BRAIN COMPUTER INTERFACE ON HAND
MOVEMENTS
Gourab Behera
ComputerScienc eand Engineering
C.V. Raman Global University
Bhubaneswar, India Dr Surendra Nanda
Computer Science and Engineering
Biswaranjan Biswal C.V. Raman Global University
ComputerScience and Engineering Bhubaneswar, India
C.V.Raman Global University
Bhubaneswar, India
Abstract—This article provides an overview of the
field of brain-computer intervention (BCI), focusing on
its applications in the treatment of arthritis. The first
part addresses issues related to removing artifacts
during left and right-hand move- ment and highlights
the need to improve signal quality to ensure true BCI
operation. The operation of BCI is based on the
integration of neuroscience, functional settings,
biomedical sensors, and hardware and has attracted
much research in recent years. Despite many
pioneering studies, a comprehensive review covering
the entire BCI is still lacking. This article aims to fill
this gap by comprehensively evaluating BCI systems. It
explores different BCI applications, highlighting their
important role in rehabilitation. All parts of the BCI
system are briefly described, including methods, data,
extraction methods, evaluation matrices, available
algorithms, and distribution components. Additionally,
this article provides an overview of the technology and
hardware used in BCI applications, especially sensors.
The study then explores the potential of
electroencephalogram (EEG) signals to produce BCI in
upper and lower extremity treatment. A systematic
review is presented, including data collection and
interpretation of EEG signals, guidelines for treating
limbs based on movement or assisted movement goals,
and integration of a feedback virtual environment.
Keywords—feature selection, random forest, K-
nearest neighbor (KNN), decision tree, Random
Forest, AdaBoost, Multilayer
perceptron(MLP),Cross validation matrix,Confusion
matrix, Correlation matrix, Ensemble learning.
I. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, the intersection of neuroscience
and technology has led to significant advances in
brain-computer interfaces (BCI), especially
checkpointing. This partnership provides a
platform that demonstrates the complexity of the
earth's soul and allows direct communication with
the outside world. Movements are an important
part of human motor control and have become an
important part of brain-computer intelligence due
to their impact on daily events and their implicit
Rabi Narayan Sahoo
ComputerScienceand Engineering
C.V. Raman Global University
Bhubaneswar, India
Debi Prasad JaySingh
Computer Science and Engineering
C.V.Raman Global University
Bhubaneswar, India
improvement in the quality of life of troubled
people. Basic BCI technology is designed to
capture, interpret and use nerve signals to facilitate
direct communication between the brain and
external stimuli. It holds great promise for
sedentary people and opens up the possibility of
new technological measures to treat or support
hands.
As our neural understanding of hand
movements continues, so does our ability to
develop BCI systems that convert neural signals
into commands. This companion is a
comprehensive website for learning manual BCI
techniques. It reviews the principles, recent
achievements, and colorful genres of BCI research,
highlighting the latest developments in this
revolutionary field. The statement also mentions
the broad impact of BCI methods on mobility due
to their role in improving aesthetics, intelligence,
service technology and, finally, improving the
daily lives of people experiencing conflict.
Additionally, brain-computer interface
technology continues to integrate technology
beyond neural control, increasing the efficiency
and effectiveness of these interventions.
Essentially, the control system reflects BCI's
adaptation to ground change. The remainder of this
article provides an overview of the methodology
and explores the challenges of both invasive and
non-invasive BCI approaches. The research also
covers care challenges and opportunities, the sweat
of drug users, and ethical decisions regarding the
use of BCI technology to enhance hand movement.
Biological signals such as electromyography
(EMG) and electroencephalography (EEG) can be
used as feedback signals to control prostheses. A
prosthesis is a permanent device used to replace a
missing limb (1, 2). Amputees who have lost all or
part of their limbs can use prostheses as they wish.
Externally powered prostheses are important
because they follow natural limb movements. But
the way they rule is far from limb. Myoelectric
signals are signals emitted by muscles that provide
information about muscle contraction (1).
The most commonly used prostheses use
surface electromyography (sEMG) signals. These
signals are collected from the skin surface,
recorded in the remaining muscles of the
amputated neck, and indirectly used as signals to the
body controller [3, 4]. Muscle loss resulting from
amputation makes electromyography signals unusable
and therefore affects the management of prostheses [1].
This makes it very difficult to perform correct
movements with prostheses [5]. On the other hand,
with recent technological developments, brain-
computer interfaces (BCIs) have begun to attract
widespread attention in the biorobotics industry.
Brain-computer interfaces are non-muscular brain
devices (such as electroencephalography) for
communication and control. BCI is the most well-
known technology by which humans can
communicate with their environment and control
artificial objects or other external devices using
only the brain [22].
However, brain-computer interfaces that
use only EEG signals as the main input have not
been fully adopted in biorobotic applications due to
problems such as low reliability, lack of accuracy,
being less user-friendly and less information to be
sent. To overcome EEG and EMG-based control
problems, combining the two systems, taking
advantage of each signal and reducing the
limitation of each signal would be a promising
method [2]. Lee et al. [3] introduced a hybrid
model that uses spatial electromyography and
electroencephalogram signals as input components
to classify five limbs and uses four time domain
features to extract features that are then input into
the discriminant analysis (LDA) classifier. Channel
selection is done using the next selection
procedure. Ruhunag et al. [21] proposed a
transhumeral prosthetic arm, which controls the
elbow of the prosthetic arm by electromyographic
signals with RMS based on point extraction and
fuzzy neural network algorithm, and Nature
(SSVEP)-based EEG signals using the state of
visual ability. In this study, a hybrid brain-
computer interface system was developed that
combines EEG and EMG signals to improve the
classification of individuals and improve the
management performance of upper dentures.
The format of this text is as follows;
Section 2 introduces the various inference methods
used in our study and the classification methods
used for combination model and meta
classification. In Section 3, the performance
evaluation process is presented along with
experimental results and discussions. Finally,
Section 4 provides research conclusions and
recommendations for future studies.
1. Identifying the Problem
Creating robust and reliable brain-computer
interfaces (BCI) based on electroencephalogram
(EEG) signals is a major challenge in the current
field of neurotechnology. Although brain-computer
interfaces have the potential to revolutionize
communication and control for people with
physical disabilities, EEG-based systems currently
face issues with reliability, accuracy, and user
changes. These challenges hinder the integration of
BCIs into practical applications, limiting their
widespread acceptance and usability.
Additionally, issues such as low data
throughput further hinder the immediate response
required for effective BCI performance.
Addressing these issues is important for progress
because more reliable and effective EEG-based
brain-computer interventions have the potential to
improve the quality of life of people with
disabilities and open new opportunities for human-
computers. In this context, research efforts should
focus on developing new solutions to improve the
performance and user experience of EEG-based
brain-computer interfaces, and finally on bridging
the gap between the theoretical possibilities and
limitations of this transformation.
Develop a brain-computer interface that
combines EEG and EMG signals to improve the
classification and control of upper limb prostheses,
solve the limitations of single control, and improve
the quality of treatment of upper limb amputee
patients. life.
2. Data Set and Operation
Creating robust and reliable brain-
computer interfaces (BCI) based on
electroencephalogram (EEG) signals is a major
challenge in the current field of
neurotechnology. Although brain-computer
interfaces have the potential to revolutionize
communication and control for people with
physical disabilities, EEG-based systems
currently face issues with reliability, accuracy,
and user changes. These challenges hinder the
integration of BCIs into practical applications,
limiting their widespread acceptance and
usability. Additionally, issues such as low data
throughput further hinder the immediate
response required for effective BCI
performance. Addressing these issues is
important for progress because more reliable and
effective EEG-based brain-computer
interventions have the potential to improve the
quality of life of people with disabilities and
open new opportunities for human-computers. In
this context, research efforts should focus on
developing new solutions to improve the
performance and user experience of EEG-based
brain-computer interfaces, and finally on
bridging the gap between the theoretical
possibilities and limitations of this
transformation.
Develop a brain-computer interface that
combines EEG and EMG signals to improve the
classification and control of upper limb
prostheses, solve the limitations of single
control, and improve the quality of treatment of
upper limb amputee patients. life.
3. Applications
3.3.1 Advances in Neurorehabilitation:
 Neurorehabilitation: BCI technology
offers a non-invasive method for
individuals recovering from strokes or
living with spinal cord injuries to regain
control over their movements.
 Robotic Limbs and Exoskeletons: BCIs
enable precise control of artificial limbs,
enhancing motor function and potentially
improving the overall quality of life for
those with physical disabilities.
3.3.2. Communication:
 Disability Assistance: BCI serves as a
crucial communication tool for individuals
with severe illnesses like ALS, providing
a means to express themselves by utilizing
their thoughts and interacting with the
world.
 Converting Brain Signals: This
technology restores a basic human right
and strengthens relationships by
translating brain signals into text or
speech.
3.3.3. Changing the Gaming Industry:
 Experience: Brain-computer interfaces
contribute to the creation of interactive
games by analyzing and adapting to an
individual's cognitive workload and
emotional state.
 Personal Environment: Games can be
dynamically adjusted to provide
personalized environments based on
neural feedback, enhancing the overall
gaming experience.
3.3.4. Health Applications:
 Care and Treatment: BCIs can monitor
and offer potential treatments for mental
health conditions such as depression,
anxiety, and emotional distress.
 Neurofeedback: Through neurofeedback,
individuals can monitor and self-regulate
their brain functions, providing innovative
approaches to treating mental disorders.
3.3.5. Educational Innovation:
 Thought-Controlled Learning: BCIs have
the potential to revolutionize learning
environments by allowing students to
control educational software or devices
through their thoughts.
 Helping with Disadvantages: This
technology transforms the learning
environment to assist students with
identifying gaps and encouraging active
participation.
3.5.5. Community Service:
 Safe Transportation: BCIs can contribute
to safer transportation by identifying signs
of driver fatigue or distraction, prompting
automated safety features and
interventions.
 Neuroergonomics: BCI technology plays a
role in neuroergonomics, influencing the
design of user-friendly interfaces in
professional settings.
3.3.7. Challenges and Considerations:
 Signal Accuracy: Improving the accuracy
of BCI signals is crucial for reliable and
effective performance.
 User Adaptability: Ensuring that BCIs are
adaptable to diverse users, considering
variations in neural signals and cognitive
abilities.
 Ethical Considerations: Addressing
privacy concerns related to the collection
and use of neural data is essential for
responsible BCI development.
 Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Bringing
together experts from neuroscience,
 engineering, ethics, and stakeholders to
collaboratively tackle challenges and drive
holistic development.
4. Challenges in Brain-Computer Interface
(BCI) Research
Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) research has
garnered attention from researchers, engineers, and
medical professionals, providing a glimpse of
potential success. However, this evolution is not
without hurdles, necessitating careful consideration
for future advancements. Three primary challenges
emerge: signal acquisition hardware, reliability, and
training.
4.1. Signal Acquisition Hardware:
Key Challenge: Progress in cost-effective
electronics is pivotal for the development of non-
pharmacological BCI applications. This entails
addressing the demand for a dry, comfortable, user-
friendly, and flexible EEG sensor. To expand the
reach of BCIs beyond controlled environments, the
utilized hardware must ensure high signal quality
even in noisy and dynamic surroundings.
Current Limitations: Despite evidence of BCI
use outside controlled settings, its efficacy may
diminish in real-world conditions. Priority should be
given to research that focuses on advancing high-
quality electronic equipment capable of providing
robust signal quality and resilience.
4.2. Reliability:
Usability Challenges: Existing BCI systems
exhibit inadequate reliability in various applications,
limiting their sustained effectiveness in processing
and controlling muscular functions within the
human body. Without enhancements, BCIs risk
being confined to communication functions for
users with serious medical conditions.
Key Analytical Issues: Addressing three
fundamental challenges is imperative: defining
the central role of interactive BCI capabilities,
accurately simulating the functional aspects of
the central nervous system, and integrating
additional brain signals for comprehensive
information processing.
4.3. Training:
Time-Consuming: User training is a
crucial component of BCI utilization and is
inherently time-consuming. The significance of
education is evident in the need for repeated sessions
to guide users through the entire process and enhance
overall performance.
Training Phases: The training process
encompasses either the preliminary or evaluation
phase. In the initial stage, users acquaint themselves
with controlling the system through brain feedback
signals. Resolving issues associated with training is
paramount for optimizing user engagement and
efficient system administration.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
Acqualagna et al. [7] conducted a comprehensive
evaluation of brain-computer interfaces (BCIs), with
a focus on whole motor adaptations, aiming for a
complete engine replacement while prioritizing
efficiency and performance. Their research likely
involved experiments with participants utilizing BCIs
to control various interfaces or devices, assessing
the adaptability and effectiveness of the technology.
Agarwal et al. [3] addressed the critical issue of user
privacy in BCI applications, discussing protective
measures to safeguard user data collected through
BCIs. Given the sensitive nature of information
obtained from brain signals, such as personal
thoughts or emotions, the study likely explored
encryption methods, data anonymization, or other
privacy-enhancing techniques to ensure user
confidentiality and trust in BCI systems.
Aricó et al. [9] explored the implementation of
adaptive automation in a real-life air traffic control
environment, utilizing an EEG-based mental
workload index. Their goal was to enhance human-
machine interaction by adjusting automation levels
based on air traffic controllers' cognitive workload.
The study likely involved experiments or simulations
to evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed
adaptive automation system in improving task
performance and reducing mental fatigue.
Arpaia et al. [4] investigated the effectiveness of
combining BCIs with augmented reality in a virtual
reality setting, focusing on rehabilitation.
Participants likely underwent rehabilitation exercises
while using BCIs to control virtual environments or
robotic devices. The study aimed to assess the
efficacy of BCI-assisted rehabilitation in improving
motor function and patient outcomes compared to
traditional methods.
Brickwedde et al. [1] explored the role of
somatosensory alpha oscillations in cognitive
processes related to learning success. Their research
likely involved experiments or neuroimaging
techniques to measure brain activity during learning
tasks, aiming to understand how somatosensory
alpha oscillations influence perception and
understanding of information.
Brunner et al. [5] outlined the BNCI Horizon 2020
project, presenting a roadmap for advancing BCI
technology and fostering collaboration within the
research community. The roadmap likely included
goals such as improving signal processing algorithms,
developing new BCI applications, and standardizing
evaluation protocols to accelerate progress in BCI
research.
Chiarelli et al. [2] investigated the application of
deep learning techniques for hybrid EEG-fNIRS BCIs,
focusing on motor imagery classification. They likely
developed deep learning models to analyze neural
data from EEG and fNIRS sensors, aiming to improve
the accuracy and reliability of BCI systems for motor
control applications.
Filiz and Arslan [8] discussed the design and
implementation of BCI video games, concentrating
on steady-state visual capabilities. Their research
likely involved developing interactive games utilizing
steady-state visual evoked potentials (SSVEPs) or
other visual stimuli to enable control through brain
signals, exploring the usability and effectiveness of
BCI video games for various purposes.
Jin et al. [6] introduced a new tactile P300-based BCI
using cheek stimulation, aiming to enhance BCI
performance and usability. They likely designed and
tested a tactile stimulation paradigm to evoke P300
responses, enabling communication or interaction
with devices using touch-based cues, and assessing
the accuracy, speed, and user experience of the
proposed tactile BCI.
Piastra et al. [10] utilized advanced computational
models to comprehensively examine the sensitivity
of EEG and MEG for cortical and subcortical neuronal
regions. Their research likely involved simulations or
analysis of neural signals to assess the spatial
resolution and detection capabilities of EEG and
MEG techniques, providing insights into their
applicability for studying brain function and
disorders.
III. METHODOLOGY
The hybrid model proposed in this study comprises
four distinct stages:
5.EEG and EMG Data Collection Stage:
This initial phase involves the systematic
collection of EEG (Electroencephalogram) and EMG
(Electromyogram) data. EEG captures electrical
activity in the brain, while EMG records electrical
signals generated by muscle contractions. The
integration of both types of data provides a
comprehensive understanding of neural and muscular
responses.
5.1. Pre-processing and Segmentation Stage:
Following data collection, a pre-processing and
segmentation stage is employed to enhance the
quality of the acquired signals. Common pre-
processing techniques such as filtering, noise
reduction, and artifact removal are applied to ensure
the integrity and reliability of the data. Segmentation
is performed to divide the continuous data into
discrete segments, facilitating subsequent analysis.
5.2.Feature Extraction and Selection Stage:
In this stage, relevant features are extracted from the
pre-processed and segmented data. Feature extraction
involves identifying distinctive patterns and
characteristics in the signals that are indicative of
specific cognitive or motor activities. Additionally, a
feature selection process is implemented to choose
the most informative features, optimizing the
efficiency and performance of the model.
5.3.Classification Stage:
The final stage involves the application of a
classification algorithm to accurately categorize the
extracted features. Machine learning or deep learning
models are commonly employed for this purpose,
leveraging the distinctive features to classify patterns
and make predictions. The choice of classification
algorithm is tailored to the specific objectives of the
study, considering factors such as accuracy, speed,
and interpretability.
This holistic methodology, illustrated in Figure 1,
ensures a systematic and comprehensive approach to
the integration of EEG and EMG data for cognitive
and motor activity analysis. The distinct stages
address data collection, preprocessing, feature
extraction, and classification, collectively
contributing to the development of an effective
hybrid model for the study's objectives.
5.4. Data Acquisition
The dataset utilized in this study was gathered
by Li et al. [3,4] and encompasses information from
four male participants who underwent humeral
dissection. The participants had an average age of
41.50 ± 7.05 years, and the average remaining leg
length measured below the shoulder blade was 25.50
± 4.20 cm [4]. The experimental sessions included
five distinct hand movement groups: open hand
(HO), closed hand (HC), wrist pronation (WP), wrist
supination (WS), and immobility (NM). To mitigate
muscle and brain fatigue, which can introduce
artifacts and signal attenuation, each movement was
sustained for 5 seconds, with a 5-second rest period
between consecutive movements.
During the data recording session, each participant
executed 10 repetitions of four arm movements (HO,
HC, WP, and WS). Simultaneous recordings of
surface electromyography (sEMG) and
electroencephalography (EEG) were conducted
during the arm movements, as illustrated in Figures 1
and 2 for EEG and sEMG data acquisition.
5.4.1. sEMG signals:
Recorded using a high-density sEMG system
comprising 32 monopolar electrodes positioned on
the skin surface of the stump of each participant's
hand.
5.4.2. EEG signals:
Recorded through a 64-channel EEG sensor
integrated with a state-of-the-art Neuroscan system
designed for collecting and analyzing EEG data.
Electrode placement followed the System Standard
10-20 protocol, a widely used scalp electrode
placement standard for EEG recording [3].
Participants were instructed to initiate and cease the
target movement upon the appearance and
disappearance of the target on the screen,
respectively. The EEG recording system
automatically marked the beginning and end of each
movement by placing a vertical line in the EEG data
corresponding to the appearance and disappearance
of the video target on the screen.
This comprehensive data acquisition methodology, as
depicted in Figures 1 and 2, ensures the simultaneous
recording of both sEMG and EEG signals during
specific arm movements, providing a robust
foundation for subsequent analysis and interpretation
in the study [3].
5.5. Data Pre-processing and Segmentation
In the data pre-processing and segmentation stage,
several crucial steps are employed to enhance signal
quality, particularly focusing on sEMG and EEG
signals.
5.5.1.sEMG Signal Processing:
The sEMG signal undergoes various processing
steps to optimize its utility. Initially, a bandpass filter
is applied, limiting the signal to frequencies up to 500
Hz. Subsequently, the signal is sampled at a rate of
1024 Hz, facilitating the retention of essential
frequency information for subsequent analysis.
5.5.2.EEG Signal Processing:
For EEG signals, a bandpass filter is employed
to confine the signal within the range of 0.05 to 100
Hz. Sampling is conducted at a rate of 1000 Hz,
ensuring the capture of vital temporal information.
To eliminate bias, the average of each channel in the
EEG signal is subtracted, contributing to a more
accurate representation of the data.
5.5.3.Period Extraction:
The EEG epochs corresponding to each
movement group are extracted along the start-finish
line. Each EEG session for a movement group
encompasses 5 seconds of EEG recording, with an each distribution. Features of each channel are
additional 120 milliseconds of recording before extracted from segments of different lengths and then
movement onset. This results in a total of 5120 data combined to form a vector vector as shown in Figure
points per array [3]. 3.

5.5.4.Detection of Artifacts:
In the processing of EEG data periods, a
transformation is employed to identify artifacts, such
as eye movements and blinks. An adaptive threshold,
set at 1.2 times the average value of the data period,
aids in effectively detecting and mitigating artifacts
that might impact EEG signal quality.

5.5.5.Power Line Noise Removal:

To eliminate noise in both EMG and EEG
recordings, a 50 Hz filter is applied. This step ensures
the removal of unnecessary interference from
electronic equipment, providing a clearer and more
accurate signal for subsequent analysis.
The combined pre-processing procedures ensure that
both sEMG and EEG signals are optimized for
subsequent extraction and classification. Meticulous
attention to artifacts and noise contributes
significantly to enhancing the reliability and
interpretability of the collected data [3].
5.7. FEATURE SELECTION
Features should be able to show different
features or characteristics of the body. Calculation
must be taken into account when applying for
transfer [19]. The purpose of feature selection is to
select a small number of important features from the
original features based on some evaluation, which
usually leads to better learning. (i.e. the higher the
dispersion of the study), the lower the cost and the
better the description. Specific selection is made by
eliminating the extraction process that is not useful
for classification [24].

5.8. CLASSIFICATION
The performance of the proposed model was
tested using three classification methods: quadratic
discriminant analysis (QDA), K-nearest neighbor
(KNN), and quadratic support vector machine
Overlapping segmentation method is used with (quadratic SVM) to classify five top sports.
lengths of 150 ms, 200 ms, 250 ms in 100 ms
increments. Figure 2 shows an example of how to
5.8.1. Quadratic Discriminant Analysis
complete an overlapping segmentation.
The discriminant function generated in QDA is
given by [13]:
5.6..FEATURE EXTRACTION
In this stage, three groups of time domain,
frequency domain and entropy based features are
used to calculate the autoregressive (AR) model
coefficients of each partition. Time domain features is the covariance matrix, it should not be the
include root mean square (RMS), wavelength length identity matrix, x is the data set and is the estimation
(WL), and William amplitude (WAMP), while of mean for data and the discriminant rule is given
frequency features include autoregressive (AR) by:
coefficients, frequency ratio (FR), resulting corrected
mean, and constant mean frequency
(MMNF). ). ,MDF). Standard entropy and log power 5.8.2. K Nearest Neighbors (KNN)
entropy are entropy-based properties calculated for
This algorithm is a simple classification algorithm
that finds the nearest neighbors in the data and tells
people when they should guess Yes. The main idea of
the KNN method is to provide a new unsigned model
for the cluster where most of its neighbors are K [23].
5.8.3.Support Vector Machine
SVM uses nonlinear elements to create a separation
hyperplane at the data height. Therefore, although it
uses the linear learning method as a non-linear kernel
function, it is a non-linear classifier [12]. Using a
nonlinear kernel can improve learning efficiency and
performance. The support vector machine can be
expressed mathematically as:
where Si is the support vector, ai is the weight, and b
is the bias used to classify the feature vector x. Here
k is the kernel function. In this study, quadratic
support vector machines were tested. The numerical
representation of a quadratic support vector machine
is given by:
a. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
6.1. PERFORMANCE METRICS
Classification efficiency is usually measured in terms
of accuracy, defined as the number of correct
classifications among all classifications [12, 13]. In
this study, the mathematical definition of statistical
analysis is as follows:
Accuracy can be measured using a number of
methods such as cross-validation and N-fold cross-
validation (CV), which divide the entire data set into
N discrete subsets of approximately similar size. The
ith subset is used as the test set and the remaining N
× 1 subset is used as the training set; This process
continues until each subset is used as a single test,
and the accuracy of N tests is obtained from the
average accuracy [12]. In this study, classification
accuracy was tested using the 5-fold cross-validation
method.
IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION
Experiments were conducted to verify the performan
ce of the hybrid BCI system and examine the effects
of the three combinations, segment length, and autore
gressive coefficient order on performance. See model
. All experiments were performed using
MATLAB and were run on a 2.8 GHz Intel Core i7 C
PU -
based laptop with 16 GB access memory (RAM).
The data set contains 96 channels (64 channels EEG
+ 32 channels EMG) recording all movements of five
limbs in each study of four amputees.
Move And repeat 10 times.
7.1.Experiment 1: Using overlapping segments of a
channel to examine the effects of assertions on group
cohesion and exclusion. Calculate the AR coefficient
for each segment. The same section consisting of 96
channels (64-channel EEG + 32-channel EMG) has
96 groups of AR coefficients. So (96 p) attributes
were created; where p is the order of the AR model.
The three correlations are then added to the AR
coefficient. Figure 3 shows the residual vectors
calculated for each segment as (96 channels x
features) and entered into three classifications; QDA,
KNN and quadratic SVM for classification of test
words using 5-fold cross-validation method classifier
and measured by distribution. accurate measurement.
Table 1. Statistical accuracy comparison of three
different feature extraction groups using DA
classifier.
As shown in Table 1, the best classification results
were obtained by training the QDA classifier using
sixth-order AR model coefficients and extracting
three physical parameters, including RMS, WL, and
WAMP features, from each partition. br> Long 250
ms. Additionally, time domain features (WL,RMS
and AR coefficients) are not included, facilitating use
in on-the-fly hybrid BCI applications [11] . Table 2
shows the comparison of classification accuracy of
QDA, KNN and Q-SVM classifiers for the proposed
extraction process. QDA has been shown to have the
highest accuracy in identifying the arm and wrist.
The more accurate distribution of objects can be
attributed to the QDA design of the second decision
in the critical area to change the instability and the
small difference between the EEG and EMG symbol
[13]. Additionally, due to its ability to optimize,
QDA is considered to be very strong against the curse
of overfitting and overfitting [13, 19, 23]. The second
best classification is achieved by KNN classifier,
which is more accurate than Q-SVM.
TABLE 2. Comparison of classification accuracy (%)
between QDA classifier with KNN and Q-SVM
classifiers for different feature extraction groups, for
the proposed model.
7.2. Experiment 2: Study the effect of segment
Length .
The purpose of this experiment is to examine the
dependence of the joint configuration on the long
segment in the distributed BCI hybrid. Figure 4
shows different dimensions of division of labor; The
results show that a segment length of 250 ms has the
best performance using our feature set and QDA
classifier. The third method, which involves AR and
the entropy model, has been shown to be effective by
reducing the segment length to 150 ms. Results
showed that despite specific group differences,
performance improvements of 0.7%, 1%, and 2%
were achieved using the 250 ms segment length
compared to the use of other lengths. %. > first
group, second group and third group features.
Fig. 4. The accuracy of each set of combined features
with overlapped segmentation scheme of different
segment length, 150ms, 200ms and 250ms and an
increment of 100ms using QDA classifier.
7.3 Experiment 3: Investigate the effect of the
autoregressive coefficient order
In this experiment, the effect of the fourth and sixth
autoregressive coefficient order on the distribution of
the population is analyzed using the specification and
QDA classifier. Table 3 shows that the classification
accuracy of the features mentioned by the first and
second groups, including the recording time and
frequency recording features, is high, and the
classification accuracy of the sixth-order AR
coefficient is higher than that of the fourth-order AR.
coefficient. The third method, which includes
structure and energy entropy measurement, achieves
higher accuracy using the 4th-order AR model
compared to the 6th-order AR model.
7.4 Comparison with previous methods
To verify the performance of the proposed model,
this section compares the performance of the
proposed method with the new model developed by
Li et al. [3] and Ruhunag et al. [twenty one]. As
shown in Table 4, the proposed method is best when
testing TH2 and TH4, which are 99.45% and 99.57%,
respectively. Table 5 describes the accuracy of
classification and the time taken to remove the film
and the movement classifications for the five hands
and wrists used to control the equipment. As shown
in Table 6, compared with Li et al., the proposed
model achieved a significant improvement in
classification accuracy, up to 8% and 8.986%,
respectively. [3] and Ruhunag et al. [21] respectively.
Moreover, the standard deviation shows that there is
no difference in the accuracy of the parameters,
which indicates the stability of the plan.
TABLE 3. The impact of the AR coefficients order
on the performance of the proposed model, for
segment length 250ms using QDA classifier.
TABLE 4 Classification accuracies (%) of the five
hand and wrist movements of the four transhumeral
amputees, for segment length 250ms using 1st group
combined features and QDA classifier.
Table 5 Classification accuracy and time required to
extract and classify five hands and wrists with a
length of 250 ms using the first layer and the QDA
classifier.
Table 6. Comparison of the proposed method with
other methods in the literature.
V. NEW IMPLEMENTATION
8.1.Compare data by Box plots
Box plots are used to compare data distributions,
especially when you have multiple datasets or
categories to compare. Here are some reasons why
box plots are used for this purpose:
1. Visualizing Distribution: Box plots provide
a visual summary of the central tendency,
dispersion, and skewness of the data
distribution, making it easier to compare
different datasets at a glance.
2. Identifying Outliers: Box plots help in
identifying outliers, which are data points
that significantly differ from the rest of the
data. Outliers can skew the mean and other
statistical measures, so identifying them is
important for understanding the data.
3. Comparing Medians and Quartiles: Box
plots show the median (middle value) and
quartiles (dividing the data into four equal
parts), making it easy to compare these
statistics between different datasets.
4. Detecting Skewness: By observing the
symmetry of the box plot, you can determine
if the data is symmetrically distributed or
skewed to one side. This information is
valuable in understanding the nature of the
data.
8.2.Converting to freequency domain
Converting a signal from the time domain to the
frequency domain is done to analyze the signal's
frequency components. This conversion is useful
because it allows us to understand the underlying
frequencies that make up a signal and can provide
insights into the signal's characteristics and behavior.
8.3.Continuous Wavelet Transform (CWT) : In
the context of your code, the Continuous Wavelet
Transform (CWT) converts the EEG signal from the
time domain to the frequency domain using wavelets.
This transformation helps in identifying the different
frequency components present in the EEG signal and
how they vary over time.
8.4. Short-Time Fourier Transform (STFT) :
Similar to the wavelet transform but uses a fixed
window size, providing a compromise between time
and frequency resolution. It's suitable for signals with
relatively stable frequency components.
8.5.Visualization
8.5.1 Line Chart: Use a line chart to show trends
over time or sequential categories. Each data point is
connected by a line.
8.5.2 Histogram: Use a histogram to visualize the
distribution of a single variable.
8.6.Classifiers (Machine Learning Algorithms)
8.6.1. Naive Bayes is a probabilistic classifier based
on Bayes' theorem with the "naive" assumption of
independence between features. It is simple, fast, and
often performs well on small datasets. It works well
with categorical data and is less prone to overfitting.
However, it may not capture complex relationships in
the data as well as other algorithms.
8.6.2. Random Forest is an ensemble method that
uses multiple decision trees to make predictions. It is
more complex than Naive Bayes and can capture
complex relationships in the data. Random Forest
generally performs well on a variety of datasets and
is less prone to overfitting compared to individual
decision trees. However, it can be computationally
expensive and may require more tuning of
hyperparameters.
Based on the provided accuracy scores:
 Naive Bayes has a training accuracy score of
0.1812 and a testing accuracy score of
0.225.
 Random Forest has a training accuracy score
of 0.2062 and a testing accuracy score of
0.1.
In this scenario, Naive Bayes performs better than
Random Forest in terms of testing accuracy.
8.7.Another classifer (Machine Learning
Algorithm)
8.7.1. Gradient Boosting
Gradient Boosting is a machine learning technique
used for regression, classification, and ranking tasks.
It builds an ensemble of weak learners (usually
decision trees) sequentially, where each new tree
corrects errors made by the previous ones.
Comparing the performance of the Gradient Boosting
model with the Naive Bayes and Random Forest
models based on the provided accuracy scores:
 Naive Bayes:
 Training Accuracy: 0.1812
 Testing Accuracy: 0.225
 Random Forest:
 Training Accuracy: 0.2062
 Testing Accuracy: 0.1
 Gradient Boosting:
 Training Accuracy: 1.0
 Testing Accuracy: 0.15
Based on these results, the Naive Bayes model has
the highest testing accuracy, followed by the
Gradient Boosting model and then the Random
Forest model.
In terms of accuracy alone, the Naive Bayes model
appears to be the best choice among the three.
VI. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE
DIRECTIONS
This paper presents a new artificial intelligence-
computer interface for the segmentation of different
limbs in elbow amputees whose muscles do not have
sufficient signals for movement control. A good
combination of new feature releases and deployment
models will determine the move. Three classifiers
with improved feature extraction and phase selection
were used to classify wrist and hand in combined
signals of electroencephalogram and myoelectric
signals. Use overlapping segmentation techniques on
different parts. Specific selection and removal are
examined using a combination of AR model
coefficients and time domain, frequency domain, and
entropy-based features.
Animation classifiers were made using QDA, KNN
and second-order SVM classifiers, tested using the 5-
fold cross-validation method and evaluated according
to the accuracy of the classification. The effects of
segment length and AR model coefficient
determination were investigated. The sixth model is a
combination model that combines AR model
coefficients with three time domain features such as
RMS, WL, and WAMP to show more accurate
classification using the QDA classifier. The recovery
is 8%. This program can be used to determine hand
and wrist movements that occur after daily living
activities. In future studies, channel reduction and
channel selection methods will be used to reduce the
number of EEG and EMG channels and achieve high
transmission performance.
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