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STRUCTURE IN THE SEA
This page intentionally left blank
STRUCTURE IN
THE SEA
THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND
EFFECTS OF PURPOSE-BUILT REEFS
AND RELATED SURFACES

WILLIAM SEAMAN
Elsevier
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The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
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Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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(other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
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our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become
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Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and
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 To four who profoundly influenced the
foundations of this book:
Carter Gilbert, Giulio Relini, David Whit-
marsh, and Patrice Francour.
Four scholars, four friends.

v
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents
Foreword ix
Preface and Acknowledgments xi
1. Structure in the sea: a diversity of
natural and human-made habitats
1.1 Structure in the sea: extensive, diverse,
hidden 5
1.2 Human-made sea floor habitat structure: the
many definitions of artificial reef 14
1.3 Building knowledge for the technology of
primary structured reefs 20
1.4 Scales, centers, and periods of activity
concerning human-made seafloor structures 25
1.5 Results at-a-glance: successes and shortcomings
in deployment of purpose-built structure 28
1.6 Suspended fish attracting devices, “FADs”:
a separate story, a cautionary tale? 31
1.7 Secondary structure and substrate: unintended
reef effects 32
1.8 Building blocks 34
References 34
Further reading 40
2. Scientific foundations for artificial reefs
and related human-made sea floor
structures
2.1 Sciences of natural hard-bottom benthic
environments and reef ecosystems 44
2.2 Context and scope of research disciplines,
milestones, and evolving priorities for the
science and technology of human-made aquatic
habitats 52
2.3 Questions asked, hypotheses and going beyond
attraction-production debate 61
vii
2.4 Importance of long-term datasets 65
2.5 Citizen science as a component of research on
human-made habitats 68
2.6 Building blocks 69
References 70
Further reading 74
3. Purposes and planning of human-made
reef structure
3.1 Perspectives on human-made reef structures in
the context of ecosystem services and
connectivity 81
3.2 Purposes of human-made seafloor structure:
annotated accounts 84
3.3 Planning to optimize intentional seafloor
structure 122
3.4 Building blocks 133
References 133
Further reading 143
4. Design, siting, engineering, construction,
and evaluation of human-made reefs
4.1 Natural and human-made seascapes in context:
scales, connections, and effects 150
4.2 The case for design of human-made ocean
structures 151
4.3 Siting and location of seafloor human-made
structure, from units to complexes 153
4.4 Appropriate and effective materials and
fabrication of reef units 159
4.5 Design criteria and practices: form and function
of purpose-built seafloor structure 172
4.6 From shore to sea: on-land and on-site
construction and placement practices 186
viii CONTENTS

4.7 Postconstruction monitoring and evaluation/ References 267

assessment: compliance, efficacy, Further reading 271
environment 190
4.8 Building blocks 195 7. Secondary reefs: infrastructure as
References 197 a growing component of ocean ecosystems
Further reading 203
7.1 The worldwide expansion of marine
5. Life at and around purpose-built reef infrastructure 274
and related undersea structures 7.2 Representative secondary structures and their
reef effects 277
5.1 Introduction 206 7.3 Trends for marine infrastructure design and
5.2 Human-made seafloor structure in an ecological management in ocean ecosystems 286
context 207 7.4 Building blocks 294
5.3 Abiotic and biotic factors influence reef habitats References 294
and communities/assemblages 208 Further reading 298
5.4 Life-sustaining resources, patterns, processes, and
community phenomena at structure 216 8. Human-made structure and seafloor
5.5 Biomimicry and maturity at purpose-built reefs: habitat in a changing ocean
two sides of the same coin? 234
5.6 Reef effects in the surrounding 8.1 A changing planet 300
environment 238 8.2 The changing ocean, past, present, and future:
5.7 Building blocks 240 effects on seafloor ecosystems 304
References 241 8.3 Stakeholders, managers, and scientists respond
Further reading 246 to changing oceans: concerns and emerging
solutions 310
6. Integration and roles of human-made 8.4 From concepts to tools and application: a role
structure in ocean resources management for human-made structure in changing oceans?
313
6.1 Context: scope, issues, rationales, and 8.5 Building Blocks 321
approaches in ocean management 249 References 323
6.2 Marine resources, management, and the role Further reading 326
and performance of human-made reefs 253
6.3 Building blocks 267 Index 327
 Foreword
Dear Readers of Structure in the Sea,
As I descended through the cold green
water, the shadow of the intentionally sunk
ship now resting upright on the seafloor
became more defined. A diversity of fish
swarmed around me, as large predatory
jacks corralled glittering bait-balls and
cryptic fish poked their heads out of the
ship’s nooks and crannies. While I had heard
of “artificial reefs,” I had not seen one until
this recreational dive. I was instantly fasci-
nated by how these purposely sunk struc-
tures create habitat for marine life and
wanted to learn more about them, including
basics of what they are, why they are
deployed, when they have been deployed,
who deploys them, and how they function
underwater. The year was 2008, and I was an
undergraduate student.
In 2008, purpose-built reefs were
deployed globally to achieve a variety of
goals, ranging from enhancing and restoring
habitat to mitigating environmental impacts.
Foundational artificial reef research during
the 1970s and 1980s largely focusing on
ecological succession and colonization had
burgeoned by 2008 into a pronounced area
of research. Dr. William Seaman had pub-
lished seminal volumes on artificial struc-
tures 17 years (Artificial Habitats for Marine
and Freshwater Fisheries, 1991) and 8 years
(Artificial Reef Evaluation: with Application to
Natural Marine Habitats, 2000) prior. As part
of my doctoral research several years later,
Seaman’s books would become the most
well-used or dog-eared in my collection, as I
ix
scoured them from cover to cover, learning
about artificial reefs and related structures.
In 2022, research on submerged structures
has grown into its own branch of modern
ocean science. Understanding artificial reefs
and other human-made habitats has,
perhaps, never been more pressing, as
increased human use of the coastal ocean is
often accompanied by the introduction of
novel structures ranging from artificial reefs
and offshore energy infrastructure to artifi-
cial islands and shoreline armoring struc-
tures. Global estimates suggest that the
amount of artificial structures in the ocean
covered at least 32,000 km2 in 2018 and will
increase to 39,400 km2 by 2028 (Bugnot et al.
2021, Nature Sustainability). Despite the
projected increase in artificial structures
dotting the coastal ocean, key knowledge
gaps remain in our understanding of how
these structures function ecologically. Recent
findings suggest that purpose-built struc-
tures can support large predators and facili-
tate species at their range edges, but other
ecological roles remain more elusive. For
example, do species receive the same ener-
getic benefit from artificial structures as
natural equivalents? Which spatial arrange-
ments of artificial structures are optimal for
enhancing density or biomass of particular
species? Do artificial structures ever truly
mimic natural habitat? Answering these
sorts of longstanding questions can help
determine how to design and site artificial
structures to maximize ecological benefits
while also achieving human needs. With
x FOREWORD
increasing impacts from climate change and
other environmental stressors, I anticipate
that a major challenge over the next decade
will be effectively scaling up ecological
research on the benefits and impacts of
human-made structures from local scales to
broader regional and global scales.
Seaman’s latest book, Structure in the Sea,
will become the international guide for arti-
ficial reef science for researchers, managers,
conservation practitioners, and stakeholders.
Seaman synthesizes global artificial or
purpose-built reef research, spanning from
the history of the structures to how they
become reefs. He interweaves information
on diverse topics, including design, ecology,
and technology, in his volume and places,
this information within a broader applied
context that Seaman can envision, given his
decades of firsthand experience on artificial
reef research and management. Ultimately,
this volume serves as a guide that will pave
the way toward answering longstanding
ecological questions about the roles of
purpose-built structures. It moves the field
forward by exploring how ecological roles
provided by artificial structures can be
scaled up and harnessed for future applica-
tions, especially those related to marine
spatial planning and ecosystem-based
management.
Lastly, one of the reasons that Seaman’s
previous books were the most dog-eared in
my library is because his writing style is
accessible. He comes from the school of
metaphorical writers who not only take joy
in sculpting words into sentences but who
also strike a balance of scientific writing and
prose. Gems are sprinkled throughout his
newest book, including probing questions
like “When do artificial reefs stop being
artificial?” and “How might purpose-built
reefs provide ecosystem services?” that
warrant reflection. Forays into the etymol-
ogy of words like “biomimicry” that are
effortlessly supplemented by quotations
from William Shakespeare and Hippocrates
add extra spice to the volume. Seaman’s
latest contribution, Structure in the Sea, will
undoubtedly become a cornerstone of your
library, as it will in mine.
Sincerely,
Avery B. Paxton, PhD.
Avery B. Paxton is a Marine Ecologist with
CSS, Inc. in support of the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration’s National Centers
for Coastal Ocean Science (NCCOS), USA
Reference
Bugnot, A.B., Mayer-Pinto, M., Airoldi, L., et al., 2021.
Current and projected global extent of marine built
structures. Nat Sustain 4 (2021), 33e41. https://doi.
org/10.1038/s41893-020-00595-1.
 Preface and Acknowledgments
Yonder is the sea, great and wide, which
teems with things innumerable, living things
both small and great.
Psalm 104:25.
Standing at water’s edge, children seem
naturally inclined to pick up and then throw,
drop, or place stones into the stream, lake, or
ocean before them. Some adults can be
observed to do this also. Or wish that they
could! What is it about putting things into
water that attracts people? The genesis of
this book stems from another kind of
attraction, based on a simple biological
observation that has been put into practice
since ancient times. Namely, that objects
placed into a body of water commonly will
host a variety of living things, some in
passing, some as residents, some small, some
great. Over the centuries, people worldwide
have taken advantage of this phenomenon,
mainly to improve harvest of ocean fishes,
plants, and other aquatic organisms growing
on, or in, or drawn to piles of rocks, bundles
of brush, or even sunken boats lying on the
bottom. Items suspended in the water col-
umn may have some of these effects.
In roughly the last half-century new ma-
terials, innovative designs, larger scales of
size and space, numerous purposes other
than fishing, establishment of reef-related
businesses, and refinement of research tech-
niques are among the trends accompanying
and enabling a proliferation of purposely
submerged ocean structures. The variety of
stakeholders and practitioners has increased
in over 60 nations to encompass newer aims
such as habitat restoration and conservation,
xi
recreation and eco-tourism, and underwater
arts and education. Similarly, a diverse and
expanding scientific effort worldwide has
rigorously documented many of the func-
tions and ecosystem services, and to a lesser
degree performance, of introduced seafloor
structure. This book tells something of the
synergy between these two realms.
Indeed, the science, technology, and ap-
plications of so-called “artificial reefs” and
allied structures on the floor of the world’s
oceans have sufficiently matured so that a
synthesis of their successes and shortcom-
ings is made possible. Thus, this volume
examines these structures, increasingly
referred to as human-made, purpose-built,
or by a specific descriptor such as fishing or
diving reef, submerged breakwater, or un-
derwater art installation, for example, and
recognizes the host of scholars and public
and private entities that have contributed to
rigorous, multidisciplinary, and productive
international research efforts in the natural
and social sciences. (Aspects of structure of
the sea are treated more selectively, in
conjunction with human-made objects.)
Findings outlined in the book’s eight chap-
ters seek to make a timely contribution to
continued advancement and application of
innovative ecological, socio-economic, and
engineering research. Of great importance
are the plentiful opportunities for student
training.
Preparation of this book began with an
initial focus on the traditional 20-plus pur-
poses of intentional deployment of seafloor
structure, for which a rich literature exists,
xii PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
and which are reviewed extensively in this
volume. It soon became apparent that the
book would be incomplete without attention
to the emerging grand challenge of global
ocean change. That change includes the
widespread development and impacts of
marine infrastructure, such as shoreline
protection reefs and offshore energy pro-
duction platforms, and especially for this
book the “reef effects” (unintentional) that in
quantity and impact may well outstrip those
of historical, intentional structures. Likewise,
the roles of all human-made structure
installed on the seafloor must be evaluated in
the context of the warming, acidification,
deoxygenation and rising levels of the sea
worldwide, and biogeographic change and
ecosystem connectivity therein. Urgency is
documented at length in a joint statement of
111 professional aquatic science and fishery
organizations from all continents, dated
2021.
Practices of this field of environmental
science, concerned with structure in the sea,
are consistent with other technical subjects,
including, for example, automotive engi-
neering (test tracks) and commercial food
products development (test kitchens). Agri-
culture has seen productive cooperation
among farmers, academia, and industry in
development of numerous types of equip-
ment, seeds, and breeds. Here the ocean
serves as a testing ground, an “experiment
station” for scientists and practitioners
(including citizen scientists) concerned with
human-made marine habitat to ask good
questions, rigorously develop and analyze
databases, and give and receive feedback to
achieve mutually compatible goals, particu-
larly as they are couched in terms of sus-
tainability and follow the maxim, “do no
harm.”
Beyond the immediate purposes of this
book, hopefully it reflects or leads to
awareness of the dedication and imagination
of individuals and organizations concerned
with stewardship of ecological and human
resources, and issues of oceans research and
governance. For example, at a global level,
the United Nations has proclaimed 2021
e2030 as a “Decade of Ocean Science for
Sustainable Development” to address twin
aspects of ocean science and ocean health
and sustainability; “Sustainable Develop-
ment Goals” are among the tangible sup-
porting efforts.
In the spirit of international collegiality I
dedicate this volume to four pillars of the
aquatic sciences academy: Dr. Carter Gilbert
(deceased), University of Florida, United
States, a valued mentor with prodigious
knowledge of fish taxonomy, biogeography,
and ecology, a meticulous author, and
source of boundless professional and per-
sonal generosity; Dr. David Whitmarsh
(deceased), University of Portsmouth,
England, an economist who brought
overdue attention to socio-economic aspects
of seafloor structure and worked across
disciplinary lines to create bioeconomic
models concerning reef fisheries, conducted
seminal research in fisheries economics, and
captivated students at home and interna-
tionally; Dr. Patrice Francour (deceased),
Université Côte d’Azur, France, whose
breadth of expertise and interests in marine
ecology not only contributed extensive
research breakthroughs and advanced the
scholarship of students but also informed the
conservation of species, habitats, and pro-
tected areas, and afforded citizens opportu-
nities for research; and Dr. Giulio Relini,
Università di Genova, Italy, one of the deans
of European marine biology and a prolific
publisher concerning purpose-built seafloor
structures, who with colleagues developed
one of the longest research programs con-
cerning multipurpose reefs and thus has
provided important sets of data to the larger
community. The good humor of each of
 PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
these individuals has made working with
them a joy. Their integrity and scientific
expertise has made it a privilege to work
with them in publications.
My own inspirations for this book may
well have originated as a child during deep-
sea, recreational angling trips in the Atlantic
Ocean off Long Island, New York, United
States, when my father took me on board a
pay-for-passage party boat once or twice
each summer. Looking back, I wonder, did
our captain sometimes take his clients to
secret, uncharted “personal reefs” that he
had built, guided only by popular sports
magazine articles, in the absence of research
findings? (We always caught fish!) As a
neophyte ichthyologist in college, my scien-
tific curiosities were fed by observations of
freshwater fishes building nests of stones in
rocky streams. Among the numerous edu-
cators who helped my early understanding
and own lifelong efforts in this field, I
acknowledge the mentorship of Dr. Edward
C. Raney at Cornell University and the
aforementioned Dr. Carter R. Gilbert at the
University of Florida in my training in
ichthyology and aquatic sciences generally.
As a beginning college faculty member (fac-
ing the vagaries of an all too real publish-or-
perish environment) unforeseen events
fortuitously steered me into the earliest
stages of the transition of artificial reef
development from an art to a science. Thus,
in concert with the administrative aspects of
my career with the Florida Sea Grant College
Program, I was fortunate to develop aca-
demic involvement with purpose-built reefs
as enabled by Donald Y. Aska, and then
measurably sustained by Dr. James C. Cato.
From that time and decades later into
retirement, I have been witness to the crea-
tivity of research programs and networks in
various areas of the world devoted to un-
derstanding and explaining human-made
seafloor structure functions. The scientific
xiii
background for writing this book has been
strengthened by connections and collabora-
tions with individuals and organizations
concerned with ocean science and seafloor
structure. I have been fortunate to have had
early associations with various expert re-
searchers, educators, and administrators
including those affiliated with the European
Artificial Reef Research Network (Drs. Ant-
ony Jensen, Ken Collins, and Gianna Fabi),
the University of Hawaii Institute of Marine
Biology (Dr. Richard Brock), and many years
of collaboration with colleagues at the Musée
océanographique de Monaco (Drs. François
Simard and Denis Allemand), the United
States National Marine Fisheries Service
(Richard Stone, Drs. James Bohnsack and
Margaret Miller), and the Florida Fish and
Wildlife Conservation Commission (Keith
Mille). Dr. William Lindberg, University of
Florida, was particularly gracious in
including me in formative research expedi-
tions, and Dr. Thomas Frazer, University of
South Florida, was a significant companion
at sea.
Measurable assistance and guidance over
the course of assembling this book came
from colleagues in three ways. First, I
gratefully thank the collegial staff at Elsevier
publishing, starting with Louisa Munro who
as senior acquisitions editor initiated a con-
versation with me about submitting a book
proposal and then secured three anonymous
reviews that were helpful in launching the
project. The informative, patient advice of
senior editorial project manager Sara Valen-
tino, as well as Robin Sulit and colleagues at
the helpdesk for online manuscript prepa-
ration, and then the skilled, thoughtful
guidance of production project manager
Bharatwaj Varatharajan, were invaluable,
particularly as I was among a group of au-
thors in a beta test of the electronic platform
for publication. Secondly, general comments
ranging from the style of writing to sources
xiv PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
of particular points of information were
provided by Dr. Sanford Berg, University of
Florida, Dr. Joseph Serafy, University of
Miami, and Dr. Daniel Pondella, Occidental
College. Toward completion of the manu-
script, an extended online meeting with a
nonprofit reef development group in Tamil
Nadu state, India (Punit Dhandhania and
colleagues) provided the unexpected oppor-
tunity to review the utility of contents,
chapter by chapter, for the underlying sci-
entific foundations and practical approaches
intended for all readers. I am grateful to
Zachary Romano, Springer publishers, for an
introduction to international efforts for sus-
taining development of ocean resources and
assistance with obtaining important
publications.
Finally, Dr. Giulio Relini, Professor, Uni-
versità di Genova and the Italian Society of
Marine Biology, and Dr. Avery Paxton, Ma-
rine Ecologist, NOAA National Centers for
Coastal Ocean Science, served as irreplace-
able readers and sounding boards with
overall comments on the style and technical
content of drafts of the manuscript. Expert,
detailed technical review of portions of the
manuscript came from Dr. Jacob Allgeier,
Assistant Professor, University of Michigan,
and Dr. Mark Hixon, Professor, University of
Hawaii, whose generous investment of time
and deep subject matter knowledge pro-
vided comments that importantly helped to
streamline the manuscript text and
strengthen its scientific content. All of these
individuals freely shared of their knowledge.
Inasmuch as writing this book was a self-
funded project, I express great thanks to
my wife, Anne, for volunteering over many
unpaid hours to apply her software and
electronic data management skills to
bringing order out of chaos in arranging and
enhancing images, securing permissions,
and getting the manuscript (and me) across
the finish line.
It is customary and appropriate for an
author to declare responsibility for errors
that make their way into a manuscript, and I
ask the reader’s patience if the document
falls short of expectations. As sole author I
have tried to cast a wide net over subjects of
differing familiarity. Thus, I acknowledge
that some coverage may be uneven or
incomplete, but hopefully all of it is accurate
and factual. No endorsements of commercial
interests are intended. With an eye to the
breadth of topics associated with purpose-
built seafloor structure, I have planted a
few seeds in the text to suggest opportunities
for future book-length treatments of certain
subjects, especially by an “up-and-coming”
generation of scholars.
William Seaman
University of Florida, and
Montreat, North Carolina,
United States of America
 C H A P T E R

1
Structure in the sea: a diversity of
natural and human-made habitats

O U T L I N E

1.1 Structure in the sea: extensive, 1.5 Results at-a-glance: successes and
diverse, hidden 5 shortcomings in deployment of
1.1.1 Maritime footprints 6 purpose-built structure 28
1.1.2 Seafloor mapping and monitoring 9
1.6 Suspended fish attracting devices,
1.1.3 Hard seafloor ecosystems 12
“FADs”: a separate story, a
1.2 Human-made sea floor habitat cautionary tale? 31
structure: the many definitions of
1.7 Secondary structure and substrate:
artificial reef 14
unintended reef effects 32
1.3 Building knowledge for the
1.8 Building blocks 34
technology of primary structured
reefs 20 References 34
1.4 Scales, centers, and periods of Further reading 40
activity concerning human-made
seafloor structures 25

Structure on the floor of the world’s oceans would be a common sight if only shoreside
observers could readily look beneath the surface of the sea. There, they would see a sub-
merged landscape that includes significant topographies of varied vertical profile, color,
texture, stability, and biodiversity: Consider that for eons, natural geologic and biophysical
forces have created features such as sea mounts, rocky outcrops, and coral reefs. Over
millennia, humans have lost countless ships accidently; other debris from the land have
washed into the ocean and settled on the bottom. And in more recent centuries, meanwhile,

Structure in the Sea

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-823425-9.00005-9 1 © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 1. Structure in the sea: a diversity of natural and human-made habitats

people have been intentional in introducing natural and human-made objects onto the sea-
floor to exploit, manage, or create an aspect, product or service of the ocean’s natural pro-
cesses and resources.
Taken together but at varying degrees all these structuresdancient and recent, natural and
manufactured, and purposeful and accidentaldsupport a panoply of marine communities,
habitats, and assemblages (Fig. 1.1). In turn, they contribute to a range of numerous essential
ecosystem services represented in human endeavors including fishing, recreation, and coastal
protection and restoration. They also offer humanity a window into the fascinating world on
the bottom of the ocean.
The particular role of introduced structure in modifying environmental processes so as to
cause or achievedwhether purposefully or unintentionallydmanifold biological, engineer-
ing, and socio-economic objectives is the subject of this book. At its core, its content derives
from centuries-old placement of human-made objects on the ocean floor, to sustain fishing
enhancement practices. Recent years have seen these practices extensively diversified and
transformed in at least 60 countries, with associated experiences and studies forming the sub-
stantial body of knowledge (and wisdom) that this volume addresses.
The broad range of global interests concerned with the specific topic of purpose-built
habitat structure, most universally recognized as “artificial reefs,” in the sea includes a large
multidisciplinary research and development sector, both basic and applied, as well as a seem-
ingly larger array, perhaps by an order of magnitude (or even more), of highly diverse stake-
holders and practitioners. These two sectors have been realizing a synergy, which is a theme
of this volume. On the one hand, investigators from biology, chemistry, economics, engineer-
ing, law, oceanography, policy, sociology, and other fields are building a growing and

FIGURE 1.1A Structure on the sea floor, shown in images of similar scales, includes (A) natural features such as
scleractinian coral reefs in the Pacific Ocean, American Samoa, and (B) rocky reef, Cordell Bank, California, United
States, and (C) manufactured objects such as computer-printed 3-D composite structure in Monaco. Also deployed
are often larger objects, (D), originally intended for commercial or environmental objectives and now repurposed as
secondary reefs, such as ships in Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, United States. Images courtesy of: A, United
States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), K. Lino; B, NOAA Cordell Bank National Marine
Sanctuary, D. Roberts; C, Association Monegasque Pour la Protection de la Nature, Stéphane Jamme; D, NOAA Office of
National Marine Sanctuaries, https://floridakeys.noaa.gov/artificialreefs/more.html.
1. Structure in the sea: a diversity of natural and human-made habitats 3

FIGURE 1.1B

FIGURE 1.1C

FIGURE 1.1D
4 1. Structure in the sea: a diversity of natural and human-made habitats

reliable body of technical knowledge. Meanwhile, user interests depend on structure-based

influences and processes that support artisanal and commercial wild seafood harvest and
aquaculture, recreational fishing and diving, tourism, ecosystem conservation, habitat resto-
ration, shoreline protection, energy and mineral extraction, education, art, spirituality and
formulation of management policy (Table 1.1). Effective collaborations are resulting in
more effective reef system design, formal and informal education, and expansion of knowl-
edge through citizen science.
Besides the many thousands of seafloor objects intended to yield principally benefits of an
environmental nature, as identified here, and commonly referred to as “primary reefs,”
another class of objects dedicated as infrastructure for ocean-dependent industrial, commer-
cial, and engineering works, nonetheless also can yield, as “secondary reefs,” unintentional
yet significant habitat-related outcomes comparable to those achieved with primary reefs,
such as production of biomass. Likewise, they can have negative impacts. Due to the large
collective footprint of such structures on the floor of the ocean, including shipwrecks, break-
waters, and energy production platforms and pipelines that serve as de facto reefs, the book

TABLE 1.1 Reef purposes.

Submerged breakwaters for coastal defense: Beach protection and erosion control
Surfing reefs for recreation
Protect benthic habitat and fish populations with antitrawling structures
Biofiltration reefs to remove nutrients and improve water quality

Divert recreational diver pressure from natural reefs

Create or enhance suitable areas for recreational diving
Restore depleted habitats: Off-site mitigation for habitat destruction
Restore depleted habitats: On-site restoration of disturbed habitats
Mitigate or enhance reef effects of marine infrastructure

Mitigate ocean global climate change effects

Enhance artisanal fisheries
Enhance commercial fisheries
Enhance recreational fisheries
Marine ranching and aquaculture for food production
Produce biomass for on-site aquaculture harvest

Provide structure as release sites for hatchery-produced fishes

Ornamental aquarium species production
Conservation of individual species or defined taxa
Conservation using human-made reef structure in protected areas
Underwater cultural, spiritual, and artistic enhancement
Formal and informal education

Sites for experimentation and observational research

Multipurpose reef systems
 1.1 Structure in the sea: extensive, diverse, hidden 5
offers detailed coverage of them in their unintended but significantdand apparently
expandingdbiological role.
“Structure in the Sea” reviews both scholarly and more applied aspects of the history,
development, status, and emerging trends in research, technology, and intended outcomes
of human-made reef habitats and allied sea floor structures in the world’s oceans. It aims
to serve and inform those seeking to understand, utilize, and add to the research undergird-
ing modern reef deployment efforts and to guide and equip stakeholders requiring technical
foundations and best practices to participate sustainably in the context of marine spatial plan-
ning and ecosystem management. As relevant, important information and experiences
derived from both traditional ecological knowledge and also the study and management
of natural structure such as coral reefs and “hard bottom” habitats are presented. Supple-
mental online resources include videography of laboratory, topside, and underwater subjects.
The “human element” is an essential part of this book. It includes a look at the perceptions
of experts and the general public alike toward this field and considers how they are or might
be folded into natural resources policy, planning, and outreach. It explores some of the diffi-
cult and debated aspects of developing best practices, while heeding the advice of medical
practitioners to “Do No Harm.” Caution is expressed in the widely cited, and arguably land-
mark paper by Bohnsack and Sutherland (1985), and applies decades later: “Unfortunately, a
naïve (and usually unstated) attitude exists among some managers: they know artificial reefs work;
they do not need to know how they work. In fact, knowing how artificial reefs function is crucial
for devising appropriate management strategies.” This book seeks to inform the “knowing
how” for all interested and affected parties.
This chapter, then, offers a primer to readers of varying awareness, understanding, and
engagement with the topic of human-made seafloor structure. As such it provides entry
points to the more detailed treatments of worldwide scientific foundations and applications
of the technology (Chapters 2, 3, 5); planning, materials, designs and construction methods
used across the globe by those who build reefs (Chapter 4); the biota of these structures
including key aspects of life history of flora and fauna associated with reefs (Chapter 5);
the current and potential role of underwater structure in management of ocean resources
such as in marine protected areas, sustainable fisheries and marine ranching, and community
economic development (Chapter 6); the role of secondary reefs including planned urban
infrastructure in marine ecosystems and possible ways to enhance their ecological services
(Chapter 7); and emerging issues and opportunities for this field, including its role in a chang-
ing ocean climate (Chapter 8). Evaluation of biological, engineering, social and economic per-
formance and services of purpose-built reefs and related structures is a theme running
through the book.

1.1 Structure in the sea: extensive, diverse, hidden

For millennia, humans have transformed the surface of Earth. On a clear day, persons
surveying a broad landscape from the top of a distant mountain, or perhaps looking out
an airplane window from several kilometers up in the sky, can view a footprint of human
beings and societies upon the continents of Earth. One person might see extensive flat or
terraced farm lands with crops in neat rows, and another the hardened urban surfaces of
tall buildings and roadways of seemingly endless dimensions. Such is not the case for ob-
servers wishing to peer as easily to the bottom of the sea.
A review of land transformation by humans includes an estimate that over 80% of ice-free
land is likely directly influenced by humans (Hooke et al., 2012). About 37% of the over 13
6 1. Structure in the sea: a diversity of natural and human-made habitats

billion hectares of dry land is devoted to agriculture, for example, which includes 1.5 billion
ha of arable land for crops with the rest devoted to pasture (ESA European Space Agency,
2021). Meanwhile, estimates of urban land cover range between 1% and 3%, according to
Liu et al. (2014), while Elvidge et al. (2007) estimate impervious surface on the world’s
land area at 0.43%.
The techniques used to quantify land-use include the obvious, common, and well-
established practices of surveying on the ground as well as from airplanes and in recent
decades satellites and drones (e.g., Brinker and Minnick, 1995; AAAS, 2021; Shin et al.,
2014). Advanced computer software allows enhanced analysis of remotely sensed data,
complemented by artistic re-creation of historic landscapes. In addition, a host of geophys-
ical, chemical, and biological monitoring and sensing practices have defined the influence of
terrestrial and aquatic human activities on global ecosystems (e.g., Millennium Assessment,
2005). Such efforts can offer information on historic conditions and what constitute a “base-
line” against which contemporary attempts to restore or enhance can be measured.
If we could just as readily see and survey below the surface of the world’s oceans and
coastal seas, what sort of human-made and natural infrastructures might we observe on
the bottom?
This section offers context for the extent and kinds of certain benthic structure in the ma-
rine environment, both estuarine and oceanic, and some of the research methods and findings
that describe their composition, distribution and effects, and thereby inform the scientific ba-
sis for their use and management. Of special interest are the “live bottoms” whose functions
are a basis for biomimicry by human-made structure.

1.1.1 Maritime footprints

Humanity’s maritime history includes unintentional and wartime sinking of numerous
ships at sea; placement of various hardened coastal structures for protection of harbors
and beaches from wave impact; and more recently, extensive precise deep-sea placement
of engineered infrastructure ranging from submarine cables that conduct electronic commu-
nications signals to pipelines for transmission of fossil fuels (Fig. 1.2). Among the more

FIGURE 1.2A Common large underwater objects and infrastructure, positioned on or attached to the seafloor,
and with attributes offering potential to drive “reef effects” as secondary, de facto reefs, include A, breakwaters, B,
pipelines, C, platforms and their supporting “legs,” with encrusting organisms, and D, shipwrecks, shown at varying
scales. Sources: A, Oh, Y.I., Shin, E.C., 2006. Using submerged geotextile tubes in the protection of the E. Korean shore. Coastal
Engineering 53 (11), 879e895, Fig. 22; B, Smith, P.E., 2016. Types of marine concrete structures.
In: Alexander, M.D. (Ed.), Marine Concrete Structures: Design, Durability and Performance. Elsevier, pp. 17e64. https://
www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780081009055/marine-concrete-structures, Fig. 2.60; C, Blue Latitudes, Courtesy of Emily
Hazlewood; D, US National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration, https://coastalscience.noaa.gov/news/living-shipwrecks-
3d-virtually-explore-north-carolinas-shipwrecks-and-marine-life/.
1.1 Structure in the sea: extensive, diverse, hidden 7

FIGURE 1.2B

FIGURE 1.2C

FIGURE 1.2D
8 1. Structure in the sea: a diversity of natural and human-made habitats

extreme spatial distributions in terms of the extent of such structure, it is estimated that three
million shipwrecks are distributed around the world (Gemini, 2018). Estimates concerning
intentional structures by Bugnot et al. (2021) include more than 1.36
105 km of pipelines
installed as of 2018 and by van Elden et al. (2019) include over 12,000 oil and gas production
installations on the continental shelves of over 50 nations.
Although the human footprint on the sea floor is neither as large nor as well documented
as on land, nonetheless “marine urbanization” is said by Dafforn et al. (2015) to be a global
issue that is occurring at an increasing pace and over a larger area. (“Footprint” in the ocean
has been defined as “the spatial extent of a pressure arising from a human activity” [Kenny et al.,
2018].) Yet science often lacks understanding of its regional ecological consequences, such as
in associated loss of habitat and changes in connectivity (e.g., Dafforn et al., 2015) or enhance-
ment of biological diversity and productivity (e.g., Momota and Hosokawa, 2021). Mapping
by Halpern et al. (2008) of global human impacts (“pressures”) on the marine environment
estimated that “anthropogenic benthic structures in coastal regions affect an area of 300,000 square
kilometers . approximately the size of Italy.” From analysis of 17 drivers of ecological change
(e.g., fishing, pollution, shipping) for 20 ecosystems (e.g., seagrasses, hard shelf, pelagic),
these authors determined that anthropogenic impacts affected 41% of the world’s ocean at
medium to very high levels. Ecosystems of particular interest for this book and which
have some of the highest predicted “cumulative impact scores,” according to Halpern
et al. (2008), include rocky reefs and coral reefs. Bugnot et al. (2021) concluded that as of
2018, actual on-site construction “has claimed a minimum of 32,000 km2 of seafloor,” while esti-
mating that the total area of seascapes modified around ports, wind farms, breakwaters, tun-
nels, and bridges is in the range of 1.0e3.4 million km2 (See Chapter 7).
At a much smaller geographic scale, Benn et al. (2010) determined that an area of
27,932 km2 of the total European OSPAR area (11,032,175 km2) of the North Sea was
impacted by human activities. These authors note that while the area of impact is relatively
small, they use the analogy of the size of the Amazon rainforest, and its deforestationdas a
fraction of the entire land area of South Americadto call attention to the high importance
ecologically of the area impacted. Another regional study (Kenny et al., 2018) quantified
seafloor “pressure layers” for the North Sea, English Channel, Irish Sea, and parts of the
Celtic Sea by assessing surface sediment abrasion from bottom fishing activities, sediment
removal by aggregate dredging, smothering caused by sediment disposal activities, and
deployment of concrete and steel structures by renewable energy and oil and gas activities,
finding spatial footprints that varied from a fraction of 1% to as much as 50% (Fig. 1.3).
Localized measures of seabed disruption include the determination that 24% of tidal chan-
nel surface in the lagoon of Venice, Italy, was modified by human activity, especially by
dredging (Madricardo et al., 2019), while Wilson et al. (2010) estimated that 8600 km2 of
the United Kingdom seabed would be affected by wind farm developments by the
year 2020.
 1.1 Structure in the sea: extensive, diverse, hidden 9

FIGURE 1.3 Map of cumulative impact upon the seafloor around the United Kingdom for sediment abrasion,
sediment removal, sediment smothering, and deposit of hard structure. Source: Kenny, A.J., Jenkins, C., Wood, D.,
Bolam, S.G., Mitchell, P., Scougal, C., Judd, A., 2018. Assessing cumulative human activities, pressures, and impacts on North
Sea benthic habitats using a biological traits approach. ICES Journal of Marine Science 75 (3), 1080e1092. doi:10.1093/icesjms/
fsx205., Figure 6.

1.1.2 Seafloor mapping and monitoring

Quantifying “hardscape” on the floor of the ocean historically has been difficult and
expensive, especially in larger areas and deeper waters beyond the normal range of localized,
more shallow surveys by scuba divers. Estimates of detailed global seafloor mapping range
from about 5% Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI) to 6%e9% and “at a scale
needed to understand ocean processes, protect or exploit seafloor resources, or support engineering op-
erations” (Mayer 2018). Mayer (2018) further concludes, “At a 1
1 km scale, approximately
82% of the seafloor has never had a direct measurement of depth,” and speaks to the issue of fund-
ing at least some of this expensive work through “crowd-sourcing” of data acquisition and
lengthy deployment of autonomous vessels.
“Conventional sea floor mapping is a tedious process” begins an overview by Smith and
Sandwell (1997) in a summary of the progression of earlier techniques to measure depth
10 1. Structure in the sea: a diversity of natural and human-made habitats

from ships using single-beam echo sounders since the 1950s, followed by more accurate
multibeam swath-mapping systems in the 1980s. These authors cite some of the limitations
of these procedures, even the traditional hand-drawing of depth contours, while presenting
a high-resolution grid of global, ice-free sea floor topography based on combining quality-
controlled ship depth soundings with interpolation guided by satellite-derived gravity
data.
Mayer (2018) cites satellite altimetry to predict seafloor bathymetry and advanced multi-
beam sonar technology as two keys to high-resolution sea floor mapping, and notes their
transition from classified military applications to more widespread use in the academic
and commercial communities. Further, “In shallow water, when water clarity permits, bathymetric
LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) and satellite-derived bathymetry . have provided efficient
ways to produce estimates of bathymetry in regions where multibeam sonar mapping is much less effi-
cient” Mayer (2018).
Representative of rapid advancement in this field is an open source software package for
the processing and display of bathymetry and backscatter imagery data derived from multi-
beam, interferometry, and sidescan sonars, whereby objects as small as 1 centimeter on the
seafloor can be mapped. It is notable that an international effort to facilitate the complete
mapping of the world ocean by 2030 is underway, under the auspices of Nippon Foundation
GEBCO Seabed 2030 Project (Mayer et al., 2018). This will provide significant data for the
General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans of the International Hydrographic Organization
and numerous other users.
In addition to needing to quantify extent and nature of biophysical features on the sea floor,
preparatory to possible installation of structure, scientists and policy experts seek information
on living resources of benthic systems. Among the tools employed by marine biologists to
describe organisms associated with hard structure, in shallow waters monitoring by scuba
divers (Fig. 1.4) is often the method of choice (e.g., Foster et al., 2013; Bortone et al., 2000).

FIGURE 1.4 Typical research practices by scuba divers at seafloor structure include photography. (Note: Pictured
here is Patrice Francour [1960e2019], marine ecologist and pioneer in research, education and coastal policy con-
cerning natural and human-made reefs, diving on the wreck Donator at Porquerolles, France, July 2018). Source:
Guidetti, P., Harmelin-Vivien, M., Raybaud, V., Piasecki, W., 2020. Memoriam, professor Patrice Francour (13 April 1960 13
october 2019). Acta Ichthyologica et Piscatoria 50 (2), 237e245. https://doi.org/10.3750/aiep/02977. Figure 3, © Jerome Espla,
http://www.aiep.pl/volumes/2020/1_2/txt/txt_15.phpCreative, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/legalcode.
 1.1 Structure in the sea: extensive, diverse, hidden 11
(It is noteworthy that scientific diving has rigorous standards for training, with certifications of
increasing rigor concomitant with deeper dives, e.g., AAUS, 2016.) In deeper water remotely
operated vehicles (ROV) are commonplace and reported by Sward et al. (2019), for example,
who summarized global ROV activity as reported in 119 publications to assess fish assem-
blages, while also reviewing types of ROV instruments and scientific observations made
(Fig. 1.5).
As well as having enhanced capabilities for in situ study of benthic habitat, flora, and
fauna, scientists also are developing various sorts of models. For example, a graphical repre-
sentation of local and regional impacts through the three lifecycle stages of an offshore petro-
leum production structure by Dafforn et al. (2015) certainly has application generally to
primary human-made reefs also (Fig. 1.6). Meanwhile, an empirical, mesoscale, data-driven
model to predict areas of hard-bottom habitat by including several possible components of
rugosity as predictor variables within a logistic regression framework has been proposed
by Dunn and Halpin (2009). These authors suggest that a high correlation between hard-
bottom habitat and high biodiversity provides a basis for natural resource managers to use
such maps as proxies for marine biodiversity in planning. In an effort to combine geophysical
and biological data, Wieczorek et al. (2014) used remotely derived bathymetry in modeling
fish biomass.
With this albeit brief survey of some trends for “marine urbanization” and some principal
sensing and mapping practices as background, we turn to the types of natural reefs whose
structure, function, and ecosystem services importantly may, and increasingly do, inspire hu-
man design to emulate them to secure optimal outcomes. In doing so, we seek to determine

FIGURE 1.5 Study locations globally for ROV surveys to visually assess fish assemblages identified by Sward
et al. (2019) in a survey of reports from 1965 through 2018. Source: Sward, D., Monk, J., Barrett, N., 2019. A Systematic
Review of Remotely Operated Vehicle Surveys for Visually Assessing Fish Assemblages. Front. Mar. Sci. 6:134. 10.3389/fmars.
2019.00134, Figure 5.
12 1. Structure in the sea: a diversity of natural and human-made habitats

FIGURE 1.6 Conceptual model of some potential physical/chemical effects (blue boxes) and consequent ecological
impacts (purple boxes) on marine habitat from four aspects (orange boxes) of offshore petroleum production infra-
structure during its life cycle from construction through operation to decommissioning, which offers considerations
for ecological impacts from installation of human-made structure generally. Source: Dafforn, K.A., Glasby, T.M., Airoldi,
L., Rivero, N.K., Mayer-Pinto, M., Johnston, E.L., 2015. Marine urbanization: an ecological framework for designing multi-
functional artificial structures. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 13(2), 82e90, Figure 2.

the geographical extent and ecological importance of reefs, including as part of the broader
seascape.

1.1.3 Hard seafloor ecosystems

In the broadest sense, “hard bottom” refers to “live coral, rock/coral rubble, exposed low-profile
carbonate and phosphorite substrates, thinly covered hard substrate with emergent growth, or artificial
structures” (Dunn and Halpin, 2009). Development of biological assemblages occurs on three
types of hard substratum, namely “mineral (natural rock or surfaces of organic origin: e.g. valves of
dead clams), artificial surfaces of anthropogenic origin, and biogenic (living) surfaces” (Davis, 2009).
Hard bottom ecosystems “Feature some of the most spectacular and diverse biological communities
on this planet . contain a rich treasure of genetic, taxonomic and functional information . deliver
 1.1 Structure in the sea: extensive, diverse, hidden 13
irreplaceable ecosystem services . highly vulnerable and increasingly threatened by anthropogenic
pressures” (Wahl, 2009). Determining the extent of naturally occurring structure with a verti-
cal profile such as rock ledges and outcrops and so-called “live bottom” and “hard bottom,”
especially in deeper waters, has been on a localized basis consistent with limitations of survey
methods. Representative live bottoms are illustrated in Fig. 1.7.

FIGURE 1.7A Some of the most wide-

spread natural reefs in the world’s oceans
include, A, coral reefs, and B, rocky
reefs, which occupy relatively limited spatial
areas yet are recognized as having dispro-
portionately large ecological roles in biodi-
versity. Sources: A, United States National
Science Foundation, Credit: Amy Apprill; B,
Nakamura, Y., Feary, D.A., Kanda, M., Yamaoka,
K., Tsikliras, A.C. (2013). Tropical Fishes Domi-
nate Temperate Reef Fish Communities within
Western Japan. PLoS ONE, 8(12), e81107.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0081107,
Figure 3.

FIGURE 1.7B
14 1. Structure in the sea: a diversity of natural and human-made habitats

Coral reefs are among the most biologically productive ecosystems on Earth, often
compared to rain forests for their biodiversity. Although limited in area to just 0.2% of the
ocean’s floor, they are thought to contain about 1,000,000 species of fishes, invertebrates,
and algae worldwide (NASA, 2001). To humans coral reefs historically have provided protein
for sustenance. The socio-economic importance of healthy coral reefs is indicated by esti-
mated annual net economic benefits of about USD 30 billion derived from them, including
the contribution of reef fisheries at about USD 5.7 billion and which feed hundreds of millions
of people (Teh et al., 2013). The largest coral reef system in the world, the Great Barrier Reef of
Australia, covers an area of approximately 133,000 mi.2, extends over 1400 miles, is made up
of almost 3000 individual reefs, and is visible from space (NOAA, 2021).
In addition, other live-bottom systems, smaller in size but widely distributed and of
important ecologically, include rocky reef reefs that support kelp forests and soft sediments
that support sponge beds (e.g., Maldonado et al. (2016, Wahl, 2009). Fishery and ecosystem
managers may designate them as “essential fish habitat” necessary for feeding, growth, and
reproduction and also as “habitat areas of particular concern” because of their important
ecological function or sensitivity to environmental disruption (Salgado et al., 2018).
Into the milieu of natural and anthropogenic ocean structure, and typically onto relatively
flat “plains-like” open areas of seafloordwith their own ecologically important ambient mi-
crobes, flora and faunadhuman-made reefs and allied purpose-built objects are being intro-
duced worldwide. The most extensive situation historically has been in Japan, where, as of
2004, 12% of the continental shelf held structure intended to promote fishery and aquacul-
tural harvest (de La Casinière, 2021).

1.2 Human-made sea floor habitat structure: the many definitions of artificial
reef

How are the underwater structures deployed by humans and intended to affect environ-
mental processes, and thereby effect ecosystem services, to be defined? Use of human-made
structures has proliferated in ocean waters. It is important to understand the meaning of
certain terms, including any limitations. Jackson (1999), for example, addresses one aspect
of terminology: “Artificial reefs and other structures are used in many countries and regions across
the world for coastal management purposes, including the enhancement or concentration of living ma-
rine resources, compensation for habitat loss, and coastal protection. However, different countriesd
and regionsdhave different definitions thereof and, as a result, have differing opinions as to what
structures are considered as artificial reefs.”
Understanding how seafloor structures are defined offers stakeholders a foundation and
common basis for effectively communicating and determining their appropriate usage in
the ocean environment. This section addresses the seemingly simple question of which
term(s) may best represents the issue, materials, and functions of purpose-built structure
on the floor of the sea and offers the reader a context for the complexities involved in
resolving it. It is not unusual to ask questions about environmental terminology, with even
the widely recognized term “biodiversity,” for example, having been addressed (Seigneur
and Mazouni, 2010).
 1.2 Human-made sea floor habitat structure: the many definitions of artificial reef 15
While the term “artificial reef” is most commonly used to describe the purposes, compo-
sition and location of a class of objects installed on the ocean bottom, other termsdperhaps
more indicativedalso are used in technical and lay publications and electronic media. “Arti-
ficial reef” apparently first appeared in the scientific literature in 1968 (and likely earlier in
popular recreational fishing magazines) and was most used (in 76% of the references) in a
search of articles by Florisson et al. (2018), who reviewed Scopus and Web of Science re-
sources, with over 3500 citations. Synonymous terms in scientific articles found by these au-
thors in their review included “human-made reefs” (HMR), “habitat enhancement structure,”
“man-made reefs,” and one of the earliest words, “gyosh o,” from pioneering reports in Japan.
A review by Becker et al. (2018) used the terms “artificial reef*,” “artificial habitat,*” and
“man-made reef*”in a structured search of databases (477 articles) that included Web of Sci-
ence and Google Scholar.
The question and evolution of meaningful terminology was addressed by Grove and Wilson
(1994) in the context of wording the title, “Fifth International Conference on Aquatic Habitat
Enhancement,” in 1991, thus replacing the terms “Artificial Habitats” (1987) and “Artificial
Reef” (1985) from previous meetings: “We debated over what constitutes an ‘artificial reef,’ and
whether its purpose was solely for fisheries.. This name change reflects the explosion of mitigation
projects and global efforts toward habitat restoration.” One reflection of the expanding purposes
is seen in use of the term “Reef Enhancement Units” by Ng et al. (2017) in reference to
structures they made for restoration of coral reefs.
One of the earlier authors to address terminology was Chou (1997), who used the term
“artificial” yet proposed that “The concept of artificial has to be properly understood to effectively
achieve desired goals. The term “artificial” reef gives many people the misconceived idea of artificial
structures on the seafloor richly covered with the organisms of a regular reef. What is often pictured
is a rich coral community developing spontaneously over a once-barren area with artificial structures
serving as a catalyst.” Tickell et al. (2019) offer an extended discussion of this subject in
addressing the origins of the term “reef,” reference to still more synonyms including “anthro-
pogenic reefs,” “underwater structures,” and “anthropogenic structures at sea,” and state,
“Because the use of the word artificial could imply that HMRs are an inferior substitute for natural
reefs,” as part of their decision to use the term human-made reef. Deliberate use of the term
“human-made” as a replacement for “artificial” also was proposed by Pitcher and Seaman
(2000) with the justification that the “term “artificial” has negative connotations (in the sense of
ersatz) that do not help us to see clearly the potential benefits and the dangers of these reef systems.”
As the purposes of artificial reefs have grown significantly (see Chapter 3) since the term
appeared in early literature in reference to fishing enhancement objectives, additional terms
specific to new functions have emerged. For example, “submerged breakwater” for coastal
shoreline stabilization, “surfing reefs” for ocean recreationists, “antitrawling reefs” for habitat
protection, and “memorial reefs” are purpose-specific references. In addition, proprietary
trademarks are used by businesses to brand their structures, without use of the word “arti-
ficial.” As an alternative to referring to reefs as artificial, the term “purpose-built” has
appeared occasionally since about 2000 (e.g., Revenga et al., 2000) and increasingly is used
in most recent publications (e.g., Burt et al., 2012; Keller et al., 2017; Degraer et al., 2020), be-
ing used in some titles (e.g., Folpp, 2012; Becker et al., 2017).
Individual definitions in the (overwhelmingly English language) literature vary in reflect-
ing purposes, materials and design, stakeholders, and expected outcomes (Table 1.2).
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Title: Brown leaves and other verses

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HAVE BEEN PRIVATELY PRINTED.

THIS COPY IS NUMBER 68

From time to time, for many years, some of these verses have appeared in
newspapers and periodicals. They are here collected at the request of
friends.
E. S. H.
 TO E. P. H.

The language of the human heart,

Nor tongue nor pen may tell;
But other eyes look into ours,
And understand us well.

No gift is worthy, my Beloved,

Of what thou art to me;
But these frail children of my love,
I would bestow on thee.

The years will come, the years will go,

As poets oft have sung;
But Love is Life, and Life is Love,
And Love, is ever young!
 CONTENTS
PAGE
Brown Leaves 3
To the Daisies 5
Absence 7
To Florence 9
Nature’s Influence 11
A Valentine 13
A Spring Reverie 15
To Her Dolly 19
My Prayer 21
Anniversary Ode 23
Our Heroes 25
A Call To Spring 27
Upper Air 29
Dreams 31
The Old Year and the New 33
Columbus 35
Lost Days 37
Mother’s Prayer 39
Expectation 41
The Silence of the Rosebud 43
Seed-time and Harvest 45
To a Blue-Fringed Gentian 47
A Fragment 49
My Christmas Wish 51
To a Rosebud 53
Trees 55
 BROWN LEAVES

From the pipes of old Winter, has come a shrill blast,

And upon the gray earth a pure mantle is cast.
’Tis a garment of snow-flakes come down from the skies
And beneath it, in silence, the patient earth lies.

The moaning and rustling of dead leaves is past—

The comforter came, they are sheltered at last.
O, brown leaves of autumn! ’Tis a wise hand that leads,
And he sends what is best, who best knoweth our needs.
He gives and he takes, and in taking he gives:
From life cometh death, and in dying we live.
From mists of the river, the brooklet and sea
This beautiful shroud has been woven, and ye
Of its coming wist not, for from out the still air
It as silently fell as an answer to prayer.
O, could ye but creep from your coverlet white
And visit your home, a most wonderful sight
Would gladden your hearts, for the sun met the snow,
And the frost followed on with his cold breath, and lo!
Your home is a palace of crystal more bright
Than Aladdin beheld with his magical light.

Ye glow and ye fade—but as wondrous to me

Is the leaf on the ground as the leaf on the tree:
For links in time’s chain clasp eternity fast
And the chain becomes endless. Ever the past
Pays its debt to the future, leaf-life, or man’s,
So perfect the system that surely no hands
But of Infinite wisdom and love could be
The author of such an unerring decree.
Who knoweth the end? Little leaflets, not we!
Enough for ourselves, as we hang on life’s tree,
To gather the sunshine and freely bestow
O h d h df i b l
Our shade to the weary and faint ones below.
And when we grow brown, as, surely we must,
The end will be glorious can we but trust
That the Infinite love, which careth for all,
Forgets not the little brown leaves when they fall.
 TO THE DAISIES

O Daisies, with your golden hearts

And petals white as snow,
Ye are, indeed, fond Summer’s eyes
O speak! for I would know
The secrets of this month of June
Of all months of the year,
And not one June of all my life
Was ever half so dear.

The secrets of this month of June

With your soft eyes declare:
What is it makes the roses bloom,
And beauty everywhere?
Is it the longing in the seed
That speaketh in the flower;
And is this longing satisfied
To breathe for one short hour,

And vanish? Nay: the hidden power,

In seed-life unto me
Seems deathless, as the human-soul,
Was, and will always be—
And what though on the silent air,
The perfume dies away
Of the June roses, and they fade—
Behold! shall any say,
However wise, that this is loss:
Alas! shall any deign
Deny, that Nature’s wondrous laws
May not restore again?
The waves roll in upon the shore,
Recede, and come again
And thirsty clouds drink in the floods,
T i h b k i i
 To give them back, in rain.
O Daisies, when bright June is past,
And all your beauty fled;
If in my memory ye but live,
I dare not call ye dead,
For ye have led me to the fount
From whence all beauty springs,
Your silence filled my soul with awe,
And gave my spirit wings.
The self-same tint in morning’s glow
And in the crimson flush
Of the June roses, I behold
In timid maidens’ blush.
O Daisies, listen unto me,
My secret I impart—
Love’s sweetest flowers are all ablow;
’Tis June-time in my heart!

Go tell my secret to some bird,

The bob-o-link were best—
Tell him to ask his patient wife
To sit upon the nest;
And him unto my lover go,
And, as my minstrel sent,
Ask him to sing that song he sang
When he a-wooing went.

Thou think’st he might not find him?

It might be well to say,
My love, like light, will go before
To ’luminate the way.
 ABSENCE

Thou art away and I am here.

The one that’s left is lonesome, dear.

I long to look into your face.

I long to-night for your embrace.

Like hopeless grief, the wind and rain

Beats at my darkened window pane.

There’ll come a time, my love, I know,

When one of us must surely go.

Beyond the call of voice or tear—

Which shall it be? I question, dear.

O, coward heart, find hope and rest—

Whatever comes to thee is best!
 TO FLORENCE

(On Her Tenth Birthday.)

I am very sad and lonely, dear,

Do you care for what I say?
I once had a beautiful baby—
But now she has gone away.

To-day I went up to the garret,

And there in a chest I found
Little shirts, little shoes and stockings
And a dainty little gown.

Scarcely large enough for your dolly

Are the things she used to wear,—
Do you know where has gone my baby,
My baby—with soft, brown hair?

She was such a beautiful baby—

I had thought to keep her so,
But she slipped away with each passing day
And I did not see her go.
* * * * * * *
Then I had a child, as lovely
As my babe had seemed to me;
But she is gone and I gaze through tears
But her face I may not see.

I remember her childish prattle,

The wonderful things she’d say,
Her winsome smile and her merry laugh—
Now, why did she go away?

Her hair was soft as the thistle’s down,

 But the sunshine lingered there
And wreathed such glory about her brow
As I never have seen elsewhere.

In the garret we put her high-chair,

And saved her rattle and ball,
But she never came back to claim them
And all in vain was my call.
* * * * * * *
“I will not go and leave you
As the others went away.”
Yes, I hear what you are saying, dear,
That you will be sure to stay.
* * * * * * *
It must be that I was dreaming
Of days that have passed away—
What is it, my own little daughter,
You are ten years old, to-day?

Yes, nestle up closer, my darling,

You have banished all my care,—
For you are my beautiful baby
And my child with the sunlit hair.

As I look in your soft, brown eyes, dear,

My baby’s face I see,
And I know not what to call you, now
Save my blessed trinity.
 NATURE’S INFLUENCE

O, is there aught in this wide world more strange,

Or aught more wonderful in spheres unknown,
Than nature’s influence on human life?
We go into the open field or wood,
And she is there, and we are thrilled, and feel
An ecstacy which words cannot define—
A touch too delicate for human speech.

The robin’s song comes floating on the air,

And all his soul is in it—it is more
To me than grandest opera, for by it
Is ushered in the sweet arbutus bloom
And tulips gay and yellow daffodils.
I stray amid a field of daisy bloom—
That all-pervading Presence seems most nigh,
The atmosphere they breathe is full of cheer.
Who that has wandered with them, has not felt
His burdens lightened and his sorrows healed?
I know not why, but common flowers declare
Truth unto me when hot-house-cultured fail,
And yet, however reared, no bud could ope
But felt the Awakener’s touch of magic.

This do they teach. The same warm rays of sun

Fall on the nettle-plant, as fall upon
The sweet briar-rose, and the rain-laden cloud
Passes not by the meanest weed that grows.
And do not wayside flowers invite alike
The rich and humble? To possess is more
Than ownership. Who takes from harvest-field
Food for the inner life may richer be
Than he who fills his granary to the brim.
Jesus, who spake strong words for human needs
B k h lh f l dk
But spake what every soul has felt and known—
That life and body are of greater worth,
Than food and raiment.

Red’ning in the Spring

Each maple tree reveals that wondrous care
Which never slumbers. Throbbed our human hearts
In harmony with Nature’s, should we feel
It less, when dead leaves rustle ’neath our feet,
And winds of Autumn sing funereal dirge?

Why do men question of a future life?

The tiniest grass blades, springing from the sod,
Are bridges, whereupon with trusting feet
I can in safety cross the stream of doubt—
Wing of bird and cloud which floats above me,
Pebble and sea shell which the tide brings in,
Op’ning bud and tinted leaf of autumn,
Ye all are messengers unto my soul.
For ye are typical, and the revealers
Of the All-Beautiful, whom I adore!
 A VALENTINE

(To E. P. H.)

A Valentine—Now if I might
But somehow tempt her to alight—
I mean my Muse—I’d try to say
Some word to cheer thy heart, to-day.
I know the meaning they attach
To Valentines: but then I’ll scratch
That off, and write, as to a friend—
’Tis fair, if so we comprehend.
How strange, that certain days and hours,
That certain trees and certain flowers,
Alone possess, as ’twere, a key
To certain rooms in memory.

When but a child, they used to say

That birds, like lovers, went away
In search of mates: and even now
I dimly can remember how
Their words I doubted, till one day
Our purple pigeon flew away,
Returned at night, and by his side
Fluttered his little snow-white bride.
And ne’er this day comes ’round to me
But flutters in my memory
The purple and the snow-white dove
Cooing their tender notes of love.

Some word to cheer thee, did I say?

Words—what are words? As helpless they
As blinded eyes to lead the feet
O’er tangled pathways, did they meet
Not some felt need or if they be