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IoT and Spacecraft
Informatics
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Aerospace Engineering

IoT and Spacecraft

Informatics

Edited by

K.L. YUNG
Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, The
Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, P.R.
China

ANDREW W.H. IP
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of
Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada; Department of
Industrial and Systems Engineering, The Hong Kong
Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR, P.R. China

FATOS XHAFA
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain

K.K. TSENG
Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, P.R. China
Elsevier
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Prof. Xhafa dedicates this book to the memory of his late mother.
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

List of contributors xv
About the editors xix
Foreword xxiii
Preface xxv
Acknowledgment xxix

1. Artificial intelligence approach for aerospace defect detection

using single-shot multibox detector network in
phased array ultrasonic 1
Yuk Ming Tang, Andrew W.H. Ip and Wenqiang Li
1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 Ultrasonic inspection in aircraft 1
1.1.2 Autonomous inspection 2
1.2 Literature review 3
1.2.1 Composite material for the aerospace industry 3
1.2.2 Defects on composite materials 3
1.2.3 Defect inspection of composite materials 4
1.3 Defect detection algorithm 5
1.3.1 R-convolutional neural network 6
1.3.2 You only look once 6
1.3.3 Single-shot mulibox detector 7
1.3.4 Single-shot mulibox detector versus you only look once 8
1.3.5 Convolutional neural network-based object detection in
nondestructive testing 9
1.4 Deployment of defect detection 11
1.4.1 Setting up of the deep learning environment 11
1.4.2 Model training 13
1.4.3 Deployment in NVidia jetson TX2 14
1.4.4 Validation 15
1.5 Implementation 16
1.5.1 Dataset preparation 16
1.5.2 Defect scanning 16
1.5.3 Image augmentation 17
1.5.4 Image annotation 18
1.6 Results 19
1.6.1 Loss 19

vii
viii Contents

1.6.2 Validation of the defect detection system 20

1.7 Conclusions 25
Acknowledgment 26
References 26

2. Classifying asteroid spectra by data-driven machine

learning model 29
Tan Guo, Xiao-Ping Lu, Keping Yu, Yong-Xiong Zhang and Fulin Luo
2.1 Introduction 29
2.1.1 Asteroid spectroscopic survey 30
2.1.2 Asteroid taxonomy 32
2.2 Related work 35
2.2.1 Notations used in this chapter 35
2.2.2 Low-dimensional feature learning for spectral data 36
2.2.3 Classifier models for spectral data classification 37
2.3 Neighboring discriminant component analysis:
a data-driven machine learning model for asteroid spectra feature
learning and classification 39
2.4 Experiments 42
2.4.1 Preprocessing for the asteroid spectral data 42
2.4.2 Experimental setup and results 43
2.4.3 Analysis for neighboring discriminant component analysi
parameters 49
2.4.4 Analysis for extreme learning machine classifier
parameters 50
2.5 Conclusion 53
Acknowledgment 54
Appendix A Reflectance spectra characteristics for some representative
asteroids from different categories are used in this chapter 54
References 65

3. Recognition of target spacecraft based on shape features 67

Na Dong, Xinyu Liu, Donghui Li, Andrew W.H. Ip and K.L. Yung

3.1 Introduction 67
3.1.1 Background 67
3.1.2 Related works 69
3.2 Artificial bee colony algorithm 72
3.3 Species-based artificial bee colony algorithm 73
3.3.1 Species 73
 Contents ix

3.3.2 Species-based artificial bee colony algorithm 74

3.3.3 Benchmark test 78
3.4 The application of species-based artificial bee colony in circle detection 81
3.4.1 Representation of the circle 81
3.4.2 Assessment of circular accuracy 82
3.5 The application of species-based artificial bee colony in multicircle
detection 83
3.5.1 Test experiments on drawn sketches 83
3.5.2 Detection for circular modules on noncooperative targets 86
3.5.3 Detection performance with noise 89
3.5.4 Detection performance under different light intensity 90
3.5.5 Detection performance during continuous flight 91
3.6 The application of species-based artificial bee colony in multitemplate
matching 93
3.6.1 Multitemplate matching by species-based artificial bee colony 94
3.6.2 Multitemplate matching for blurred images 96
3.6.3 Multitemplate matching for images with noises 96
3.7 Conclusions 96
References 98

4. Internet of Things, a vision of digital twins and case studies 101

Aparna Murthy, Muhammad Irshad, Sohail M. Noman, Xilang Tang,
Bin Hu, Song Chen and Ghadeer Khader
4.1 Introduction to internet of things 101
4.2 Components of internet of things 102
4.2.1 Sensor/devices 103
4.2.2 Connectivity 103
4.2.3 Data processing 104
4.2.4 User interface 104
4.3 Digital twin 105
4.4 Digital twin description in internet of things context 108
4.5 Multiagent system architecture 108
4.5.1 Dynamic real-life environment 109
4.5.2 Collaborative learning 109
4.6 The mathematical construct of a typical digital twin 112
4.7 Internet of things analytics 113
4.7.1 Case studies 1—internet of things devices for mobile link 114
4.7.2 Case study 2—intelligent internet of things -based system
studying postmodulation factors 116
4.7.3 Case studies 3—internet of things -based vertical plant wall
for indoor climate control 121
x Contents

4.8 Discussion 123

4.9 Conclusion 124
References 125

5. Subspace tracking for time-varying direction-of-arrival

estimation with sensor arrays 129
Bin Liao, Zhiguo Zhang and Shing Chow Chan

5.1 Introduction 129

5.1.1 Subspace tracking 129
5.1.2 Direction-of-arrival estimation 131
5.2 Subspace tracking algorithms 131
5.2.1 Signal model 131
5.2.2 Projection approximate subspace tracking 132
5.2.3 Modified projection approximate subspace tracking 133
5.2.4 Modified orthonormal projection approximate subspace tracking 135
5.2.5 Kalman filtering 135
5.2.6 Kalman filter with variable number of measurements based
subspace tracking 137
5.3 Robust subspace tracking 140
5.3.1 Robust projection approximate subspace tracking 141
5.3.2 Robust Kalman filter with variable number of measuremen 142
5.4 Subspace-based direction-of-arrival tracking 145
5.5 Simulation results 146
5.5.1 Subspace and direction-of-arrival tracking in Gaussian noise 146
5.5.2 Subspace and direction-of-arrival tracking in impulsive noise 149
5.6 Conclusions 153
References 153

6. An overview of optimization and resolution methods in

satellite scheduling and spacecraft operation: description,
modeling, and application 157
Andrew W.H. Ip, Fatos Xhafa, Jingyi Dong and Ming Gao
6.1 Introduction 157
6.1.1 Background 157
6.1.2 Literature review and classification of scheduling problems 159
6.1.3 The scheduling problems 160
6.1.4 Integrating scheduling in the big data environment 162
6.2 Satellite scheduling problems 164
6.2.1 Satellite range scheduling 164
 Contents xi

6.2.2 Satellite downlink scheduling 164

6.2.3 Satellite broadcast scheduling 167
6.2.4 Satellite scheduling data download 168
6.2.5 Satellite scheduling at large scale 168
6.2.6 Satellite scheduling at small scale 169
6.2.7 Multisatellite scheduling 169
6.2.8 Multisatellite, multistation TT & C scheduling 169
6.2.9 Ground station scheduling 170
6.2.10 Low-earth-orbit satellite scheduling 176
6.2.11 Computational complexity of satellites scheduling 177
6.2.12 Satellite deployment systems 178
6.3 Spacecraft optimization problems 178
6.4 Computational complexity resolution methods 179
6.4.1 Local search methods 181
6.5 Future trend of algorithms and models and solutions of satellite
scheduling problem 208
6.6 Benchmarking and simulation platforms 212
6.7 Conclusions and future work 213
Acknowledgments 213
References 213

7. Colored Petri net modeling of the manufacturing processes

of space instruments 219
Ang Li, Bo Li, Ming Gao, K.L. Yung and Andrew W.H. Ip

7.1 Introduction 219

7.1.1 Development of Petri net 219
7.1.2 Classification of Petri net 219
7.1.3 Petri net properties 224
7.1.4 Modeling with TCPN 225
7.1.5 Application of Petri net 225
7.1.6 Optimization tools 227
7.2 Case study 233
7.2.1 Case modeling and simulation 233
7.2.2 Simulation result and analysis 241
7.2.3 Improvement strategy 246
7.3 Fault diagnosis of Rocket engine starting process 249
7.3.1 Online fault diagnosis method of observable Petri net 249
7.4 Conclusion 250
Acknowledgments 251
References 252
xii Contents

8. Product performance model for product innovation, reliability

and development in high-tech industries and a case study
on the space instrument industry 255
Yuk Ming Tang, Andrew W.H. Ip, Yim Shan Au and K.L. Yung
8.1 Introduction 255
8.1.1 Project background 255
8.1.2 Project objectives 256
8.2 Literature review 256
8.2.1 Definition of innovation 256
8.2.2 Factors affecting innovations 257
8.2.3 Definition of product reliability 258
8.2.4 Factors affecting product reliability 258
8.2.5 Definition of new product development 259
8.2.6 Factor affecting new product development 260
8.2.7 Product relationships in high-tech industries 260
8.3 Methodology 261
8.3.1 Research framework 261
8.3.2 Research hypothesis 261
8.3.3 Data collection 263
8.3.4 Case study of the soil preparation system 263
8.4 Methodology 263
8.4.1 Respondents 263
8.4.2 Results of questionnaire 264
8.4.3 Result of case study on soil preparation system compared to
hi-tech industry 268
8.5 Discussion 275
8.5.1 Relationship of innovation, reliability and product development
in high-tech industries 275
8.6 Conclusions 279
8.6.1 Summary of study 279
8.6.2 Limitations of study 280
8.6.3 Suggestions for future work 280
Acknowledgment 281
References 281
 Contents xiii

9. Monocular simultaneous localization and mapping for

a space rover application 285
K.K. Tseng, Jun Li, Yachin Chang, K.L. Yung and Andrew W.H. Ip

9.1 Introduction 285

9.2 Related work 287
9.3 Proposed system and algorithm 288
9.3.1 System initialization 289
9.3.2 Map management 291
9.3.3 Feature search and matching 293
9.3.4 System state update 296
9.4 Experiments 297
9.4.1 System display and camera view 298
9.4.2 Performance comparison 298
9.5 Planetary rover application 300
9.6 Conclusions 304
References 305

10. Reliability and health management of spacecraft 307

Xilang Tang, K.L. Yung and Bin Hu

10.1 Introduction 307

10.2 An introduction to “health management” 308
10.2.1 The basic concept of “health management” 308
10.2.2 Condition-based maintenance 309
10.3 The application of spacecraft health management—integrated
vehicle health management 312
10.4 The classical structure of health management system for spacecraft 315
10.4.1 The space-borne health management system 315
10.4.2 The ground health management system 318
10.5 Benefits of Internet of Things to health management 319
10.5.1 The difference between Internet of Things and sensor network 319
10.5.2 Internet of Things brings more benefit for health management
of spacecraft 320
10.6 Prognostics technique 321
10.6.1 Problems for model-based prognostics 322
10.6.2 Methodology of model-based prognostics 323
10.6.3 An example of prognostics for solenoid valve 327
References 334

Index 337
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List of contributors

Yim Shan Au
Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic
University, Hong Kong, P.R. China; Laboratory for Artificial Intelligence in Design,
Hong Kong Science Park, New Territories, Hong Kong SAR, P.R. China
Shing Chow Chan
Department of Electrical and Eletronic Engineering, The University of Hong Kong,
Hong Kong, P.R. China
Yachin Chang
Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen, P.R. China
Song Chen
Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, P.R. China
Jingyi Dong
School of Management Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Big Data
Management Optimization and Decision of Liaoning Province, Dongbei University of
Finance and Economics, Dalian, P.R. China
Na Dong
School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin,
P.R. China
Ming Gao
School of Management Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Big Data
Management Optimization and Decision of Liaoning Province, Dongbei University of
Finance and Economics, Dalian, P.R. China
Tan Guo
Faculty of Information Technology, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa,
Macau, P.R. China; State Key Laboratory of Lunar and Planetary Sciences, Macau
University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau, P.R. China; School of
Communication and Information Engineering, Chongqing University of Posts and
Telecommunications, Chongqing, P.R. China
Bin Hu
Changsha Normal University, Changsha, P.R. China
Andrew W.H. Ip
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK,
Canada; Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic
University, Hong Kong SAR, P.R. China; College of Engineering, University of
Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
Muhammad Irshad
Department of Electronic and Information Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic
University, Hong Kong, China

xv
xvi List of contributors

Ghadeer Khader
Diligent Trust Inc., IT Solutions, Toronto, Canada
Ang Li
School of Management Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Big Data
Management Optimization and Decision of Liaoning Province, Dongbei University of
Finance and Economics, Dalian, P.R. China
Bo Li
School of Management Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Big Data
Management Optimization and Decision of Liaoning Province, Dongbei University of
Finance and Economics, Dalian, P.R. China
Donghui Li
School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, P.R. China
Jun Li
Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen, P.R. China
Wenqiang Li
Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic
University, Hong Kong SAR, P.R. China
Bin Liao
College of Elecronics and Information Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen,
P.R. China
Xinyu Liu
School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, P.R. China
Xiao-Ping Lu
Faculty of Information Technology, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa,
Macau, P.R. China; State Key Laboratory of Lunar and Planetary Sciences, Macau
University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau, P.R. China
Fulin Luo
State Key Laboratory of Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping and Remote
Sensing, Wuhan University, Wuhan, P.R. China
Aparna Murthy
EIT, PEO, Toronto, ON, Canada
Sohail M. Noman
Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, P.R. China
Xilang Tang
Air Force Engineering University, Xi’an, P.R. China
Yuk Ming Tang
Laboratory for Artificial Intelligence in Design, Hong Kong Science Park, New
Territories, Hong Kong SAR, P.R. China; Department of Industrial and Systems
Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR, P.R. China
 List of contributors xvii

K.K. Tseng
Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen, P.R. China
Fatos Xhafa
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain
Keping Yu
Global Information and Telecommunication Institute, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan
K.L. Yung
Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic
University, Hong Kong, P.R. China
Yong-Xiong Zhang
Faculty of Information Technology, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa,
Macau, P.R. China; State Key Laboratory of Lunar and Planetary Sciences, Macau
University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau, P.R. China
Zhiguo Zhang
School of Biomedical Engineering, Health Science Center, Shenzhen University,
Shenzhen, P.R. China
This page intentionally left blank
About the editors

Professor K.L. Yung is an Associate Head and

Chair Professor of the Department of Industrial
and Systems Engineering of The Hong Kong
Polytechnic University. He received his BSc in
Electronic Engineering at Brighton University in
1975, MSc, DIC in Automatic Control Systems at
Imperial College of Science, Technology &
Medicine, University of London in 1976, and
PhD in Microprocessor Applications in Process
Control at Plymouth University in the United Prof. K.L. Yung, the
Kingdom in 1985. He became a Chartered Hong Kong Polytechnic
Engineer (C.Eng., MIEE) in 1982. After gradua- University, China
tion, he worked in the United Kingdom for companies such as BOC
Advanced Welding Co. Ltd., the British Ever Ready Group, and the
Cranfield Unit for Precision Engineering (CUPE). In 1986, he returned
to Hong Kong to join the Hong Kong Productivity Council as a
Consultant and subsequently switched to academia to join the
Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering of The Hong Kong
Polytechnic University. He has a wealth of experience in making sophisti-
cated space tools for deep space exploration missions. These include Space
Holinser Forceps for the MIR Space Station, the “Mars Rock Corer” for
the European Space Agency’s Mars Express Mission (2003), the “Soil
Preparation System” for the Sino-Russian Phobos-Grunt Mission (2011),
and advanced precision robotic systems for the China Lunar Exploration
Missions (Chang’e 3, 4, 5, and 6) such as the Camera Pointing Systems
(CPS), and the Mars Exploration Mission (Tianwen-1), such as the Mars
Surveillance Camera.

xix
xx About the editors

Prof. Andrew W.H. Ip received his PhD from

Loughborough University (UK), MBA from
Brunel University (UK), MSc in Industrial
Engineering from Cranfield University (UK), and
LLB (Hons) from the University of
Wolverhampton (UK). In 2015, Dr. Ip was
awarded “Gold Medal with the Congratulations of
the Jury” and “Thailand Award for Best
International Invention” in the 43rd International
Exhibition of Geneva, and in 2013, he was Prof. Andrew W.H. Ip,
awarded the “Natural Science Award” of the University of
Saskatchewan,
Ministry of Education Higher Education Department of
Outstanding Scientific Research Output Awards Mechanical
by the Ministry of Education of Mainland China. Engineering, Canada
Dr. Ip has been appointed as a distinguished pro-
fessor and visiting professor of various universities in China including
Shenzhen University, Civil Aviation University of China, South China
Normal University, City University of Macau, and the Hunan University
of Finance and Economics. He is a Professor Emeritus and an adjunct
professor of Mechanical Engineering, University of Saskatchewan,
Canada; Honorary Fellow of the University of Warwick (Warwick
Manufacturing Group), and a senior research fellow of the Hong Kong
Polytechnic University. He is a chartered engineer, senior member of
IEEE, member of Hong Kong Institution of Engineers, and member of
various professional bodies in mechanical and electrical engineering.
He is the Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Enterprise
Information System (SCI index), Taylor & Francis; the Founder & Editor-
in-Chief of the International Journal of Engineering Business Management
(ESCI & SCOPUS index), SAGE; and Editor-in-Chief of the International
Journal of Software Science and Computational Intelligence of IGI Global. He
also serves as associate editor and guest editor of various SCI international
journals on engineering and technology.
 About the editors xxi

Fatos Xhafa, PhD in Computer Science, is a full

professor at the Technical University of Catalonia
(UPC), Barcelona, Spain. He has held various ten-
ured and visiting professorship positions. He was a
visiting professor at the University of Surrey, UK
(2019/2020), visiting professor at the Birkbeck
College, University of London, UK (2009/2010),
and a research associate at Drexel University,
Philadelphia, USA (2004/2005). He was a distin-
guished guest professor at Hubei University of Prof. Fatos Xhafa, PhD,
Technology, China, for 3 years (2016
19). Prof. UPC-BarcelonaTech,
Barcelona, Spain
Xhafa has widely published in peer-reviewed inter-
national journals, conferences/workshops, book chapters, edited books,
and proceedings in the field (H-index 55). He is awarded teaching and
research merits by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Education, in
IEEE conferences, and best paper awards. Prof. Xhafa has extensive edito-
rial experience. He is the founder and Editor-in-Chief of Internet of
Things—Journal—Elsevier (Scopus and Clarivate WoS Science Citation
Index) and of International Journal of Grid and Utility Computing, (Emerging
Sources Citation Index) and AE/EB Member of several indexed interna-
tional journals. He is the founder and Editor-in-Chief of two books series:
the Springer Book Series Lecture Notes in Data Engineering and
Communication Technologies (SCOPUS, EI Compendex, ISI WoS) and
the Elsevier Book Series Intelligent Data-Centric Systems (SCOPUS, EI
Compendex). Prof. Xhafa is a member of IEEE Communications Society,
IEEE Systems, Man & Cybernetics Society, and Founder Member of the
Emerging Technical Subcommittee of Internet of Things.
His research interests include IoT and Cloud-to-thing continuum
computing, massive data processing and collective intelligence, optimiza-
tion, security, and trustworthy computing and machine learning. He can
be reached at fatos@cs.upc.edu. Please visit also http://www.cs.upc.edu/
Bfatos/ and at http://dblp.uni-trier.de/pers/hd/x/Xhafa:Fatos
xxii About the editors

K.K. Tseng is a tenured associate professor and

Shenzhen Peacock B-level talent. He was born in
1974 and received his doctoral degree in computer
information and engineering from the National
Chiao Tung University of Taiwan in 2006. He has
many years of research and development experi-
ence and has long engaged in deep learning archi-
tecture and algorithms research. His recent research
focus is on brain-like processor design, unmanned
driving, and biological signal research. Prof. K.K. Tseng,
He has published more than 80 articles, of Harbin Institute of
Technology, China
which about 40 have a high SCI impact factor
including the famous ACM/IEEE series of journals. In addition, he has
registered more than 40 patents for inventions.
Foreword

Space exploration is one of the most exciting and contemporary topics

both in academia and industries in recent years. Many countries such as
Russia, United States, Japan, and India are deploying new and innovative
technologies involving AI, drones, robotics, and machine learning, and so
on into their deep space exploration missions. Moreover, considering the
high complexity, high cost, and high risk involved in spacecraft, advanced
technologies in information processing, simulation, optimization, and
decision-making are required to improve the effectiveness, efficiency, reli-
ability, and safety of space exploration. The emerging Internet of Things
(IoT) or Internet of Planets and informatics offer the possibility of integra-
tion in the areas of spacecraft design, development, and implementation
regarding in-orbit spacecraft, satellites, space stations, stations on Moon,
Mars, and other planets, which is imperative. For example, in 2020 China
completed two historical deep space missions. Chang’e-5 successfully
returned the first Chinese acquired lunar regolith sample, and Tiawen-1-
Zhurong completed the first Chinese soft landing on Mars. Tiawen-1-
Zhurong undertook an ambitious mission that sent an orbiter, lander, and
rover in one go which no other mission had attempted before. The Hong
Kong Polytechnic University team lead by Prof. K.L. Yung and a group
of scientists was honored to play a key role in these missions through the
development of the landing site selection methodology, the Lunar Surface
Sample Acquisition and Packaging System for returning the lunar regolith,
and the Mars Landing intelligent surveillance camera on board the Mars
landing platform. Over the years, the university has also participated in
the Chang’e-3 and Chang’e-4 missions, where intelligent instruments,
sensors, and IoT are located on the near and far sides of the Moon. In the
near future, the team will be designing a device for Chang’e-6 to return a
sample from the far side of the moon, Chang’e-7 searching for water-ice
at the lunar south pole, an asteroid sample return from Chang’e-8 experi-
mental lunar base, and a sample return from Mars. This book, written
by Prof. K.L. Yung, Prof. Andrew W.H. Ip, Prof. Fatos Xhafa, and Prof.
K.K. Tseng provide straightforward concepts as the starting point without
overlooking their limitations and address many of the implications of suc-
cessful cases and examples. The book follows a very practical approach,
dedicated to all readers who would like to immediately understand all the

xxiii
xxiv Foreword

insights of this interdisciplinary research area which integrates and inno-

vates in key deep space exploration technologies. This book would also
be a good choice for academicians and industrialists who want to bring
specific theory and case studies into their classrooms and working
environment.
Prof. Wenjun (Chris) Zhang
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
Preface

Internet of Things (IoT) and Spacecraft Informatics are the applications of

IoT systems and theory in the design, development, and operation of
spacecraft. A spacecraft is a complex system that involves the integration
of hardware and software, requiring different IoT architectures with sen-
sors, networks, applications, and so on for information modeling, simula-
tion, optimization, and decision support methods and techniques. Such a
spacecraft system represented by theory and techniques can be used to
describe in-orbit spacecraft, satellites, space stations of any types in deep-
space exploration missions from ground control, user payload, space
weather and conditions, remote sensing and telemetry, and many more
spaceflight missions and activities in designing, forecasting, planning, and
control. The motivation of this book is to provide the fundamentals and
theory in the area of IoT and spacecraft informatics with the goal of
directly contributing to the present and future space exploration and
spacecraft development. It aims to bring the latest advances, findings,
and state of the art in research, case studies and examples, development,
and implementation of IoT key technologies for spacecraft systems. The
book consists of 10 chapters and is the first in a series of books with
Elsevier Aerospace Engineering.
In the first chapter of our book, “Artificial intelligence approach for
aerospace defect detection using a single shot detector”, we describe an
inspection system that has been designed and implemented with the sup-
port of advanced artificial intelligence (AI) technologies. In aerospace
engineering, ultrasonic testing is a reliable method to examine the integ-
rity of composite components in an aircraft. The development of a practi-
cal and operational system using the latest AI technology for defect
detection in an aircraft with the convolutional neural network is illus-
trated and demonstrated, which can be used to detect defects in the com-
posite laminates to increase the accuracy and efficiency of ultrasonic
inspection. This chapter provides a simple and easy-to-understand intro-
duction to AI and IoT sensors. In Chapter 2, we investigate the composi-
tion and mineralogical characteristics of asteroids which is very significant
for understanding the physical and chemical evolution of the solar system.
To overcome the unexpected noise of observation systems and the ever-
changing external observation environment, the observed asteroid spectral

xxv
xxvi Preface

data always contain noise and outliers exhibiting inseparable patterns,

which will bring great challenges to the precise classification of asteroids.
To alleviate the problem and improve the separability and classification
accuracy for different kinds of asteroids, this chapter introduces a
Neighboring Discriminant Component Analysis (NDCA) model for aster-
oid spectrum feature learning in a data-driven supervised machine learning
fashion. In Chapter 3, we discuss the problem of the capturing, removal,
and maintenance of old satellites. Many satellites launched each year
become inoperative ahead of time because of failing to enter orbit or are
considered obsolete because of the expiry date. The vision-based naviga-
tion system has become the popular detection method for space missions
in short distances due to the advantages of higher precision, lower power
consumption, and cost. Various computer vision methods and techniques
are discussed and the approaches to satellite maintenance are proposed. In
Chapter 4, we provide more examples of IoT, from wearable medical
devices to home appliances. Various components play a role in the com-
munication infrastructure, and issues such as security and privacy are con-
sidered particularly important. The specific usage of IoT is in terms of
digital twin (DT) which is a representation of the physical system in terms
of variables. Using DT substantially reduces the cost of prototyping and
testing time and wastage. The readers can relate everyday lives with those
of an astronaut living in a space station who needs medical and support
devices through various IoT and sensors. In Chapter 5, a more advanced
treatment of AI and a computational algorithm are provided. Subspace
estimation and tracking are of great benefits for high-resolution sensor
array signal processing in aerospace and defense applications. Several
subspace tracking algorithms with different arithmetic complexities and
tracking abilities are introduced. The application of these algorithms to
time-varying direction-of-arrival (DOA) estimation is presented with two
modified methods, namely modified PAST (MPAST) and modified
orthonormal PAST (MOPAST). Numerical examples are given to dem-
onstrate the flexibility, effectiveness, and robustness of these algorithms for
subspace and DOA tracking.
In Chapter 6, “Optimization problems and resolution methods in sat-
ellite scheduling and spacecraft operation: Description, modeling, and
applications,” we discuss the state of the art in satellite scheduling regard-
ing spacecraft design, operation, and satellite deployment system. With
heuristics methods, the constraint features in satellite mission planning,
including window accessibility and visibility requirements, can be
 Preface xxvii

addressed for producing small and low-cost satellites; some proposed algo-
rithms that improve the accuracy and efficiency are illustrated. In
Chapter 7, a simulation approach with colored Petri net (CPN) modeling
is presented to describe the resource type and execution logic in the
manufacturing workflow of a spacecraft instrument called SOil
Preparation SYStem (SOPSYS). In this study, we applied the CPN model
in simulating the manufacturing process, planning, and controlling the
various resources. In Chapter 8, a more managerial approach to the inno-
vation aspects of IoT and spacecraft information is given. Many successful
products are developed through innovative ideas, and the design and
development of space equipment is one such example. This chapter
explains and evaluates the impact of five major factors that affect the suc-
cess: the team of individuals, team technology, funding and resources,
human resources system, and government support. Through a case study
of the SOPSYS space instruments, we can understand the five factors on
the design and development of space equipment products and their
respective subfactors. In Chapter 9, “Monocular SLAM for a space rover
application,” a novel simultaneous localization and mapping system are
presented to track the unconstraint motion of the mobile robot on the
Moon or Mars. Through the integration with the ellipse search algorithm
and MVEKF filter, the proposed system enhances the grid-based feature
point extraction with satisfactory performance and a low error rate for the
Lunar rover’s locating tasks. In the final chapter, we describe an important
topic on the reliability and health management of spacecraft which is the
health condition estimation of spacecraft key components using the belief
rule with a semi-quantitative decision science method for examining the
health status of a spacecraft. It is compared with the traditional optimiza-
tion method in training an expert’s knowledge, and the Markov Chain
Monte Carlo technique is embedded in the proposed method to over-
come the problem of overfitting in a backpropagation network. It assists
human users to deal with the uncertainties in the spacecraft during deep-
space exploration to minimize the risks and unexpected events.

Prof. K.L. Yung

Prof. Andrew W.H. Ip
Prof. Fatos Xhafa
Prof. K.K. Tseng
This page intentionally left blank
Acknowledgment

We would like to express our gratitude and appreciation for the hard
work and support of many people who have been involved in the devel-
opment and writing of this book. The contributions and participations of
them have helped in completing the book satisfactorily. Among many of
them, we wish to thank all the authors who despite their busy schedules
devoted so much of their time in preparing and writing the chapters, they
have also shown great enthusiasm to respond to many comments made by
the reviewers and editors. Special thanks goes to Prof. Chris Zhang from
the Faculty of Engineering, the University of Saskatchewan, Canada, for
writing the forward to this book, and also to the reviewers for their con-
structive feedbacks and suggestions for improvements. We are also thank-
ful for the support of the publisher who has an experienced and dedicated
team to guide us throughout the development of this book.
Last but not least, we wish to thank the Research Center for Deep
Space Explorations, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China, to
provide the resources and support during the development of this book.
We look forward to the further development of next book on Spacecraft
Informatics to be carried out shortly.
Finally, we are deeply indebted to our families for their love, patience,
and support throughout this rewarding experience.

Prof. K.L. Yung

Prof. Andrew W.H. Ip
Prof. Fatos Xhafa
Prof. K.K. Tseng

xxix
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 A lid the width of the box is hinged to a cross-strip over the
partition. A handle at the lower end will make it easy to lift the lid.
Blocks with the corners rounded off will serve as feet, one at each
corner.
Thin stain and two coats of varnish will finish the wood-work on the
outside. A coat or two of asphaltum varnish will be better for the
inside.
Sticks of wood for the open fire or kindling for the grate fire may be
kept in the square receptacle, while under the lid at least two
bucketfuls of coal may be stowed away. If the fuel-holder is used
only at the open fire, logs may be stood on end in the square box,
and kindling may be kept in the covered half.

A Flat-iron Holder

A rack of shelves to hold flat-irons may be made of white-wood or

pine seven-eighths of an inch thick, the several pieces being
securely fastened together with screws. Two side-plates are cut four
inches wide and thirty inches long. The tops are bevelled and the
bottom of each piece is curved, as shown in Fig. 47.
 Fig. 46. Fig. 47. Fig. 48. Fig. 49.

The shelves are two inches wide and eighteen inches long. They
are spaced eight inches apart, having the front edge flush with the
edge of the side-plates, and leaving a space two inches wide from
the rear edge to the wall. Wall-plates two inches wide are let into the
rear edge of the side-plates two inches above the shelves. Against
these the bottom of the irons will rest.
A top and a bottom board, cut as shown in the illustration, are to
be attached to the wall-plates, and the complete rack of shelves
should be fastened to the kitchen or laundry wall with stout screws
set firmly into the studding.
Two coats of olive-green or brown paint will finish this holder
nicely, or it may be painted any color to match the wood-work in the
kitchen or laundry.

An Umbrella-stand

An umbrella-stand does not occupy much space, and it is a

convenient receptacle for umbrellas, canes, ball-bats, and golf-clubs
(Fig. 48).
To make one it will require four pieces of clear pine or white-wood
thirty inches long, ten inches wide, and half an inch in thickness.
There is also a bottom board nine and a half inches square and
seven-eighths of an inch thick, to which the lower ends of the boards
are to be screwed fast. A high, narrow box is to be formed of the
boards, one side of each board being attached to the edge of the
next one, as the illustration shows. Shellac or varnish will give the
wood-work a pleasing finish, especially if it is white-wood, cypress,
or spruce.
A design may be worked out on one side with large oval-headed
hobnails painted black. These may be purchased at a shoemakers
for a few cents a paper. The design should first be drawn on thin
brown paper and held on the wood with pins. The nails are driven
along the lines of the ornament, but before they are hammered
home, the paper should be torn away so that none of it is caught
under the nail-heads.
A zinc tray six inches high, and made to fit in the bottom of the
box, will hold the drippings from wet umbrellas. Rings soldered at the
top edge of the tray will permit it to be removed for cleaning.

A Plant-box

For growing plants and flowers that always look well around a
piazza rail, the plant-box shown in Fig. 49 will be found useful. One
or more boxes may be made from pine boards an inch thick and
eight inches wide. The boxes should be six inches deep, outside
measure, and they may be as long as desired to fill the spaces
between the piazza posts.
 Straight or box joints are made at the corners and fastened with
screws. The inside of the boxes should be treated to several
successive coats of asphaltum varnish to render them water-proof.
Several small holes must be bored in the bottom of each box to drain
off surplus moisture, and the boxes and supports may be painted a
color to match the trimmings of the house.
To anchor the boxes, screw a batten to the balustrade, on which
the inner edge of the box may rest. The outer edge is supported by
means of braces attached firmly to the underside of the box and to
the piazza floor, as shown in the illustration. Two small brackets
attached to the underside of the box and to the batten will hold the
box in place and prevent it from slipping off the top of the batten.

A Final Word

The few objects shown and described in this chapter are, of

course, but a small part of the things a wide-awake boy will think of
and wish to make. The principles involved in these examples,
however, will apply to scores of other things that may be constructed.
Once these simpler forms of workmanship are mastered the young
craftsman will go forward naturally to the higher exercise of his art.
Carpentry is a fascinating occupation, and it is well worth while,
since its results are of practical use and value.
 Chapter II
WOOD-CARVING

A knowledge of drawing and modelling will be most helpful to the

young carver, as then the outline of ornament can be readily drawn,
while to carve objects from wood the art of modelling form is most
desirable.
If the beginner possesses a knowledge of form acquired by
drawing and modelling, the art of wood-carving may be readily and
quickly mastered; but even if these advantages should be lacking, it
is possible that considerable progress can be made by those who
will follow the instructions given on these pages.
The most important feature of carving is the ability to sharpen and
maintain the little tools, and when this is mastered, more than half
the difficulty has been overcome. The dexterity to handle, with a firm
and sure hand, the various chisels and gouges comes, of course,
with practice only.
It is better to begin with a soft wood. Pine, poplar, button-wood,
cypress, or red woods are all of close grain and are easy to work.
The harder woods, and those with a very open grain—such as
chestnut, ash, and oak—should not be carved until the first principles
are learned in the softer woods.
Carving takes time, and it is not an art that can be quickly
mastered, unless it be the chip-and-line variety. But this last can
hardly be compared to the more beautiful relief-carving, with its well-
modelled form and undercutting.
A boy may learn the first principles of carving, using only his small,
flat carpenter’s chisels and gouges; but for more advanced work he
will need the regular carving-chisels. These latter are sharpened on
both sides, while the carpenter’s chisels are ground on one side only.
Nevertheless, some very good work has been done by boys who
had nothing better than a small gouge, a flat chisel, and a penknife.
The true artist can work in any material and with the most indifferent
of implements.

Tools

At the start a numerous assortment of tools will not be necessary,

as the flat work and chip-carving will naturally be the first department
of the art to be taken up by the young carver.
Six or eight chisels constitute a good set, and those shown from
Fig. 1 to 6 will answer very well. Fig. 1 is a plain, flat chisel with a
straight edge, as shown at A; it is commonly called a firmer. Fig. 2 is
also a flat tool, but possessing an angle or oblique edge; it is
commonly called a skew-firmer. Figs. 3 and 4 are gouges. Fig. 5 is a
V gouge, and Fig. 6 is a grounder. G, H, I, J, and K are gouges of
various circles. L is an angle, or V, gouge. M, N, and O are gouges
of various curves, and P, Q, and R are V gouges of various widths
and angles. These last are used for furrows, chip-carving, and lining.
 A Fig. 1.

B Fig. 2.

C Fig. 3.

D Fig. 4.

E Fig. 5.

F Fig. 6.

GHIJKLMNOPQR
 A flat felt or denim case should be made for the tools, so that they
may be kept in good order. It is made of two strips of the goods, one
wider than the other. Two edges are brought together and sewed,
and lines of stitching form pockets for the chisels. The flap left by the
wider strip of goods is folded over the chisel ends, and the pockets
containing the tools may be rolled up and tied with tape-strings.
When opened it will appear as shown in Fig. 7. The edges of chisels
kept in this manner are insured against injury and rust, since the
case protects them from atmospheric moisture.
The stones needed for sharpening the tools will be an ordinary flat
oil-stone (preferably a fine-grained India stone), and two or three
Turkey or Arkansas slips, four or five inches long, having the shapes
shown in Fig. 8. A, with the rounded edges, is for the gouge tools; B,
with the sharp edges, is for V-shaped tools; and any of the flat
chisels may be sharpened on the regular oil-stone, C.
In Fig. 9 end views of some slips are shown. A and B are round-
edged slips for gouge-chisels; C and D are angle stones for V
chisels; while small, flat tools may be finished on the sides. These
stones are held in the hand, and lightly but firmly rubbed against
both surfaces of a tool to give it the fine cutting edge.
In Fig. 10 an oil-stone in a case is shown. A boxed cover fits over
it and protects it from grit and dust. This is important, for often a little
gritty dust will do more harm to the edge of a fine tool than the stone
can do it good.
The other tools necessary to complete the kit will be several
clamps, similar to those shown in Figs. 11 and 12, and a fret-saw
(Fig. 13). If you happen to possess a bracket-machine or jig-saw the
fret-saw will not be necessary. A glue-pot will also be found useful.
 Fig. 7. Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Fig. 10. Fig. 11. Fig. 12. Fig. 13.

The first essential to good, clean cutting is that the tools shall be
absolutely sharp and in a workmanlike condition. It is often the case
that an amateur’s tools are in such a state that no professional
carver could produce satisfactory results with them. And yet the
variety of carving tools is so limited that if the difficulties of
sharpening a firmer and gouge are mastered the task is practically
ended.
If the tools should be unusually dull they must first be ground on a
grindstone, and as carvers’ tools are sharpened on both sides, they
must be ground on both sides. The firmers may be sharpened on the
oil-stone laid flat on the bench, but the gouges must be held in the
hand, in order to sharpen the inside curve with a slip. The outer
curve can be sharpened on the flat oil-stone, or held in the hand and
dressed with the flat side of a slip. Great care must be taken to give
the tools a finished and smooth edge. When they have reached the
proper degree of sharpness it will be an easy matter to cut across
the grain of white pine, leaving a furrow that is entirely smooth and
almost polished.
In the use of the oil-stone and slips, neat’s-foot oil, or a good, thin
machine oil, should be employed. Astral oil is too thin, but the oil sold
in small bottles for sewing-machines or bicycles will answer every
purpose. Water should not be used, as it would spoil the stones, and
not produce the sharp edge on the tools.
The finest stones are the best for use, and although they take
longer to give the keen edge required, they will be found the most
satisfactory in the end. Avoid grit and dust on the stones, and before
using them they should be wiped off with an oiled rag. The beginner
must not consider any pains too great to make himself thorough
master of the tools, and to keep a perfect edge on all of them.
The tools being in proper condition, the next step is to acquire a
knowledge of the best methods of handling them. It will require some
time and practice to become thoroughly familiar with the manner in
which tools are used, and, if it is possible, it would be well to watch
some carver at work.
The chisels should always be held with one hand on the handle,
with two fingers of the other hand near the edge of the tool. This is to
give sufficient pressure at the end to keep it down to the wood, while
the hand on the handle gives the necessary push to make the tool
cut.

A Carver’s Bench

A carver’s bench is a necessity for the young craftsman, but if it is

not possible to get one, a heavy, wooden-top kitchen table will
answer almost as well. The proper kind of a bench gives greater
facility for working, since it is more solid and the height is better than
that of an ordinary table. Any boy who is handy with tools can make
a bench in a short time of pine or white wood, the top being of hard-
wood. If the joiner-work is not too difficult to carry out, it would be
better to make the legs and braces of hard-wood also, to lend weight
and solidity to the table.

Fig. 14.

The wood should be free from knots and sappy places, and as
heavy as it is possible to get it, so as to make a really substantial
bench. The top should measure four feet long and thirty inches wide,
and not less than one inch and a half in thickness. The framework
must be well made, and the corner-posts and braces securely
fastened with lap-joints, glue, and screws. The top of the bench
should be thirty-nine inches high, and to one side of the bench a
carpenter’s vise may be attached, as shown in Fig. 14. The jaw of
the vise is seven inches wide, one and an eighth inches thick, and
thirty-four inches long. It is hung as described for the carpenter’s
bench (see Carpentry, Chapter I.). A wood or steel screw may be
purchased at a hardware store, and set near the top and into the
solid apron side-rail. The posts are four inches thick, and the cross-
pieces and rails should be of seven-eighth-inch hard-wood four
inches wide. The top overhangs the framework two inches all
around, thus forming a ledge, to which the plates of wood or panels
may be bound with the clamps and bench-screws. Where a clamp
cannot be used, a cleat, as shown in Fig. 11, is screwed fast to the
top of the table, and the projecting ear catches the edge of the wood
and holds it securely.
A coat of varnish or paint on the legs and braces will finish this
bench nicely, and it will then be ready for the young workman’s use.

Chip-carving

To begin with, it is best to work on a simple pattern that can be

followed easily.

Fig. 15 A.

Get a piece of yellow pine, white-wood, or cypress seven-eighths

of an inch thick, six inches wide, and twelve inches long. On a piece
of smooth paper draw one-half of a pattern similar to the one shown
in Fig. 15 A; or you may use any other simple design that is free in
line and open in the ornament. Upon the wood lay a sheet of
transfer-paper, with the black surface down, and on top of the
transfer-sheet the paper bearing the design. Go over all the lines
with a hard lead-pencil, bearing down firmly on the point, so that the
lines will be transferred to the wood. Turn the design around and
repeat the drawing, so that the wood will bear the complete pattern.
Clamp the wood to one side or corner of the bench with three or four
clamps. Do not screw the clamps directly on the wood, but place
between the jaw and the wood a piece of heavy card-board, or
another piece of thin wood, to prevent the clamps from bruising the
surface of the panel.
First, with a small V, or gouge-chisel, cut the lines; after that the
leaves, using a flat, or spade, chisel. Two curved incisions will shape
out the leaf, and the angle through the centre describes the main
vein. The chipping may be shallow or deep, as a matter of choice,
but more effect may be had by cutting fairly deep.

Fig. 15 B.

The finished result will appear as shown in the illustration of the

chip-carved panel (Fig. 15 B). For light ornamenting or drawer-
panels, fancy boxes, and picture-frames, this form of carving may be
made both pleasing and effective. Moreover, its mastery leads
naturally to the more artistic relief-carving.

A Frame for a Small Clock

 Fig. 16.

Fig. 17.

Get one of the little nickel-plated clocks (sold at sixty cents and
upwards). Lay it down on a smooth piece of soft wood—pine or
cedar—about seven by eight inches. Mark around it closely with a
lead-pencil, and cut out the circular opening with your knife. If you
happen to have a fret-saw or suitable tools, you can make it of hard-
wood. Smooth nicely with sand-paper. The clock must fit closely into
the opening. You will find Fig. 16 very easy to do. Cut out the lines,
being careful not to let the tool slip when cutting with the grain. Dilute
the walnut stain with turpentine, and paint the design inside the lines;
the grooves prevent the color spreading. Let it dry. The next day, with
a wad of cotton or piece of canton flannel, rub on some varnish. Soft
wood absorbs it very rapidly at first until the pores are filled. When
quite dry, sand-paper nicely. Then rub again with varnish, a little at a
time. Keep raw linseed-oil near you in a cup; dip one finger of your
left hand in this when the work becomes sticky, and apply to the pad;
it helps to spread the varnish. Rub briskly with a circular motion. The
varnish will dry quickly, when it must have a final polish; this brings
out the beauty of the grain. If carefully done, your work will resemble
inlaying.

Some Other Designs

The daisy design (Fig. 17) is charming when finished, and has the
additional merit of being easy. Cut the daisy form from a visiting-
card, and mark around it. Stain the centre much darker than the
petals.
Table-tops, jewel-boxes, calendar frames, chairs, etc., may be
purchased already polished, and outlined in some dainty pattern. A
finer tool (No. 11, 1/64) comes for this kind of work. Of course it
cannot be stained, but if desired the background may be stamped
with a star-pointed “marker” to give the design prominence.
These patterns may be adapted for the decoration of glove-boxes,
bread-plates, knife-boxes, stools, blotting-books, card-cases, match-
boxes, music-portfolios, and many other things, which will sell well at
fancy fairs, or be highly appreciated as presents.

Relief-carving

Relief-carving differs from the chip work in that the ornament is

raised instead of being cut in. Solid relief-carving, such as appears
on panels, box-covers, and furniture, is produced either by cutting
the background away or by carving the ornament separately and
then gluing it onto the surface of the article to be decorated. Of
course, this latter process is only a makeshift, and the first method is
the really artistic one.
It is best to begin with something simple and then go on to the
more complicated forms of ornamental work. A neat pattern for a
long panel is shown in Fig. 18 A. This panel is twelve inches long
and four and a half inches wide.

Fig. 18 A.

On a smooth piece of paper draw one-half of the design and

transfer it to the wood, as described for the chip-carved panel.
Clamp the wood to a corner of the bench and, with a small wooden
mallet and both firmer and gouge-chisels, cut down on the lines and
into the face of the wood. Then, with the gouges and grounding-tool,
cut away the background to a depth of one-eighth of an inch or
more, until a result is obtained similar to that shown in Fig. 18 B. The
entire design and edge of the panel will then be in relief, but its
surface will be flat and consequently devoid of artistic feeling. With
the flat and extra flat gouge-chisels begin to carve some life into the
ornament. A little practice will soon enable the young craftsman to
observe which parts should be high and which should be low. The
intermediate surfaces should be left neutral, or between high and low
relief. This finishing process depends for its effect upon the good
taste and feeling of the craftsman; it is the quality that gives artistic
beauty and meaning to the work. The panel, when completed,
should have the appearance shown in Fig. 18 C.
 Fig. 18 B.

As already stated, the general effect of relief-carving may be also

obtained through the “applied” method, a simpler and less tedious
process, but neither so artistic nor so substantial.

Fig. 18 C.

Fig. 19 A.
 The design is transferred to a thin piece of wood and cut out with a
fret or jig saw. Fig. 19 A shows a suitable pattern for this class of
work. The pieces are then glued in position on a thick piece of wood,
and the “feeling” carved in after the fashion already indicated. This
“applied” carving may be used on the panels of small drawers,
cabinets, and boxes of various sizes and shapes. The inventive boy
will be able to design patterns for himself, or they may be cheaply
bought. Fig. 19 B shows the effect of the finished work.

Fig. 19 B.

Mouldings

In Fig. 20 some designs are given for carved mouldings, and at

the side, end views are shown.
Plain mouldings of various shapes may also be bought at a mill, or
from a carpenter, and may be given “life” with a little care and work.
Both hard and soft wood mouldings are available, but at first the
softer woods will be found the easier to work.
A plain corner on a wooden picture-frame may be built up with
blocks of wood glued on as shown in Fig. 21 A. When carved this
piece will have the appearance of the finished corner shown in Fig.
21 B. The arms of chairs, corners of furniture, and the like may be
treated in this same manner.
When flat and relief carving have been mastered, it would be well
to attempt something in figure and free-hand work, such as animals,
fruit, or heads. But it will take a good deal of practice on the simple
and conventional forms before the amateur will feel himself
competent for the more advanced art. As improvement in the flat
work is noticed, the ornament may be “undercut” to give it richness
and boldness.

Fig. 20.

To finish wood in any desired color, stains may be purchased at a

paint or hardware shop. Over the stained surface, when dry, several
thin coats of hard-oil finish or furniture varnish should be applied.
The back and edges of a carved panel must always be painted to
protect them from moisture and dampness; warping and splitting are
thereby avoided. Some pieces of carving need only a coating of raw
linseed-oil, while others may be treated to a wax finish composed of
beeswax cut in turpentine, rubbed in with a cloth, and polished off.
Another method of darkening oak (before it is varnished) is to
expose it to the fumes of ammonia, or to paint on liquid ammonia,
with a brush, until the desired antique shade is obtained. The
staining process, however, is preferable.

Fig. 21 A. Fig. 21 B.