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Research Methods
for the
B e h av i o u r a l
Sciences
EMEA Edit io n
Frederick J Lori-Ann B. Tim

Gravetter Forzano Rakow
Australia ● Brazil ● Canada ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States
Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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Research Methods for the Behavioural © 2021 Cengage Learning, EMEA
Sciences, 1st EMEA Edition
Adapted from Research Methods for the Behavioral
Frederick J Gravetter, Lori-Ann B. Forzano Sciences, 6th Edition, by Frederick J Gravetter and Lori-Ann
Adapter: Tim Rakow B. Forzano. Copyright © Cengage Learning, Inc., 2018.
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Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2020
BRIEF CONTENTS
Preface xvi
About the Authors xx
1 Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge and the Scientific Method 1

2 Research Ideas and Hypotheses 27
3 Defining and Measuring Variables 50
4 Ethics in Research 81
5 Selecting Research Participants 109
6 Research Strategies and Validity 128
7 The Experimental Research Strategy 159
8 Experimental Designs: Between-Subjects Design 188
9 Experimental Designs: Within-Subjects Design 215
10 The Non-Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Strategies: Non-Equivalent Group,
Pre–Post, and Developmental Designs 243
11 Factorial Designs 273
12 The Correlational Research Strategy 305
13 Modes and Methods of Measurement 324
14 Case Study and Single-Case Experimental Research Designs 352
15 Statistical Evaluation of Data 381
16 Writing an APA-Style Research Report 431
appendices
A Statistics Demonstrations and Statistical Tables 459

B Sample APA-Style Research Report Manuscript for Publication 486
Glossary 495
References 516
Name Index 529
Subject Index 532
Contents
Preface xvi
About the Authors xx
c hap te r 1
Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge and the Scientific Method 1

Chapter Learning Objectives 1
Chapter Overview 1
1.1 Methods of Knowing and Acquiring Knowledge 2
The Method of Tenacity 3
The Method of Intuition 3
The Method of Authority 4
The Rational Method 5
The Empirical Method 6
Summary 8
1.2 The Scientific Method 9
The Steps of the Scientific Method 9
Other Elements of the Scientific Method 14
Science Versus Pseudoscience 16
1.3 The Research Process 18
Quantitative and Qualitative Research 18
The Steps of the Research Process 19
Chapter Summary 25
Key Words 25
Exercises 26
Learning Check Answers 26
c hap te r 2
Research Ideas and Hypotheses 27

Chapter Overview 28
2.1 Getting Started: Identifying a Topic Area 29
Common Sources of Research Topics 29
2.2 Searching the Existing Research Literature in a Topic Area 31
Tips for Starting a Review of the Literature 32
Primary and Secondary Sources 34
vi Contents
The Purpose of a Literature Search 34

Conducting a Literature Search 36
Using Online Databases 36
Using Psycinfo 38
Maintaining Focus in a Literature Search 38
Screening Articles during a Literature Search 38
Ending a Literature Search 39
2.3 Finding an Idea for a Research Study from a Published Research Article 40
Find Suggestions for Future Research 40
Contrast Existing Results 40
Combine Existing Results 41
The Components of a Research Article – Critical Reading 41
2.4 Using a Research Idea to Form a H ypothesis and Create a Research Study 44
Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis 44
Using a Hypothesis to Create a Research Study 47
Chapter Summary 48
Key Words 48
Exercises 49
c hap te r 3
Defining and Measuring Variables 50

Chapter Overview 51
3.1 Constructs and Operational Definitions 51
Theories and Constructs 52
Operational Definitions 53
Limitations of Operational Definitions 53
Using Operational Definitions 54
3.2 Validity and Reliability of Measurement 55
Consistency of a Relationship 56
Validity of Measurement 57
Reliability of Measurements 60
The Relationship between Reliability and Validity 63
3.3 Scales of Measurement 64
The Nominal Scale 64
The Ordinal Scale 65
Interval and Ratio Scales 65
Selecting a Scale of Measurement 67
3.4 Modalities of Measurement 68
Self-Report Measures 68
Physiological Measures 69
Behavioural Measures 69
3.5 Other Aspects of Measurement 71
Multiple Measures 71
Sensitivity and Range Effects 71
Contents vii
Artefacts: Experimenter Bias and Participant Reactivity 72

Selecting a Measurement Procedure 76
Measurement across Cultures 76
Chapter Summary 78
Key Words 79
Exercises 79
c hap te r 4
Ethics in Research 81
Chapter Overview 82
4.1 Introduction 82
Ethical Concerns Throughout the Research Process 82
The Basic Categories of Ethical Responsibility 83
4.2 Ethical Issues and Human Participants in Research 84
Historical Highlights of Treatment of Human Participants 84
American Psychological Association Guidelines 87
The Institutional Review Board or Research Ethics Committee 98
4.3 Ethical Issues and Non-human Subjects in Research 100
Non-human Subjects in Research 100
4.4 Ethical Issues and Scientific Integrity 100
Fraud in Science 101
Questionable Research Practices 102
The Open Science Movement and Safeguards against Questionable Practices 104
Plagiarism 105
Chapter Summary 107
Key Words 107
Exercises 107
c hap te r 5
Selecting Research Participants 109

Chapter Overview 110
5.1 Introduction to Sampling 110
Populations and Samples 111
Representative Samples 113
Sample Size 113
Sampling Basics 115
5.2 Probability Sampling Methods 116
Simple Random Sampling 116
Systematic Sampling 118
Stratified Random Sampling 118
viii Contents
Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling 120

Cluster Sampling 120
Combined-Strategy Sampling 121
A Summary of Probability Sampling Methods 121
5.3 Non-probability Sampling Methods 122
Convenience Sampling 122
Quota Sampling 123
Chapter Summary 125
Key Words 126
Exercises 126
c hap te r 6
Research Strategies and Validity 128

6.1 Research Strategies 130
The Descriptive Research Strategy: Examining Individual Variables 131
Strategies That Examine Relationships between Variables 131
The Correlational Research Strategy: Measuring Two Variables for Each Individual 132
Comparing Two Or More Sets of Scores: The Experimental, Quasi-Experimental, and
Non-Experimental Research Strategies 133
Quasi-Experimental and Non-Experimental Research 135
Non-Experimental and Correlational Research 136
Research Strategy Summary 136
Research Strategies, Research Designs and Research Procedures 137
Data Structures and Statistical Analysis 139
Summary 139
6.2 External and Internal Validity 140
External Validity 141
Internal Validity 142
Validity and the Quality of a Research Study 143
6.3 Threats to External Validity 144
Category 1: Generalizing across Participants or Subjects 145
Category 2: Generalizing across Features of a Study 146
Category 3: Generalizing across Features of the Measures 147
6.4 Threats to Internal Validity 148
Extraneous Variables 149
Confounding Variables 149
Extraneous Variables, Confounding Variables and Internal Validity 150
6.5 More about Internal and External Validity 153
Balancing Internal and External Validity 153
Artefacts: Threats to Both Internal and External Validity 154
Exaggerated Variables 155
Validity and Individual Research Strategies 155
Contents ix
Chapter Summary 156

Key Words 156
Exercises 157
c hap te r 7
The Experimental Research Strategy 159

7.1 Cause-and-Effect Relationships 160
Terminology for the Experimental Research Strategy 161
Causation and the Third-Variable Problem 164
Causation and the Directionality Problem 164
Controlling Nature 165
7.2 Distinguishing Elements of an Experiment 166
Manipulation 166
Control 169
Extraneous Variables and Confounding Variables 170
7.3 Controlling Extraneous Variables 173
Control by Holding Constant or Matching 173
Control by Randomization 174
Comparing Methods of Control 175
Advantages and Disadvantages of Control Methods 176
7.4 Control Conditions and Manipulation Checks 177
Control Conditions 177
Manipulation Checks 180
Instructional Manipulation Checks, Catch Trials and other Checks of Attention 181
7.5 Increasing External Validity: Simulation and Field Studies 182
Simulation 183
Field Studies 184
Advantages and Disadvantages of Simulation and Field Studies 185
Chapter Summary 186
Key Words 186
Exercises 187
c hap te r 8
Experimental Designs: Between-Subjects Design 188

8.1 Introduction to Between-Subjects Experiments 189
Review of the Experimental Research Strategy 190
Characteristics of Between-Subjects Designs 190
x Contents
Advantages and Disadvantages of Between-Subjects Designs 192

8.2 Individual Differences as Confounding Variables 194
Other Confounding Variables 195
Equivalent Groups 195
8.3 Limiting Confounding by Individual Differences 196
Random Assignment (Randomization) 197
Matching Groups (Matched Assignment) 198
Holding Variables Constant or Restricting Range of Variability 199
Summary and Recommendations 199
8.4 Individual Differences and Variability 200
Differences between Treatments and Variance within Treatments 203
Minimizing Variance within Treatments 204
Summary and Recommendations 205
8.5 Other Threats to Internal Validity of Between-Subjects Experimental Designs 205
Differential Attrition 206
Communication between Groups 207
8.6 Applications and Statistical Analyses of Between-Subjects Designs 208
Two-Group Mean Difference 209
Comparing Means for More Than Two Groups 210
Comparing Proportions for Two Or More Groups 211
Chapter Summary 213
Key Words 213
Exercises 213
c hap te r 9
Experimental Designs: Within-Subjects Design 215

9.1 Within-Subjects Experiments and Internal Validity 216
Characteristics of Within-Subjects Designs 216
Threats to Internal Validity of Within-Subjects Experiments 219
Separating Time-Related Factors and Order Effects 222
Order Effects as a Confounding Variable 222
9.2 Dealing with Time-Related Threats and Order Effects 224
Controlling Time 225
Switch to a Between-Subjects Design 225
Counterbalancing: Matching Treatments with Respect to Time 225
Limitations of Counterbalancing 228
9.3 Comparing Within-Subjects and Between-Subjects Designs 231
Advantages of Within-Subjects Designs 231
Disadvantages of Within-Subjects Designs 234
Choosing Within- or Between-Subjects Design 236
Matched-Subjects Designs 237
9.4 Applications and Statistical Analysis of Within-Subjects Designs 238
Contents xi
Two-Treatment Designs 239

Multiple-Treatment Designs 239
Chapter Summary 240
Key Words 241
Exercises 241
c hap te r 10
The Non-Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Strategies:

Non-Equivalent Group, Pre–Post, and Developmental
Designs 243
10.1 Non-Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research Strategies 245
The Structure of Non-Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs 246
10.2 Between-Subjects Non-Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs:
Non-Equivalent Group Designs 248
Threats to Internal Validity for Non-Equivalent Group Designs 249
Non-Experimental Designs with Non-Equivalent Groups 250
A Quasi-Experimental Design with Non-Equivalent Groups 254
10.3 Within-Subjects Non-Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs:
Pre–Post Designs 256
Threats to Internal Validity for Pre–Post Designs 256
A Non-Experimental Pre–Post Design 257
A Quasi-Experimental Pre–Post Design 257
Single-Case Applications of Time-Series Designs 260
10.4 Developmental Research Designs 262
The Cross-Sectional Developmental Research Design 262
The Longitudinal Developmental Research Design 264
10.5 Applications, Statistical Analysis and Terminology for Non-Experimental,
Quasi-Experimental and Developmental Designs 268
Application and Analysis 268
Terminology in Non-Experimental, Quasi-Experimental and Developmental Designs 268
Chapter Summary 270
Key Words 271
Exercises 271
c hap te r 11
Factorial Designs 273

11.1 Introduction to Factorial Designs 274
11.2 Main Effects and Interactions 277
xii Contents
Main Effects 278

The Interaction between Factors 279
Alternative Descriptions of the Interaction between Factors 280
Identifying Interactions 282
Interpreting Main Effects and Interactions 283
Independence of Main Effects and Interactions 284
11.3 Types of Factorial Designs and Analysis 286
Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects Designs 287
Experimental and Non-Experimental or Quasi-Experimental Research Strategies 288
Pre-Test–Post-Test Control Group Designs 290
Higher-Order Factorial Designs 291
Statistical Analysis of Factorial Designs 292
11.4 Applications of Factorial Designs 294
Expanding and Replicating a Previous Study 294
Reducing Variance in between-Subjects Designs 295
Evaluating Order Effects in within-Subjects Designs 296
Chapter Summary 302
Key Words 303
Exercises 303
c hap te r 12
The Correlational Research Strategy 305

12.1 An Introduction to Correlational Research 306
Comparing Correlational, Experimental and Differential Research 307
12.2 The Data and Statistical Analysis for Correlational Studies 308
Evaluating Relationships for Numerical Scores (Interval or Ratio Scales) and Ranks
(Ordinal Scale) 309
Evaluating Relationships for Non-Numerical Scores from Nominal Scales 311
Interpreting and Statistically Evaluating a Correlation 313
12.3 Applications of the Correlational Strategy 315
Prediction 315
Reliability and Validity 316
Evaluating Theories 317
Exploratory Research and Hypothesis Generation 317
12.4 Strengths and Weaknesses of the Correlational Research Strategy 318
Relationships with More Than Two Variables 321
Chapter Summary 322
Key Words 322
Exercises 322
Contents xiii
c hap te r 13
Modes and Methods of Measurement 324

13.1 Behavioural Tasks 325
13.2 Observational Methods 327
Behavioural Observation 328
Content Analysis and Archival Research 330
Types of Observation and Examples 331
Strengths and Weaknesses of Observational Methods 334
13.3 Surveys and Other Self-Report Methods 335
Types of Questions 336
Constructing a Survey 340
Selecting Relevant and Representative Individuals 341
Administering a Survey 342
Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey Research 347
Diary Methods 348
The Experience Sampling Method 348
Chapter Summary 350
Key Words 350
Exercises 350
c hap te r 14
Case Study and Single-Case Experimental Research Designs 352

14.1 The Case Study Design 353
Applications of the Case Study Design 354
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Case Study Design 357
14.2 Introduction to Single-Case Experimental Research Designs 359
Critical Elements of a Single-Case Experimental Design 361
Evaluating the Results from a Single-Case Study 362
14.3 Phases and Phase Changes 364
Level, Trend and Stability 364
Changing Phases 367
Visual Inspection Techniques 369
14.4 Reversal Designs: ABAB and Variations 372
Limitations of the Abab Design 374
Complex Phase-Change Designs and Multiple-Baseline Designs 375
14.5 General Strengths and Weaknesses of Single-Case Designs 376
Advantages of Single-Case Designs 377
xiv Contents
Disadvantages of Single-Case Designs 377

Chapter Summary 379
Key Words 379
Exercises 380
c hap te r 15
Statistical Evaluation of Data 381

15.1 The Role of Statistics in the Research P
rocess 382
Planning Ahead 383
Statistics Terminology 383
15.2 Descriptive Statistics 385
Frequency Distributions 385
Describing Interval and Ratio Data (Numerical Scores) 387
Describing Non-Numerical Data from Nominal and Ordinal Scales of Measurement 390
Using Graphs to Compare Groups of Scores 390
Correlations 393
Regression 395
Multiple Regression 396
15.3 Inferential Statistics 398
Hypothesis Tests 400
Reporting Results from a Hypothesis Test 404
Errors in Hypothesis Testing 405
Factors That Influence the Outcome of a Hypothesis Test 406
Supplementing Hypothesis Tests with Measures of Effect Size 408
The Fight against P-Hacking 412
15.4 Finding the Right Statistics for Your Data 414
Three Data Structures 414
Scales of Measurement 414
Category 1: A Single Group of Participants with One Score Per Participant 414
Category 2: A Single Group of Participants with Two Variables Measured for Each
Participant 416
Category 3: Two Or More Groups of Scores with Each Score a Measurement of the Same
Variable 418
15.5 Special Statistics for Research 423
The Spearman–Brown Formula 423
The Kuder–Richardson Formula 20 424
Cronbach’s Alpha 424
Cohen’s Kappa 425
Chapter Summary 428
Key Words 428
Exercises 429
Contents xv
c hap te r 16
Writing an APA-Style Research Report 431

16.1 The Goal of a Research Report 432
16.2 General APA Guidelines for Writing Style and Format 433
Some Elements of Writing Style 434
Guidelines for Word Processing 437
Manuscript Pages 437
16.3 The Elements of an APA-Style Research Report 438
Title Page 438
Abstract 440
Introduction 441
Method 444
Results 446
Discussion 447
References 449
Tables and Figures 450
Appendices 450
Submitting a Manuscript for Publication 453
Conference Presentations: Papers and Posters 454
16.4 Writing a Research Proposal 455
Why Write a Research Proposal? 455
How to Write a Research Proposal 456
Chapter Summary 457
Key Words 457
Exercises 458
appe n d i ce s
A Statistics Demonstrations and Statistical Tables 459

B Sample APA-Style Research Report Manuscript for Publication 486
Glossary 495
References 516
Name Index 529
Subject Index 532
Preface
Welcome to the first adaptation for Europe, the Middle East and Africa (EMEA) of Frederick Gravetter
and Lori-Ann Forzano’s textbook, Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences. Understanding how
research is done is fundamental to the study of the behavioural sciences because research is the means
through which behavioural scientists create new knowledge. Therefore, this textbook aims to give stu-
dents a thorough grounding in the different strategies and methods that are used to study behaviour,
and thereby to equip students to understand and evaluate published research, and to conduct and draw
conclusions from their own research studies. To that end, this EMEA Edition retains most of the struc-
ture and content that contributed to the success of previous editions of Gravetter and Forzano’s textbook,
while updating the content to reflect current practice in behavioural science research, and emphasizing
that research is a global endeavour that takes place in different countries, languages and cultures.
Overview
Research Methods for the Behavioural Sciences, EMEA Edition, is intended for an undergraduate research
methods course in psychology or any of the behavioural sciences. The book is organized around the
framework of the research process – from developing a research question, through to analyzing data
and communicating research. The chapters of the text have been organized into five sections. Chapters
1 and 2 focus on the earliest considerations in the research process, presenting an overview of the sci-
entific method and describing how scientists develop a research hypothesis. Chapters 3–6 focus on the
preliminary decisions in the research process, and include information on how to measure variables,
maintaining ethical responsibility throughout the research process, selecting participants, and choosing
a valid research strategy. Chapters 7–9 introduce the experimental research strategy and provide the
details of between-subjects and within-subjects experimental designs. Chapters 10–14 present other
(non-experimental) research strategies and their associated research designs, provide more detail on
some of the most common methods that scientists use to measure behaviour, and describe research
that focuses on a single individual (e.g., case studies). Chapters 15 and 16 focus on the final steps in the
research process and include information on how to evaluate, interpret and communicate the results of
the research process. Although the chapters are organized in a series that reflects an ordered process, the
order of chapters can be varied to meet the requirements of different course instructors.
Pedagogy
This EMEA Edition retains the conversational style of writing of previous editions that emphasizes discus-
sion and explanation of topics rather than a simple ‘cookbook’ presentation of facts. Each chapter includes
many opportunities for students to interact with the material, rather than simply be passively exposed to
the material (e.g., Learning Checks and end-of-chapter Exercises). Each chapter is organized around a list
of Learning Objectives, and includes a Chapter Outline, Chapter Overview, and Chapter Summary – all of
which are designed to help students impose a structure on the material that they are learning. Margin Notes,
Definition Boxes, Tables, Figures, Key Word lists and the Glossary at the end of the book are all used to pro-
vide emphasis or concise summaries for key ideas. Boxes, which are separate from the regular text, provide
additional information to illustrate a point – often one that is pertinent to the content of several chapters.
P r e fa c e xvii
New to this EMEA edition

Previous edition users should know that we have tried to maintain the hallmark features of the textbook,
though the content has been revised, and the structure of Chapters 13 and 14 has been re-organized.
In keeping with the brief to adapt the book for students in Europe, the Middle East and Africa, there
are many new or alternative examples of research studies that extend the focus of the text beyond its orig-
inal North American audience. Additionally, material has been added to several chapters that discusses
cross-cultural and global perspectives on research. The prevalence of illustrative examples and idioms
that are specific to the North American context has been reduced.
Other changes serve to update the content of the book: reflecting research as it is done now (e.g.,
increased reliance on online data collection) and current best-practice recommendations for behavioural
science research. This includes new subsections of material and information boxes in several chapters
that describe and explain Open Science practices, together with accounts of the questionable research
practices that provided the impetus for this movement. There is increased emphasis on the importance
of estimating the size of an effect, and the text in several chapters has been revised to eliminate the
implication that small samples are often sufficient for a research study.
Finally, numerous small revisions have been made to improve the clarity, depth or precision of explanations.
This includes revising descriptions of testing for statistical significance to improve the technical precision of
the book. See below for a brief description of the other main revisions, which are described chapter by chapter.
Other revisions by chapter

Chapter 1 (Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge and the Scientific Method). To improve clarity, the
subsection on the rational method has been revised. To simplify presentation, the material on the method
of faith has been removed because this can be regarded as a special case of the method of authority. Some
discussion of the ‘grey area’ between quantitative and qualitative research has been added.
Chapter 2 (Research Ideas and Hypotheses). Additional information had been added on advanced
search functions in database searches. The terms falsifiable hypothesis and falsifiability (and some asso-
ciated terminology) are introduced.
Chapter 3 (Defining and Measuring Variables). A subsection on measurement across cultures has been
added, which discusses some of the features of research conducted in different languages.
Chapter 4 (Ethics in Research). In the discussion of ethical principles and guidelines, the terminology
and examples have been revised to reflect practice beyond North America; for example, adding details
of the Code of Human Research Ethics of the British Psychological Society. The implications for research
of recent European Union legislation for data protection are identified. The section on Ethical Issues and
Non-human Subjects in Research has been reduced substantially. This was done because the information
was specific to US regulation, and because few undergraduates will have the opportunity to conduct
such research, and those that do will need more specialist guidance than can be provided in a general
introductory text. As a means to motivate understanding of current recommendations for research (e.g.,
Open Science) a subsection on questionable research practices has been added.
Chapter 5 (Selecting Research Participants). The discussion of sample size now includes greater
emphasis on the problems associated with small samples (e.g., low statistical power).
Chapter 6 (Research Strategies and Validity). The detailed discussion of Rosenthal and Rosnow’s
(1975) study of research volunteer characteristics has been substantially reduced, and has been replaced
by discussion of cross-cultural and cross-country issues around who participates in research. Some addi-
tional signposting has been added to orientate readers to the more in-depth consideration of research
strategies and validity that occurs in subsequent chapters of the book.
Chapter 7 (The Experimental Research Strategy). The Box 7.1 ‘Statistical Significance’ has been revised
to improve its technical precision. The term treatment-as-usual is introduced (as a common form of c ontrol
xviii P r e fa c e
condition in clinical research). The discussion of manipulation checks has been lengthened, and a new
subsection has been added on instructional manipulation checks, catch trials and other checks of attention.
Chapter 8 (Experimental Designs: Between-Subjects Design). The terms randomized controlled trial
(RCT) and intention-to-treat analysis are defined and discussed. The goal of estimating the size of a treat-
ment effect is discussed (as complementary to the goal of establishing the existence of a treatment effect).
Chapter 9 (Experimental Designs: Within-Subjects Design). The discussion of within-subjects designs
that run conditions concurrently (e.g., inter-mixing multiple trials from different conditions) has been
lengthened because this is a common type of study with many advantages. The discussion of counter-
balancing has been expanded to emphasize that counterbalancing the order of conditions is only one of
several useful applications of this technique.
Chapter 10 (The Non-Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Strategies). Additional examples of
research studies have been added to illustrate key points, such as how researchers examine the effect of
language (e.g., Arabic vs. Italian) on cognition. A subsection has been added on studies that combine
longitudinal designs with other research designs.
Chapter 11 (Factorial Designs). The term moderation is introduced and explained. A box has been
added on the appropriate analysis of interactions to determine whether a ‘differences in differences’ exists;
this includes explanation and some discussion of Nieuwenhuis, Forstmann and Wagenmakers (2011).
Chapter 12 (The Correlational Research Strategy). The role of correlational research in generating and
testing hypotheses is now discussed in greater depth. Additional examples to illustrate these and other
points have been added.
Chapter 13 (Modes and Methods of Measurement). Previously, this chapter was titled The Descrip-
tive Research Strategy. However, much of this chapter in the previous edition related to methods for
measuring behaviour that are used with any kind of research strategy or research design. Chapter 13
has therefore been re-structured to make that its primary focus, as reflected in the new chapter title.
Consequently, the short section titled An Introduction to Descriptive Research has been removed, and the
section tilted The Case Study Design has been moved to Chapter 14. A new section on behavioural tasks
has been added, which uses examples of cognitive (e.g., reaction time) tasks to illustrate how behav-
ioural tasks are used in research studies. Some new examples have been added to illustrate observational
methods. The section titled Surveys and Other Self-Report Methods now emphasizes survey methods as a
generic tool for measuring behaviour, rather than presenting it as a type of research design. This material
has also been updated to better reflect that, in this digital era, online data collection is very common.
Reflecting this, there are new subsections on diary methods and the experience sampling method. Given
these revisions and its new focus, Chapter 13 can be used in various ways. For example, it can be used
alongside Chapters 3 or 6 to provide greater detail on issues relating to the measurement of behaviour.
Alternatively, course instructors can use Chapter 13 to discuss specific implementations of different
research strategies and designs (Chapters 7-12).
Chapter 14 (Case Study and Single-Case Experimental Research Designs). With the addition of
content that was previously in Chapter 13, this chapter now focuses on various kinds of single-case
research – both experimental and non-experimental – as reflected in the revised chapter title. Additional
examples have been added to better reflect the range of research topics and research questions that
are examined via case studies, as well as the variety of goals of this type of research. This includes
several examples from neuropsychology with new discussion of case-control comparisons and the logic
of examining dissociations, as well as case study examples from different behavioural sciences. The
coverage of single-case experimental designs has been slimmed down: the coverage of complex phase-
change designs and multiple baseline designs has been greatly reduced; textbook users can now access
this material from the previous edition via the new companion website.
Chapter 15 (Statistical Evaluation of Data). This chapter has had numerous small revisions to improve
the technical precision of descriptions of significance testing (e.g., removing conflations of the alpha-
level and p-value for a statistical test) and to increase the emphasis on the importance of estimating the
P r e fa c e xix
size of an effect (e.g., more detail on confidence intervals). New material on p-hacking and the steps
taken to address it add to the text’s emphasis on current best-practice recommendations for data collec-
tion, analysis and reporting. Appendix A and Online Appendix D, which are referenced from Chapter
15, have been updated in line with the revisions to Chapter 15.
Chapter 16 (Writing an APA-Style Research Report). The information about APA style has been
updated from that for the sixth edition of the APA Publication Manual to that for the Publication Man-
ual of the American Psychological Association, Seventh Edition (2020). The advice on writing a research
report has been extended to include APA guidance on a Student Paper (to add to previous coverage of
preparing a Professional Paper for submission to a journal). There is greater consideration on the princi-
ples of successful communication, which includes greater acknowledgement of appropriate variation in
the style and format of research reports, and slightly less emphasis on formatting ‘rules’ for manuscript
preparation. Appendix B (a Sample Research Report) has been edited so that it fits better with the revised
Chapter 16 for which it provides integral examples.
Acknowledgements
The authors and publisher would like to thank the following people for their valuable input in the devel-
opment of this book and its digital resources including MindTap:
Mark Aveyard, American University of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates

Sello Boshomane, North West University, South Africa
Diane Bray, Solent University, UK
Jon Catling, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, UK
Jabulani Chitanga, Cornerstone University, South Africa
Miroslav Jurasek, University of Finance and Administration, Prague, Czech Republic
Daniel Kennedy-Higgins, King’s College London, UK
Dionne Morris, The Independent Institute of Education, South Africa
Rizwana Roomaney, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa
Kershia Sunjeevan, University of Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa
Yenal Surec, Eastern Mediterranean University, Northern Cyprus
Karen Y. Holmes, Norfolk State University, USA
Carlos Escoto, Eastern Connecticut University,USA
Maria L. Pacella, Kent State University, USA
Stacy J. Bacigalupi, Mt. San Antonio College, USA
Amber Chenoweth, Hiram College,USA
Dr. Chrysalis L. Wright, University of Central Florida, USA
Erin C. Dupuis, Loyola University, USA
Anna Ingeborg Petursdottir, Texas Christian University,USA
Lesley Hathorn, Metropolitan State University–Denver, USA
Terry F. Pettijohn, Ohio State University–Marion, USA
Charlotte Tate, San Francisco State University, USA
Kyle Smith, Ohio Wesleyan University, USA
Patrick K. Cullen, Kent State University, USA
Veanne N. Anderson, Indiana State University, USA
Robert R. Bubb, Auburn University, USA
Chaelon Myme, Thiel College, USA
Finally, the authors give their heartfelt thanks to their spouses and children: Charlie Forzano, Ryan
Forzano, Alex Forzano, Debbie Gravetter, Justin Gravetter, Melissa Monachino, Megan Baker and Katie
Rakow. This book could not have been written without their unwavering support and patience.
Abo u t t h e Au t h ors
The late Fr e d e r i c k J G r avet te r was Professor

Courtesy of Frederick J Gravetter
Emeritus of Psychology at The College at Brockport, State

University of New York. While teaching at Brockport,
Dr Gravetter specialized in statistics, experimental design
and cognitive psychology. He received his bachelor’s degree in
mathematics from MIT and his PhD in psychology from Duke
University. In addition to publishing several research articles,
Dr Gravetter co-authored Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences
and Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences.
Lori -Ann B. For z ano is Professor of Psychology at The

College at Brockport, State University of New York, where she
regularly teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in research
Courtesy of Lori-Ann B. Forzano
methods, statistics, learning, animal behaviour and the psychol-

ogy of eating. She earned a PhD in experimental psychology from
the State University of New York at Stony Brook, where she also
received her BS in psychology. Her research examines impulsivity
and self-control in adults and children and has been published
in the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, Learning
and Motivation and The Psychological Record. Dr Forzano also
co-authored Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences.
TIM R AKOW is Reader in Psychology at King’s College London.

He has over 20 years experience of supervising research and
teaching research methods to psychology students. Dr Rakow
uses a range of research strategies to examine human judgement
and decision making. He has published over 50 research articles
in more than 25 different academic journals, spanning the
Courtesy of Tim Rakow
disciplines of psychology, health, medicine, decision science and

behavioural economics. He is an Associate Editor for the journal
Thinking & Reasoning.
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Chapter
1
Introduction, Acquiring
Knowledge and the
Scientific Method
ch a p t e r co n t e n t s
1.1 Methods of Knowing and Acquiring Knowledge

1.2 The Scientific Method
1.3 The Research Process
ch a p t e r l e a r n i n g o b j e c t i v e s
LO1 C
ompare and contrast the non-scientific methods for knowing or acquiring knowledge (tenacity,
intuition, authority, the rational method and the empirical method). Identify an example and
explain the limitations of each method.
LO2 Identify and describe the steps of the scientific method.
LO3 Define induction and deduction and explain the role of each in the scientific method.
LO4 Distinguish between a hypothesis and a prediction.
LO5 Explain what it means to say that the scientific method is empirical, public and objective.
LO6 Distinguish between science and pseudoscience.
LO7 Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative research and recognize examples of each.
LO8 Identify and describe the steps in the research process.
Chapter Overview
In this chapter, we introduce the topic of this textbook: research methodology. Research methods are
intended to provide scientists with effective procedures for gathering information and answering ques-
tions. We begin by discussing the many ways of acquiring knowledge or finding answers to questions,
2 c h a p t e r 1 / Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge and the Scientific Method
including the scientific method. Next, we provide a thorough discussion of the scientific method. The
chapter ends with an outline of the research process or the way the scientific method is applied to answer
a particular question. The research process provides the framework for the rest of the textbook.
1.1
Methods of Knowing and

Acquiring Knowledge
learning objective
LO1 Compare and contrast the non-scientific methods for knowing or acquiring knowledge (tenacity, intu-
ition, authority, the rational method and the empirical method). Identify an example and explain the
limitations of each method.
Consider the following questions.

Does multitasking make you more efficient with your time?
Does having more friends make you less vulnerable to depression?
Are children of divorced parents less likely to be satisfied with their romantic relationships?
Are girls more likely to cyberbully than boys?
Does eating cake for breakfast make dieters more likely to stick to their diets later in the day?
Are adolescents who play violent video games more aggressive than adolescents who do not play
violent video games?
Does playing brain games in adulthood make it less likely you will develop Alzheimer’s?
Terms printed in If you find these questions interesting, then you may also be interested in learning
boldface are defined how to find the answers. Although there are many different ways to find answers to
in the glossary. Some questions like these, in this book we focus on the method used by behavioural scientists:
terms, identified as key the scientific method. The scientific method is considered basic, standard practice in the
words, are also defined world of science. Students in the behavioural sciences (e.g., psychology, sociology, exper-
in the text. imental economics or criminal justice) should understand how this process works and
have some appreciation of its strengths and weaknesses. Before we begin, however, you
should realize that the methods used in scientific research are not the only ones available
for answering questions, and they are not necessarily the most efficient. There are many different ways of
knowing or finding answers to questions. In general, the different ways that people know, or the methods
that people use to discover answers, are referred to as methods of acquiring knowledge.
definition
Methods of acquiring knowledge are ways in which a person can know things or discover answers
to questions.
The rest of this chapter examines several established methods of knowing and acquiring knowledge.
We begin with five non-scientific approaches: the method of tenacity, the method of intuition, the
method of authority, the rational method and the method of empiricism. We conclude with a more
c h a p t e r 1 \ Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge and the Scientific Method 3
detailed discussion of the scientific method. As you will see, the scientific method combines elements
from each of the other methods to produce a general question-answering technique that avoids some
of the limitations or pitfalls of using just one of the other methods. Although the scientific method
tends to be more complicated and more time consuming than the other methods, the goal is to obtain
better-quality answers or at least a higher level of confidence in the answers. Finally, we warn that the
scientific method outlines a general strategy for answering questions; the specific details of applying the
scientific method to particular problems form the content of the remainder of the book.
The method of tenacity

The method of tenacity involves holding on to ideas and beliefs simply because they are accepted facts:
habit leads us to continue believing something we have previously accepted as true. Often this is referred
to as belief perseverance. For example, you may have heard the clichés, ‘You cannot teach an old dog
new tricks’ and ‘Opposites attract’. These statements have been presented over and over again, and they
have been accepted as true. In general, the more frequently we are exposed to statements, the more we
tend to believe them. Advertisers successfully exploit this, repeating their slogans over and over, hoping
consumers will accept them as true (and subsequently buy their products). A very catchy fast-food jingle
exclaiming, ‘I’m lovin’ it’ hopes we do just that and buy more burgers from them.
definition
In the method of tenacity, an idea or belief is held on to because it has previously been accepted as true.
One problem with the method of tenacity is that the information acquired might not be accurate. With
regard to the statement about old dogs not being able to learn new tricks, the elderly can and do learn
(O’Hara, Brooks, Friedman, Schroder, Morgan & Kraemer, 2007). With regard to the statement that
opposites attract, research shows that people are attracted to people who are like them (Klohnen & Luo,
2003). Another pitfall of the method of tenacity is that there is no method for correcting erroneous ideas.
Even in the face of evidence to the contrary, a belief that is widely accepted can be very difficult to change.
The method of intuition

In the method of intuition, information is accepted as true because it ‘feels right’. With intuition, a per-
son relies on hunches and ‘instinct’ to answer questions. Whenever we say we know something because
we have a ‘gut feeling’ about it, we are using the method of intuition. For many questions, this method is
the quickest way to obtain answers. When we have no information at all and cannot refer to supporting
data or use rational justification, we often resort to intuition. For example, intuition provides answers
when we are making personal choices such as: What should I have for dinner? Should I go out tonight
or stay in? The ultimate decision is often determined by what I ‘feel like’ doing. Many ethical decisions
or moral questions are resolved by the method of intuition. For example, we regard something as wrong
because it does not ‘feel’ right. Some intuitions are probably based on the subtle cues that we pick up
from the people around us. Although we can’t explain exactly how we know that a friend is having a
bad day, something about the way she moves or speaks suggests to us that it is true. The predictions and
descriptions given by psychics are thought to derive from this aspect of intuition. Intuition may also
reflect an accumulation of experience that allows us to spot familiar patterns. For example, when faced
with familiar problems or decisions, we can act or decide quickly based on what we did the last time we
were in a similar situation. The problem with the method of intuition is that it has no mechanism for
separating accurate from inaccurate knowledge.
definition
In the method of intuition, information is accepted on the basis of a hunch or ‘gut feeling’.
The method of authority

In the method of authority, a person finds answers by seeking out an authority on the subject. This
can mean consulting an expert directly or going to a library or a website to read the works of an expert.
In either case, you are relying on the assumed expertise of another person. Whenever you ‘google it’ or
consult books, articles, people, television or the internet to find answers, you use the method of authority.
Some examples of people who are often regarded as experts are: physicians, scientists, psychologists,
economists, professors, stockbrokers, religious leaders and lawyers.
definition
In the method of authority, a person relies on information or answers from an expert in the subject area.
For many questions, the method of authority is an excellent starting point; often, it is the quickest and
easiest way to obtain answers. Much of your formal education is based on the notion that answers can
be obtained from experts (teachers and textbooks). However, the method of authority has some pitfalls.
It does not always provide accurate information. For example, authorities can be biased. We have all
seen examples of conflicting testimony by ‘expert witnesses’ in criminal trials. Sources are often biased
in favour of a particular point of view or orientation. For example, the supporters of different political
parties often have very different answers to the same questions, as do the members of different schools
of thought in academic disciplines.
An additional limitation of this method is that we often assume that expertise in one area can be
generalized to other topics. For example, advertisers often use the endorsements of well-known
personalities to sell their products. When a famous athlete appears on television telling you what
soup is more nutritious, should you assume that being an outstanding football player makes him
an expert on nutrition? The advertisers would like you to accept his recommendation on authority.
Similarly, when Linus Pauling, a chemist who won the Nobel Prize for his work on the chemical
bond, claimed that vitamin C could cure the common cold, many people accepted his word on
authority. His claim is still widely believed, even though numerous scientific studies have failed to
find such an effect.
Another pitfall of the method of authority is that people often accept an expert’s statement
without question. This acceptance can mean that people do not check the accuracy of their sources
or even consider looking for a second opinion. As a result, false information is sometimes taken
as truth. In some situations, the authority is accepted without question because the information
appears to make sense, so there is no obvious reason to question it. We would all like to believe
it when the doctor says, ‘That mole doesn’t look cancerous’, but we might be better protected by
getting a second opinion.
As a final pitfall of the method of authority, realize that not all ‘experts’ are experts. There are a lot of
supposed ‘experts’ out there. Turn on the television to any daytime talk show. During the first 45 minutes
of the show, in front of millions of viewers, people haggle with one another: women complain about their
husbands, estranged parents and teenagers reunite, or two women fight over the same boyfriend. Then,
in the final 15 minutes, the ‘expert’ comes out to discuss the situations and everyone’s feelings. These
‘experts’ are often people who lack the credentials, the experience or the training to make the claims they
are making. Being called an expert does not make someone an expert.
c h a p t e r 1 \ Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge and the Scientific Method 5
In conclusion, we should point out that there are ways to increase confidence in the information you obtain
by the method of authority. First, you can evaluate the source of the information. Is the authority really an
expert, and is the information really within the authority’s area of expertise? Also, is the information an objec-
tive fact, or is it simply a subjective opinion? For example, does the expert provide evidence in support of
their opinion? Second, you can evaluate the information itself. Does it agree with other information that you
already know? Were sound methods used to generate the evidence that supports the expert’s opinion? If you
have any reason to doubt the information obtained from an authority, the best move is to get a second opinion.
If two independent authorities provide the same answer, you can be more confident that the answer is correct.
For example, when you obtain information from an internet site, you should be cautious about accepting the
information at face value. Do you have previous experience with the site? Is it known to be reputable? If there
is any doubt, it pays to check to see that other sites are providing the same information.
The methods of tenacity, intuition and authority are satisfactory for answering some questions,
especially if you need an answer quickly and there are no serious consequences for accepting a wrong
answer. For example, these techniques are usually fine for answering questions about which shoes to
wear or what vegetable to have with dinner. However, it should be clear that there are situations for which
these uncritical techniques are not going to be sufficient. In particular, if the question concerns a major
financial decision or if the answer could significantly change your life, you should not accept information
as true unless it passes some critical test or meets some minimum standard of accuracy. The next two
methods of acquiring knowledge (and the scientific method) are designed to place more demands on the
information and answers they produce.
The rational method

The rational method, also known as rationalism, involves seeking answers by logical reasoning. This method
begins with a set of premises (statements that we assume to be true) and uses logic (deduction) to reach a
conclusion or get an answer to a question. A simple example of reasoning that might be used is as follows:
All information in this textbook is correct.
This textbook states that The Belmont Report was published in 1979.
Therefore, it is correct information that the The Belmont Report was published in 1979.
In this argument, the first two sentences are premise statements. The final sentence is a logical
conclusion based on the premises. If the premise statements are, in fact, true and the logic is sound,
then the conclusion is guaranteed to be correct. Thus, the answers obtained by the rational method must
satisfy the standards established by the rules of logic before they are accepted as true.
Notice that the rational method begins after the premise statements have been presented. In the pre-
vious argument, for example, we are not trying to determine whether all information in this textbook is
correct; we simply accept this statement as true. Similarly, we are not concerned with verifying that there
was a report with this name or when it was published, or – indeed – whether it is even mentioned in this
textbook. We take this premise ‘on trust’. Specifically, the rational method does not require observations
or gathering information. Instead, you should think of the rational method as mentally manipulating
premise statements to determine whether they can be combined to produce a logical conclusion.
definitions
The rational method, or rationalism, seeks answers by the use of logical reasoning.
An argument is a set of premise statements that are logically combined to yield a conclusion.
In logical reasoning, premise statements describe facts or assumptions that are presumed to be true.
The preceding example (textbook and report) can be used to demonstrate a limitation of the rational
method: the conclusion is not necessarily true unless both of the premise statements are true, even in
a valid logical argument. Regarding the first premise in our example, while we have taken great effort
to avoid inaccuracies in this textbook, it is unlikely that we have always succeeded in this. Or consider
a modified version of the second premise in which stated that: ‘This textbook states that the moon is
made of cheese’ or that ‘… all martwheasals are chucklebons’. By rational deduction from the premises,
it would necessarily follow that ‘the moon is made of cheese’ or ‘all martwheasals are chucklebons’ is
correct information. In general, the truth of any logical conclusion is founded on the truth of the premise
statements. If any basic assumption or premise is incorrect, then we cannot have any confidence in the
truth of the logical conclusion.
A practical limitation of employing the rational method is that people are not consistently good
at logical reasoning. For example, people will often accept a logically incorrect conclusion as being
correct if that conclusion is consistent with their existing knowledge or beliefs (Markovits & Nantel, 1989).
For example, consider this:
Premise 1: All flowers have petals.
Premise 2: Roses have petals.
Conclusion: Roses are flowers.
This conclusion does not follow as a logical necessity from these premises (because the premises do not
exclude the possibility that there are non-flower objects that have petals). Similarly, people will often
reject a logically correct conclusion if the conclusion seems implausible given what they already know
about the world. For example, the following conclusion does follow logically from these premises below,
though people often believe that it does not:
Premise 1: All things that are smoked are good for the health.
Premise 2: Cigarettes are smoked.
Conclusion: Cigarettes are good for the health.
In summary, the rational method is the practice of employing reason as a source of knowledge,
whereby conclusions are tested by ensuring that they conform to the rules of logic. As you will see in
Section 1.2, the rational method is a critical component of the scientific method. In the next section,
we examine a different approach, in which we rely entirely on direct observation to obtain evidence to
establish the truth.
The empirical method

The empirical method, also known as empiricism, attempts to answer questions by direct observation
or personal experience. This method is a product of the empirical viewpoint in philosophy, which holds
that all knowledge is acquired through the senses. Note that when we make observations, we use the
senses of seeing, hearing, tasting and so on.
definition
The empirical method, or empiricism, uses observation or direct sensory experience to obtain knowledge.
Most of you know, for example, that children tend to be shorter than adults, that it is typically warmer
in the summer than in the winter, and that a kilogram of steak costs more than a kilogram of minced beef.
You know these facts from personal experience and from observations you have made.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
tañedoras de flauta, y de contusiones: el arsenal también se hubiera
visto atestado de maderas para remos, y atronado por el ruido de las
clavijas que se ajustan y por el de los remos sujetos a las clavijas, po
los gritos de los marineros, y por los silbidos de las flautas y pitos, que
los animan al trabajo. «Sé que hubierais hecho esto»; pero, ¿no
pensamos en Telefo? «Nos falta el sentido común.»[150].
SEMICORO.
¡Perdido, infame, mendigo harapiento! ¿Cómo te atreves a decirnos
eso, y a echarnos en rostro que hemos sido delatores?
SEMICORO.
Tiene razón. Por Neptuno, cuanto ha dicho es la pura verdad.
SEMICORO.
¿Y aunque sea verdad, es necesario decirlo? Pero ya le costará
caro su atrevimiento.
SEMICORO.
¡Eh, tú! ¿A dónde vas? Detente. Si tocas a ese hombre, yo me
encargaré de ti.
SEMICORO.
¡Oh Lámaco de fulminante mirada, socórrenos: preséntate, amigo
Lámaco, ciudadano de mi tribu; preséntate y atérralos con tu terrible
penacho![151] Generales y capitanes, acudid todos en mi auxilio. Me
tienen agarrado por medio del cuerpo.
LÁMACO.
¿De dónde salen esos gritos de guerra? ¿A dónde es meneste
prestar mi auxilio y armar alborotos? ¿Quién me obliga a sacar de su
caja mi terrible Gorgona?[152]
DICEÓPOLIS.
¡Oh Lámaco, héroe sin rival en penachos y batallones!
CORO.
¡Oh Lámaco, este hombre hace tiempo que está ultrajando a toda la
ciudad!
LÁMACO.
¿Tú, vil mendigo, te atreves a tanto?
DICEÓPOLIS.
Heroico Lámaco, perdona que un mendigo, al empeñarse en hablar
haya dicho algunas necedades.
LÁMACO.
¿Qué has dicho contra nosotros? Habla.
DICEÓPOLIS.
No me acuerdo ya; el miedo a tu armadura me marea; por piedad
aparta de mi vista ese espantajo de tu escudo.
LÁMACO.
Sea.
DICEÓPOLIS.
Déjalo ahora en el suelo.
LÁMACO.
Ya está.
DICEÓPOLIS.
Ahora dame una pluma de tu casco.
LÁMACO.
Toma la pluma.
DICEÓPOLIS.
Ahora sostenme la cabeza para que vomite: tu penacho me da
náuseas.
LÁMACO.
¿Qué intentas? ¿quieres provocar el vómito con esa pluma?
DICEÓPOLIS.
¡Ah! ¿es una pluma? Y dime, ¿de qué pájaro? ¿Acaso de
Fanfarrón?[153]
LÁMACO.
¡Me las vas a pagar!
DICEÓPOLIS.
De ningún modo, Lámaco; esto no se decide por la fuerza; ya que
tanta fuerza tienes, ¿por qué no me circuncidas? Armas no te faltan.
LÁMACO.
¿Así te insolentas con todo un general, vil mendigo?
DICEÓPOLIS.
¡Yo mendigo!
LÁMACO.
¿Pues quién eres?
DICEÓPOLIS.
¿Quién soy? Un buen ciudadano, exento de ambición; y, desde que
hay guerra, un soldado voluntario; y tú, desde que hay guerra, un
soldado mercenario.
LÁMACO.
Fui elegido por los votos de...
DICEÓPOLIS.
Tres petates[154]. Eso es lo que me ha indignado y movido a pacta
esta tregua, no menos que el ver en las filas a hombres encanecidos
mientras otros jóvenes como tú, escurriendo el bulto, se iban con
embajadas, unos a Tracia, ganándose tres dracmas, como los
Tisámenes[155], los Fenipos y los Hipárquidas, todos a cual peores
otros, con Cares[156], a la Caonia[157], como los Geres y Teodoros, y los
Diomeos, tan pagados de sí mismos; otros a Camarina, Gela y
Catágela[158].
LÁMACO.
Fueron elegidos por el sufragio popular.
DICEÓPOLIS.
Entonces, ¿por qué todas las recompensas son para vosotros y
para estos ninguna?[159] Di, Marílades, tú que tienes la cabeza
encanecida por la edad, ¿has ido alguna vez en embajada? Dice que
no, y sin embargo es prudente y laborioso. Y vosotros, Dracilo
Eufórides y Prínides[160], ¿conocéis a Ecbatana o la Caonia? Tampoco
Sin embargo, las han visitado el hijo de Cesira[161] y Lámaco, de
quienes, por no poder pagar su escote, ni sus deudas, decían hace
poco sus amigos: «¡Agua va!» como los que al anochecer vierten po
las ventanas el líquido con que se han lavado los pies.
LÁMACO.
¡Pueblo insolente! ¿Habrá que tolerar tales insultos?
DICEÓPOLIS.
No; si Lámaco no cobrase sueldo.
LÁMACO.
Pues yo haré siempre la guerra a todos los peloponesios; los
hostilizaré cuanto pueda, y los perseguiré con todas mis fuerzas
terrestres y marítimas.
DICEÓPOLIS.
Pues yo anuncio a todos los peloponesios, megarenses y beocios
que pueden acudir a comprar y vender en mi mercado; solo exceptúo
a Lámaco.
(Queda solo el coro.)
CORO.
Este hombre aduce argumentos convincentes y va a cambiar la
opinión del pueblo, inclinándole a la paz. Pero dispongámonos a
recitar los anapestos[162].
Desde que nuestro poeta dirige los coros cómicos nunca se ha
presentado a hacer su propio panegírico[163]; pero hoy que ante los
atenienses, tan precipitados en sus decisiones, sus enemigos le
acusan falsamente de que se burla de la república e insulta al pueblo
preciso le es justificarse con sus volubles conciudadanos. El poeta
pretende haberos hecho mucho bien, impidiendo que os dejéis
sorprender por las palabras de los extranjeros y que os hechicen los
aduladores y seáis unos chorlitos. Antes los diputados de las ciudades
cuando os querían engañar, principiaban por llamaros: «Coronados de
violetas»[164], y al oír la palabra coronas, era de ver cómo no cabíais ya
en vuestros asientos[165]. Si otro adulándoos decía: «La espléndida
Atenas»[166], conseguía al punto cuanto deseaba, por haberos untado
los labios con el elogio, como si fueseis anchoas. Desengañándoos
pues, os ha prestado el poeta eminentes servicios, y ha difundido po
las ciudades aliadas el régimen democrático. Por eso los pagadores
de tributos de esas mismas ciudades acudirán deseosos de conocer a
excelente poeta que no ha temido decir la verdad a los atenienses. La
fama de su atrevimiento ha llegado tan lejos, que el gran Rey
interrogando a la embajada de los lacedemonios, preguntó primero
cuál era la armada más poderosa, y después cuáles eran los más
atacados por nuestro vate, y les aseguró que sería más feliz y
conseguiría señaladísimas victorias la república que siguiese sus
consejos. Por eso los lacedemonios os brindan con la paz, y reclaman
a Egina[167]; no porque den gran importancia a aquella isla, sino po
despojar de sus bienes al poeta; pero vosotros no le abandonéis
jamás; en sus comedias brillará siempre la justicia, y abogará siempre
por vuestra felicidad, no con adulaciones ni vanas promesas, fraudes
bajezas ni intrigas, sino dándoos buenos consejos y proponiéndoos lo
que sea mejor.
Después de esto, ya puede Cleón urdir y maquinar contra mí cuanto
se le antoje. La honradez y la justicia estarán de mi lado, y nunca la
república verá en mí, como en él, un cobarde e inmundo bardaje.
¡Ven, infatigable musa acarniense, brillante y devoradora como e
fuego! Semejante a la chispa que, sostenida por un suave viento, salta
de los tizones de encina mientras unos asan sobre ellos sabrosos
pececillos, y otros preparan la salmuera fresca de Tasos o amasan la
blanca harina, ¡ven, musa impetuosa, intencionada y agreste, y presta
inspiración a tu conciudadano!
Nosotros, decrépitos ancianos, acusamos a la ciudad. Vemos
desamparada nuestra vejez, sin que se nos alimente en recompensa
digna de los méritos que en las batallas navales contrajimos; en
cambio, sufrimos mil vejámenes; nos enredáis en litigiosas contiendas
y luego permitís que sirvamos de juguete a oradores jovenzuelos: ya
nada somos; mudos e inservibles, como flautas rajadas, un bastón es
nuestro único apoyo, o nuestro Neptuno, por decirlo así. En pie ante e
tribunal, balbuceando algunas palabras inconexas, solo vemos de la
justicia la bruma que la rodea, mientras el abogado contrario
deseando captarse las simpatías de la juventud, lanza sobre e
demandado un diluvio de palabras precisas y seguras; y luego de
haberlo rendido, le interroga, le dirige preguntas insidiosas, y le turba
le aflige y despedaza, como le sucedió al anciano Titón.
El pobre calla; se retira castigado con una pena pecuniaria; llora y
solloza, y dice a sus amigos: «El dinero con que pensaba comprar m
ataúd, tengo que darlo para pagar esta multa.»
¿Es justo arruinar de ese modo a un anciano, a un hombre
encanecido, que sobrellevó con sus compañeros tantas fatigas, que
vertió por la república sudores ardientes, varoniles y copiosos, y que
en Maratón peleó como un héroe? Nosotros, que de jóvenes
perseguimos en Maratón a los enemigos, somos ahora perseguidos
por hombres malvados, y condenados al fin. ¿Que responderá a esto
Marpsias?[168] ¿Es justo que un hombre encorvado por la edad, como
Tucídides[169], cual si se hubiera perdido en los desiertos de Escitia
sucumba en sus litigios con Cefisodemo[170], abogado locuaz? Os
aseguro que sentí la más viva compasión y hasta lloré, viendo
maltratado por un arquero a ese anciano, a Tucídides digo, que, po
Ceres, cuando estaba en la plenitud de sus fuerzas no hubiera
tolerado fácilmente que se le atreviese nadie, ni aun la misma Ceres
pues primero hubiera derribado a diez Evatlos[171], y luego aterrado con
sus gritos a los tres mil arqueros, y matado con sus flechas a toda la
parentela de ese mercenario. Mas, ya que no queréis dejar descansa
a los viejos, decretad, a lo menos, la división de las causas: que e
viejo desdentado litigue contra los viejos; el bardaje contra los jóvenes
y el charlatán contra el hijo de Clinias[172]. Es necesario, no lo niego
perseguir a los malvados; pero en todos los procesos sea el anciano
quien condene al anciano, y el joven al joven.
DICEÓPOLIS.
Estos son los límites de mi mercado. Todos los peloponesios
megarenses y beocios pueden concurrir a él, con la condición de que
me vendan a mí sus mercancías y no a Lámaco. Nombro
agoránomos[173] de mi mercader, elegidos a suerte, estos tres
zurriagos del Lepreo[174]. Que no entre aquí ningún delator, ni ningún
habitante de Fasos[175]. Voy a traer la columna[176] sobre la cual está
escrito el tratado, para colocarla a la vista de todos.
(Entra un megarense con dos muchachas.)

EL MEGARENSE[177].
¡Salud, mercado de Atenas, grato a los megarenses! Juro po
Júpiter, protector de la amistad, que deseaba verte como el hijo a su
madre. Hijas desdichadas de un padre infortunado, mirad si encontráis
alguna torta. Escuchadme, por favor, y hagan eco mis palabras en
vuestro famélico vientre. ¿Qué queréis? ¿Ser vendidas o moriros de
hambre?
LAS MUCHACHAS.
¡Ser vendidas, ser vendidas!
EL MEGARENSE.
También me parece lo mejor. ¿Mas habrá algún tonto que os
compre siendo una carga manifiesta? Pero se me ocurre un ardid
digno de Megara. Os voy a disfrazar de cerdos, y diré que os traigo a
mercado. Poneos estas pezuñas y procurad parecer de buena casta
pues si volvéis a casa, ya sabéis, por el tonante Júpiter, que sufriréis
los horrores del hambre. Ea, colocaos estos hocicos de puerco y
meteos en este saco. Procurad gruñir bien y hacer coi, gritando como
los cerdos que van a ser sacrificados a Ceres[178]. Yo voy a llamar a
Diceópolis: ¡Diceópolis! ¿Quieres comprar cerdos?
DICEÓPOLIS.
¿Qué es ello? ¡Un megarense!
EL MEGARENSE.
Venimos al mercado.
DICEÓPOLIS.
¿Cómo lo pasáis?
EL MEGARENSE.
Sentados siempre junto al fuego y muertos de hambre.
DICEÓPOLIS.
Por Júpiter, eso es muy agradable, teniendo al lado un flautista.[179
¿Y qué más hacéis los megarenses?
EL MEGARENSE.
¿Y lo preguntas? Cuando yo salí para venir al mercado, nuestras
autoridades dictaban las medidas oportunas para que la ciudad se
arruine lo más pronto y desastrosamente posible.
DICEÓPOLIS.
Entonces no tardaréis en veros libres de apuros.
EL MEGARENSE.
¿Por qué no?
DICEÓPOLIS.
¿Qué más ocurre en Megara? ¿Qué precio tiene el trigo?
EL MEGARENSE.
Tiene tanta estimación y precio como los dioses.
DICEÓPOLIS.
¿Traes sal?
EL MEGARENSE.
¿Cómo, si os habéis apoderado de nuestras salinas?
DICEÓPOLIS.
¿Y ajos?[180]
EL MEGARENSE.
¿Qué ajos? Si siempre que invadís nuestras tierras arrancáis todas
las plantas como si fueseis ratones de campo.
DICEÓPOLIS.
¿Pues qué traes?
EL MEGARENSE.
Puercas para los sacrificios.
DICEÓPOLIS.
¡Que me place! A verlas.
EL MEGARENSE.
¡Mira qué hermosas! Tómalas a peso si quieres. ¿Qué gorda y qué
hermosa está esta?
DICEÓPOLIS.
¿Pero qué es esto?
EL MEGARENSE.
Una cerda, por vida mía.
DICEÓPOLIS.
¿Qué dices? ¿De dónde es?
EL MEGARENSE.
De Megara. ¿No es puerca o qué?
DICEÓPOLIS.
A mí no me lo parece.
EL MEGARENSE.
¡Que no! ¡Tu incredulidad es asombrosa! ¡Decir que no es una
puerca! Apostemos, si quieres, un celemín de sal mezclada con tomillo
a que entre los griegos pasa esta por puerca.
DICEÓPOLIS.
Sí que es puerca[181]; pero de hombre.
EL MEGARENSE.
Sí, por Diocles,[182] y mía, ¿qué crees tú que son? ¿Quieres oírlas
gruñir?
DICEÓPOLIS.
Bueno; no hay inconveniente.
EL MEGARENSE.
Gruñe pronto, puerquecilla. ¿A qué te callas, desdichada? Te
volveré a casa, por Mercurio.
UNA MUCHACHA.
¡Coi! ¡Coi!
EL MEGARENSE.
¿Es o no puerca?
DICEÓPOLIS.
Ahora lo parece; pero bien alimentada será otra cosa[183].
EL MEGARENSE.
Dentro de cinco años, te lo aseguro, será como su madre.
DICEÓPOLIS.
Pero no sirve para el sacrificio.
EL MEGARENSE.
¿Por qué razón?
DICEÓPOLIS.
Porque no tiene cola[184].
EL MEGARENSE.
Aún es muy joven; cuando crezca tendrá una cola grande, gorda y
colorada. Si quieres alimentarla, será una puerca magnífica.
DICEÓPOLIS.
¡Qué parecida es a esta otra![185].
EL MEGARENSE.
Las dos son hijas del mismo padre y de la misma madre. Cuando
se engorde y se cubra de pelos será la mejor víctima que pueda
ofrecerse a Venus.
DICEÓPOLIS.
A Venus no se le sacrifican puercas.
EL MEGARENSE.
¿Que no se sacrifican puercas a Venus? Precisamente es la única
deidad a quien le agradan. La carne de estos animales es riquísima
sobre todo cuando se la clava en el asador.
DICEÓPOLIS.
¿Comen ya solas, sin necesitar de su madre?
EL MEGARENSE.
Ni de su padre, por Neptuno.
DICEÓPOLIS.
¿Qué comida les gusta más?
EL MEGARENSE.
La que les des. Pregúntaselo a ellas
DICEÓPOLIS.
¡Gorrín! ¡Gorrín!
LAS MUCHACHAS.
¡Coi! ¡Coi!
DICEÓPOLIS.
¿Comerás nabos?[186].
LAS MUCHACHAS.
¡Coi! ¡Coi! ¡Coi!
DICEÓPOLIS.
¿Comerás higos?
LAS MUCHACHAS.
¡Coi! ¡Coi!
DICEÓPOLIS.
¡Con qué furia han pedido los higos! Traedles algunos a estas
puerquecillas. ¿Los comerán? ¡Sopla! ¡Con qué afán los devoran
Hércules venerando! Parece que son de Tragacia[187]. Pero es
imposible que se hayan comido todos los higos.
EL MEGARENSE.
Todos, menos uno que he cogido yo.
DICEÓPOLIS.
Son hermosos animales, a fe mía. ¿Por cuánto me los vendes?
EL MEGARENSE.
Este, por una ristra de ajos, y el otro, si te gusta, por un quénice[188
de sal.
DICEÓPOLIS.
Trato hecho. Espérame aquí.
EL MEGARENSE.
¡Bueno va! ¡Mercurio protector del comercio, concédeme que pueda
vender lo mismo a mi mujer y a mi madre![189].
UN DELATOR.
¡Buen hombre! ¿De dónde eres?
EL MEGARENSE.
Soy un megarense, vendedor de cerdos.
EL DELATOR.
Pues yo denuncio como enemigos a tus lechoncillos y a ti.
EL MEGARENSE.
¡Otra vez! Este renueva la fuente de todos nuestros males.
EL DELATOR.
Ya te arrepentirás de tu venida. Deja pronto ese saco.
EL MEGARENSE.
¡Diceópolis! ¡Diceópolis! Me denuncia un no sé quién.
DICEÓPOLIS.
¿Quién te denuncia? Agoránomos, ¿por qué no arrojáis de
mercado a los delatores? — ¿Cómo quieres alumbrarnos sin
linterna?[190].
EL DELATOR.
¿No puedo denunciar a los enemigos?
DICEÓPOLIS.
A costa de tu pellejo, si no te largas a otro sitio con tus delaciones.
EL MEGARENSE.
¡Qué peste para Atenas!
DICEÓPOLIS.
Ánimo, megarense; aquí tienes el precio de tus lechoncillos; toma
los ajos y la sal. Y pásalo bien.
EL MEGARENSE.
Ya no es costumbre entre nosotros.
DICEÓPOLIS.
Cierto, he dicho una tontería. ¡Caiga la culpa sobre mí!
EL MEGARENSE.
Id, lechoncillos míos, y, lejos de vuestro padre, ved si hay quien os
dé de comer tortas con sal.
(Vanse los dos.)
CORO.
Este hombre[191] es muy feliz. ¿No has oído cuán provechosa le ha
sido su determinación? Se gana la vida sentado tranquilamente en la
plaza; y si se presenta Ctesias o algún otro delator, les obligará a
tomar asiento doloridos. Nadie te engañará en la compra de
comestibles; Prepis[192] no te manchará con su inmundo contacto
Cleónimo no te dará empellones; cruzarás por entre la multitud vestido
de fiesta sin temor de que te salga al encuentro el pleitista Hipérbolo
ni de que, al pasear por el mercado, se te acerque Cratino[193], pelado
a la manera de los libertinos, o aquel perversísimo Artemón[194], en
cuyas axilas se esconden chivos apestados[195]. Tampoco se burlarán
de ti en la plaza ni el perdido Pausón[196] ni Lisístrato[197], oprobio de los
colargienses; ese que impregnado de todos los vicios, como el paño
en la púrpura que le tiñe, padece hambre y frío más de treinta días a
mes.
UN BEOCIO.
¡Por Hércules! ¡Cómo me duele el hombro! — Isménico, descarga
con cuidado el poleo[198]; y vosotros, flautistas tebanos, soplad con
vuestras flautas de hueso por el agujero mayor de esta piel de
perro[199].
DICEÓPOLIS.
¡Callad, malditos! ¿Si habrán echado raíces en mi puerta
semejantes moscones? ¿De dónde vendrán esos discordantes
flautistas, dignos discípulos de Queris?[200].
EL BEOCIO.
Por Iolao[201], ¡con qué placer les vería irse al infierno! Desde Tebas
vienen soplando detrás de mí, y me han arrancado todas las flores de
poleo. Extranjero, ¿quieres comprarme pollos o langostas?
DICEÓPOLIS.
Salud, amigo beocio, gran comedor de panecillos. ¿Qué traes?
EL BEOCIO.
Cuanto de bueno hay en Beocia: orégano, poleo, esterillas, mechas
para lámparas, ánades, grajos, francolines, pollas de agua
reyezuelos, mergos...
DICEÓPOLIS.
De modo que entras en el mercado a manera de huracán que abate
las aves contra el suelo.
EL BEOCIO.
También traigo gansos, liebres, zorras, topos, erizos, gatos
píctidas, nutrias, anguilas del Copais...[202]
DICEÓPOLIS.
¡Oh qué deliciosísimo bocado acabas de nombrar! Sí traes
anguilas, déjame que las salude.
EL BEOCIO.
Sal, tú, la mayor de las cincuenta vírgenes Copaidas, a regocija
con tu presencia a este extranjero[203].
DICEÓPOLIS.
¡Querida mía, por tanto tiempo deseada, al fin has venido a
satisfacer los deseos de los coros cómicos, y los del mismo
Moricos![204]. — Esclavos, traedme el fuego y el aventador. Mirad
muchachos, esta hermosa anguila, que al fin viene a visitarnos
después de seis años de espera[205]. Saludadla, hijos míos. Llevadla
adentro. — Ni aun la muerte podrá separarme de ti[206], como te
cuezan con acelgas.
EL BEOCIO.
¿Y cuánto me vas a pagar por ella?
DICEÓPOLIS.
Esta me la darás por derechos de entrada. ¿Quieres vender alguna
otra cosa?
EL BEOCIO.
Sí, por cierto; todo.
DICEÓPOLIS.
Vamos a ver, ¿cuánto pides? ¿O prefieres cambiar por otras tus
mercancías?
EL BEOCIO.
Bien, me llevaré de Atenas lo que no hay en Beocia.
DICEÓPOLIS.
Entonces querrás anchoas del Falero[207] y cacharros.
EL BEOCIO.
¡Anchoas! ¡Cacharros! De sobra los tenemos. Solo quiero llevarme
cosas que no hay allí, y aquí se encuentran en abundancia.
DICEÓPOLIS.
Ahora caigo en la cuenta: llévate un delator perfectamente
empaquetado como si fuese una vasija.
EL BEOCIO.
¡Por los Dioscuros![208] Ese sí que sería un negocio redondo: carga
con un mico lleno de malicias.
DICEÓPOLIS.
Muy oportunamente llega Nicarco a delatar alguno.
EL BEOCIO.
¡Qué pequeño es!
DICEÓPOLIS.
Pero todo veneno.
NICARCO.
¿De quién son estas mercancías?
EL BEOCIO.
Mías; traídas de Beocia: por Júpiter lo juro.
NICARCO.
Pues yo las denuncio por enemigas.
EL BEOCIO.
¿Qué furia te mueve a declarar la guerra a las aves?
NICARCO.
También a ti te denunciaré.
EL BEOCIO.
¿Qué daño te he hecho yo?
NICARCO.
Te lo diré en obsequio de los presentes: tú traes mechas del país
enemigo.
EL BEOCIO.
¿Eres por tanto un denunciador de mechas?
NICARCO.
Una sola puede incendiar la flota.
EL BEOCIO.
¡Una mecha incendiar la flota! ¿Cómo? ¡Soberano Júpiter!
NICARCO.
Cualquier beocio enciende una mecha, la ata a un insecto alado, y
aprovechando un momento en que el Bóreas sople con más violencia
la lanza sobre la flota por medio de un tubo; si el fuego prende en
cualquier navío, es seguro que se abrasará en seguida toda la flota.
DICEÓPOLIS.
¡Canalla sin vergüenza! ¿De modo que para reducir a cenizas la
escuadra, bastan una mecha y un insecto? (Le pega).
NICARCO.
¡Sed testigos! ¡Favor!
DICEÓPOLIS.
Tápale la boca: dame bálago y mimbres para envolverle y
podérmelo llevar como una vasija sin que se rompa.
CORO.
Buen hombre, ata bien tan delicada mercancía, no se te quiebre en
el camino.
DICEÓPOLIS.
Eso a mi cargo queda; aunque deja oír un crujido como si se
hubiera rajado en el horno. ¡Crujido odioso a los inmortales!
CORO.
¿Qué hará con él?
DICEÓPOLIS.
Me servirá para todo: de recipiente de los males; de mortero para
majar pleitos; de linterna para espiar a los recaudadores, y de barreño
donde se enturbien todas las cosas.
CORO.
¿Pero quién se atreverá a usar un vaso cuyos crujidos resuenan
incesantemente en la casa?
DICEÓPOLIS.
Es sólido, amigo mío, y no se quebrará fácilmente si se le cuelga de
los pies, cabeza abajo.
CORO.
Ya está bien embalado.
EL BEOCIO.
Voy a segar mi cosecha.
CORO.
Excelente forastero, carga con ese paquete, llévate a ese delator
bueno para cualquier cosa, y arrójalo donde te agrade.
DICEÓPOLIS.
Trabajo me ha costado el empaquetar a ese perdido. Ea, amigo
toma tu vasija y llévatela.
EL BEOCIO.
Isménico, cárgatela sobre tus duros hombros.
DICEÓPOLIS.
Procura llevarla con cuidado. Aunque no llevas nada de bueno, sin
embargo, es fácil que salgas ganancioso con tu carga: serás feliz po
gracia de los delatores.
(Vase el Beocio.)
UN CRIADO DE LÁMACO.
¡Diceópolis!
DICEÓPOLIS.
¿Quién va? ¿Qué me quieres?
EL CRIADO.
Lámaco te suplica que le des, mediante este dracma, algunos
tordos, para celebrar la fiesta de las Copas[209]; y que por otros tres le
vendas una anguila del Copais.
DICEÓPOLIS.
¿Quién es ese Lámaco que desea la anguila?
EL CRIADO.
Aquel terrible sufridor de trabajos, que lleva una Gorgona en e
escudo, y sobre cuyo casco se agita un penacho triple.
DICEÓPOLIS.
No le venderé nada, por Júpiter, aunque me dé su escudo: en vez
de comer pescado, entreténgase en agitar su penachos. Si se
alborota, llamaré a los agoránomos. Ahora, recogiendo mis compras
entraré en mi casa «sobre las alas de los mirlos y los tordos.»[210]
CORO.
¿No veis, ciudadanos, no veis la extremada prudencia y discreción
de ese hombre, que, después de haber pactado sus treguas, puede
comprar cuantas cosas suelen traer los mercaderes, útiles unas a la
casa, y gratísimas otras al paladar?
Todos los bienes penetran por sí mismos en su morada.
Nunca admitiré en mi casa al belicoso Marte; jamás cantará en m
mesa el himno de Harmodio[211], porque es un ser cuya embriaguez es
temible. Arrojándose sobre nuestros bienes, descargó sobre nosotros
todos los males, la ruina, la destrucción y la muerte; en vano le
decíamos amablemente: «Bebe, acompáñanos en la mesa, acepta
esta copa de amistad», porque entonces atizaba con más violencia e
incendio de nuestros rodrigones, y derramaba el vino de nuestras
cepas.
Abundante mesa es la de Diceópolis; envanecido con su suerte
arroja en los umbrales de su casa esas plumas, indicio de su regalada
vida.
¡Oh Paz, compañera de la hermosa Venus y de sus amigas las
Gracias! ¿Cómo he podido desconocer tanto tiempo tu sin pa
belleza?
¡Ojalá me despose contigo un Amor coronado de rosas como el que
está allí pintado![212] ¿Me crees acaso demasiado viejo? Pues si me
enlazo a ti podré, aunque anciano, hacer tres cosas en obsequio tuyo
abrir en primer lugar un largo surco para la vid[213]; poner después junto
a él tiernos retoños de higuera, y plantar luego el vigoroso sarmiento
cercando, por fin, todo mi campo de olivos, con cuyo aceite podamos
mutuamente ungirnos en las Neomenias.
UN HERALDO.
Pueblos, escuchad: conforme a la costumbre patria, bebed en
vuestras copas, al son de las trompetas; el que primero haya apurado
su vaso recibirá en premio un odre de Ctesifonte[214].
DICEÓPOLIS.
Muchachos, mujeres, ¿no habéis oído? ¿Qué hacéis? ¿No habéis
oído el pregón? Coced las viandas, asadlas; retirad pronto las liebres
de los asadores; tejed las coronas; dadme asadorcillos para los
tordos[215].
CORO.
Celebro tu suerte, amigo mío, y más que todo esa tu discreción
admirable por la cual gozas de tan delicioso banquete.
DICEÓPOLIS.
¿Pues qué diréis cuando veáis cómo se asan mis tordos?
CORO.
También creo que tienes razón en eso.
DICEÓPOLIS.
Atizad el fuego.
CORO.

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(eBook PDF) Research Methods for the Social Sciences,

(eBook PDF) Methods in Behavioural Research 2rd by Paul

Methods In Behavioural Research 3rd Edition Paul C.

(eBook PDF) Statistical Methods for the Social Sciences

Frederick J Lori-Ann B. Tim

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1 Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge and the Scientific Method 1

A Statistics Demonstrations and Statistical Tables 459

Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge and the Scientific Method 1

Research Ideas and Hypotheses 27

The Purpose of a Literature Search 34

Defining and Measuring Variables 50

Artefacts: Experimenter Bias and Participant Reactivity 72

Selecting Research Participants 109

Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling 120

Research Strategies and Validity 128

Chapter Summary 156

The Experimental Research Strategy 159

Experimental Designs: Between-Subjects Design 188

Advantages and Disadvantages of Between-Subjects Designs 192

Experimental Designs: Within-Subjects Design 215

Two-Treatment Designs 239

The Non-Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Strategies:

Factorial Designs 273

Main Effects 278

The Correlational Research Strategy 305

Modes and Methods of Measurement 324

Case Study and Single-Case Experimental Research Designs 352

Disadvantages of Single-Case Designs 377

Statistical Evaluation of Data 381

Writing an APA-Style Research Report 431

A Statistics Demonstrations and Statistical Tables 459

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Other revisions by chapter

Mark Aveyard, American University of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates

The late Fr e d e r i c k J G r avet te r was ­ Professor

Emeritus of Psychology at The College at Brockport, State

Lori -Ann B. For z ano is Professor of Psychology at The

methods, statistics, learning, animal behaviour and the psychol-

TIM R AKOW is Reader in Psychology at King’s College London.

disciplines of psychology, health, medicine, decision science and

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1 Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge and the Scientific Method 1

A Statistics Demonstrations and Statistical Tables 459

The late Fr e d e r i c k J G r avet te r was Professor