1. Crisis of the third century and Late empire.

a) Crisis of the third century

During Marcus Aurelius' rule, Rome faced natural disasters, sparking concerns about its
future. After his death in 180, new issues emerged.
In the third century, the Roman Empire teetered on the brink of collapse. Under the
Severan rulers (193–235), order was restored after civil wars but devolved into military
chaos for the subsequent fifty years (235–284). The era witnessed a tumultuous cycle of
civil war, with contenders bribing soldiers to claim the imperial throne. In these
decades, there were twenty-seven emperors, most meeting violent ends. Concurrently,
invasions plagued the empire, with the Sassanid Persians and Germanic tribes
encroaching on Roman territory. It wasn't until the century's end that stability returned
to most borders.

These conflicts, coupled with plagues, led to trade decline, labor shortages, and
agricultural ruin. Plundering invaders and defending armies devastated farmlands,
worsening the already-strained economy. Currency devaluation and inflation further
crippled the monetary system. The dire need for armies clashed with financial
constraints, compelling the state to hire German soldiers under Roman leadership by the
mid-third century.
b) Late empire
The reforms of Dicletian and Cóntantine
The reigns of Diocletian (284–305) and Constantine (306–337) witnessed
crucial reforms that expanded imperial control by bolstering administrative
bureaucracies and reinforcing the army's capabilities. They established a
hierarchical system of officials overseeing various levels of governance.
Additionally, Constantine undertook the monumental task of constructing a new
capital, Constantinople, from the former Greek city of Byzantium, strategically
positioned on the Bosporus.
Sources: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=fEJRkA0ArSE&list=PL3HQP1hB-
lfSeeFfgLaTJRL4j0UWxlCCF&index=3 ////
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7VqRQKq13y8&list=PL3HQP1hB-
lfSeeFfgLaTJRL4j0UWxlCCF&index=4
The end of Western Empire

However, these reforms came at a cost. The bolstered army and burgeoning civil
service significantly strained public funds, necessitating increased revenues.
Despite the need, the stagnant population hampered the expansion of the tax
base. To sustain the empire amidst labor shortages, edicts were issued,
compelling individuals to remain in specific vocations, leading to the hereditary
nature of basic occupations. Free tenant farmers faced declining fortunes, bound
to landowners capitalizing on agricultural struggles to expand their estates.
 Diocletian and Constantine's economic and social policies relied heavily on
control and coercion. Though momentarily effective, such authoritarian
measures ultimately stifled the vitality crucial for revitalizing the Late Empire.

Following Constantine's reunification of the Roman Empire and the restoration

of order, the empire gradually divided into distinct western and eastern parts. By
395, the western segment crumbled into an array of Germanic kingdoms, while
the eastern part, under Constantinople's Roman emperor, remained intact. This
disintegration began with the infiltration of Germanic tribes into the empire.

Despite the Romans' established frontiers along the Rhine and Danube Rivers,
interactions between Romans and Germans persisted across these boundaries. In
the late fourth century, new pressures arose as the Huns, nomads from Asia's
steppes, displaced various tribes, including the Visigoths. The Visigoths,
seeking refuge, crossed the Danube into Roman territory but later revolted,
resulting in a disastrous defeat for Rome at Adrianople in 378.

The influx of Germanic tribes surged further; by 410, the Visigoths sacked
Rome, followed by Vandals ravaging the city in 455. Consequently, the western
provinces were absorbed by Germanic peoples, establishing independent
kingdoms. Although a semblance of imperial authority lingered in Rome,
military officials, known as masters of the soldiers, wielded genuine power.

In 476, Odoacer, a new master of the soldiers of German origin, deposed

Romulus Augustulus, marking a symbolic end to the Western Roman Empire,
despite much of its direct imperial rule already fading during the fifth century.
What caused the Fall of the Western Roman Empire
The fall of the Western Roman Empire has spurred countless theories,
attempting to attribute its decline to singular causes. These include
Christianity's impact on military values, social shifts, lead poisoning, plague,
technological stagnation, and political shortcomings. However, history is far
too intricate to be reduced to a sole explanation.

Amidst these varied theories, a crucial factor emerges: the weakening of the
Western Roman army due to a severe manpower shortage. This vulnerability
left the empire defenseless against invading forces in Italy and Gaul. In
contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire endured for another millennium, largely
free from such invasions.

The Western Roman Empire's collapse stemmed significantly from its

weakened military, while the Eastern Empire's resilience underscored the
importance of a robust defense. While multiple factors contributed, the
shortage of military strength played a pivotal role in the empire's fall.
2. The development of Christanity
 a) The religious world of the Roman empire:

The religious fabric of the Roman Empire was intricately woven around the reverence for a
multitude of Greco-Roman gods and goddesses, each embodying different aspects of life
and nature. Among these revered figures were Juno, the patron goddess of women;
Minerva, revered by craftspeople; Mars, the god synonymous with war; and Jupiter
Optimus Maximus, denoted as the "best and greatest," emerging as the paramount deity of
Rome and occupying a central role in the city's religious sphere. For the Romans,
adherence to meticulous rituals by appointed state priests was pivotal in establishing a
harmonious rapport with these divine entities. Such practices were believed to be
instrumental in ensuring the security, tranquility, and prosperity of the populace. This
deeply ingrained conviction led them to view their successful expansion and dominance
over other nations as a testament to divine endorsement. As Cicero, a prominent political
figure of the first-century BCE, eloquently articulated, the Romans attributed their triumph
over other civilizations to the belief that the world operated under divine direction.

Remarkably, despite their allegiance to a polytheistic belief system, the Romans

demonstrated an exceptional degree of tolerance towards other religious traditions. They
permitted the worship of indigenous gods and goddesses within their provinces and often
assimilated certain local deities into their pantheon. Notably, starting from the reign of
Augustus, Roman emperors were frequently accorded the status of divine beings by official
sanction of the Roman senate. This deification of rulers served to fortify their authority and
garner favor and support from the populace.

Amidst this religious diversity, there existed a quest among many individuals for a more
profound spiritual experience, prompting them to turn towards the mystery religions
originating from the Hellenistic eastern regions. These esoteric faiths, which gained
prominence during the Early Empire, offered adherents the promise of accessing a higher
plane of reality. They held out the enticing prospect of an afterlife that transcended the
limitations of their present existence, captivating followers with the allure of a superior and
eternal realm beyond the mundaner

b) The Jewish Background

The Romans' expansion into the eastern Mediterranean brought them into contact not only
with the mystery religions but also with the Jews. Roman engagement with the Jewish
community commenced in 63 BCE, eventually leading to the province of Judaea, once part
of the ancient Jewish kingdom of Judah, being placed under Roman authority by 6 CE.
However, internal discord among the Jews persisted, notably among groups like the
Essenes, anticipating a Messiah to liberate Israel and establish a divine kingdom, and the
Zealots, advocating a violent rebellion against Roman domination.

In 66 CE, discontent culminated in a Jewish uprising in Judaea. Jewish forces clashed with
Roman troops, defeating them and establishing their own government, yet Roman
retaliation in 70 CE saw the recapture of Jerusalem, resulting in significant casualties and
the destruction of the Jewish Temple. Despite this setback, another revolt erupted in 132
CE when Emperor Hadrian sought to establish a Roman colony in Jerusalem's vicinity.
Under the leadership of Simon bar Kokhba, considered a Messiah by many Jews, resistance
initially thrived, yet gradually succumbed to the might of Roman legions, leading to the fall
of Jerusalem in 135 CE. Judaea was renamed Syria-Palaestina, and Jews were barred from
entering Jerusalem. Despite fervent religious identity, attempts to uphold an autonomous
Jewish state faltered, leading to the absence of another Jewish nation until the establishment
of modern Israel post-World War II.

c) The rise of Christianity

Religion had always been a very important aspect in Roman society. Often,
religious and political positions went hand in hand with many priests holding high
political positions. Romans also adopted the religious and mythological gods and
figures of the Greeks.

While Romans accepted and tolerated some religions, they persecuted

others. Christianity began in the Roman Empire. The founder of Christianity, Jesus
Christ, was killed by Roman officials in the province of Judea after being charged
with sedition.

Soon after, Christ's followers began spreading Christ's message throughout the
Roman Empire and beyond. They refused to participate in traditional Roman
religious activities.

After a massive fire burned much of Rome in 64 CE, the Emperor Nero blamed the
fire on the city's Christian community. Some claimed that Nero started the fire to
clear room for a new palace. That is unproven, but Christians were an easy group to
scapegoat. They were seen as outsiders by most traditional Romans. Many
Christians were arrested and executed, and some were even thrown to the lions at
the Colosseum.
Despite the widespread persecution of Christians, Christianity grew rapidly. The
religion mostly appealed to the poor in Rome. Many were drawn to the religion’s
belief in salvation and that if you lived a good life you would go to heaven.

Rome’s paganistic religion believed that heaven was only for gods and that
everyone else would spend eternity in the underworld. People were also drawn to
Christianity because the religion believed in equality, and that everyone was equal
without hierarchy or caste.

Christianity's spread among the poor and soldiers was eventually tolerated. Under
the emperor Trajan, Christians would no longer be prosecuted. Progress was slow
and occurred in patches at various times during the empire. The Roman Empire
became so vast that it grew to tolerate the different people who became part of it.

During one of his battles, Emperor Constantine had a vision of Christ and was
directed to fight with Christian standards. The victory in this battle resulted in
Constantine’s new faith in Christianity. He would convert to Christianity in 312 CE
and declare that Christians and Pagans should be allowed to worship freely.

It would take over a hundred years before Christianity was adopted by emperors and
protected. However, paganism remained and continued to pose a challenge to the
rising Christian faith.

Sources: https://www.studentsofhistory.com/the-rise-of-christianity

d) The spread of Cristianity:

Christianity spread to Aramaic-speaking peoples along the Mediterranean coast and also to the
inland parts of the Roman Empire, and beyond that into the Parthian Empire and the
later Sasanian Empire, including Assyria and Mesopotamia, which was dominated at different
times and to varying extents by these empires. In AD 301, the Kingdom of Armenia became the
first state to declare Christianity as its state religion, following the conversion of the Royal
House of the Arsacids in Armenia, although the Neo-Assyrian kingdom of Osroene became
Christian earlier. With Christianity the dominant faith in some urban centers, Christians
accounted for approximately 10% of the Roman population by 300, according to some
estimates.

By the latter half of the second century, Christianity had spread east throughout Media,
Persia, Parthia, and Bactria. The twenty bishops and many presbyters were more of the order of
itinerant missionaries, passing from place to place as Paul did and supplying their needs with
such occupations as merchant or craftsman.
 Various theories attempt to explain how Christianity managed to spread so successfully prior to
the Edict of Milan (313). In The Rise of Christianity, Rodney Stark argues that Christianity
replaced paganism chiefly because it improved the lives of its adherents in various ways. Dag
Øistein Endsjø argues that Christianity was helped by its promise of a general resurrection of
the dead at the end of the world which was compatible with the traditional Greek belief that
true immortality depended on the survival of the body. According to Will Durant, the Christian
Church prevailed over paganism because it offered a much more attractive doctrine, and
because the church leaders addressed human needs better than their rivals.

Bart D. Ehrman attributes the rapid spread of Christianity to five factors: (1) the promise of
salvation and eternal life for everyone was an attractive alternative to Roman religions; (2)
stories of miracles and healings purportedly showed that the one Christian God was more
powerful than the many Roman gods; (3) Christianity began as a grassroots movement
providing hope of a better future in the next life for the lower classes; (4) Christianity took
worshipers away from other religions since converts were expected to give up the worship of
other gods, unusual in antiquity where worship of many gods was common; (5) in the Roman
world, converting one person often meant converting the whole household—if the head of the
household was converted, he decided the religion of his wife, children and slaves.

Sources: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=csBHLmZ01xg
3. Byzantine empire
The Byzantine Empire, spanning from 330 to 1453, was also known as the Eastern
Roman Empire or Byzantium. Its capital, Constantinople, founded by Constantine I,
varied in size over time, encompassing territories in Italy, Greece, the Balkans,
Levant, Asia Minor, and North Africa.
As a Christian state with Greek as its official language, the Byzantines developed
distinct political systems, religious practices, art, and architecture, influenced by the
Greco-Roman tradition yet uniquely their own. The empire, lasting longer than any
other medieval power, left a lasting impact on religion, art, architecture, and laws in
Western states, Eastern and Central Europe, and Russia.
The name "Byzantine Empire" emerged from historians in the 16th century to
distinguish it from the Western Roman Empire after its fall. Disagreements persist
among scholars about the empire's start and end dates, but it ended definitively in
1453 when Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II.
Constantinople became a significant hub, controlling trade between east and west.
The empire's emperors held absolute power, ruling over a vast territory. The
government, following Roman patterns, included a senate and bureaucratic
structures. The creation of the Justinian Code consolidated Roman laws, influencing
legal systems for centuries.
Society was stratified by wealth, family heritage, and education. Women's roles
varied based on social status, from managing homes to working in various
professions. Monasticism thrived, contributing to education, manuscript
preservation, and religious practices.
Byzantine art veered from Classical naturalism to abstract representations, favoring
two-dimensional depictions in icons, mosaics, and wall paintings. Architecture
embraced domed churches, displaying a blend of Roman tradition and Eastern
influences.
The Church played a crucial role, profoundly affecting politics, art, and relations.
The Eastern and Western churches diverged in doctrine, eventually leading to the
Church Schism of 1054. The Byzantine Church experienced internal conflicts,
notably the iconoclasm periods rejecting the use of icons.
Over time, the empire faced territorial shifts and challenges, enduring conflicts with
neighboring powers, including Arab and Norman invasions. Despite periods of
resurgence, like the Macedonian dynasty's victories, decline set in, culminating in
the Fourth Crusade's sack of Constantinople in 1204. The empire survived in
diminished form until its final fall in 1453.
The Byzantine Empire's legacy persists through its architectural designs, religious
influence, and enduring impact on cultural traditions across continents.

Sources: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Okph9wt8I0A