1. Crisis of the third century and Late empire.

a) What Was the Crisis of the Third

Century?
The Crisis of the Third Century was a turbulent period
characterized by military, economic, and political challenges that
brought the Roman Empire to the brink of collapse.

The so-called Crisis of the Third Century was a period of chaos, anarchy and economic
instability in the Roman Empire. In less than a hundred years, no less than 24 emperors
exchanged on the throne, a stark contrast when compared with 26 emperors who ruled from
the time of Augustus to Septimius Severus, a period of over 250 years. It was an era of
soldier emperors, backed by their legions, and the recurring civil wars that brought the
Empire to the brink. In one moment, the Roman Empire split into three separate parts. Only
the efforts of emperor Aurelian saved the Empire.

The Crisis of the Third Century also saw increased pressure on the imperial borders, with
enemy forces advancing into the Roman territory. No wonder many emperors lost their life
on the battlefield or were assassinated at the hands of their own men. The Roman Empire,
however, managed to survive. The turmoil ended with the accession of emperor Diocletian,
who instituted a new political system – the Tetrarchy or the “rule of four” – stabilizing the
Empire and bolstering its power and strength.

The Crisis of the Third Century Started with An

Assassination

Gold coin of Alexander Severus, and silver coin of Maximinus Thrax, 220 and 235 AD,
The British Museum

At the onset of the Crisis of the Third Century, the Roman Empire enjoyed a period of
stability. The throne was occupied by the members of the powerful Severian dynasty,
founded by emperor Septimius Severus. Ironically, Severus was the one who strengthened
the importance of the army, which would play a major role in the century of turmoil. The
soldiers were powerful supporters, but their increased political role led to the death
of soldier emperor Caracalla and his erratic successor Elagabalus.

Thus, when the last Severan emperor, young Alexander Severus, suffered a heavy military
defeat, the army decided to get rid of the inexperienced emperor, assassinating hapless
Alexander in 235 AD. In his place, the legions elected a career soldier of low origin,
Maximinus Thrax. The Severan dynasty has ended.
The Soldier Emperors Rarely Kept the Throne for Long

Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus with Romans fighting the barbarians, mid-3rd century CE,
Museo Nazionale, Rome
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Maximinus Thrax’s brief reign began and ended in blood. The emperor had the support of
the army but not of the Senate. Unable to pay the troops, Maximinus was killed by his own
men during the Siege of Aquileia in 238. By this time, several men laid claim to purple in
different parts of the Roman Empire. To make matters worse, the Roman enemies, the
Germanic tribes and the Sassanians, exploited the situation, invading the imperial territory.
Some emperors were more successful in holding the throne. They even managed to
stabilize the Empire, albeit briefly.

However, they perished on the battlefield, and the civil war ensued. Emperor Decius was
the first Roman emperor to die in a battle against a foreign enemy. It got worse. The Roman
Empire was badly humiliated after emperor Valerian suffered a heavy defeat during his
failed Persian campaign in 260 and was taken captive. Besides the military losses, the
deadly plague struck the Empire, ravaging its lands and killing millions, especially in the
large cities.
The Roman Empire Almost Collapsed

The Roman Empire during the Crisis of the Third Century.

The reign of Valerian’s son Gallienus was marked by an event unprecedented in Roman
history. Faced with the emperor’s absence and the Germanic attacks over the Rhine, the
army of Gaul chose Postumus as their emperor. He also got the backing of Spain and Gaul.
Around the same time, the army in East supported the king of Palmyra, Odaenathus, and
after his death, stood by his daughter, the powerful and ambitious Queen Zenobia. The
Roman Empire was now fragmented into three parts. Italy, the Balkans and North Africa
still recognized emperor Gallienus. However, he had to face the Gallic Empire in the West
and the Palmyrene Empire in the East (which controlled the wealthy and crucial province of
Egypt). The Roman Empire was about to collapse.
Emperor Aurelian Saved the Empire

Bust of a Roman emperor, probably Aurelian, ca. 275 AD, Museo di Santa Giulia, Brescia

Unsurprisingly, Gallienus, too, perished on the battlefield and was succeeded by emperor
Claudius II Gothicus. Claudius was a successful military commander, and under his
command, the Roman legions scored a major victory over the invading Gothic tribes,
stabilizing the Danubian frontier. Claudius, however, died soon after the battle, in 270,
leaving the task of saving the Roman Empire to his heir, emperor Aurelian.

With a huge effort, Aurelian defeated the armies of Zenobia, bringing the rebellious queen
back in chains to Rome. Then, the emperor moved his legions westwards, ending the Gallic
Empire for good. It was a momentous triumph, and Aurelian was rightly awarded the title
“Restitutor Orbis” – Restorer of the World. The ambitious emperor now prepared to invade
Persia. However, Aurelian was assassinated by his own troops en route to the East in 275.
Diocletian Ended the Crisis and Established the Tetrarchy

The Tetrarchs: Four Emperors Depicted as Equals photographed by Carole Raddato, 300
A.D., in St. Mark’s Square Venice

Aurelian’s sudden death led to another civil war and destabilized the Empire he fought so
hard for. The barbarian attacks also continued, as well as the war with the Sassanid Empire.
The reign of Probus briefly stabilized the situation, but the emperor was killed while
marching to the Eastern front. Finally, in 284, after another civil war, emperor
Diocletian ascended the throne. Aware that one man alone could not rule the vast territory,
Diocletian first chose his colleague Maximian as the co-emperor.

Then, to further bolster the Roman Empire’s stability and secure its unity, the two senior
emperors (augusti) chose two juniors (caesares), establishing the Tetrarchy – the rule of
four. With this, the Third Century Crisis came to an end, ushering in the late Roman
Empire, a period also known as a Dominate. Diocletian’s reforms continued even after the
fall of Tetrarchy, during the sole reign of emperor Constantine the Great.

The efforts of emperors Aurelian, Diocletian and Constantine, secured the survival of the
Roman Empire more than a millennium, until the fall of medieval Roman state (also known
as the Byzantine Empire) in 1453.

Sources from Youtube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gip0QBO3oao

Sorces from Internet: https://www.thecollector.com/what-was-the-crisis-of-the-third-

century/

b) Late empire
The reforms of Dicletian and Cóntantine
The reigns of Diocletian (284–305) and Constantine (306–337) witnessed
crucial reforms that expanded imperial control by bolstering administrative
bureaucracies and reinforcing the army's capabilities. They established a
hierarchical system of officials overseeing various levels of governance.
Additionally, Constantine undertook the monumental task of constructing a new
capital, Constantinople, from the former Greek city of Byzantium, strategically
positioned on the Bosporus.
Sources: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=fEJRkA0ArSE&list=PL3HQP1hB-
lfSeeFfgLaTJRL4j0UWxlCCF&index=3 ////
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7VqRQKq13y8&list=PL3HQP1hB-
lfSeeFfgLaTJRL4j0UWxlCCF&index=4
The end of Western Empire

However, these reforms came at a cost. The bolstered army and burgeoning civil
service significantly strained public funds, necessitating increased revenues.
Despite the need, the stagnant population hampered the expansion of the tax
base. To sustain the empire amidst labor shortages, edicts were issued,
compelling individuals to remain in specific vocations, leading to the hereditary
nature of basic occupations. Free tenant farmers faced declining fortunes, bound
to landowners capitalizing on agricultural struggles to expand their estates.

Diocletian and Constantine's economic and social policies relied heavily on

control and coercion. Though momentarily effective, such authoritarian
measures ultimately stifled the vitality crucial for revitalizing the Late Empire.
 Following Constantine's reunification of the Roman Empire and the restoration
of order, the empire gradually divided into distinct western and eastern parts. By
395, the western segment crumbled into an array of Germanic kingdoms, while
the eastern part, under Constantinople's Roman emperor, remained intact. This
disintegration began with the infiltration of Germanic tribes into the empire.

Despite the Romans' established frontiers along the Rhine and Danube Rivers,
interactions between Romans and Germans persisted across these boundaries. In
the late fourth century, new pressures arose as the Huns, nomads from Asia's
steppes, displaced various tribes, including the Visigoths. The Visigoths,
seeking refuge, crossed the Danube into Roman territory but later revolted,
resulting in a disastrous defeat for Rome at Adrianople in 378.

The influx of Germanic tribes surged further; by 410, the Visigoths sacked
Rome, followed by Vandals ravaging the city in 455. Consequently, the western
provinces were absorbed by Germanic peoples, establishing independent
kingdoms. Although a semblance of imperial authority lingered in Rome,
military officials, known as masters of the soldiers, wielded genuine power.

In 476, Odoacer, a new master of the soldiers of German origin, deposed

Romulus Augustulus, marking a symbolic end to the Western Roman Empire,
despite much of its direct imperial rule already fading during the fifth century.
What caused the Fall of the Western Roman Empire
The fall of the Western Roman Empire has spurred countless theories,
attempting to attribute its decline to singular causes. These include
Christianity's impact on military values, social shifts, lead poisoning, plague,
technological stagnation, and political shortcomings. However, history is far
too intricate to be reduced to a sole explanation.

Amidst these varied theories, a crucial factor emerges: the weakening of the
Western Roman army due to a severe manpower shortage. This vulnerability
left the empire defenseless against invading forces in Italy and Gaul. In
contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire endured for another millennium, largely
free from such invasions.

The Western Roman Empire's collapse stemmed significantly from its

weakened military, while the Eastern Empire's resilience underscored the
importance of a robust defense. While multiple factors contributed, the
shortage of military strength played a pivotal role in the empire's fall.
2. The development of Christanity
a) The religious world of the Roman empire:
The religious fabric of the Roman Empire was intricately woven around the reverence for a
multitude of Greco-Roman gods and goddesses, each embodying different aspects of life
and nature. Among these revered figures were Juno, the patron goddess of women;
Minerva, revered by craftspeople; Mars, the god synonymous with war; and Jupiter
Optimus Maximus, denoted as the "best and greatest," emerging as the paramount deity of
Rome and occupying a central role in the city's religious sphere. For the Romans,
adherence to meticulous rituals by appointed state priests was pivotal in establishing a
harmonious rapport with these divine entities. Such practices were believed to be
instrumental in ensuring the security, tranquility, and prosperity of the populace. This
deeply ingrained conviction led them to view their successful expansion and dominance
over other nations as a testament to divine endorsement. As Cicero, a prominent political
figure of the first-century BCE, eloquently articulated, the Romans attributed their triumph
over other civilizations to the belief that the world operated under divine direction.

Remarkably, despite their allegiance to a polytheistic belief system, the Romans

demonstrated an exceptional degree of tolerance towards other religious traditions. They
permitted the worship of indigenous gods and goddesses within their provinces and often
assimilated certain local deities into their pantheon. Notably, starting from the reign of
Augustus, Roman emperors were frequently accorded the status of divine beings by official
sanction of the Roman senate. This deification of rulers served to fortify their authority and
garner favor and support from the populace.

Amidst this religious diversity, there existed a quest among many individuals for a more
profound spiritual experience, prompting them to turn towards the mystery religions
originating from the Hellenistic eastern regions. These esoteric faiths, which gained
prominence during the Early Empire, offered adherents the promise of accessing a higher
plane of reality. They held out the enticing prospect of an afterlife that transcended the
limitations of their present existence, captivating followers with the allure of a superior and
eternal realm beyond the mundaner

b) The Jewish Background

The Romans' expansion into the eastern Mediterranean brought them into contact not only
with the mystery religions but also with the Jews. Roman engagement with the Jewish
community commenced in 63 BCE, eventually leading to the province of Judaea, once part
of the ancient Jewish kingdom of Judah, being placed under Roman authority by 6 CE.
However, internal discord among the Jews persisted, notably among groups like the
Essenes, anticipating a Messiah to liberate Israel and establish a divine kingdom, and the
Zealots, advocating a violent rebellion against Roman domination.
 In 66 CE, discontent culminated in a Jewish uprising in Judaea. Jewish forces clashed with
Roman troops, defeating them and establishing their own government, yet Roman
retaliation in 70 CE saw the recapture of Jerusalem, resulting in significant casualties and
the destruction of the Jewish Temple. Despite this setback, another revolt erupted in 132
CE when Emperor Hadrian sought to establish a Roman colony in Jerusalem's vicinity.
Under the leadership of Simon bar Kokhba, considered a Messiah by many Jews, resistance
initially thrived, yet gradually succumbed to the might of Roman legions, leading to the fall
of Jerusalem in 135 CE. Judaea was renamed Syria-Palaestina, and Jews were barred from
entering Jerusalem. Despite fervent religious identity, attempts to uphold an autonomous
Jewish state faltered, leading to the absence of another Jewish nation until the establishment
of modern Israel post-World War II.

c) The rise of Christianity

Religion had always been a very important aspect in Roman society. Often,
religious and political positions went hand in hand with many priests holding high
political positions. Romans also adopted the religious and mythological gods and
figures of the Greeks.

While Romans accepted and tolerated some religions, they persecuted

others. Christianity began in the Roman Empire. The founder of Christianity, Jesus
Christ, was killed by Roman officials in the province of Judea after being charged
with sedition.

Soon after, Christ's followers began spreading Christ's message throughout the
Roman Empire and beyond. They refused to participate in traditional Roman
religious activities.

After a massive fire burned much of Rome in 64 CE, the Emperor Nero blamed the
fire on the city's Christian community. Some claimed that Nero started the fire to
clear room for a new palace. That is unproven, but Christians were an easy group to
scapegoat. They were seen as outsiders by most traditional Romans. Many
Christians were arrested and executed, and some were even thrown to the lions at
the Colosseum.

Despite the widespread persecution of Christians, Christianity grew rapidly. The

religion mostly appealed to the poor in Rome. Many were drawn to the religion’s
belief in salvation and that if you lived a good life you would go to heaven.
Rome’s paganistic religion believed that heaven was only for gods and that
everyone else would spend eternity in the underworld. People were also drawn to
Christianity because the religion believed in equality, and that everyone was equal
without hierarchy or caste.

Christianity's spread among the poor and soldiers was eventually tolerated. Under
the emperor Trajan, Christians would no longer be prosecuted. Progress was slow
and occurred in patches at various times during the empire. The Roman Empire
became so vast that it grew to tolerate the different people who became part of it.

During one of his battles, Emperor Constantine had a vision of Christ and was
directed to fight with Christian standards. The victory in this battle resulted in
Constantine’s new faith in Christianity. He would convert to Christianity in 312 CE
and declare that Christians and Pagans should be allowed to worship freely.

It would take over a hundred years before Christianity was adopted by emperors and
protected. However, paganism remained and continued to pose a challenge to the
rising Christian faith.

Sources: https://www.studentsofhistory.com/the-rise-of-christianity

d) The spread of Cristianity:

Christianity spread to Aramaic-speaking peoples along the Mediterranean coast and also to the
inland parts of the Roman Empire, and beyond that into the Parthian Empire and the
later Sasanian Empire, including Assyria and Mesopotamia, which was dominated at different
times and to varying extents by these empires. In AD 301, the Kingdom of Armenia became the
first state to declare Christianity as its state religion, following the conversion of the Royal
House of the Arsacids in Armenia, although the Neo-Assyrian kingdom of Osroene became
Christian earlier. With Christianity the dominant faith in some urban centers, Christians
accounted for approximately 10% of the Roman population by 300, according to some
estimates.

By the latter half of the second century, Christianity had spread east throughout Media,
Persia, Parthia, and Bactria. The twenty bishops and many presbyters were more of the order of
itinerant missionaries, passing from place to place as Paul did and supplying their needs with
such occupations as merchant or craftsman.

Various theories attempt to explain how Christianity managed to spread so successfully prior to
the Edict of Milan (313). In The Rise of Christianity, Rodney Stark argues that Christianity
replaced paganism chiefly because it improved the lives of its adherents in various ways. Dag
Øistein Endsjø argues that Christianity was helped by its promise of a general resurrection of
 the dead at the end of the world which was compatible with the traditional Greek belief that
true immortality depended on the survival of the body. According to Will Durant, the Christian
Church prevailed over paganism because it offered a much more attractive doctrine, and
because the church leaders addressed human needs better than their rivals.

Bart D. Ehrman attributes the rapid spread of Christianity to five factors: (1) the promise of
salvation and eternal life for everyone was an attractive alternative to Roman religions; (2)
stories of miracles and healings purportedly showed that the one Christian God was more
powerful than the many Roman gods; (3) Christianity began as a grassroots movement
providing hope of a better future in the next life for the lower classes; (4) Christianity took
worshipers away from other religions since converts were expected to give up the worship of
other gods, unusual in antiquity where worship of many gods was common; (5) in the Roman
world, converting one person often meant converting the whole household—if the head of the
household was converted, he decided the religion of his wife, children and slaves.

Sources: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=csBHLmZ01xg
3. Byzantine empire:

The Byzantine Empire existed from 330 to 1453. It is often called the Eastern Roman
Empire or simply Byzantium. The Byzantine capital was founded
at Constantinople by Constantine I (r. 306-337). The Byzantine Empire varied in size over the
centuries, at one time or another, possessing territories located in Italy, Greece, the
Balkans, Levant, Asia Minor, and North Africa.

Byzantium was a Christian state with Greek as the official language. The Byzantines developed
their own political systems, religious practices, art, and architecture. These were all
significantly influenced by the Greco-Roman cultural tradition but were also distinct and not
merely a continuation of ancient Rome. The Byzantine Empire was the longest-lasting
medieval power, and its influence continues today, especially in the religion, art, architecture,
and laws of many Western states, Eastern and Central Europe, and Russia.

The Name 'Byzantine' & Dates

The name 'Byzantine' was coined by 16th-century historians based on the fact that the
capital city's first name was Byzantium before it changed to Constantinople (modern Istanbul).
It was and continues to be a less-than-perfect but convenient label which differentiates the
Eastern Roman Empire from the Western Roman Empire, especially important after the fall
of the latter in the 5th century. Indeed, for this reason, there is no universal agreement amongst
historians as to what period of time the term 'Byzantine Empire' actually refers to. Some
scholars select 330 and the foundation of Constantinople, others the Fall of the Western
Roman Empire in 476, still others prefer the failure of Justinian I (r. 527-565) to unify the
two empires in 565, and some even plum for c. 650 and the Arab conquest of Byzantium's
eastern provinces. Most historians do agree that the Byzantine Empire terminated on Tuesday
29 May 1453, when the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II (r.1444-6 & 1451-81) conquered
Constantinople.

CONSTANTINOPLE BECAME THE RICHEST, MOST LAVISH & MOST

IMPORTANT CHRISTIAN CITY IN THE WORLD.

The discussion of dates also highlights the differences in the ethnic and cultural mix between
the two halves of the Roman world and the distinctness of the medieval state from its earlier
Roman heritage. The Byzantines called themselves 'Romans', their emperor was basileon ton
Rhomaion or 'Emperor of the Romans' and their capital was 'New Rome'. However, the most
common language was Greek, and it is fair to say that for the vast majority of its history, the
Byzantine Empire was much more Greek than Roman in cultural terms.

Constantinople

The beginnings of the Byzantine Empire lie in the decision of Roman emperor Constantine I
to relocate the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Byzantium on 11 May 330. The
popular name Constantinople or 'City of Constantine' soon replaced the emperor's own official
choice of 'New Rome'. The new capital had an excellent natural harbour on the Golden Horn
inlet and, straddled on the border between Europe and Asia, could control the passage of ships
through the Bosphorus from the Aegean to the Black Sea, linking lucrative trade between west
and east. A great chain stretched across the Golden Horn's entrance, and the construction of the
massive Theodosian Walls between 410 and 413 meant that the city was able to withstand time
and again concerted attacks from both sea and land. Over the centuries, as more spectacular
buildings were added, the cosmopolitan city became one of the finest of any epoch and
certainly the richest, most lavish and most important Christian city in the world.

Byzantine Emperors

The Byzantine emperor or basileus (or more rarely basilissa for empress) resided in the
magnificent Great Palace of Constantinople and ruled as an absolute monarch over a vast
empire. As such, the basileus needed the assistance of an expert government and a widespread
and efficient bureaucracy. Although an absolute ruler, an emperor was expected - by his
government, people and the Church - to rule wisely and justly. Even more importantly, an
emperor had to have military success as the army remained the most powerful institution in
Byzantium in real terms. The generals in Constantinople and the provinces could - and did -
remove an emperor who failed to defend the empire's borders or who brought economic
catastrophe. Still, in the normal run of events, the emperor was commander-in-chief of the
army, head of the Church and government, he controlled the state finances and appointed or
dismissed nobles at will; few rulers before or since have ever wielded such power.

THROUGH A CAREFULLY ORCHESTRATED CONTINUITY OF DYNASTIES,

RITUAL, COSTUME & NAMES, THE INSTITUTION OF THE BYZANTINE
EMPEROR WAS ABLE TO LAST FOR 12 CENTURIES.

The emperor's image appeared on Byzantine coins, which were also used to show a chosen
successor, often the eldest son, but not always as there were no set rules for succession.
Emperors were thought to have been chosen by God to govern, but a magnificent crown and
robes of Tyrian purple helped further bolster the right to rule. Another marketing strategy was
to copy the reign names of illustrious predecessors, Constantine being a particular favourite.
Even usurpers, typically military men of power and success, very often sought to legitimise
their position by marrying a member of their predecessors family. Thus, through a carefully
orchestrated continuity of dynasties, ritual, costume, and names, the institution of the emperor
was able to last for 12 centuries.

Byzantine Government
The Byzantine government followed the patterns established in imperial Rome. The emperor
was all-powerful but was still expected to consult such important bodies as the Senate. The
Senate in Constantinople, unlike in Rome, was composed of men who had risen through the
ranks of the military service, and so there was no senatorial class as such. Without elections,
Byzantine senators, ministers, and local councillors largely acquired their position through
imperial patronage or because of their status as large landowners.

Justinian I
Sponsored by a Greek banker, Julius Argentarius (CC BY-NC-SA)

The elite senators made up the small sacrum consistorium which the emperor was, in theory,
supposed to consult on matters of state importance. In addition, the emperor might consult
members of his personal entourage at court. Also at court were the eunuch chamberlains
(cubicularii) who served the emperor in various personal duties but who could also control
access to him. Eunuchs held positions of responsibility themselves, chief amongst these being
the holder of the emperor's purse, the sakellarios, whose powers would increase significantly
from the 7th century. Other important government officials included the quaestor or chief legal
officer; the comes sacrarum largitionum who controlled the state mint;
the magister officiorum who looked after the general administration of the palace, the army and
its supplies, as well as foreign affairs; and a team of imperial inspectors who kept an eye on
affairs in local councils across the empire.

The top official in Byzantium, though, was the Praetorian Prefect of the East to whom all
regional governors of the empire were accountable. The regional governors supervised the
individual city councils or curae. Local councillors were responsible for all public services and
the collection of taxes in their town and its surrounding lands. These councils were organised
geographically into 100 or so provinces which were themselves arranged into 12 dioceses, three
in each of the empire's four prefectures. From the 7th century the regional governors of the
dioceses, or themes as they became known after a restructuring, in effect, became provincial
military commanders (strategoi) who were directly responsible to the emperor himself, and the
Praetorian Prefect was abolished. After the 8th century the administration of the empire, due to
the increased military threat from neighbours and internal civil wars, became much more
simplified than previously.

Corpus Juris Civilis

Byzantine government was greatly assisted by the creation of the Justinian Code or Corpus
Juris Civilis (Corpus of Civil Law) by Justinian I. The corpus, drawn up by a panel of legal
experts, collected, edited, and revised the huge body of Roman laws which had been
accumulated over the centuries - a massive number of imperial edicts, legal opinions, and lists
of crimes and punishments. The code, composed of over a million words, would last for 900
years, make the laws clearer for all, reduce the number of cases unnecessarily brought before
the courts, speed up the judicial process and influence most legal systems in western
democracies thereafter.

Byzantine Society

The Byzantines gave great importance to the family name, inherited wealth, and the respectable
birth of an individual. The individuals in the higher levels of society possessed these three
things. Wealth came from land ownership or the administration of land under an individual
administrator's jurisdiction. However, there was no aristocracy of blood as such in Byzantine
society, and both patronage and education were a means to climb the social ladder. In addition,
the dispensing of favours, lands, and titles by emperors, as well as indiscriminate demotions and
the hazards of foreign invasions and wars, all meant that the individual components of the
nobility were not static and families rose and fell over the centuries. Rank was visible to all
members of society through the use of titles, seals, insignia, particular clothing, and personal
jewellery.
Byzantine Ivory Diptych Panel
Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (Copyright)

Most in the lower classes would have followed the profession of their parents, but inheritance,
the accumulation of wealth, and a lack of any formal prohibition for one class to move to
another did at least offer a small possibility for a person to better their social position. There
were workers with better jobs such as those who worked in legal affairs, administration, and
commerce (not a very esteemed way to make a living for the Byzantines). On the next rung
down were artisans, then farmers who owned their own small parcels of land, then the largest
group - those who worked the land of others, and finally, slaves who were typically prisoners
of war but nowhere near as numerous as free labourers.

The role of Byzantine women, as with the men, depended on their social rank. Aristocratic
women were expected to manage the home and care for the children. Although able to own
property, they could not hold public office and spent their free time weaving, shopping, going
to church or reading (although they had no formal education). Widows became the guardian of
their children and could inherit equally with their brothers. Many women worked, as men,
in agriculture and various manufacturing industries and food services. Women could own their
own land and businesses, and some would have improved their social position through
marriage. The least respected professions were, as elsewhere, prostitutes and actresses.

Territories of the Byzantine Empire

The geographical extent of the Byzantine Empire changed over the centuries as the military
successes and failures of individual emperors fluctuated. Territories which were held in the
earlier part of the empire's history included Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, and Palestine.
Greece was less important in practical terms than it was as a symbol of the Byzantine's view of
themselves as the true heirs of the Greco-Roman culture. Italy and Sicily had to be defended,
ultimately unsuccessfully, against the ambitions of the Popes and the Normans. The Balkans up
to the Danube River were important throughout, and Asia Minor up to the Black Sea coast in
the north and Armenia in the east was a major source of wealth, but both these regions would
require regular and vigorous defence against various perennial enemies.

As the political map was constantly redrawn with the rise and fall of neighbouring empires,
notable events included Anastasios I (491-518) successfully defending the empire against both
the Persians and Bulgars. Justinian I, aided by his gifted general Belisarius (c. 500-565), won
back territories in North Africa, Spain, and Italy which had been lost by the western emperors.
The Lombards in Italy and the Slavs in the Balkans made inroads into the Empire during the
second half of the 6th century, a situation eventually reversed by Heraclius (r. 610-641),
effectively bringing the Persian Sasanian Empire to an end with his victory at Nineveh in 627.

The Byzantine Empire, c.520 - 1204

Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-SA)

The Islamic conquests of the 7th and 8th century robbed the Empire of its territories in the
Levant (including Jerusalem in 637), North Africa and eastern Asia Minor. At least, though,
the Empire stood firm as a bulwark against the Arab expansion into Europe, with
Constantinople twice withstanding determined Arab sieges (674-8 and 717-18). The Byzantine
Empire was shaken to its foundations, though. Then in the 9th century, the Bulgars made
significant incursions into the northern areas of the Empire. A resurgence in Byzantine fortunes
came with the (inappropriately named) Macedonian dynasty (867-1057). The founder of the
dynasty, Basil I (r. 867-886), reconquered southern Italy, dealt with the troublesome Cretan
pirates, and gained victories against the Arabs on Cyprus, mainland Greece and in Dalmatia.
The very next emperor, Leo VI (r. 886-912) lost most of the gains, but the mid-10th century
saw victories in Muslim-controlled Mesopotamia.

Basil II (r. 976-1025), known as the 'Bulgar-Slayer' for his victories in the Balkans, oversaw
another startling upturn in Byzantine fortunes. Basil, helped by an army of fierce warriors
of Viking descent from Kiev, also won victories in Greece, Armenia, Georgia, and Syria,
doubling the size of the Empire. It was though, the last great hurrah as a gradual decline set in.
After the shocking defeat to the Seljuks at the Battle of Manzikert in Armenia in 1071, a brief
revival occurred under Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081-1118) with victories against the Normans
in Dalmatia, the Pechenegs in Thrace, and the Seljuks in Palestine and Syria (with the help of
the First Crusaders), but there seemed to be too many enemies in too many regions for the
Byzantines to prosper indefinitely.

In the 12th and 13th century the Sultanate of Rum took half of Asia Minor, and then disaster
struck when the armies of the Fourth Crusade sacked Constantinople in 1204. Carved up
between Venice and its allies, the Empire existed only in exile before a restoration in 1261. By
the 14th century the Empire consisted of a small area in the tip of southern Greece and a chunk
of territory around the capital. The final blow came, as already mentioned, with the Ottoman
sack of Constantinople in 1453.

The Byzantine Church

Paganism continued to be practised for centuries after the foundation of Byzantium, but it
was Christianity which became the defining feature of Byzantine culture, profoundly affecting
its politics, foreign relations, and art and architecture. The Church was headed by the Patriarch
or bishop of Constantinople, who was appointed or removed by the emperor. Local bishops,
who presided over larger towns and their surrounding territories and who represented both the
church and emperor, had considerable wealth and powers in their local communities.
Christianity, then, became an important common denominator which helped bind together
diverse cultures into a single empire which included Christian Greeks, Armenians, Slavs,
Georgians, and many other minorities, and those of other faiths such as Jews and Muslims who
were permitted to freely practise their religion.
Icon of Saint Basil
Unknown Artist (Public Domain)

The differences in the eastern and western church was one of the reasons that the Byzantine
Empire received such a poor representation in western medieval histories. Frequently
Byzantines were portrayed as decadent and shifty, their culture stagnant, and their religion a
dangerous heresy. The churches of the east and west disagreed on who should have priority, the
Pope or the Patriarch of Constantinople. Matters of doctrine were also contested, such as
did Jesus Christ have one human and one divine nature combined or just a divine nature.
Clerical celibacy, the use of leavened or unleavened bread, the language of service, and the use
of imagery were all points of differences, which, with the fuel of political and territorial
ambitions added into the volatile mix of emotions, led to the Church Schism of 1054.

The Byzantine church also had its own internal disputes, most infamously the iconoclasm or
'destruction of images' of 726-787 and 814-843. The Popes and many Byzantines supported the
use of icons - representations of holy figures but especially Jesus Christ. Those against icons
believed they had become idols and it was blasphemous to think that God could be represented
in art. The issue also reignited the debate over whether Christ had two natures or one and
whether an icon, therefore, only represented the human. Defenders of icons said that they were
merely an artist's impression and helped the illiterate better understand the divine. During the
wave of iconoclasm, many precious artworks were destroyed, especially during the reigns
of Leo III (r. 717-741) and his successor Constantine V (r. 741-775) when even people who
venerated icons (iconophiles) were persecuted. The issue was resolved in favour of icons in
843, an event known as the “Triumph of Orthodoxy".

Monasticism was a particular feature of Byzantine religious life. Men and women retired to
monasteries where they devoted their lives to Christ and helping the poor and sick. There they
lived a simple life according to rules laid out by such important church figures as Basil the
Great (c. 330 - c. 379). Many monks were also scholars, most famously Saint Cyril (d. 867)
who invented the Glagolitic alphabet. A notable woman who used her time of retreat well
was Anna Komnene (1083-1153), who wrote her Alexiad on the life and reign of her
father Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081-1118). Monasteries thus became invaluable repositories of
texts and knowledge while their wine-production and icon workshops were greatly appreciated,
too. One of the most celebrated monastic sites is Mount Athos near Thessalonica, where
monks established themselves from the 9th century, eventually building 46 monasteries there,
many of which survive today.
Byzantine Book Cover with Icon
The Metropolitan Museum of Art (Copyright)

Byzantine Art

Byzantine artists moved away from the naturalism of the Classical tradition towards the more
abstract and universal, displaying a definite preference for two-dimensional representations.
The rarity of signatures on works of art produced before the 13th century suggests that artists
did not enjoy a high social status. Artworks which promoted a religious message - principally
the need for salvation and a reinforcement of faith - were produced in huge numbers and chief
amongst these were wall mosaics, wall paintings, and icons. Although icons could take almost
any form of material, the most popular were small painted wooden panels. Designed to be
carried or hung on walls, they were made using the encaustic technique where coloured
pigments were mixed with wax and burned into the wood as an inlay. With the purpose of
facilitating communication between the onlooker and the divine, the single figures are typically
full frontal with a nimbus or halo around them to emphasise their holiness.

Byzantine mosaics, best seen today in the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul or the church of San Vitale
in Ravenna, represented holy figures, emperors and empresses, church officials, and scenes of
daily life, especially in agriculture. Large-scale sculpture seems to have been less popular than
in earlier antiquity, but sculpted marble sarcophagi were produced in great numbers. Finally,
metalwork, especially incorporating enamel-work and cabochon semi-precious stones, was a
Byzantine speciality, and artisans produced many high-quality and intricately designed plates,
cups, jewellery of all kinds, book covers (especially for Bibles), and reliquaries (boxes for
keeping holy relics).

Byzantine Architecture

Byzantine architects continued to employ the Classical orders in their buildings and took ideas
from the Near East, amongst other places. Designs became more eclectic than in antiquity,
especially given the common habit of reusing the materials from older buildings for new
structures. There was, too, a definite emphasis on function over form and a greater concern with
the interiors rather than exteriors of buildings. Continuing to build such quintessentially Roman
structures as arched aqueducts, amphitheatres, hippodromes, baths and villas, the Byzantines
would add to the repertoire with their domed churches, walled monasteries, and more
sophisticated fortification walls.
Hagia Sophia Interior
Mark Cartwright (CC BY-NC-SA)

Favoured building materials were large bricks with mortar and concrete for the hidden core of
walls. Ashlar stone blocks were used in more prestigious public buildings while marble, used
more sparingly than in earlier Roman times, was generally reserved for columns, door and
window frames, and other decorative elements. Roofs were of timber while interior walls were
frequently covered in plaster, stucco, thin marble plaques, paintings, and mosaics.

The largest, most important and still most famous Byzantine building is the Hagia Sophia of
Constantinople, dedicated to the holy wisdom (hagia sophia) of God. Built anew in 532-537, its
basic rectangular shape measures 74.6 x 69.7 metres (245 x 229 ft) and its huge domed ceiling
is 55 metres above the floor, spanning 31.8 metres in diameter. Resting on four massive arches
with four supporting pendentives, the dome was a spectacular architectural achievement for the
period. The Hagia Sophia remained the biggest church in the world until the 16th century and
was one of the most decorated with superb glittering mosaics and wall paintings.
Christian churches, in general, were one of the Byzantine's greatest contributions to
architecture, especially the use of the dome. The cross-in-square plan became the most common
with the dome built over four supporting arches. The square base of the building then branched
into bays which might themselves have a half or full dome ceiling. Another common feature is
a central apse with two side-apses at the eastern end of the church. Over time, the central dome
was raised ever higher on a polygonal drum, which in some churches is so high it has the
appearance of a tower. Many churches, especially basilicas, had alongside them a baptistry
(usually octagonal), and sometimes a mausoleum for the founder of the church and their
descendants. Such Byzantine design features would go on to influence Orthodox Christian
architecture and so are still seen today in churches worldwide.

Sources: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Okph9wt8I0A

Note: phần Byzantine (phần 5) trong Sách lại là so sánh giữa Roman và Han Empire?