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 7E

Elementary
Geometry
for College Students

Daniel C. Alexander
Parkland College, Professor Emeritus

Geralyn M. Koeberlein
Mahomet-Seymour High School,
Mathematics Department Chair, Retired

Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

 Elementary Geometry for College Students,
Seventh Edition
Daniel C. Alexander, Geralyn M. Koeberlein
Product Director: Mark Santee
Product Manager: Spencer Arritt
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Printed in the United States of America
Print Number: 03 Print Year: 2019
© 2020, 2015, 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc.
Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage
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This edition is dedicated to our spouses, children, and grandchildren.
Dan Alexander and Geralyn Koeberlein
Letter from the Authors
The primary aim of this textbook has always been to provide college students with a thorough
knowledge of the subject matter of geometry. We thank all those instructors who agreed with
our approach to the development of geometry. Further, we applaud all those students who have
persevered (with our textbook as the vehicle) and achieved a substantial knowledge of geome-
try; in fact, it has been said that there is no royal road (easy way) to geometry.
When we began formulating the first edition of this textbook, we sought to achieve and
maintain many qualities throughout future editions. One of the foremost goals that we sought
was that of creating a logical and orderly development of geometry. Although we have man-
aged goal one successfully, we also believe that we have improved our presentation with time:
formal logical and visual reasoning have been apparent through previous editions. In effect, a
student of geometry must “see” to believe.
A second goal was to find the perfect choice of words essential in guiding the student
down the path to geometry. For the student to read and fully understand the notions found in
this development, it was generally necessary to illustrate these terms visually.
A third goal of our textbook has been to provide examples and practice (exercise sets)
that would reinforce the embedded concepts. While the textbook provides abundant practice,
­further exercises can be found in the Student Study Guide. Many examples, features, and exer-
cises demonstrate applications of geometry in the real world. In exercise sets, problems are
ordered from basic to intermediate and then challenging.
In this seventh edition, we have at times clarified a definition by a change in wording or
by an example/illustration. In some cases, we have found a clearer (more direct path) to one of
the many principles of geometry. Through modifying an explanation, we facilitated the reason-
ing process used to understand and formulate proofs, solve problems, and handle real-world
­applications. Such tools enable students to use (1) intuition to guess results, (2) induction to
test these outcomes, and (3) deduction to prove the relationships found in geometry. To rein-
force the student’s knowledge of geometry, we have developed a textbook that may preview a
concept or recall/review (such as review exercises at a chapter’s end). Within a section, topics
are often accompanied by hints, recalls, and guides designed to provide insights into the steps
in an example, the plan for a proof, or the solution of an exercise.
For students to reach the lofty goals of this textbook, it is essential that they enter the study
with open minds and accept the challenge. Successful students will develop a knowledge of
geometry and the associated skills to allow them to advance their mathematical and related
disciplines.

Daniel C. Alexander and Geralyn M. Koeberlein

 Contents

Preface ix
Acknowledgments xii
Foreword xiii
Index of Applications xv

P Preliminary Concepts 1
P.1 Sets and Geometry 2 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on ApplicationS: One-to-One
P.2 Statements and Reasoning 8 Correspondence 26
P.3 Informal Geometry and Measurement 16 ■■ Summary 26

■■ pERSPECTIVE on History: Our Greek Heritage 25 ■■ Review Exercises 28

■■ Chapter P Test 30

1 Line and Angle Relationships 31

1.1 Early Definitions and Postulates 32 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on History: The Development of
1.2 Angles and Their Relationships 41 Geometry 69
1.3 Introduction to Geometric Proof 49 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on ApplicationS: Patterns 70
1.4 Relationships: Perpendicular Lines 56 ■■ Summary 71
1.5 The Formal Proof of a Theorem 63 ■■ Review Exercises 74
■■ Chapter 1 Test 76

2 Parallel Lines 79
2.1 The Parallel Postulate and Special Angles 80 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on History: Sketch of Euclid 126
2.2 Indirect Proof 89 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on ApplicationS: Non-Euclidean
2.3 Proving Lines Parallel 95 Geometries 126
2.4 The Angles of a Triangle 101 ■■ Summary 128
2.5 Convex Polygons 108 ■■ Review Exercises 131
2.6 Symmetry and Transformations 116 ■■ Chapter 2 Test 133

3 Triangles 135
3.1 Congruent Triangles 136 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on History: Sketch of Archimedes 174
3.2 Corresponding Parts of Congruent ■■ pERSPECTIVE on ApplicationS: The Geodesic Dome 175
Triangles 145 ■■ Summary 175
3.3 Isosceles Triangles 153 ■■ Review Exercises 177
3.4 Basic Constructions Justified 161
■■ Chapter 3 Test 179
3.5 Inequalities in a Triangle 167
vi CONTENTS

4 Quadrilaterals 181
4.1 Properties of a Parallelogram 182 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on ApplicationS: Square Number as
4.2 The Parallelogram and Kite 191 Sums 214
4.3 The Rectangle, Square, and Rhombus 198 ■■ Summary 215
4.4 The Trapezoid 206 ■■ Review Exercises 217
■■ pERSPECTIVE on History: Sketch of Thales 214 ■■ Chapter 4 Test 218

5 Similar Triangles 221

5.1 Ratios, Rates, and Proportions 222 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on History: Ceva’s Proof 269
5.2 Similar Polygons 229 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on ApplicationS: Generating Pythagorean
5.3 Proving Triangles Similar 237 Triples 270
5.4 The Pythagorean Theorem 246 ■■ Summary 271
5.5 Special Right Triangles 254 ■■ Review Exercises 273
5.6 Segments Divided Proportionally 261 ■■ Chapter 5 Test 275

6 Circles 277
6.1 Circles and Related Segments and Angles 278 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on ApplicationS: Sum of Interior Angles of
6.2 More Angle Measures in the Circle 287 a Polygon 313
6.3 Line and Segment Relationships in the ■■ Summary 313
Circle 297 ■■ Review Exercises 315
6.4 Some Constructions and Inequalities ■■ Chapter 6 Test 317
for the Circle 306
■■ pERSPECTIVE on History: Circumference of the
Earth 312

7 Locus and Concurrence 319

7.1 Locus of Points 320 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on ApplicationS: The Nine-Point
7.2 Concurrence of Lines 329 Circle 345
7.3 More About Regular Polygons 337 ■■ Summary 346
■■ pERSPECTIVE on History: The Value of p 344 ■■ Review Exercises 348
■■ Chapter 7 Test 349

8 Areas of Polygons and Circles 351

8.1 Area and Initial Postulates 352 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on ApplicationS: Another Look at the
8.2 Perimeter and Area of Polygons 362 Pythagorean Theorem 392
8.3 Regular Polygons and Area 372 ■■ Summary 393
8.4 Circumference and Area of a Circle 378 ■■ Review Exercises 395
8.5 More Area Relationships in the Circle 385 ■■ Chapter 8 Test 397
■■ pERSPECTIVE on History: Sketch of Pythagoras 391
 CONTENTS vii

9 Surfaces and Solids 399

9.1 Prisms, Area, and Volume 400 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on ApplicationS: Birds in Flight 439
9.2 Pyramids, Area, and Volume 409 ■■ Summary 439
9.3 Cylinders and Cones 419 ■■ Review Exercises 440
9.4 Polyhedrons and Spheres 429 ■■ Chapter 9 Test 442
■■ pERSPECTIVE on History: Sketch of René
Descartes 438

10 Analytic Geometry 443

10.1 The Rectangular Coordinate System 444 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on History: The Banach-Tarski
10.2 Graphs of Linear Equations and Slope 452 Paradox 492
10.3 Preparing to Do Analytic Proofs 460 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on ApplicationS: The Point-of-Division
10.4 Analytic Proofs 468 Formulas 492
10.5 Equations of Lines 474 ■■ Summary 493
10.6 The Three-Dimensional Coordinate ■■ Review Exercises 494
System 481 ■■ Chapter 10 Test 495

11 Introduction to Trigonometry 497

11.1 The Sine Ratio and Applications 498 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on ApplicationS: Radian Measure of
11.2 The Cosine Ratio and Applications 506 Angles 530
11.3 The Tangent Ratio and Other Ratios 512 ■■ Summary 531
11.4 Applications with Acute Triangles 521 ■■ Review Exercises 532
■■ pERSPECTIVE on History: Sketch of Plato 529 ■■ Chapter 11 Test 533

Appendices

APPENDIX A: Algebra Review 535

APPENDIX B: Summary of Constructions, Postulates,
Theorems, Lemmas, and Corollaries 563

Answers
Selected Exercises and Proofs 569

Glossary 591
Index 595
Preface

The authors’ primary goal is that of helping and encouraging students of the seventh edition
of Elementary Geometry for College Students to learn and use the terminology of geometry,
explore the principles of geometry, develop strong reasoning skills, gain new skills in prob-
lem-solving, and find solutions for real-world applications. We hope not only to introduce stu-
dents to geometry, but to have them respect and enjoy the subject matter.
The authors have developed the textbook in a logical order that is complete with fea-
tures that are intuitive and motivating. Perhaps the most significant feature of this textbook
is that it provides seemingly countless visual illustrations; of course, the picture may very
well be worth a thousand words.
We, the authors, truly believe that the student who successfully completes the geome-
try coursework with this textbook will be able to, at a future date, recognize and recall the
relationships of geometry, understand and justify the connections between certain proper-
ties, and extend and apply these principles.
Justification of a principle will be done in a formal two-column form, a formal para-
graph form, or in the less formal “picture proof” format.
We are well aware that the completion of a proof is quite the challenge for most students.
With this in mind, we hope to illustrate the power of the proof so that the student gains an
appreciation for this power. To begin, we ask that the student simply follow the illustrated
proof, reading it step-by-step. Reading the proof in reverse order enables the student to answer
the question, “Where are we coming from?” Eventually, the student provides missing pieces
(statements and reasons) of the proof. In time, the student realizes the need to order and justify
the steps of the proof. Of course, the ultimate goal is that the student writes the complete proof.
The authors believe the logic found in development of geometry extends to other disciplines;
for instance, consider writing a good paragraph in literature or a powerful subroutine in com-
puter science. One should recognize that the principles, the thoughts, and the reasoning that
lead to a proof are also used in the solution of any problem or application.

OUTCOMES FOR THE STUDENT

■■ Mastery of essential geometric concepts, for further intellectual and vocational
endeavors
■■ Preparation of the student to transfer and continue the study of mathematics and
related disciplines
■■ Understanding of the need for step-by-step reasoning for success in geometry and
other disciplines
■■ Development of their interest in geometry through activities, features, and
problem-solving

FEATURES OF THE SEVENTH EDITION

■■ Inclusion of Chapter P, which provides an expanded introduction of set concepts
and formal reasoning
■■ Increased attention to continuity and discontinuity of geometric figures
■■ Expanded coverage of point paths characterized as straight, curved, circular, or
scattered
■■ Revision of existing exercise sets as well as the inclusion of over 150 new exercises
■■ Expanded coverage of select topics, such as the discussion of overlapping congru-
ent triangles
■■ Greater attention to the congruence of quadrilaterals.
■■ Revision of select paragraphs and the addition of examples in order to clarify
­concepts and approaches
ix
x Preface

TRUSTED FEATURES
Full-color format aids in the development of concepts, solutions, and investigations
throughout all figures and graphs. The authors have ensured that color in all figures is
both accurate and instructionally meaningful.
Reminders found in the text margins provide a convenient recall mechanism.
Discover activities emphasize the importance of induction in the development of
geometry.
Geometry in Nature and Geometry in the Real World demonstrate geometry found
in everyday life.
Overviews in chapter-ending material organize important properties and other infor-
mation from the chapter.
An Index of Applications calls attention to the practical applications of geometry.
A Glossary of Terms at the end of the textbook provides a quick reference of geom-
etry terms.
Chapter-opening photographs highlight subject matter for each chapter.
Warnings alert students to common pitfalls.
Chapter Summaries review the chapter, preview the chapter to follow, and provide a
list of important concepts found in the current chapter.
Perspective on History provides students with biographical sketches and background
leading to geometric discoveries.
Perspective on Applications explores classical applications and proofs.
Chapter Reviews provide numerous practice problems to help solidify student under-
standing of chapter concepts.
Chapter Tests provide students the opportunity to prepare for exams.
Formula pages at the front of the book list important formulas with relevant art to
illustrate.
Reference pages at the back of the book summarize the important abbreviations and
symbols used in the textbook.

Student Resources
■■ The Student Study Guide with Solutions Manual (978-0-357-02212-2) provides
step by step solutions to select odd-numbered exercises from the text. Select solu-
tions for additional exercise sets are provided within the study guide. Complete
solutions are available on the instructor’s website.
■■ www.webassign.com
Prepare for class with confidence using WebAssign from Cengage Elementary
Geometry for College Students, Seventh Edition. This online learning platform
fuels practice, so you truly absorb what you learn—and are better prepared come
test time. Videos and tutorials walk you through concepts and deliver instant feed-
back and grading, so you always know where you stand in class. Focus your study
time and get extra practice where you need it most. Study smarter with WebAssign!
Ask your instructor today how you can get access to WebAssign, or learn about
self-study options at www.webassign.com.

INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES
■■ www.webassign.com/cengage
WebAssign from Cengage Elementary Geometry for College Students, Seventh
Edition, is a fully customizable online solution for STEM disciplines that empow-
ers you to help your students learn, not just do homework. Insightful tools save
you time and highlight exactly where your students are struggling. Decide when
and what type of help students can access while working on assignments—and
incentivize independent work so help features aren’t abused. Meanwhile, your
 Preface xi

students get an engaging experience, instant feedback, and better outcomes. A total
win-win!
To try a sample assignment, learn about LMS (Learning Management System)
integration, or connect with our digital course support, visit www.webassign.com/
cengage.
■■ Complete Solutions Manual provide solutions to all the exercises in the book,
alternatives for order of presentation of the topics included, and suggestions for
teaching each topic.
■■ Cognero (Included on the Instructor Companion Website) Cengage Learning Test-
ing Powered by Cognero is a flexible, online system that allows you to author, edit,
and manage test bank content from multiple Cengage Learning solutions; create
multiple test versions in an instant; and deliver test from your LMS, your class-
room, or wherever you want.

Instructor Website
Everything you need for your course in one place! This collection of book-specific
lecture and class tools is available online at www.cengage.com/login. Here you can
access and download PowerPoint presentations, images, and more.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to thank Spencer Arritt, Michael Lepera, and Mona Zeftel at Cengage
for their efforts in making the seventh edition of the textbook a reality. In addition, we
would like to recognize and thank those who made earlier editions of this textbook possi-
ble: Beth Dahlke, Dawn Nuttall, Florence Powers, Lynn Cox, Marc Bove, Maureen Ross,
Melissa Parkin, Noel Kamm, Rita Lombard, and Theresa Grutz.
We express our gratitude to reviewers of the current edition and previous editions:
Houssam M. Al-Basha, Lincoln Land Community College
Paul Allen, University of Alabama
Catherine Banks, Texas Woman’s University
Jane C. Beatie, University of South Carolina at Aiken
Dr. Michaela Bertch, Cathedral Catholic High School
John Bialas, Joliet Junior College
Steven Blasberg, West Valley College
Barbara Brown, Anoka Ramsey Community College
Patricia Clark, Indiana State University
Joyce Cutler, Framingham State College
Walter Czarnec, Framingham State College
Joseph Dethrow, John A. Logan College
Kahroline di Passero, Moorpark Community College
Darwin G. Dorn, University of Wisconsin–Washington County
William W. Durand, Henderson State University
Zoltan Fischer, Minneapolis Community and Technical College
Kathryn E. Godshalk, Cypress College
Chris Graham, Mt. San Antonio Community College
Sharon Gronberg, Southwest Texas State University
Geoff Hagopian, College of the Desert
Edith Hays, Texas Woman’s University
Elizabeth Hicks, Delaware Technical Community College
Ben L. Hill, Lane Community College
Mary Hito, Los Angeles Valley College
George L. Holloway, Los Angeles Valley College
Leigh Hollyer, University of Houston–Central Campus
Tracy Hoy, College of Lake County
Greg Jamison, Fresno City College
Kenneth Lee Jones, Elizabeth City State University
Jennifer La Fleur, Harford Community College
Josephine G. Lane, Eastern Kentucky University
John C. Longnecker, University of Northern Iowa
Erin C. Martin, Parkland College
Nicholas Martin, Shepherd College
Saburo Matsumoto, College of the Canyons
Jill McKenney, Lane Community College
James R. McKinney, Cal Poly at Pomona
Iris C. McMurtry, Motlow State Community College
William McNeary, Southeast Missouri State University
Tigran Mkrtchyan, Los Angeles Mission College
Jack Morrell, Atlanta Metropolitan State College
Michael Naylor, Western Washington University
Maurice Ngo, Chabot College
Ellen L. Rebold, Brookdale Community College
Lauri Semarne, Los Angeles, California
Patty Shovanec, Texas Technical University
Marvin Stick, University of Massachusetts–Lowell
Joseph F. Stokes, Western Kentucky University
Kay Stroope, Phillips Community College–University of Arkansas
Dr. John Stroyls, Georgia Southwestern State University
Karen R. Swick, Palm Beach Atlantic College
Steven L. Thomassin, Ventura College
Bettie A. Truitt, Black Hawk College
Jean A. Vrechek, Sacramento City College
Michael D. Yarbrough, Cosumnes River College
Tom Zerger, Saginaw Valley State University
xii
Foreword

For the seventh edition of Elementary Geometry for College Students, the topics that com-
prise a minimal course include most of Chapters 1–6 and Chapter 8. For a more compre-
hensive course, the inclusion of Chapters 1–8 is recommended. Chapter P is recommended
for students who have not had an introduction to sets and methods of reasoning. Consider-
ing time constraints in the course content, these topics could be treated as optional:
■■ Section 2.6 Symmetry and Transformations
■■ Section 3.4 Basic Constructions Justified
■■ Section 3.5 Inequalities in a Triangle
■■ Section 5.6 Segments Divided Proportionally
■■ Section 6.4 Some Constructions and Inequalities for the Circle
■■ Section 7.1 Locus of Points
■■ Section 7.2 Concurrence of Lines
■■ Section 7.3 More About Regular Polygons
■■ Section 8.5 More Area Relationships in the Circle
■■ Section 10.6 The Three-Dimensional Coordinate System
To determine whether the study of Chapter P should be excluded (included), an
instructor (or student) should consider the simplicity (difficulty) of the chapter test found
at the end of Chapter P. Considering that this textbook may be used for a course of 3, 4, or
5 credit hours, the following diagram indicates the possible orders in which the chapters of
the textbook can be used:

l ➝ 2 ➝ 3 ➝ 4 ➝ 5 ➝ 6 ➝ 7(or 8) ➝ 8 ➝ (and/or 9 and/or 10 and/or 11)

For students who need further review or explanation of related algebraic topics, con-
sider those found in Appendix A:
A.1 Algebraic Expressions
A.2 Formulas and Equations
A.3 Inequalities
A.4 Factoring and Quadratic Equations
A.5 The Quadratic Formula and Square Root Properties
Sections A.4 and A.5 include these methods of solving quadratic equations: the fac-
toring method, the square roots method, and the Quadratic Formula.

Daniel C. Alexander and Geralyn M. Koeberlein

xiii
 Index of Applications

A Cliffs, 511 Gasoline tanks, 408

Aircraft, 107, 186, 275, 296, 511, 514, Clock, 115, 282, 286 Gate, 184
528, 530 Construction, 34, 38, 152, 541 Gazebo, 341
Allocation of supplies, 228 Containers, 229 Gears, 125, 299, 306, 384
Altitude, 107, 296, 520 Conic sections, 174, 438 Geoboard, 356, 462, 464
Aluminum cans, 230, 420, 427 Copy machines, 228 Geodesic dome, 175
Antenna, 252 Courtyards, 384 Germany, 221
Amusement parks, 286, 384 Goats, 391
Apartment buildings, 512, 515 D Golden Ratio, 227
Aquariums, 408 Deck, 360 GPS, 443
Architecture, 135, 181 Detours, 39 Grade, 454, 533
Astronomy, 69 Dials, 125 Great Pyramids, 214
Automobiles, 125, 172, 210, 224 Dice, 431, 436, 442 Groceries, 222, 260, 537
Disaster Response Agency, 336 Gurney (stretcher), 196
B Digital (Laser) tools, 35, 43, 57, 406 Guy wire, 252, 503
Ball, 434, 436 Distributing companies, 172, 336 Gymnasiums, 384
Balloons, 252, 505, 528 Doors, 51, 200
Barn, 213, 391 Drawbridge, 252–253 H
Baseball, 38, 115, 132, 529 Drainage, 408–409 Hanging sign, 49
Bavaria, 221 Driveways, 397 Headlight, 326
Banach-Tarski paradox, 492 Drug manufacturing, 441 Helicopters, 512, 520
Beach tent, 360 Drywall, 398 Hex bolt, 530
Beam, 533 Ductwork, 388 Highway, 505
Bearing, 25, 190 DVD player, 107 Hillside, 532
Billiards, 44 Hinge, 149
Binoculars, 296 E Holding patterns, 530
Birds, 439 Earth, 312 Hong Kong, 135
Blocks, 1 Electrician, 228, 383 Horizons, 296
Blueprints, 229, 236 Enemy headquarters, 528 Hotel, 296
Boards, 541, 551 Essing, 221 Hot-air balloons, 252, 533
Boating, 252, 260, 505 Exhaust chute, 418 Houses, 359, 408, 520
Bookcase, 158 Exit ramps, 391
Boxes, 405, 408, 541 I
Braces, 158, 205, 388 F Ice cream cone, 437
Bridges, 31, 79, 152, 212, 221, 252 Farming, 371, 433 Icicles, 58
Bullets, 529 Ferris wheel, 161, 384, 529 Illusions, 10, 31
Bunker Hill Bridge, 79 Fertilizer, 396 Insulation, 408
Butterflies, 117 Firefighters, 171, 520 Intelligence tests, 70
Fishing vessels, 497, 518 Ironing board, 196
C Flagpole, 234 Islands, 107
Calendars, 436 Flight, 439
Carousels, 385 Floor, 112, 371 J
Carpenters, 101, 157, 166, 168, 196, 259 Foundation, 1, 190 Joggers, 260
Carpet, 359, 384, 396, 397 Fold-down bed, 195 Joint savings, 261
Catapult, 174 Fountain, 277
Ceiling fans, 286 Foyer, 418 K
Cement block, 441 Furniture, 327 Kite, 192, 236, 252, 505, 534
Center of mass, 334 France, 319
Cereal boxes, 407 Freeways, 391 L
Chain belt, 299 Fuel tanks, 428 Ladders, 81, 213, 249, 505, 512
Chateau de Villandry, 319 Lamppost, 107, 236
Chambered nautilus, 230 G Lawn roller, 428
Chemical mixtures, 267 Garage doors, 236 Leonard P. Zakim Bridge, 79
China, 139 Garages, 511 Letters, 117–118
Church steeple, 415, 418 Garden plots, 319, 371 Level, 91
Clay pigeons, 529 Gasoline consumption, 222 Light fixtures, 208

xv
xvi Index of Applications

Lighthouse, 497, 518 Plastic pipe, 441 Storage tanks, 427, 428
Logos, 119, 123, 125, 203, 390 Plumb, 101, 168 Streetmaps, 190
Lookout tower, 520 Point-of-Division Formulas, 492–493 Surveyors, 296, 533
Los Angeles, 107, 351 Pond, 245 Suspension bridge, 212
Lug bolts, 115, 286 Pontusval Lighthouse, 497 Swimming pool, 213
Pools, 213, 396 Swing set, 193, 526, 527
M Popcorn container, 428
Magic squares, 202 Poster paper, 334 T
Magic triangles, 171 Probability, 431 Tabletops, 115, 385
Manufacturing, 149, 172, 233 Pulleys, 125, 300–301, 384 Tangrams, 208
Maps, 107, 171, 190, 449 Pump, 442 Tape measure, 35
Margarine tub, 428 Teepee, 427
Measuring wheel, 381 R Television (room) size, 232,
Meters, 125 Rafters, 528 233, 236
Mexico, 399 Railroads, 206 Tents, 360
Mirrors, 94 Ramp, 206, 259, 391 Tessellations, 376
Miters, 51 Recipes, 228, 267 Tethers, 391
Murphy bed, 195 Red Cross, 173 Tiles, 112, 376
Remodeling, 363 Tire jack, 200
N Roadway, 33, 152, 505 Tornado, 173, 336
NASA, 290 Roofline, 107, 213, 505, 534 Tracks, 228, 384
Natural gas, 125 Roofs, 107, 213, 359, 511 Travel speed, 190, 260
Nautilus (chambered), 230 Rope fastener, 69 Treadmill, 305
Nevada, 212 Rowboat, 505 Trees, 236
Nine-point circle, 345–346 Tower, 503
S Trapeze, 209
Salaries, 228 Triangular numbers, 70
O
Satellite, 357, 384 Tripod, 37
Observation, 275
Satellite dishes, 296, 326 Trough, 441
Observatory, 437
Seamstress, 228
Oil refinery, 428
Search and rescue, 512, 520 U
Orange juice container, 229, 427
Seascape, 296 Unit cost, 273
Origami, 429
Secretaries, 228
Shadows, 236
P V
Sharpshooters, 529
Painting, 359, 384, 437 Vacuum cleaners, 305
Ships, 275, 296
Parallelogram Law, 187, 190 Shoplifters, 94
Patio door, 200 Shorelines, 107 W
Patterns, 70 Shuttle, 290 Wall, 205
Pegboards, 356 Sidewalks, 376 Wallpaper, 395
Penrose stairs, 10 Signs, 49, 115 Washers, 382
Pentagon, 354 Ski lift, 513, 514 Weather map, 3
Periscope, 94 Soccer balls, 436, 437 Wheel, 115, 286
Picnic table, 115 Spindles, 426 Windows, 138
Pie chart, 386 Square numbers, 70, 214–215 Windshield wipers, 391
Piers, 252 St. Louis, 13, 324–325 Wood chipper, 418
Pills, 441 Staircase, 96 Woodwork, 363
Pipes, 390, 441 Starfish, 114 Wrench, 296, 530
Pitch (of roof), 454, 504 Stars, 296, 541
Pittman Dowell Residence, 351 Statistics, 386 Y
Pizza, 384, 390 Steeple, 415, 418 Yogurt container, 10, 428
Planetarium, 175, 296 Storage sheds, 398 Yucatan peninsula, 399
 7E

Elementary
Geometry
for College Students
 Preliminary Concepts P

iStock.com/actual_size
CHAPTER OUTLINE

P.1 Sets and Geometry Foundations ! The building blocks for the study of geometry can be
P.2 Statements and found in the early chapters. A firm foundation is essential for the building
Reasoning
of knowledge in geometry or any other field. However, you may already
P.3 Informal Geometry
be familiar with the concepts in Chapter P; if so, begin your study with
and Measurement
■ PERSPECTIVE
Chapter 1. In Section P.1, we introduce the notion of sets (collections of
ON HISTORY: objects). Sets of points form all geometric figures. For instance, lines,
Our Greek Heritage angles, triangles, and circles are sets of points. Regarding the geometric
■ PERSPECTIVE ON figures described above, we will study them, reason about them, and thus
APPLICATIONS: One-to- develop their properties. In Section P.2, we introduce three types of reason-
One Correspondence
ing that are fundamental to the development of geometry. The process of
■ SUMMARY
developing valid properties about geometric figures occurs in this order:
1. We have an idea (intuitive reasoning).
2. We repeatedly test the idea (inductive reasoning) to be sure that it is
credible.
3. We verify the idea/relationship as a necessary conclusion by piecing
together, in order, claims that we have already established.
Many fundamental concepts of geometry are introduced informally in
­Section P.3.

1
2 CHAPTER P ■ Preliminary Concepts

P.1 Sets and Geometry

key concepts
Set Point Paths (Straight, Line Segment, Line, Ray Disjoint Sets
Element Curved, Circular, Intersection and Union of Venn Diagrams
Finite and Infinite Scattered) Sets Equivalent Sets
Sets Between Empty Set Universe
Subset Continuous/Discontinuous Angle Complement of Set

SETS AND SETS OF NUMBERS

A set is any collection of objects, such as a collection of numbers or a collection of points. The
objects in a set are known as the elements of the set. Some sets are collections of numbers
such as the set of natural numbers or counting numbers N 5 51,2,3,4, c6, which is read
“the set containing 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on.” Another well-known set is R 5 5real numbers6,
the set of numbers on the number line; the real numbers include positives and negatives,
whole numbers, common fractions, and irrational numbers such as !2 and p. Decimal forms
for common fractions terminate or repeat, while those for irrational numbers do n­ either. In
the following example, a calculator is used to find decimal forms.

Example 1

Find the decimal forms for these numbers:

3 3
a)    b)    c) !2   d) p
4 11

SOLUTION
3 3
a) 5 0.75 b) 5 0.2727 c
4 11

c) !2 5 1.4142135 c d) p 5 3.1415926 c

Some sets are finite; such sets have a countable number of elements. At times, we use
the symbol N{A} to represent the number N of elements in a finite set A; for instance,
N51,2,36 5 3. Many sets are infinite; these sets have an uncountable number of
­elements (too many elements to count).

Example 2

Are these sets finite or infinite?

a) V 5 {vowels} 5 {a,e,i,o,u} b) N 5 {natural numbers}
The Student Study Guide (SSG) will
provide additional practice.
SOLUTION
a) V is finite; V has 5 elements, expressed by the statement N5V6 5 5.
SSG Exs. 1, 2 b) N is infinite; there is no largest counting number.
 P.1 ■ Sets and Geometry 3

When every element in one set belongs to another set, the first set is called a subset of
the second set. For instance, if A is the set A 5 51,2,36, then A is a subset of N, the set
of natural numbers (counting numbers); in symbols, A ⊆ N.
NOTE: The open part of the subset symbol is toward the larger set.

SETS OF POINTS
Geometry in Nature In geometry, a point has location but does not have size. A
71 A point is shown as a dot and is generally named by an upper-
case letter such as A. In Figure P.1, we see points A, B, and C. C
70 When many points appear together, a pattern or path is often B
75 159
73 formed. Some of those paths are characterized in Figure P.2.
Figure P.1
79 147 In Figure P.2(a), (b), and (c), you may think of the path in
75 much the same way that you would “stepping stones”; however
Source: MarylandWx.com

83 151
74 5 Figure P.2(d) does not create a path.

46 122
38 6
G20

The blue “dots” represent showers—

evidently of a “scattered” nature. (a) straight (b) curved (c) circular (d) scattered
Figure P.2

When we consider three of the points on a straight path (shown on a line), we generally
describe one point as being between the remaining two points; that does not necessarily
R S T
mean halfway between the other points.
Figure P.3 In Figure P.3, point S lies between points R and T.
A line is formed when an infinite number of points follow a straight path. One char-
acteristic of the line is that between any two points, there is always another point. The
infinite set of points that form the line is so dense that the line is said to be continuous.
B C Thus, a line can be drawn without lifting<the> pencil from the paper.
Figure P.4 In Figure P.4, line BC (in symbols, BC ) is named by two points B and C on the line.
Some subsets of the line are also shown in Figure P.5.
Name in words Symbols Endpoint(s)

Line segment BC BC or CB B and C B C

Ray BC BC B B C

Ray CB CB C B C
Figure P.5

Later, we will use a ruler to measure (find the length of) a line segment; however, a line or
ray does not have a length.
In Figure P.2, the paths created by the points display a quality known as ­discontinuous.
We now recall those paths in Figure P.6(a), (b), and (c), but display them with the
­quality known as continuous. This continuity would be like following a road rather than
stepping stones.

(a) straight (b) curved (c) circular

SSG Exs. 3–5 Figure P.6
4 CHAPTER P ■ Preliminary Concepts

INTERSECTION AND UNION OF SETS

DEFINITION
The set of elements that are common to (belong to both) sets P and Q is known as the
intersection of P and Q. The symbol for this intersection is P d Q.

Geometry in the Real World Example 3

Mattis Ave.

Where A 5 51,2,3,46 and B 5 52,4,6,86, find the intersection A d B. Also, find N5A d B6.

SOLUTION Because 2 and 4 are the only elements that appear in both sets, A d B 5 52,46.
Bradley Ave. Because A d B contains 2 elements, we say that N5A d B6 5 2.

< > < > D

< > the< intersection
In Figure P.7, > of AB and CD is point A
In the real world, the common E; that is, AB d CD 5 E. E
part of two roads is known as their
A set containing no elements is called the empty B
intersection.
set and is represented by the symbol ∅; for instance, C

B
the set of counting numbers between < > 4< and
> 5 is the
empty set. Also, the two lines AB and < > CD< in> Figure
A
D
P.8 have no points in common; thus, AB d CD 5 ∅. Figure P. 7
Two sets that have no elements in common are also known as disjoint sets. For
C ­example, the sets C 5 51,36 and D 5 52,46 are disjoint sets.

Figure P. 8
DEFINITION
The set of elements that are in set P, set Q, or both sets P and Q is known as the union of
Warning P and Q. The symbol for the union of sets P and Q is P < Q.
We will describe a set by one of the
following: empty, finite, or infinite. For
clarification, a finite set has a count-
ing number 51,2,3,4,c6 of elements Example 4
while the empty set has 0 elements.
Where A 5 51,2,3,46 and B 5 52,4,6,86, find the union A < B. Also, find N5A < B6.

SOLUTION Combining all elements in A and B, we have A < B 5 51,2,3,4,6,86.

Because A < B contains 6 elements, we have N5A < B6 5 6.

> union> of two rays

In geometry, we will define an angle as the A
>
with a common >
endpoint. In Figure P.9, BA and BC are known
as rays; BA < BC 5 ∠ABC, where ∠ABC is read “angle ABC” B
SSG Exs. 5–8 and traces a path from A to B, and then from B to C.
C
The fact that every angle has two sides can be expressed
by writing N{sides of an angle} 5 2. Later we will measure an Figure P. 9
angle by using an instrument called the protractor.

SETS AND VENN DIAGRAMS

Sets of objects are sometimes represented by geometric figures such as circles or rectan-
gles. These figures are known as Venn Diagrams in honor of their creator, John Venn, an
Englishman who lived from 1834 a.d. to 1923 a.d. If we represent sets by A and B, there are
several possible relationships, as shown in Figure P.10. When the figures representing the
two sets intersect, we sometimes say that the Venn Diagrams overlap; see Figure P.10(b).
Two sets that have exactly the same elements are known as equivalent sets. The two
sets E 5 52,4,6,86 and F 5 5even numbers between 1 and 96 are equivalent, written
E 5 F. When the two sets are equivalent, only one set is shown (but labeled twice), as in
Figure P.10(d).
 P.1 ■ Sets and Geometry 5

A is a subset of B A and B intersect A and B are disjoint A and B are equivalent

A A 
B BA  BA  BA A 
BBA
 
BAB A
A
BB
A
 
BAB  
A A 
B BA  BA  B

AA BAB AB A A B A A BB BA A B A
BB AB ABA AB B A B B

(a)(a) (a) (a) (b)(b) (b) (b) (c)(c) (c) (c) (d)(d) (d) (d)
Figure P.10

Example 5

Which relationship (subset, intersect, disjoint, equivalent) exists between these sets?
a) A 5 51,2,36; B 5 5counting numbers less than 46
b) C 5 52,4,6,86; D 5 5all even numbers6
c) E 5 52,3,5,7,116; F 5 5single digit counting numbers6
d)   G 5 5all even numbers6; H 5 5all odd numbers6

SOLUTION
a) Because B 5 51,2,36, sets A and B are equivalent; that is, A 5 B.
b) Because D 5 5c,26,24,22,0,2,4,6,8,10, c6, C is a subset of D; that is,
C ⊆ D.
c) Because F 5 51,2,3,4,c,96, E d F 5 52,3,5,76; that is, E and F intersect.
SSG Exs. 9, 10 d) Because no even number is odd, G d H 5 ∅; these sets are disjoint.

In some discussions, the term universe is used to describe a set that contains all of
the elements and subsets under discussion. In the form of a Venn Diagram, all subsets
appear within the universe (or universal set). In Figure P.11, let D 5 5dogs6, while
P 5 5pomeranians6, C 5 5collies6, and B 5 5beagles6. In Figure P.11, D is the univer-
sal set containing the disjoint subsets P, C, and B.

P
B

Figure P.11

In geometry, we will use the notion of a universe many times, but perhaps without
calling so much attention to it. For instance, the universe implied in Chapter 3 will be
T 5 5triangles6. A triangle, as you may very well know, has 3 sides that are line seg-
ments. In that chapter, many subsets will be considered: triangles with 2 sides of equal
length, triangles with 3 sides of equal length, triangles in which one of the angles formed is
known as a right angle, and so on. In Chapter 4, we will focus upon Q 5 5quadrilaterals6,
figures with 4 line segment sides; some of these are squares and others rectangles. Where
P is a subset of the universe U, we define a related concept.
6 CHAPTER P ■ Preliminary Concepts

DEFINITION
The complement of set P, a subset of universe U, is the set that contains the elements of
U that are not in P. The symbol ,P represents the complement of P.

SSG Exs. 11, 12 The shaded region in Figure P.12 represents the complement of P. Informally, the comple-
ment is the portion of U not in P.

Figure P.12

Exercises P.1
1. Is the set named empty, finite, or infinite? 8. Let A, B, and C lie on a
a) N 5 5counting numbers6 straight line as shown. A B C
b) V 5 5vowels6 Classify these claims as Exercises 7, 8
c) 
P 5 5points in the intersection of two disjoint sets6 true or false.
a) There is no point that lies between A and B.
2. Is the set named empty, finite, or infinite?
b) AB has endpoints A and B.
a) L 5 5points on a line6
B 5 5baseballs used in a major league game6
b)  9. Given A 5 51,2,3,46, B 5 52,4,6,86, and C 5 51,3,5,7,96.
N 5 5negative numbers that are larger than 56
c)  Find:
a) A d B
3. Where possible, use the symbol ⊆ to join the two sets.
b) B < C
V 5 5vowels6; L 5 5letters in the alphabet6
a) 
c) 1A d B2 d 1B < C2
b) A 5 51,2,3,46; B 5 52,4,6,86
10. Consider sets A, B, and C from Exercise 9. Find:
4. Where possible, use the symbol ⊆ to join the two sets.
a) A < B
a) 
P 5 5all pages in this book6;
b) B d C
T 5 5page 10 of this book6
c) 1A ∪ B2 d 1A ∪ C2
b) 
P 5 5points on a circular path P6;
E 5 5points A and B that lie on the circular path P6 11. For the sets given in Exercise 9, is there a “distributive rela-
tionship for union with respect to intersection”? That is, does
5. Which type of path (straight, curved, circular, or scattered) is
A < 1B d C2 5 1A < B2 d 1A < C2?
determined by:
a) a roller coaster? 12. For the sets given in Exercise 9, is there a “distributive rela-
b) a pencil? tionship for intersection with respect to union”? That is, does
c) a carousel? A d 1B < C2 5 1A d B2 < 1A d C2?
d) darts thrown at a dartboard?
6. Which type of path (straight, curved, circular, or scattered) is
< > < > 13 to< 16,
For Exercises > consider the figure with the circle and
lines AB , CE , and GF . Classify the following claims as true or
determined by: false.
a) pepper sprinkled on a steak?
C
b) a Ferris wheel? < > circle and
13. The
D
F
c) a ruler? AB intersect in B
E
d) the path of a snake? two points. H
< > < >
7. Let A, B, and C lie on a straight line as shown near 14. CD d GF 5 E
Exercise 8. Classify these claims as true or false. 15. Two lines must G A
> between A and C.
a) B lies intersect in one
b) AB is a ray with endpoint B. point. Exercises 13–16
 P.1 ■ Sets and Geometry 7
< >
16. The circle and CE intersect in point D. 28. With P and Q subsets of U (as shown), shade , 1P d Q2.

17. Use the angle symbol 1∠2 and 29. The figures below are triangles. Find:
> three> letters to name the angle
formed by the two rays CD and CE (rays not shown). N5sides in a triangle6.

18. Use the angle symbol 1∠2 >and three> letters to name the angle
formed by the two rays EF and EG (rays not shown).
19. What relationship (subset, intersect, disjoint, or equivalent)
can be used to characterize the two sets shown in the Venn
30. The figures below are quadrilaterals. Find:
Diagram?
N5sides in a quadrilateral6.
A B
B
A

(a) (b) 31. If N5A6 5 3 and N5B6 5 5, what is:

a) the smallest number possible for N5A d B6?
20. What relationship (subset, intersect, disjoint, or equivalent)
b) the largest number possible for N5A < B6?
can be used to characterize the two sets shown in the Venn
Diagram? 32. If N5A6 5 3 and N5B6 5 5, what is:
a) the largest number possible for N5A d B6?
b) the smallest number possible for N5A < B6?
A B A B Exercises 33–38 are based on the principle
N1A < B2 5 N5A6 1 N5B6 2 N1A d B2.
33. If N5A6 5 7 and N5B2 5 7 and N1A < B2 5 7, how are A
(a) (b)
and B related?
21. If A 5 51,2,3,46 and B 5 52,4,6,86, find: 34. If N5A6 5 7 and N5B6 5 3 and N1A < B2 5 10, how are
a) N5A6 A and B related?
b) N5B6
c) N1A d B2 35. An interview of 50 women in a residential subdivision
d) N1A < B2 reveals that 21 are gardeners while 32 are avid readers. How
many are both gardeners and avid readers?
22. If A 5 5vowels6 and B 5 5letters in the word “spare”6,
find: 36. At a liberal arts school, a survey of 100 students indicates
a) N5A6 that 68 enjoy their English class while 47 enjoy their math-
b) N5B6 ematics class. How many of these students enjoy both their
c) N1A d B2 English class and their mathematics class?
d) N1A < B2 37. Alekzio, a librarian at the city library, is reshelving books.
23. Find a universe for the set {algebra, geometry, trigonometry, He replaces 47 mysteries and 69 romance novels; of these,
calculus}. 32 were cross-listed as both mystery and romance. How
many books did Alekzio reshelve in all?
24. Find a universe for the set {apples, bananas, pears, peaches,
strawberries}. 38. At “It’s a Small World,” dance classes and gymnastics
classes are offered to preschool-age children. For the fall
25. Where P 5 51,3,5,7,96 and U 5 51,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,96, classes, 65 preschoolers are enrolled in dance classes and
find ,P. 58 are enrolled in gymnastics classes. Of those students,
26. Where C 5 5consonants6 and U 5 526 letters of the 26 were enrolled in both dance and gymnastics classes.
alphabet}, find ,C. How many total students were enrolled?

27. With P and Q subsets

U
of U (as shown), shade
, 1P < Q2. P
Q

Exercises 27, 28
8 CHAPTER P ■ Preliminary Concepts

P.2 Statements and Reasoning

key concepts
Statement Disjunction Reasoning Valid and Invalid
Variable Conditional Statement Intuition Arguments
Negation (Implication) Induction Law of Detachment
Compound Statement Hypothesis Deduction Counterexample
Conjunction Conclusion

Statements
DEFINITION
A statement is a set of words and/or symbols that collectively make a claim that can be
classified as true or false.

EXAMPLE 1
e 1
Sid
Classify each of the following as a true statement, a false statement, or neither.
Side 2
1. 4 1 3 5 7
Figure P.13 2. An angle has two sides. (See Figure P.13.)
3. Robert E. Lee played shortstop for the Yankees.
4. 7 6 3 (This is read “7 is less than 3.”)
5. Look out!
Solution 1 and 2 are true statements; 3 and 4 are false statements; 5 is not a
statement.

Some statements contain one or more variables; a variable is a letter that represents
a number. The claim “x 1 5 5 6” is called an open sentence or open statement because
it can be classified as true or false, depending on the replacement value of x. For instance,
x 1 5 5 6 is true if x 5 1; for x not equal to 1, x 1 5 5 6 is false. Some statements
containing variables are classified as true because they are true for all replacements. Con-
sider the Commutative Property of Addition, usually stated in the form a 1 b 5 b 1 a.
In words, this property states that the same result is obtained when two numbers are added in
either order; for instance, when a 5 4 and b 5 7, it follows that 4 1 7 5 7 1 4.
The negation of a given statement P makes a claim opposite that of the original state-
ment. If the given statement is true, its negation is false, and vice versa. If P is a statement,
we use ~P (which is read “not P”) to indicate its negation.

EXAMPLE 2

Give the negation of each statement.

a) 4 1 3 5 7 b) All fish can swim.

Solution
a) 4 1 3 ≠ 7 ( ≠ means “is not equal to.”)
b) Some fish cannot swim. (To negate “All fish can swim,” we say that at least one
fish cannot swim.)

A compound statement is formed by combining other statements used as “building

blocks.” In such cases, we may use letters such as P and Q to represent simple statements.
 P.2 ■ Statements and Reasoning 9

For example, the letter P may refer to the true statement “4 1 3 5 7,” and the letter Q
TABLE P.1
to the false statement “Babe Ruth was a U.S. president.” The statement “4 1 3 5 7 and
The Conjunction
Babe Ruth was a U.S. president” has the form P and Q, and is known as the conjunction of
P Q P and Q P and Q. The statement “4 1 3 5 7 or Babe Ruth was a U.S. president” has the form P
or Q, and is known as the disjunction of statement P and statement Q. A conjunction is true
T T T only when P and Q are both true. A disjunction is false only when P and Q are both false.
T F F See Tables P.1 and P.2.
F T F
F F F EXAMPLE 3

Assume that statement P and statement Q are both true.

TABLE P.2
The Disjunction P: 4 1 3 5 7
Q: An angle has two sides.
P Q P or Q
Classify the following statements as true or false.
T T T 1. 4 1 3 ≠ 7 and an angle has two sides.
T F T 2. 4 1 3 ≠ 7 or an angle has two sides.
F T T
Solution Statement 1 is false because the conjunction has the form “F and T.”
F F F
Statement 2 is true because the disjunction has the form “F or T.”

The statement “If P, then Q,” known as a conditional statement (or implication), is
classified as true or false as a whole. A statement of this form can be written in equivalent
forms; for instance, the conditional statement, “If an angle is a right angle, then it measures
90 degrees” is equivalent to the statement, “All right angles measure 90 degrees.”

Example 4

Classify each conditional statement as true or false.

1. If an animal is a fish, then it can swim. (States, “All fish can swim.”)
2. If two sides of a triangle are equal in length, then two angles of the triangle are
equal in measure. (See Figure P.14.)

5 in. 5 in. 5 in. 1068 5 in.

378 378
8 in. 8 in.
Figure P.14

3. If Wendell studies, then he will receive an A on the test.

Solution Statements 1 and 2 are true. Statement 3 is false; Wendell may study yet
not receive an A.

In the conditional statement “If P, then Q,” P is the hypothesis and Q is the conclu-
sion. In statement 2 of Example 4, we have
Hypothesis: Two sides of a triangle are equal in length.
Conclusion: Two angles of the triangle are equal in measure.
For the true statement “If P, then Q,” the hypothetical situation described in P implies the
conclusion described in Q. This type of statement is often used in reasoning, so we turn
SSG Exs. 1–7 our attention to this matter.
10 CHAPTER P ■ Preliminary Concepts
Geometry in the Real World
Geometry in the Real World
In a cartoon, the character having
the “bright idea” (using intuition) is
shown with a light bulb next to his or
her head.
B
A C
E D
Figure P.15
Discover
An optical illusion known as “Penrose
stairs” is shown below. Although com-
mon sense correctly concludes that
no such stairs can be constructed,
what unusual quality appears to be
true of the stairs drawn?
ANSWER
The stairs constantly rise or descend.
Reasoning
Success in the study of geometry requires vocabulary development, attention to detail and
order, supporting claims, and thinking. Reasoning is a process based on experience and
principles that leads to a conclusion. The following types of reasoning are used to develop
mathematical principles.
1. Intuition an inspiration leading to the statement of a theory
2. Induction an organized effort to test and validate the theory
3. Deduction a formal argument that proves the tested theory
◆ Intuition
We are often inspired to think and say, “It occurs to me that. . . .” With intuition, a ­sudden
insight allows one to make a statement without applying any formal reasoning. When ­intuition
is used, we sometimes err by “jumping” to conclusions.
Example 5
Figure P.15 is called a regular pentagon because its five sides have equal lengths and its
five interior angles have equal measures. What do you suspect is true of the lengths of
the dashed parts of lines from B to E and from B to D?
Solution  Intuition suggests that the lengths of the dashed parts of lines (known as
diagonals of the pentagon) are the same.
Note 1: Using induction (and a ruler), we can verify that this claim is true. We will
discuss measurement with the ruler in more detail in Section P.3.
Note 2: Using methods found in Chapter 3, we could use deduction to prove that the
two diagonals do indeed have the same length.
The role intuition plays in formulating mathematical thoughts is truly significant. But to
have an idea is not enough! Testing a theory may lead to a revision of the theory or even
to its total rejection. If a theory stands up to testing, it moves one step closer to becoming
mathematical law.
◆ Induction
We often use specific observations and experiments to draw a general conclusion. This type of
reasoning is called induction. As you would expect, the observation/experimentation process
is common in laboratory and clinical settings. Chemists, physicists, doctors, psychologists,
meteorologists (weather forecasters), and many others use collected data as a basis for draw-
ing conclusions. In our study of geometry, the inductive process generally has us use a ruler or
a protractor (to measure angles).
Example 6
While in a grocery store, you examine several 6-oz cartons of yogurt. Although the
­flavors and brands differ, each carton is priced at 95 cents. What do you conclude?
Conclusion Every 6-oz carton of yogurt in the store costs 95 cents.
 P.2 ■ Statements and Reasoning 11

Example 7

In a geometry class, you have been asked to measure the three interior angles of each
­triangle in Figure P.16. You discover that triangles I, II, and IV have two angles (as
marked) that have equal measures. What may you conclude?

Conclusion  The triangles that have two sides of equal length also have two angles
of equal measure.

3 cm 1 cm
II
5 in.
3 in.
3 cm III
4 cm
4 cm
I 4 in.

5 in. 6 ft
5 in. 3 ft
2 cm IV V

7 in. 7 ft

Figure P.16

Note: The protractor, used to support the conclusion above, will be discussed in
Section P.3.

◆ Deduction

DEFINITION
Deduction is the type of reasoning in which the knowledge and acceptance of selected
assumptions guarantee the truth of a particular conclusion.

In Example 8, we illustrate a valid argument, a form of deductive reasoning used

frequently in the development of geometry. In this form, at least two statements are treated
as facts; these assumptions are called the premises of the argument. On the basis of the
premises, a particular conclusion must follow. This form of deduction is called the Law of
Detachment.

Example 8

If you accept the following statements 1 and 2 as true, what must you conclude?
1. If a student plays on the Rockville High School boys’ varsity basketball team,
then he is a talented athlete.
2. Todd plays on the Rockville High School boys’ varsity basketball team.

Conclusion Todd is a talented athlete.

To more easily recognize this pattern for deductive reasoning, we use letters to represent
statements in the following generalization.
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in intaglio; others were beaten up with the hammer or chisel so as to
stand in gentle salience above their bed. But, speaking generally, no
attempt was made to model the nude figures of men or women in the
round. No suspicion of the wealth of suggestion latent especially in
the latter, seems to have dawned upon the Assyrian mind. If we
except a few terra-cotta statuettes, the artist who in some way gave
proof of so much resource, of so much skill and ingenuity, seems
never to have felt the charm of female beauty. The beauty of woman
is the light of nature, the perennial joy of the eye; to exclude it from
the ideal world created by the plastic arts is to condemn that world to
a perpetual twilight, to cast over it a veil of chill monotony and
sadness.
 Fig. 261.—Egyptian mirror, actual
size. Louvre. Drawn by Saint-Elme
Gautier.
In the arts of all those peoples who received the teachings of
Egypt and Chaldæa, whether at first hand, like the Phœnicians, or at
second, like the Greeks, the two distinct influences can always be
traced. Mesopotamia may be recognized in certain ornamental
motives, such as the “knop and flower,” the rosettes and palmettes,
as well as in its taste for the symmetry given by coupled figures; still
more clearly is it betrayed in motives into which lions and the whole
tribe of fantastic animals are introduced, struggling with and
devouring each other, and occasionally brought to the ground by
some individual dressed in a long gaberdine and crowned with a
tiara.
On the other hand, it is to Egypt that our thoughts are turned
when the human body meets our eyes in its unveiled nobility, with all
the variety of attitude and outline its forms imply. The peoples of
Western Asia learnt much in the school of the Chaldæan artist, but
the teaching given by the Egyptian sculptor was of a higher order,
and far better adapted to guide them in the way that leads to those
exquisite creations in which delicacy and certainty of hand are
happily allied with imaginative power. Sooner or later such teaching
must have aroused, in open and inquiring minds, a feeling for beauty
like that felt in her peculiar fashion by Egypt, a feeling to which
Greece, when once put in her right way, gave the fullest expression it
has ever received in marble and bronze.
In order to make good a comparison that no historian of art can
avoid, we have placed ourselves successively at two different points
of view, and from both we have arrived at the same result: as artists
the Egyptians take a higher rank than the Assyrians, than those
constructors who obstinately neglected the column even when they
built with stone, than those sculptors who avoided measuring
themselves with nature, and who shirked her difficulties by draping
their figures. But before thus bringing the two methods and the two
ways of looking at form into opposition, we ought perhaps to have
pointed out a difference in which this inequality is foreshadowed. In
all the monarchies of the East the great monuments were
anonymous, or, at least, if a name was given in the official texts it
was not that of the artist who conceived them, but of the king under
whom they were created. It is not till we arrive at Greece that we find
public opinion placing the work of art and its author so high that the
latter feels himself justified in signing his own creation. But although
this practice was not inaugurated in Egypt, numerous inscriptions
bear witness to the high rank held in Egyptian society by the artists
to whom the king confided the construction and decoration of his
buildings.[462] These men were not only well paid; they received
honours which they are careful to record, and their fame was spread
over the whole valley of the Nile. In the cuneiform texts we have so
far failed to discover the name of a single architect or sculptor, and it
does not appear that a reason for the omission is to be sought in the
peculiar conditions of Chaldæo-Assyrian epigraphy. Although
Babylon and Nineveh have not left us thousands of epitaphs like
those rescued from the sands of Egypt, we possess many private
contracts and agreements in which information similar to that
afforded in other countries by the sepulchral steles is to be found.
Neither there nor elsewhere do we find a trace of anything
corresponding to the conspicuous rank held under the Theban
princes of the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties, by a Semnat, a
Bakhenkhonsou, or any other of the royal architects whose names
have been handed down to us in the texts.
It is unlikely that this difference will vanish when more texts have
been translated. The inequality in the position of the two artists is
readily explained by the unequal development of the two arts.
Egyptian architecture is learned and skilful after a fashion quite
distinct from that of Mesopotamia. It is not content, like the latter, to
spread itself out laterally and to heap up huge masses of earth, to be
afterwards clothed in thin robes of enamelled faïence, of painted and
sculptured alabaster. In spite of their rich decorations, palaces like
those of Nimroud and Khorsabad never quite threw off their
appearance of gigantic improvisations. Their plans once determined
—and Assyrian plans only varied within very narrow limits—the
method of roofing, flat or vaulted, fixed upon for each apartment, all
the rest was only a matter of foremen and their legions of half-skilled
workmen. At the very least we may say that the architect who
superintended the building of a Ninevite palace had a far easier task
than his rival of Thebes or Memphis. The arrangement of porticoes
and hypostyle halls demanded much thought and taste, and, if the
work when finished was at all to come up to the ideas of its creator,
the workmen who cut the graceful capitals and sturdy architraves
from the huge masses of granite, sandstone, or limestone, had to be
supervised with an unremitting care unknown and uncalled for in
Mesopotamia. The architects who raised the colonnades of Karnak
and the Ramesseum for Seti and his famous son, were the Ictinus
and Mnesicles of the East. We may become better acquainted than
we are now with the monumental history of Mesopotamia, but we
shall never find within her borders artists worthy to be placed on a
level with those Theban masters.
And if we compare the sculptors of Thebes and Nineveh, we shall
arrive at the same conclusion. On the one hand we find artists who,
whether they worked for the tomb or the temple, in the most
stubborn or the most kindly materials, chiselled images that either
delight us with their simple truth, or impress us with their noble
gravity and colossal size. A whole nation of statues issued from
those Egyptian studios through which we have conducted our
readers, many of them real masterpieces in their way. In
Mesopotamia, after early attempts that seemed full of promise, the
art of modelling statues was soon abandoned. In the glorious days of
Nineveh, all that was required of the sculptor was a talent, we might
say a knack, for cutting in the soft gypsum or limestone realistic
illustrations of the conquests and hunts of the reigning prince. He
had to turn out purely historical and anecdotic sculpture by the yard,
or rather by the mile; while in Egypt we see the whole nation, with its
kings and gods, revive to a second life in those forceful and sincere
portraits of which so many thousands have come down to our day.
In placing the distinctive features of the individual upon wood or
stone, the sculptor did something more than flatter the vanity of the
great; he prolonged their existence, he helped them to keep off the
assaults of death and to defy annihilation. From Pharaoh to the
humblest fellah, every one had to conciliate the man who possessed
such a quasi-magic power, and from whom such an all-important
service might have to be demanded. The common people bought
ready-made figures in a shop, on which they were content to cut
their names, but the kings and nobles commissioned their statues
from the best artists of the time, and some reflex from the respect
and admiration surrounding the sovereign must have fallen upon the
man to whom he confided the task of giving perpetuity to his royal
features, in those statues that during the whole of his reign would
stand on the thresholds and about the courts of the temple, and on
the painted walls of that happy abode to whose shadows he would
turn when full of years and eager for rest.
 If, before the advent of the Greeks, there were any people in the
ancient world in whom a passion for beauty was innate, they were
the people of Egypt. The taste of Chaldæa was narrower, less frank
and less unerring; she was unable, at least in the same degree, to
ally force with grace; her ideal had less nobility, and her hand less
freedom and variety. It is by merits of a different kind that she regains
the advantage lost in the arts. If her artists fell short of their rivals,
her savants seem to have been superior to those of Egypt. In their
easy-going and well-organized life, the Egyptians appear to have
allowed the inquiring side of their intellects to go to sleep. Morality
seems to have occupied them more than science; they made no
great efforts to think.
The Chaldæans were the reverse of all this. We have reason to
believe that they were the first to ask themselves the question upon
which all philosophy is founded, the question as to the true origin of
things. Their solution of the problem was embodied in the
cosmogonies handed down to us in fragments by the Greek writers,
and although their conceptions have only been received through
intermediaries by whom their meaning has often been altered and
falsified, we are still enabled to grasp their fundamental idea through
all the obscurities due to a double and sometimes triple translation,
and that idea was that the world was created by natural forces, by
the action of causes even now at work. The first dogma of the
Babylonian religion was the spontaneous generation of things from
the liquid element.[463]
The first vague presentiment and rough sketch, as it were, of
certain theories that have made a great noise in the world in our own
day, may be traced, it is asserted, in the cosmogonic writings of
ancient Chaldæa. Even the famous hypothesis of Darwin has been
searched for and found, if we may believe the searchers. In any case
it seems well established that the echo of these speculations
reached the Ionian sages who were the fathers of Greek philosophy.
Their traces are perceptible, some scholars declare, in the Theogony
of Hesiod. Possibly it is so; there are certainly some striking points of
resemblance; but where the influence of such ideas is really and
clearly evident is in those philosophic poems that succeeded each
other about the sixth century B.C., all under the same title:
concerning nature (περὶφύσεως).[464] These poems are now lost, but
judging from what we are told by men who read them in the original,
the explanation they gave of the creation of the world and of the first
appearance upon it of organized beings, differed only in its more
abstract character from that proposed many centuries before, and
under the form of a myth, by the priests of Chaldæa. If we may trust
certain indications, these bold and ingenious doctrines crossed over
from Ionia to the mainland of Greece, and reached the ears of such
writers as Aristophanes and Plato.
It does the greatest honour to Chaldæa that its bold speculations
should have thus contributed to awaken the lofty intellectual
ambitions and the scientific curiosity of Greece, and perhaps she
may have rendered the latter country a still more signal service in
teaching her those methods by whose use man draws himself clear
of barbarism and starts on the road to civilization; a single example
of this will be sufficient. It is more than forty years since Bœckh, and
Brandis after him, proved that all the measures of length, weight and
capacity used by the ancients, were correlated in the same fashion
and belonged to one scale. Whether we turn to Persia, to Phœnicia
or Palestine, to Athens or Rome, we are constantly met by the
sexagesimal system of the Babylonians. The measurements of time
and of the diurnal passage of the sun employed by all those peoples,
were founded on the same divisions and borrowed from the same
inventors. It is to the same people that we owe our week of seven
days, which, though not at first adopted by the western nations,
ended by imposing itself upon them.[465] As for astronomy, from a
period far away in the darkness of the past it seems to have been a
regular branch of learning in Chaldæa; the Greeks knew very little
about it before the conquests of Alexander; it was more than a
century after the capture of Babylon by the Macedonians that the
famous astrological tables were first utilized by Hipparchus.[466]
In the sequel we shall come upon further borrowings and
connections of this kind, whose interest and importance has never
been suspected by the historian until within the last few years. Take
the chief gods and demi-gods to whom the homage of the peoples of
Syria and Asia Minor was paid, and you will have no difficulty in
acknowledging that, although their names were often changed on
the way, Mesopotamia was the starting place of them all. By
highways of the sea as well as those on land, the peoples
established on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean entered into
relations with the tribes of another race who dwelt on the European
coasts of the same sea; they introduced them to their divinities and
taught them the rites by which those divinities were honoured and
the forms under which they were figured. Without abandoning the
gods they worshipped in common with their brother Aryans, the
Greeks adopted more than one of these Oriental deities. This is not
the place to consider the question in detail. We must put aside for
the present both the Cybele of Cappadocia and Phrygia and that
Ephesian Artemis, who, after being domiciled and naturalized in one
of the Hellenic capitals, so obstinately and so long preserved her
foreign characteristics; we must for the moment forget Aphrodite,
that goddess of a different fortune whose name is enough to call up
visions of not a few masterpieces of classic art and poetry. Does not
all that we know of this daughter of the sea, of her journeys, of the
first temples erected to her on the Grecian coasts and of the peculiar
character of her rites and attributes—does not all this justify us in
making her a lineal descendant of Zarpanitu, of Mylitta and Istar, of
all those goddesses of love and motherhood created by the
imagination and worshipped by the piety of the Semites of Chaldæa?
On the other hand the more we know of Egypt the less inclined are
we to think that any of the gods of her Pantheon were transported to
Greece and Italy, at least in the early days of antiquity.
Incomplete as they cannot help being, these remarks had to be
made. They will explain why in the scheme of our work we have
given similar places to Chaldæa and Egypt. The artist will always
have a predilection for the latter country, a preference he will find no
difficulty in justifying; but the historian cannot take quite the same
view. It is his special business to weigh the contributions of each
nation to the common patrimony of civilization, and he will
understand how it is that Chaldæa, in spite of the deficiencies of its
plastic art, worked more for others than Egypt and gave more of its
substance and life. Hidden among surrounding deserts the valley of
the Nile only opened upon the rest of the world by the ports on a
single short line of frontier. The basin of the Euphrates was much
more easily accessible. It had no frontier washed by the
Mediterranean, but it communicated with that sea by more numerous
routes than Egypt, and by routes whose diversity enhanced the
effect of the examples they were the means of conveying to the
outer world.
It is, to all appearance, to the ancient inhabitants of Mesopotamia
that humanity owes the cultivation of wheat, its chief alimentary
plant.[467] This precious cereal seems to have been a native of the
valleys of the Indus and Euphrates; nowhere else is it found in a wild
state. From those two regions it must have spread eastwards across
India to China, and westwards across Syria into Egypt and
afterwards on to the European continent. From the rich plains where
the Hebrew tradition set the cradle of the human race, the winds
carried many seeds besides those by which men’s bodies have so
long been nourished; the germs of all useful arts and of all mental
activities were borne on their breath like a fertilizing dust. Among
those distant ancestors of whom we are the direct heirs, those
ancestors who have left us that heritage of civilization which grows
with every year that passes, there are none, perhaps, to whom our
respect and our filial gratitude are more justly due than to the ancient
inhabitants of Chaldæa.
 ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.

VOL I.

P. 155.—It was not only as mortar that bitumen was used. Mr.
Rassam tells us that he found at Abou-Abba (Sippara), in Chaldæa,
a chamber paved with asphalte much in the same fashion as a
modern street in London or Paris (Proceedings of the Society of
Biblical Archæology).
P. 200.—From a late communication to the Society of Biblical
Archæology we learn that Mr. Rassam found the Sippara tablet in
the corner of a room, under the floor; it was inclosed in an inscribed
earthenware box.
P. 242, line 12; for Shalmaneser III. read Shalmaneser II.
P. 266, line 8 from foot: for Plate X. read Plate IX.
P. 305.—Intercourse between the valley of the Nile and that of
the Tigris and Euphrates seems to have begun not sooner than the
eighteenth Egyptian dynasty. To this conclusion we are led both by
Egyptian texts and by the tablets in the library of Assurbanipal. Most
of the tablets are reprints—if we may say so—of texts dating
originally from Ur, and from the time of the ancient Chaldæan
monarchy. Now these texts seem to have been written by a people
who knew not Egypt; no mention of that country is to be found in
them. They contain a division of the world into four regions, in none
of which Egypt has a place (Sayce, The Early Relations of Egypt and
Babylonia, in Lepsius’s Zeitschrift, p. 150).
P. 349.—We may here draw attention to an object which may be
compared to that described by M. Clermont Ganneau, both for its
intrinsic character and its probable destination. It is a tablet in brown
limestone, portable, and surmounted by a ring or staple cut in the
material. On one face there is a bas-relief in which the goddess who
occupies the lower register in Péretié’s bronze again appears. She
has the head of a lioness, a snake dangles from each hand, the
arms are outstretched, and two animals, in which Layard recognises
a lioness and a sow, hang to her breasts. This goddess stands
before an animal which has a bull’s head in the engraving given by
Lajard. But its feet are those of a horse, and no doubt we should find
that the animal in question was a horse if we could examine the
original; but we do not know what has become of it. If, as there
seems reason to believe, this goddess is an infernal deity, it is easy
to understand why serpents were placed in her hands. These
reptiles are the symbols of resurrection; every year they quit their old
skins for new ones. The object in question is described in detail in
the Recherches sur le Culte de Vénus, p. 130, and figured in Plate
XVI, Fig. 1. Upon one of the larger faces of the tablet and upon its
edges there are inscriptions, magic formulæ according to M. Fr.
Lenormant.
This tablet was formerly in the cabinet of M. Rousseau, at one
time French consul at Bagdad. It was found in the ruins of Babylon.
Size, 24 inches high by 24 inches wide, and 3⅞ inches thick.
P. 384.—In speaking of the excavations made by Sir H.
Rawlinson at Borsippa, we forgot to mention his paper entitled On
the Birs Nimroud; or, The Great Temple of Borsippa (Journal of the
Royal Asiatic Society, vol. xviii. p. 1–32). Paragraphs 1 and 2 give an
account of the excavations, and we regret that we wrote of the
religious architecture of Chaldæa before having read them. Not that
they contain anything to cause us to change our conceptions of the
staged towers. The excavations seem to have been carried on with
great care, but they hardly gave results as complete as they might
have done had they been directed by a thoroughly-trained architect.
VOL. II.

P. 48.—Upon Arvil, the ancient Arbela, and the likelihood of great

discoveries in the mound which there rises 150 feet above the plain,
see a contribution from Sir H. Rawlinson to the Journal of the Royal
Asiatic Society, vol. i. new series, 1865, pp. 190–197. The mound is
at present crowned by a Turkish fort.
P. 176.—Herr Fritz Hommel, one of the few non-French
students of the remains from Tello, is no more inclined than we are to
allow that the igneous rocks from which they are cut were brought
from Egypt. He believes they were won from much nearer quarries,
viz., on the borders of the Arabian plateau (Die Vorsemitische
Kulturen in Egypten und Babylonien, pp. 211–223).
Pp. 188–190.—In enumerating the few monuments of Chaldæan
sculpture that we possess over and above those brought home by
M. de Sarzec, we forgot to mention a small Babylonian head in hard
alabaster, now in the Louvre (Fig. 262). Its workmanship resembles
that of the two heads from Tello (Plate VII.), and some of the small
heads from the same place. It is conspicuous for the same frank and
decided modelling, but it belongs to the period when long beards
were worn.
P. 202.—To the list of Chaldæan sculptures we should, perhaps,
add the rock-cut relief found by Sir H. Rawlinson in the district of
Zohab, about fifty leagues from the left bank of the Tigris, and to the
north-west of Bagdad, near the village of Sheikhan. This district
forms a part of the Persian province of Kirmanchah (Journal of the
Geographical Society, vol. ix. p. 31). The relief occurs, it seems, on
the high road between Babylon and Ecbatana, in the defile which is
now called Tak-i-Girrah, one of the passes leading up through Mount
Zagros to the plateau of Iran. There is a sketch of the relief from the
pencil of Sir H. Rawlinson in the Five Great Monarchies of his
brother (vol. iii. p. 7). The king stands with his foot on the body of a
conquered enemy. An individual, probably the royal general,
presents two kneeling captives, who are held by a cord attached to
rings put through their noses. More captives with ropes about their
necks are carved on the kind of plinth upon which the main group is
supported. The whole picture is about two feet wide and five high.
Near it there is an apparently unfinished inscription in Babylonish
cuneiform characters. The Chaldæan origin of the work is confirmed
by the flounces on the general’s robe. In the same neighbourhood
there are ruins which appear to date from a very early period.
 Fig. 262.—Fragment of a
Chaldæan statuette. Louvre.
P. 219.—We have here omitted to draw attention to one of the
differences between the art of the Sargonids and that of the
preceding dynasty. In the figures from Tello and in the bas-reliefs of
the time of Assurnazirpal the sculptor has left the eyeballs smooth
(Plate VII.; Vol. I. Fig. 15; Vol. II, Figs. 43, 64, 113). In the sculptures
of the time of Sargon and his successors, on the other hand, the
cornea is indicated in the figures both of men and animals, by a
clearly traced circle (Vol. I, Figs. 22 and 25; Vol. II. Fig. 118 and Plate
X.). It was, no doubt, the desire to give a more lifelike expression to
the physiognomy that led the artist thus to modify his proceeding.
There are a few figures in which the desire for imitative truth is
pushed even farther. In a bas-relief in the Louvre there is an eagle-
headed deity in which not only the cornea but the pupil also is
marked by a smaller circle within the first. See the De l’Expression
des Yeux dans la Statuaire of Doctor Debrou (Correspondant, April
10th, 1883). His special knowledge has enabled him to make more
than one remark upon the representation of the eye in ancient and
modern sculpture, to which writers upon art would do well to pay
attention.
P. 398.—On the subject of the female divinity whose worship was
so widely spread over the whole East and over the Mediterranean
coasts, the dissertation of Herr Gelzer, Zum Cultus der Assyrischen
Aphrodite (Lepsius’s Zeitschrift, 1875, p. 127) may be consulted with
profit.
 We received the admirable Guide to the Kuyundjik Gallery,
published by the authorities of the British Museum, too late to make
use of it for our work. It joins to an exhaustive account of the bas-
reliefs of Sennacherib and Assurbanipal a description of the smaller
objects contained in the glass cases of the same gallery. Many of
these objects date from a very early period, and many were found in
Chaldæa. Some of the more interesting texts are translated by Mr.
Pinches; of others he gives a summary. The body of the work is
preceded by an introduction giving such details of Assyrian history,
religion and manners as are required by the general student. When a
similar brochure is forthcoming for the Nimroud gallery—and the
energy of the English officials is a guarantee that we shall not have
to wait long for it—visitors to the museum will be in possession of all
that is necessary to enable them to profit to the fullest extent by its
superb collection.
 INDEX.

Abd-al-Medjid, Sultan, ii. 39.

Abdul-Hamid, ii. 76.
Abou-Abba (or Sippara), i. 200.
Abou-Sharein, i. 157, 190, 262; ii. 34.
Abraham, i. 15, 199.
Abydenus, i. 51;
spoken of by Eusebius, 57.
Abydos, on the Hellespont, ii. 220.
Accad, i. 14, 21, 59.
Acheron, i. 354.
Adar (Saturn?), i. 73.
Adrammelech, i. 103.
Agbatana, see Ecbatana.
Ahmes II., ii. 339.
Ahura-Mazda, i. 88.
Alabaster, found near Mossoul, i. 120;
its distribution, 121;
its constitution, 121;
its characteristics as a material for the sculptor, ii. 110.
Alabastron, ii. 301.
Alexander the Great, i. 54; ii. 382.
Alexander Polyhistor, i. 51.
Allat, i. 83, 345.
Alphabet, invention of, i. 22.
Altaï, i. 21.
Altars, their characteristic forms, i. 236;
with battlements, 255;
circular, 256;
sarcophagus-shaped, 256.
Amanus, ii. 340.
Amber, its absence from Mesopotamian remains, ii. 362.
Amen, i. 78, 79.
Ament, the Assyrian, i. 345.
Amiaud, M., i. 361.
Amoor, i. 19.
Amphora, ii. 300.
Amraphel, i. 36.
Amulets, ii. 251.
Anabasis quoted, i. 361.
Anaïtis, see Oannes.
Animals, grotesque and fantastic, in Assyrian Art, ii. 167–173;
on the seals, ii. 279.
Anthemius, i. 172.
Antioch, ii. 286.
Antiochus-Epiphanes, i. 33.
Aphrodite, ii. 398.
Apollonius of Tyana, i. 299.
Apsou (or Apason), i. 83.
Arade, ii. 265.
Aramaic, or Aramæan, came into common use with the second
Chaldæan Empire, i. 18.
Aram-Naharaim, i. 3.
Arbeles, Arvil (or Ervil), i. 6; ii. 48.
Arch, frequent use of, i. 132, 221;
invented in Chaldæa, 222;
at Mugheir, 222;
in the hanging gardens at Babylon, 223;
in Sargon’s gateways, 224;
in the sewers of the palaces, 227.
Archivolt, enamelled, at Khorsabad, i. 290.
Arioch, i. 36.
Aristophanes, ii. 397.
Aristotle, i. 71;
his Politics quoted in reference to the size of Babylon, ii. 56.
Arithmetic, Chaldæan, i. 68;
origin of the sexagesimal system, 68.
Armenia, annexed by Assyria, i. 7.
Arms, ii. 343.
Arrian, his Indian history, i. 57.
Artaxerxes Mnemon, i. 90.
Artists, their social position in Mesopotamia, ii. 394.
Aryans, said to compose part of the early Chaldæan population,
i. 18.
Aryballos, ii. 306.
Asia Minor, ii. 172.
Ass, the wild, in Assyrian sculpture, ii. 150.
Asshur, the builder of Nineveh, i. 14.
Assur, i. 83;
the Assyrian god par excellence, 84;
fell with Nineveh, 88.
Assurbanipal, i. 36, 44;
receives the homage of Gyges, king of Lydia, 44;
his cruelty, 47;
patron of literature and the arts, 47;
his library, 47;
numerous remains of sculpture dating from his reign, ii. 236.
Assurbilkala, ii. 101, 203, 289.
Assuredilani, i. 51.
Assurnazirpal, i. 42;
his statue in the round, ii. 126.
Assyria, its true boundaries, i. 7;
its successive capitals, 7;
its size, 7;
consolidation of its supremacy, 41;
first A. empire, 41;
second A. empire, 41;
expeditions into Armenia, Cappadocia, and Syria, 41;
strictly a military monarchy, 96;
its régime, 103;
Assyrian monarchy, solidity of the succession, 103;
characteristics of the Assyrian race, 105;
cruelty of the Assyrian kings, 105–7;
luxury of do., 105–7;
constitution of the Assyrian nation, 111;
comparative insignificance of civilian element, 112.
Assyro-Chaldæan language, the, i. 53.
Astarte, i. 345.
Astragali, i. 206.
Astrology, i. 65;
the forerunner of real astronomy, 67.
Athenæum quoted, i. 317.
Aturia, a variant of Assyria, i. 6.
Auben (or Auben-Ra), ii. 120.
Augustus, ii. 382.

Baal worshipped in Judah and Israel as well as Tyre and Sidon,

i. 16.
Baalazar, ii. 336.
Babel, i. 14, 53.
Bab-i-Houmaioun, ii. 72.
Babil, i. 130, 154;
its identity discussed, 384; ii. 35.
Babooshes, i. 238.
Babylon, age of its premiership, i. 38;
more tenacious of life than Nineveh, 54;
etymology of the name, 86;
natural elements of its prosperity, 92;
superiority of its situation over that of Nineveh, 93;
an “eternal city,” ii. 53;
its defences, 53;
incomplete nature of the explorations that have been carried
out on its site, 55;
its size discussed, 56–59;
the stone bridge, 57;
height of the walls, 63.
Bactriana, metals brought from, i. 125.
Bagdad, i. 40, 54.
Bahr-ul-nejef, ii. 176.
Bakhenkhonsou, ii. 394.
Balawat, gates of, i. 194;
steles figured on, 196;
standards figured on, 195;