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S AV I N G FA C E
IN BUSINESS
M a n a g i n g C r o s s - Cu l t u r a l I n t e r a c t i o n s
REBECCA S. MERKIN
CONTENTS
1 Introduction 1
ix
x CONTENTS
Index 277
LIST OF FIGURES
xi
LIST OF TABLES
xiii
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
ways that relationships could get off to a poor start. To assure better
cross-cultural experiences, understanding the tacit beliefs people from
other cultures hold is essential.
Generally speaking, when people meet colleagues abroad they have
goals in mind, but some persuasive tactics that are useful in the US can
backfire abroad. Before such meetings, planning communication strategies
based on cultural modes practiced by the other party often is the key to
success. Moreover, if inappropriate communication maneuvers are carried
out, it is possible that both the perpetrators and their counterparts (e.g.,
their partners in business) could end up losing face as a result of cultural
misunderstandings.
For example, on January 8, 1992, US President George Bush went to
Japan with Lee Iacocca and other American business magnates on a 12 day
mission to improve trade relations with Japan. The delegation attempted to
mandate that Japanese leaders buy more American automobiles and
communicated this directly by making demands. However, to the
Japanese, it is considered rude and a sign of ignorance or desperation to
lower oneself to make direct demands. Therefore, instead of appearing as a
statesman, President Bush seemed to have demeaned himself by appearing
desperate to sell US cars. What’s more, in Japan, trade relations are handled
exclusively by lower-level assistants.
This bad impression was worsened by a mealtime faux pas that some
consider the most embarrassing diplomatic incident in recent US history.
Losing control is looked down upon by the Japanese. When at a state
dinner for over 100 diplomats held at the home of the Japanese Prime
Minister Kiichi Miyazawa, President Bush experienced unexpected intense
gastric distress, vomited into the lap of Miyazawa, and fainted; he did not
appear to have personal control or leadership. Back home, footage of the
president vomiting was broadcast on TV and became subject matter for
late night comedians. This fiasco resulted in Mr. Bush losing face in front of
the Japanese and before the whole world. In the end, President Bush’s
failure to tailor his initial message to Japanese cultural sensitivities deprived
him of the goodwill that might have allowed people to see his misfortune at
the dinner table as merely an unavoidable accident caused by illness.
US businessman Lee Iacocca’s communication style was not much
better. During his visit with President Bush, he also made insulting direct
demands. Furthermore, when he returned from this trade mission, instead
of attempting to repair their relationship, he proceeded to deride the
Japanese government for helping its own automobile industry while
1 INTRODUCTION 5
sinking the US’s. Mr. Iacocca’s public remarks disparaging the Japanese
infuriated the President of the Nissan Car Company and the Chairman of
the Japanese Automobile Manufacturers Association, Mr. Yutaka Kume
who responded, “Mr Iococca’s behavior and remarks are outrageous and
insulting to us.” Then he swore never to meet with those Americans again
(Mantle, 2011).
These two examples reflect some of the most common circumstances in
which face is threatened: cross-cultural relations, initial interactions,
requests, and conflict. Intercultural communication is potentially threat-
ening to face by definition because, in today’s world, people of all cultures
experience a heightened risk of losing face if they do not interact with those
from different cultures in a mindful way. Those from different cultures
think and communicate differently because of varying cultural dimensions
that affect human behavior (Hofstede, 2001; Young, 2013).
Meeting people for the first time is also potentially face-threatening
because initial conversations are personal investments in future social
interactions (Svennevig, 1999). Interactions carry risk because the indi-
viduals do not always know how the other person feels about them. Thus,
people often do not express verbal messages about what or whom they like
because it may be easier for them to deny their feelings as a way to save face
if the feeling is not mutual. Because cultures vary in their rules for emo-
tional disclosure, it is important to understand others’ rules well before
initial meetings.
Because requests could cause a person to lose face, they are often
expressed as a question. For example, when someone asks a question like
“Is there any coffee left?” the question is usually interpreted as a request (as
opposed to an appeal for information) (Demeure, Bonnefon, & Raufaste,
2008). This is particularly likely when the status of the listener is superior to
that of the speaker, if the listener is sensitive rather than open-minded, or if
the listener likes to be in control rather than considerate of other people’s
opinions.
Geert Hofstede defined power distance as the extent to which the less
powerful members of institutions and organizations within a country
expect and accept that power is distributed unequally. In cultures that are
high in power distance, especially indirect communication is the norm for
maintaining face. Thus, researchers found that explicit requests could
actually “disrupt social bonds” (Cocroft & Ting-Toomey, 1994; Gagne,
2010).
6 R.S. MERKIN
ACCEPTANCE OF DIFFERENCE
Relationships characterized by cross-cultural clashes are frequently the
result of the failure by some or all parties involved to recognize and
acknowledge differences in culturally-based communication styles
(Beamer, 1992). They assume that all people communicate using the same
styles and rules. For example, many US professionals assume that all people
want to be spoken to informally, just as they assume that their gestures are
8 R.S. MERKIN
appropriate for use in any culture, or that an openly frank style of nego-
tiating is universally respected. It is important to note that there is no such
thing as a universal form of communication. Take the simple gesture of
expressing our real opinions about ideas. It is not unusual for Americans to
believe that we know how to do everything the best way. We discuss our
ideas with strangers and acquaintances on the street, at the airport, in
restaurants, and so on. In fact, we consider it a friendly gesture to express
ourselves. However, in other cultures, a discussion can take on a com-
pletely different meaning, particularly with regard to one’s status.
Expressing oneself frankly can be considered rude, insulting, or it can even
signal one-upmanship. A person’s interpretation of communication is
dependent on his or her culturally specific context. As a result, it becomes
necessary for people trying to connect with people from other cultures to
get to know what cultural differences may account for their different modes
of communication.
FACE-THREATENING SITUATIONS
There is no better condition for developing an understanding of a culture
in action than during a face-threatening situation. Cultures tend to reveal
themselves in situations where much is in jeopardy because it is here that
their defenses are crucial to support sustained productive communication.
When relationships require highly face-threatening communication such as
initial interactions, requests, and conflicts, the distinctive and fundamental
elements of a culture are revealed. Similarly, in business, where economic
survival is at risk, cultural attitudes toward work, power, trust, equality, and
communication influence how communication is carried out. Given that
both interpersonal and business relationships consist of mutual exchanges,
the ability to manage one’s comportment strategically is vital to protecting
one’s self-interest and avoiding losing face.
For example, suppose you are working with clients you do not know
well and the location of their company is in an inconvenient place for you
to meet them. You either cannot get there easily or cannot park. In this
case, you may need to make a request that you sometimes meet them
somewhere that is more convenient. Other requests for a change in plans,
or even for money, put other people in a position where they are
expected to provide us with something on our terms rather than on
theirs. This is face-threatening because it burdens other people. If they
acquiesce to our request, we feel relieved because the threat is gone, but
1 INTRODUCTION 9
we also owe them a return favor for their service to us. How this
exchange is enacted varies by individuals’ cultural values. For example,
requests can be made directly or indirectly depending on whether explicit
requests are culturally acceptable.
For all these reasons, this book pulls together theory and research on the
verbal communication strategies individuals use to save face where com-
munication styles vary in different cultures around the world. The most
influential work on conceptions for understanding cultural differences is
Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory (Smith, Bond, & Cagitcibasi, 2006;
see Chaps. 2–6 for more details). Consequently, this framework will be
used throughout the book as a springboard in which to discuss diverse
communicative facework strategies that are most likely to be used by cit-
izens of a specific culture based on their particular combination of cultural
dimensions. Cultural dimensions represent independent preferences for
one state of affairs over another that distinguish countries (rather than
individuals) from each other (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010) or
can represent the shared views individuals acquire by growing up in a
particular country (Hofstede, 2001). For example, one dimension of a
culture relates to how it understands the workings of power, while another
dimension relates to how it encourages members of the society to cope
with uncertainty. These and other dimensions of culture help explain the
underlying assumptions behind how negotiations proceed, agreements are
stated, and employees are trained and managed. Thus, this book provides a
model for understanding the likely patterns that people from different
cultures use and expect others to use when communicating. Based on this
model, the book aims to help readers develop a strategic facework plan for
intercultural interactions drawing on Hofstede’s theory of cultural
dimensions. The chapters that illustrate these patterns include examples
culled from the author’s original research in Korea, Hong Kong, Japan,
Chile, Sweden, the US, Israel, Syria, and Pakistan.
OVERVIEW OF CHAPTERS
This book begins with a chapter describing the parameters of saving face
and the use of facework—strategies used to maintain face—during inter-
cultural communication. Overall communication concepts and practices
are introduced in this chapter. This chapter explores the significance of
cross-cultural facework with an emphasis on the basics of how a person’s
face is validated. Just how significant face is to people varies by culture, and
10 R.S. MERKIN
this chapter discusses the cultural reasons that saving face is important and
how saving face is regarded and communicated. Accompanying terms such
as facework and impression-management will be set forth, demarcated, and
clearly discussed so that a working understanding of these terms can be
established before advancing into cultural processes.
Chapter 2 will describe the notion of cultural dimensions (aspects of a
culture’s assumptions)—what they are and how they impact individuals’
cultural values. Further, Chap. 2 will explicate how cultural dimensions
drive communication. Finally, Chap. 2 will lay out a fundamental model of
face developed by the author that systematically analyzes how people can
strategize their communication depending on the cultural makeup of the
country being visited. This model is set up to be used as a guideline for
purposefully conducting oneself with regard for the cultural values of
others. The model this book proposes is based on Hofstede’s
widely-recognized initial grand theory of cultural dimensions which is not
without detractors (e.g., McSweeney, 2013; Ralston et al., 2014; Venaik &
Brewer, 2013). However, in short, given that Hofstede’s theory is one of
the oldest, most comprehensive analyses of cultural values, this conceptu-
alization was chosen for the cultural model that follows. Further on in the
book, an explanation will be provided as to the logic behind this position
and the rationality attributable to the corresponding facework strategies
the model suggests to be used. We now turn to a discussion of the values
attached to the self and corresponding face, followed by a summary of the
structure of the chapters that makeup this book.
One of the most influential American sociologists of the twentieth
century, Erving Goffman (Fine & Manning, 2003), points out that peo-
ple’s feelings are attached to their self which is a sense of who one is
(Goffman, 1959). In turn, the self is the internal starting point for pre-
senting one’s face or the image of the self in social relationships, interac-
tions, and encounters. For example, a person may feel an insecure sense of
self, which may motivate him or her to manifest deliberate external
expressions of power, such as a high-priced bag or a sexy red sports car.
Cultural theorists point out that culture affects one’s notion of self
(Morisaki & Gudykunst, 1994). Specifically, the way people view themselves
is determined by how they see themselves in relation to their primary
group. If someone comes from a collectivistic culture, he or she might view
his or her family as an interconnected part of their self. This means that one
person’s actions can bring shame or pride to the others in the group. On the
other hand, if someone comes from an individualistic country—like the
1 INTRODUCTION 11