and logic to examine all possibilities. For more creative work,
where there may be no one 'correct' solution, the difficulty is in finding the starting
points to 'logic' from. There is no way of recognising whether a particular approach
will lead to any solution let alone the 'right' one. It must follow, however, that the
greater the number of ideas or starting points the designer has, the more likely he is to
find the 'best' solution.

All design work is a blend of creative thinking and logical analysis. This requires the
attention of both right and left hemispheres of the brain, but it has been suggested that
in our Western culture, the development of one has been made to the detriment of the
other. The educational system in general and engineering education in particular has
concentrated heavily on those skills of logic and analysis which can be expressed
verbally or mathematically. Less attention has been paid to the intuitive methods and
less definable skills needed for creative thinking.

This restraint to creative thinking is often continued in post education by a restrictive

management approach due to bias, prejudice or subjective inclinations. There is no
limit to the number of barriers which can be raised to subdue original thinking (see
Appendix 1).

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For creative thinking to flourish the right environment is needed. Every manager
should encourage the free flow of ideas from his subordinates, but should also ensure
that creativity is applied at the appropriate time in the design activity.

Success in creative problem solving depends partly upon a clear understanding of the
real problem involved. In many cases the definition of the problem is more essential
than its solution. Much time and effort and money can be expended on providing an
elegant solution to a problem or specification as it is presented. Most problems are
described by means of words and these can and often do cause confusion. The words
used can bring particular images to mind influencing all subsequent thinking along
particular line. Once the thinking is directed along a certain avenue it becomes more
difficult to visualise other, possibly more productive approaches.

Generating Ideas

The methods described are simply design tools, they are not methods of teaching the
designer to be more creative. If practised, they may improve one's chances of
producing more creative solutions to problems.

The subconscious plays a part in all creative acts, and many of the methods used are
simply aids to moving information stored in the subconscious mind on to a conscious
level. They are particularly useful when used to overcome a mental blockage or single
line thinking when they act as cues to novel approaches. They also ensure that no
feasible possibilities are overlooked. More important is that by applying systematic
methods regularly, an attitude of mind can be developed. This attitude possibly exists
already in the best designers.

Features which many of the methods have in common are:

1) They help to separate imaginative and logical aspects of design so that each plays
its part. Interacting but not interfering.

2) Information is recorded to help prevent going over the same ground twice and
useful information being lost in the memory.

3) Groups of people can take part in the design activity.

4) All parameters can be kept continually under review.

5) Allows the design to proceed by predetermined stages, making it easier to plan

cost and time.

Methods For Generating Ideas

Function Listing

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When posed with a design problem, whatever the scale, it is very easy for the mind to
conjure up mental pictures of possible solutions. These mental pictures are invariably
in the form of artefacts or hardware and often lead to preconceived solutions or partial
solutions.

Consideration of the individual functions immediately transfers this concentration on

the solution to the problem to thinking about the problem itself.

Each separate function or sub-problem is written down as a list heading, preferably in

the form of a verb, a noun or a verb and noun. For instance, a bearing may have the
functions of - support shaft and reduce friction.

Under each heading, all the ways of performing or meeting that function are listed.
Some of the methods by which the lists under each heading may be achieved, i.e.
brainstorming, will be discussed later. The lists should be as extensive as possible.

Only when the lists are complete is the problem as a whole considered. The words can
be used simply as cues to the imagination, either used singly or in pairs.

Where time permits and according to the scale of the problem, the morphological
approach (described later) can be applied.

An example of function listing is shown in Appendix 2.

Brainstorming

Brainstorming is a group activity aimed at developing creative behaviour. The basic

principle is for the group to produce ideas without any critical judgement during the
session. The suspension of judgement has been shown to greatly increase the flow of
ideas from such group activity. Unfortunately, education and training causes most
people to think judicially rather than imaginatively. Premature judgement of one idea
can impede the chain reaction of ideas that might have been created.

In such a group activity, it is most unlikely that all members become 'switched off' at
the same time, ensuring that one person's thinking can spark off other thoughts in
another member. Thus many more ideas can result in a given time. One rule of
procedure is that it should generate the maximum number of ideas in the minimum
time.

The group should be limited in number with at the most 12 members. One of them
acts as Chairman and another as Recorder whose job it is to record all ideas quickly
and reliably, preferably on a flip-chart or board. Choice of members for the group is
important, a mix of people from different departments added to a few members who
could be regarded as a core of 'pace setters' is the usual. It is well worth while having
several outsiders who know nothing of the problem being considered, to make up the
group.

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The sessions should not last for more than 30-35 minutes, and all ideas, no matter how
wild, should be welcomed.

Osborn's Rules for Brainstorming

1 Criticism Is Ruled Out:- Judgement of ideas is suspended until a later screening or

evaluation session. Be positive.

2 Freewheeling Is Welcomed:- The wilder the ideas the better. Even off-beat,
impractical suggestions may 'trigger' in other members practical suggestions which
might otherwise not occur to them.

3 Quantity Is Wanted:- The greater the number of ideas the greater the likelihood of
winners. It is easier to pare down a long list of ideas than puff up a short list.

4 Combination And Improvement Are Sought:- In addition to contributing ideas of

their own, panel members should suggest how suggestions by others can be turned
into better ideas, or how two or more ideas could be combined into a still better idea.

5 Applying the rules given above, brainstorm the problem, numbering each idea on
the flip-chart.

6 Do not allow one person to give too many ideas at once.

7 Encourage a fast flow of ideas 'bouncing' between people.

8 Occasionally introduce a few minutes' silence to encourage individual thinking.

9 Don't give up too soon. Encourage the panel to hit a higher target figure.

Evaluation of Brainstorming

Evaluation of is carried out after a session without the panel.

1 Select the major criteria against which the ideas should be judged.

2 Discuss the wildest and most way-out ideas. Try to convert them to practical ones.

3 Group the ideas generated during the brainstorming session and evaluate each group
in turn, starting with the most promising.

Evaluation of all the possible concepts can be judged on a concept selection matrix
where combinations of ideas, and even new ones, may emerge. The process can be
refined by increasing the criteria until the final selections are made.

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Mind Maps

Whenever information is being retrieved from the mind it is essential not to interrupt
the flow of thought, otherwise valuable items can be lost. The action of having to
write down long sentences tends to break the flow. Mind maps allow the essential
elements to be quickly noted as they occur and, because of the wide scope of
association involved, they can be a useful aid to creativity. Areas of association far
removed from the central core often produce new associations and generate sources of
new ideas that would otherwise have remained untapped.

Mind mapping is also useful in any situation where information is flowing from the
mind to the outside world or the reverse.

A typical example of a mind map is shown in Appendix 3.

Interaction of Ideas

The methods discussed so far are those that can be used to start the design thinking in
the right manner and to avoid being trapped in 'single line thinking'. Sooner or later
however, the flow of ideas dries up and the stage is reached where the same ideas
come to mind over and over again. It is very easy at this point to become convinced
that everything relevant has been considered, but invariably this is not so. Often the
ideas already generated have only been considered in a limited way and many more
productive ideas have been overlooked. A typical example of how the "obvious" can
be missed, even by a number of people working on the problem, follows:

EXAMPLE

Problem Solution
Cam form, sintered and copper Forged in pairs and sawn
brazed to the spindle

A complex cam form on a short spindle was the essential component in a mechanism.
The component as conceived was designed to be cold headed from round bar. As the
project developed the cam form became more complex and when high volume

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production was required it was found to be impossible to manufacture by the proposed

method. After consideration of all other methods of making it, the cam form was
produced as a sintered pressing which was then copper brazed and riveted to the
spindle. It became a very expensive item in the total assembly. After well in excess
of a million components had been produced by this method a young engineer
happened to place a pair of the cam assemblies end to end. He realised he was
looking at a small crankshaft (an analogy). Within a few weeks the cams and spindles
were being forged transversely as a crankshaft. A special purpose machine gripped
the cam form whilst the spindles were simultaneously turned and a final saw operation
produced the separate parts. A saving of over 50% on each component was achieved.
It was realised by everyone concerned that their thinking had been 'blinkered' by the
original concept of forming the cam axially. No one had considered any other
approach when looking for alternative methods of manufacture.

How can we decrease the possibility of missing an 'obvious' solution like the one
shown in the example?. One way is to increase the flow of ideas by considering
existing ideas, functions or components in the light of other ideas.

Ask questions such as the following:-

Similarity -
Is there anything like it in any way?.
Is there anything with common parts?.
Is there anything with anything at all in common with it?

Dissimilarity -
What is the opposite?
What is the inside out version?
Does anything suggest itself as different in any way?.

Closeness -
What is next to it?
What goes with it?
What doesn't go with it?
What is above/below/behind/in front of it?

Opposition -
What opposes it?
What would normally be avoided?
What destroys it?

Association -
Does anything about it suggest anything else?

Multiplicity -
Can it be done in groups?
Can it be done simply?

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Morphological Analysis

This is a method which attempts to visualise all the possible configurations of a

design. This is done by listing on one side of a matrix the parameters of the design in
terms of function and the means of satisfying each function on the other. A chart can
be drawn from the matrix, setting out all the practical combinations. Where large
numbers of parameters and possible solutions are concerned it can be a time
consuming process. Its usefulness is that it ensures that no combination of ideas is
overlooked.

FUNCTION IDEAS, SOLUTIONS OR METHODS

Container Tin Aerosol Tube Bottle etc.
Consistency Non-drip Two part Solid Powder etc
Application Brush Dip Roller Spray etc
Finish Gloss Matt Silk Non-setting etc.
Setting Normal air Heat Chemical etc.

There are other ways in which this check can be done; the choice is mainly dependant
on the numbers of combinations that are involved.

If only three parameters are involved the three dimensional chart (Zwicky Cube)
shown over leaf can be used. Each small cube represents a different combination of
the parameters and each should be assessed to see if it is a relevant solution.

Solution for consideration (shaded in black) is a product drawn from zinc-plated mild
steel and wrapped for delivery.

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These charting methods are simply ways of handling large numbers of ideas, they are
not idea generators. Their usefulness is in the methodical analysis to ensure that a
possible 'good solution' is not overlooked.

Summary

There are many other means of ideas generation published in various forms. Many are
complex and time consuming. Those described here are the ones that are most readily
applied in the every-day design situation by the average designer. They can also be
applied to both conceptual design and design for production. There is no guarantee
that the 'best' solution will always be found, only that, by the consideration of more
ideas, the better the chance of finding it. One important factor is the need to suspend
judgement during the ideas generation phase. That should be left until later, until all
of the ideas which can be developed into design concepts have been conceived. Each
of the concepts can then be given equal consideration in the concept selection process.

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APPENDICES

Appendix 1

22 Ways In Which To Kill An Idea

1 Ignore It: Absolute silence will intimidate all but the most enthusiastic proposers of
ideas.

2 See It Coming And Dodge: If you are able to recognise the imminent arrival of an
idea by a growing unease and anxiety in the would-be originator, change the subject,
or better still, end the meeting!

3 Scorn It: The gently lifted eyebrow and a softly spoken, "You aren't really serious,
are you?" should deter the originator. In severe cases make the audible comment,
"Utterly impracticable". Get your barrier in place before the idea is fully explained,
otherwise it might prove practicable after all.

4 Laugh It Off; "Ho, ho, ho, that's a good one Joe. You must have sat up all night
thinking that up." If he has, this makes it even funnier.

5 Praise It To Death: By the time you have reinforced its merits for five minutes
everyone else will hate it. The proposer will be wondering what is wrong with it
himself!

6 Mention That It Has Never Been Tried Before. If it is new this will be true. The
uncertainty this presents should unsettle the owner of the idea!

7 Prove That It Isn't New: If you can make it look similar to a known idea, the fact
that this one is better may not emerge.

8 Observe That It Doesn't Fit Company Policy: Since nobody knows what the policy
is you're probably right.

9 Mention What It Will Cost: The fact that the expected saving is six times as much
will then pale into insignificance. That is imaginary money; what we spend is real.
Beware of ideas that cost nothing though, and point out, "If it doesn't cost anything, it
can't be worth anything."

10 Oh, We've Tried That Before: Particularly effective if the originator is a

newcomer. It makes him realise what an outsider he is .

11 Cast The Right Aspersion: "Isn't it a bit too flip?", or "Do we want this clever-
clever stuff?" or "Let's be careful we don't outsmart ourselves". Such comments will
draw ready applause and few ideas will survive collective disapproval.

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12 Find A Competitive Idea: This is a dangerous one unless you are experienced.
You might still get left with an idea.

13 Produce Twenty Good Reasons Why It Won't Work: The one good reason why it
will, is then lost.

14 Modify It Out Of Existence: This is elegant. You seem to be helping the idea
along, just changing it a little here and there. By the time the originator wakes up, it's
dead.

15 Encourage Doubt About Ownership: "Didn't you suggest something like Harry is
saying when we first met, Jim?" While everyone is wondering, the idea may wither
and die quietly.

16 Damn It By Association Of Ideas: Connect it with someone's pet hate. Remark

casually to the Senior Man. "Why, that's just the sort of thing John might have
thought up". The Senior Man loathes John. Your idea man doesn't and will wonder
for weeks what hit him.

17 Try To Chip Bits Off It: If you fiddle with an idea long enough it may come to
pieces.

18 Make A Personal Attack On The Originator: By the time he's recovered, he'll
have forgotten he had an idea.

19 Score A Technical Knock-Out; For instance, refer to some obscure regulation it

may infringe. Use technology as a bludgeon. "But if you do that you'll need a
pulsating oscillograph coupled with a hemispherical interferometer - so you see, there
would be a negative feedback on the forward rheostat - and you wouldn't want that
would you?"

20 Postpone It: By the time it's been postponed a few times, it will look pretty tatty
and part worn.

21 Let A Committee Sit On The Idea.

22 Encourage The Author To Look For A Better Idea: Usually a discouraging

quest. If he finds one, start him looking for a better job.

Challenge:

Do not catch yourself using any of the above or anything remotely like them!

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