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Inclusion in Action © 2022 Cengage Learning Australia Pty Limited
6th Edition
Iva Strnadová Copyright Notice
Michael Arthur-Kelly This Work is copyright. No part of this Work may be reproduced, stored in a
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Brief contents
PART A: INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS 1
1 Introducing inclusion in education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Legislation and policies supporting inclusive practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

3 Practising inclusion in diverse school communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

PART B: INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING PRACTICES 134

4 Curriculum, learning, teaching and assessment adjustments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

5 Planning effective teaching strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

6 Encouraging positive interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

7 Transitions, self-determination and twenty-first-century skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

PART C: STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT INCLUSIVE TEACHING 317

8 Developing communication skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318

9 Understanding and supporting literacy competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358

10 Understanding and supporting numeracy competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401

PART D: INCLUSION ACROSS THE SCHOOL YEARS 443

11 Inclusion in early childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444

12 Inclusion in primary schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489

13 Secondary school inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533

v
 Contents
Guide to the text................................................x
Guide to the online resources.......................xiv
Preface.............................................................xvi
About the authors........................................xviii
Acknowledgements......................................xxiii
Standards mapping grid..............................xxiv

PART A: INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS 1

1 Introducing inclusion in education 2
Iva Strnadová and Phil Foreman
Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Principles underlying inclusion................................................................................................ 5
1.2 What is a disability?..................................................................................................................13
1.3 Other forms of diversity..........................................................................................................17
1.4 Terminology and concepts related to inclusion...................................................................18
1.5 Language about diversity........................................................................................................23
1.6 Inclusion in schools: models of schooling for students with a disability..........................29
1.7 Overview of approaches to teaching students with additional needs in
regular classes..........................................................................................................................36
1.8 Diversity across the life-span..................................................................................................39
1.9 Myths and facts about disability and diversity.....................................................................41
1.10 The future of inclusion............................................................................................................43

2 Legislation and policies supporting inclusive practice 52

Michael Arthur-Kelly and Phil Foreman
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................52
2.1 Principles, policies and practice...............................................................................................53
2.2 Legislation in Australia and New Zealand...............................................................................54
2.3 Policy in Australia and New Zealand.......................................................................................60
2.4 International legislation and policy.........................................................................................68
2.5 The practice of inclusion...........................................................................................................72

3 Practising inclusion in diverse school communities 88

Michael Arthur-Kelly, Iva Strnadová and Martin Howes
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................88
3.1 Embracing inclusion..................................................................................................................91
3.2 Negotiating inclusion.................................................................................................................93
3.3 Programming for inclusion.....................................................................................................101
3.4 Resourcing inclusion................................................................................................................108
3.5 Building capacity for inclusion...............................................................................................119

vi
 CONTENTS

PART B: INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING PRACTICES 134

4 Curriculum, learning, teaching and assessment adjustments 135
Carl Leonard and Robert Conway
Introduction.....................................................................................................................................135
4.1 Concepts of teaching and the Australian curriculum..........................................................136
4.2 Learning, teaching and curriculum in inclusive education.................................................140
4.3 Needs, expectations and resistance......................................................................................150
4.4 Students with low additional education support needs in the classroom.......................159
4.5 Extensive adjustment for students with profound and/or multiple disabilities
in the classroom......................................................................................................................171
4.6 Assessment...............................................................................................................................177
4.7 Using technology in learning and teaching..........................................................................183
4.8 Staff working cooperatively on adjustments and implementation...................................185
A final reminder...............................................................................................................................189

5 Planning effective teaching strategies 196

Therese M. Cumming and Michael Arthur-Kelly
Introduction.....................................................................................................................................196
5.1 Curriculum issues....................................................................................................................197
5.2 Instructional issues..................................................................................................................199
5.3 Aspects of the learning context..............................................................................................200
5.4 Designing effective teaching interventions..........................................................................205
Final thoughts..................................................................................................................................224

6 Encouraging positive interactions 237

Robert Conway and Judith Foggett
Introduction.....................................................................................................................................237
6.1 Social behaviour in schools....................................................................................................238
6.2 What is social inclusion?..........................................................................................................247
6.3 Integrating behaviour and academic skills...........................................................................249
6.4 Approaches to managing behaviours in regular classes....................................................253
6.5 Developing specific behaviour plans.....................................................................................255
6.6 Student and teacher developed behaviour improvement plans.......................................259
6.7 Social skills and enhancing peer acceptance through classroom activities.....................262
6.8 Preparing teachers and students to support social inclusion............................................273
6.9 Maintaining positive interactions in the wider school context..........................................276

7 Transitions, self-determination and twenty-first-century skills 285

Iva Strnadová and Michael Wehmeyer
Introduction.....................................................................................................................................285
7.1 The context for twenty-first-century transitions..................................................................286
7.2 Diversity of transitions............................................................................................................288
7.3 Promoting self-determination across the life span.............................................................291
7.4 Meaningful participation in individual learning plans/individual transition plans..........298
7.5 Self-advocacy............................................................................................................................306
vii
CONTENTS

PART C: STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT INCLUSIVE TEACHING 317

8 Developing communication skills 318
Dean Sutherland
Introduction.....................................................................................................................................318
8.1 Communication and inclusion...............................................................................................320
8.2 Communication development...............................................................................................323
8.3 Teaching strategies to support communication..................................................................331
8.4 Indigenous Australian and Māori students..........................................................................334
8.5 Supporting communication learning for students with diverse needs............................337

9 Understanding and supporting literacy competence 358

Kerry Dally and Michelle Ralston
Introduction.....................................................................................................................................358
9.1 Underlying processes and influences...................................................................................360
9.2 Components of successful literacy and specific teaching strategies................................364
9.3 Integrating literacy across key learning areas......................................................................391

10 Understanding and supporting numeracy competence 401

Sally Howell and Sarah Hopkins
Introduction.....................................................................................................................................401
10.1 Understanding students’ learning needs...........................................................................402
10.2 Numeracy...............................................................................................................................403
10.3 Big ideas for number sense..................................................................................................407
10.4 Counting and early number.................................................................................................411
10.5 Basic facts...............................................................................................................................417
10.6 Problem-solving.....................................................................................................................421
10.7 Multi-digit arithmetic.............................................................................................................428
10.8 Supporting students with significant numeracy needs....................................................433
10.9 Extending students with advanced mathematical skills...................................................433

PART D: INCLUSION ACROSS THE SCHOOL YEARS 443

11 Inclusion in early childhood 444
Coral Kemp
Introduction.....................................................................................................................................444
11.1 Supporting early childhood intervention in the home and in inclusive
community-based settings...................................................................................................445
11.2 Supporting families and carers to provide intervention within naturally
occurring home and community settings..........................................................................456
11.3 Supporting interventions in inclusive early education settings.......................................462
11.4 Early childhood transitions...................................................................................................469
11.5 Inclusive practices in the early years of school..................................................................474
viii
 CONTENTS

12 Inclusion in primary schools 489

Umesh Sharma and Martin Howes
Introduction.....................................................................................................................................489
Barawun Primary School................................................................................................................491
12.1 Barawun PS: Day 1, term 1, about three years ago …....................................................491
12.2 End of week 1, the first year...............................................................................................495
12.3 End of term 1, the first year...............................................................................................497
12.4 End of term 2, the first year...............................................................................................501
12.5 End of the first year.............................................................................................................504
12.6 Day 1, the second year........................................................................................................508
12.7 End of term 2, the second year..........................................................................................512
12.8 End of the second year.......................................................................................................515
12.9 Day 1, the third year............................................................................................................518
12.10 End of term 2, the third year..............................................................................................520
12.11 End of the third year...........................................................................................................523

13 Secondary school inclusion 533

Michael Davies
Introduction.....................................................................................................................................533
13.1 Issues on inclusion in secondary schools...........................................................................533
13.2 Strategies for inclusion in secondary schools....................................................................540
13.3 Ten strategies for teaching for diversity.............................................................................544
13.4 Inclusion across the secondary curriculum........................................................................554
13.5 Collaborative teaching and teaming in secondary schools..............................................556
13.6 Making secondary education meaningful..........................................................................560
13.7 Transition planning................................................................................................................561
13.8 Work experience and transition from school....................................................................572

Appendix 1: Common abbreviations and shortened forms..............585

Appendix 2: Fact sheets.........................................................................587
Index.........................................................................................................588

ix
 Guide to the text
As you read this text you will find a number of features in every
chapter to enhance your study of Inclusive education and help
you understand how the theory is applied in the real world.
Standards mapping grid
BOOK FEATURES
This book is designed to assist readers to achieve the Australian Professional Standards for Graduate Teachers.
The following grid shows how the content of particular chapters contributes to the Standards.

Professional Knowledge Standards Chapters A Mapping grid shows how the

1. Know students and how they learn
1.1 Physical, social and intellectual development and characteristics of students 4, 6, 7, 8, 9,
content of the chapters relates
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of physical, social and intellectual development and
characteristics of students and how these may affect learning.
10,11
to the Australian Professional
1.2 Understand how students learn 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, Standards for Graduate
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of research into how students learn and the 11, 12
implications for teaching . Teachers.
1.3 Students with diverse linguistic, cultural, religious and socioeconomic backgrounds 1, 4, 5, 7, 8,
Demonstrate knowledge of teaching strategies that are responsive to the learning strengths and 11, 12, 13
needs of students from diverse linguistic, cultural, religious and socioeconomic backgrounds.
1.4 Strategies for teaching Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students 8, 9, 12
Demonstrate broad knowledge and understanding of the impact of culture, cultural identity and
linguistic background on the education of students from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
backgrounds.
1.5 Differentiate teaching to meet the specific learning needs of students across the full 1, 3, 4, 5, 6,
range of abilities 7, 8, 9, 10,
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of strategies for differentiating teaching to meet the 11, 12, 13
specific learning needs of students across the full range of abilities.
1.6 Strategies to support full participation of students with disability 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
Demonstrate broad knowledge and understanding of legislative requirements and teaching 6, 7, 11, 12,
strategies that support participation and learning of students with disability. 13
2. Know the content and how to teach it
2.1 Content and teaching strategies of the teaching area 4, 6, 8, 9, 10,
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the concepts, substance and structure of the 11,12, 13
content and teaching strategies of the teaching area .
2.2 Content selection and organisation 4, 5, 9, 10,
Organise content into an effective learning and teaching sequence. 12, 13
2.3 Curriculum, assessment and reporting 4, 5, 9, 10,
Use curriculum, assessment and reporting knowledge to design learning sequences and 12, 13
lesson plans.
2.4 Understand and respect Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people to promote 1, 8, 12
reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians
Demonstrate broad knowledge of, understanding of and respect for Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander histories, cultures and languages .
2.5 Literacy and numeracy strategies 4, 8, 9, 10
Know and understand literacy and numeracy teaching strategies and their application in
teaching areas .
2.6 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) 3, 4, 5, 8, 12
CHAPTER OPENING
Implement teaching strategies for usingFEATURES
ICT to expand curriculum learning opportunities
for students.

xxiv

2
CHAPTER

Legislation and policies

BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp00_Prelims.indd 24 20/08/21 2:43 PM

supporting inclusive practice

Michael Arthur-Kelly and Phil Foreman

This chapter aims to:

Identify the key concepts you
2.1 Describe the development of principles and policies related to inclusive education
for students with disability
will engage with through the
2.2 Describe the important features of legislation for students with disability in the
states and territories of Australia and in New Zealand
Learning objectives at the start
2.3 Describe the important aspects of policy in Australia and New Zealand for
students with disability
of each chapter.
2.4 Describe the important features of international legislation and policies for
students with disability
2.5 Discuss the practice of inclusion, and the effect groups can have on educational
policy.

Introduction Refer to the Introduction for a

Including diverse students with disability in the regular classroom requires some specific contextualised summary of the
practices on the part of teachers and their colleagues. Later chapters in this book provide
examples of ways in which teachers can support a diversity of students in the regular chapter.
classroom. For example, to meaningfully include students with additional needs, teachers
must develop an understanding of the strengths and support needs of the students, and
must make relevant adjustments or changes to the learning environment to assist these
students.
At both the private and the professional level, teachers’ day-to-day practice is
a reflection of their beliefs, their obligation to follow the law, and the requirements
associated with organisations such as the workplace and educational institutions. In a
school environment, the behaviour and practice of teachers is influenced by their training
and their personal beliefs, by legislation, and by organisational policy.
x An awareness of the relationships between principles, laws, policies and practices is
important in the context of this book. One of the aims of the book is to provide practical
advice about how to support students with a diversity of additional needs in the regular
classroom. Consequently, the way these students are supported (the practice) will be
influenced by attitudes and beliefs (the principles) and by laws and organisational
guidelines (the legislation and policies). In turn, how well we do at the practice will
 GUIDE TO THE TEXT

FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS

CHAPTER 9 Understanding and sUpporting literacy competence

Narratives from parents, NARRATIVE

students, teachers and other 9.3
professionals link the theory to Response to intervention: Tier 3, spelling
real-life situations. ‘Matthew’ is currently in Year Three and has moderate bilateral
sensorineural hearing loss. Through observation in classroom
activities, in addition to the Oral and Written Language Scales
assessment, it was noted that Matthew was below same-age peers
in recognition and understanding of suffixes. Matthew tends to
mishear the ends of words and finds understanding and applying
verb tense challenging.
Tier 3 intervention involved Matthew being engaged in one-
on-one follow-up activities to extend and consolidate skills in
understanding basic suffixes. A past and present verb tense focus
incorporated simple errors from Matthew’s writing such as walk,
walked, walking and help, helped, helping. Matthew worked with
the teacher to visually and aurally identify the -ed and -ing suffixes.
Matthew and the teacher worked together using a basic,
custom-designed graphic organiser (see Figure 9.24) to focus
explicitly on the two base word and suffix combinations. This
supported Matthew to hear the base words and morphemes used
in context and also see them visually within written text, leading to
further discussion of related word families to enable Matthew to
recognise common patterns.
Amanda Boelen
Given that writing is a less preferred area of study for Matthew,
the session included online interactive games from Vocabulary
Spelling City (Learning City, n.d.) and self-constructed word lists and associated games were used,
targeting the suffixes in focus. Following this, flip books (Cecil et al., 2017) were createdCHAPTER
for further 6 EncouragIng PosItIvE IntEractIons

(see Buckskin, 2009; Edwards-GrovesSuffixes:

& Murray, 2008).
Present and PastMany
Tensestudents have been shown to have
growing resentment towards schooling (Schwab, 2012) and some disengage from the education
Walking I like walking to school.
system entirely.
A key to the developmentWalk of productive and engaged behaviour is, as for gifted students,

ensuring that the curriculum is engagingWalked

and at the level appropriate to the individual’s
I walked home from school.
current learning capabilities. In some cases, this requires a rethinking of curriculum content Aboriginal and
to incorporate Indigenous values and culture. This can be accomplished through ongoing Torres Strait Islander
students
professional development on Indigenous teaching which develops stronger teacher ‘confidence
PART C STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT INCLUSIVE TEACHING
about classroom management of Indigenous students’ (Craven & Han, 2014). It also means that
schools need to be aware that removal of students from mainstream schools to specialist settings
NEW Evidence-based practice EVIDENCE-BASED
reflects PRACTICE
the ‘persistent failure of Australian9.1
education systems to engage, support and understand
Indigenous students’ (Graham, 2012, p. 173).
boxes contain practical Developing vocabulary through shared book reading
FIGURE 9.24 Suffixes: present and past tense
examples, teaching tips, and Students
1 Drawfrom culturally
attention to wordsdiverse backgrounds
which children may not know and provide child-friendly
source: amanda Boelen

other materials that illustrate Students definitions

from diverse for these words
cultural as the story
backgrounds is being
have read:sets
differing e.g.of
‘a challenges
snore is a loud sound
in mainstream
classroom thatsettings.
some people This or animals
is most make when
common when they
EAL/D
CHAPTER are sleeping’.
4students
CurriCulum,arePoint to illustrations
taught in a monolingual
leArninG, teAChinG And Assessment Adjustments
practical approaches to classroom representing the words if they are available or model actions like snoring and ask
where mainstream teachers have not yet incorporated the learning needs of these
389

teaching and that assist in good children to join in.

professional
students into learning community
their classroom in thepractices
learning school is (Dobinson
seen by Deppeler
& Buchori, (2012) as a In
2016). way
thefor staff
case ofto
2 Have
collaborate
refugees, asconversations
data an inclusive
show with have
school
that many children
rather about
hadthan newteachers
have
seriously words and
disrupted workaskinquestions
educationalisolation. relating
Like so to
experiences the
many
and
inclusive practice. new word, e.g.
BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp09.indd 389
strategies that Have you heard someone snoring? 20/08/21 5:02 PM
hence may notexist for increased
be aware involvement
of expectations of students
of schools with disability
and classrooms in the classroom,
in Australian educational
teachers
settings need
3 Re-read
(Strausssupport
books from the
several
& Smedley, school
times
2009). to executive,
provide
Hence, skillslack
multiple
they may to make
basicthe
exposures to
skillsstrategies
such as work,
the new how toand
words and the in a
behave
ability
structuredgradually
to choose buildthey
who
mainstream children’s understanding
work with
classroom. Anrather than
additional ofthis
the being
new words
challenge imposed
is andon
working the story.
them.
with the students’ homes
where English may not be used.
4 Engage children in retelling the story and discussing how the new words and concepts
relate to their own experiences.
For some students there may be a clash between the cultures and values of the home and the
A final reminder
5 Integrate new words from book readings into other activities during the day.
cultures and values of the school. This can add to student frustration and hence disengagement
source: adapted from snell et al. (2015)
with learning and the use of unproductive behaviours in the absence of other appropriate ways to Students for
Aseek
good assistance.
way to summarise what has been presented in this chapter is to recognise that among the whom English is an

many The evidence-based

ways students with practices in can
disability Evidence-based practice in
be active participants 9.2anare for olderclass
inclusive readers and are
is through
additional language
Reflect on this reminders or dialect
adaptedREFLECT
teachers: ON THIS
from the explicit vocabulary instruction steps described by Beach et al. (2015), Swanson
prompt you to critically analyse •et al. (2017) and
modifying Coyne and Koriakin (2017). Readers are also referred to Elleman et al.’s (2019)
expectations
Using AITSL Graduate Standard 4.1 (Support student participation: Identify strategies to
important concepts and reflect recommendations of evidence-based practices for vocabulary instruction and Hougen’s (2014)
• providing supports and adjustments
support inclusive student participation and engagement in classroom activities), reflect
suggestions for teaching vocabulary at the three RTI levels.
on your own experiences and • embedding basic skills
on what activities and individual
in a classroom may education planning (IEP)
increase engagement goals
of the into classroom
diversity routines
of students in
• ensuring that all
the classroom
EVIDENCE-BASED students
and are engaged
those activities
PRACTICE that in meaningful
may
9.2 academiceffect.
have the opposite and social
Comelearning
back to your
beliefs about the processes of experiences
reflections at the end of the chapter and see whether these have changed.
learning and teaching. • Vocabulary
embracing instruction
evidence-based forand
practices older readers
approaches to teaching and learning
• using the principles
1 Select of Universal
words to teach directly:Design
beforefor Learning
teaching (UDL) consider
a lesson, to synthesise the above
the purpose of processes.
the

Meet real teachers in the Home factors

lesson and select target words. Target words should have high academic utility: that is,
A TEACHER REFLECTS
Studentsthey are words
come to school that students
with a set ofare not likely
values to encounter
and attitudes thatindirectly,
cannot bebut leftare essential
at the schooltogate.
A teacher reflects feature, and Familyunderstand
perceptionsthe topic and
of school andconcepts
the valueunder study orplay
of schooling will an
be important
useful acrossrolecontent
both in areas,
a student’s
Cloe,e.g.first year
clarify, secondary social sciences teacher, rural South Australia
investigate.
gain insights into how inclusive attitude to school and its management practices, and in the degree of support that teachers
canI2started
Introduce
expect from words
the
teaching in aand
home inprovide
rural schoolstudent-friendly
promoting thatschool definitions:
management
was fairly isolated, Definitions
practices.
which was While
a shockshould
schoolbebehaviour
for an short
urban
practices inform their day-to- problemsandcannot
dweller easyme!
like toberemember
directly
I found thatand
I hadaccompanied
attributed to family
a number ofby synonyms.
factors, withSynonyms
a number
students of home
disability provide
in issues acan
gistexacerbate
my classes of the
and
day teaching. wasword
school having meaning
problems. difficultyand help with
These meeting
include the
recall, e.g. expand:
typeadditional
all their of additional
getatbigger.
need,
needs single-parent
once. families,
The learning and marital
support
teacherlowatsocioeconomic
3 Provide
discord, the schoolopportunities
multiple offered to and
status assist me in planning
todisturbed
interact with theand
word:
child–parent preparing lessons.
If the target
relationships. wordShe didn’t
is in a
offer to prepare
current text, them for me, the
then explain butword
to work alongside
in the contextme
of to
theprovide adviceintroducing
topic. When and some a
Particularly in the case of students with mental health needs, there is a clear link between
examples.
generalShe even offered
academic to come itinto
word, present in athe room, ifand
sentence I was comfortable
explain with that,
what it means to share
in that
their mental health needs and the home situation. The National Health and Wellbeing Survey
a lesson or two
sentence. where additional
Provide we would team-teach
sentences, andpartstudents
of a topic. She also
discuss howsuggested
the wordsome
is used and
(see Sawyer,
changes
what in
2009) conducted
assessment
it means
across Australia
and reporting
in different contexts.
found that approximately 14 per cent of all
for one student who had high support needs. I learnt
more from being
4 Engage supported
students in wordthan
play:I Ask
would have done
questions thatifrequire
she hadstudents
simply taken over
to make the
decisions
planning
aboutor sent
the a learning
target word’s support
meaning, assistant into the
e.g. If I blow intoroom. I maintained
a balloon responsibility
will it expand and
or contract?
the support sentence
teacher did just that – supported me.with sentence frames where students 243
5 Provide writing opportunities: Start
substitute a target word for a synonym or complete cloze sentences by choosing
appropriate target words. Progress to sentence generation and composing longer texts
using a range of target words in authentic contexts.
BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp06.indd 243 20/08/21 4:53 PM
source: adapted from Beach et al. (2015), swanson et al. (2017); coyne and Koriakin (2017)

xi
 Contemporary education environments place an emphasis on collaboration between students to
support their learning. The mechanism which supports this collaboration is talking. Therefore,
communication via oral language is critical for cognitive development and learning (Gillies,
2014). Children also learn about themselves through the ways in which others communicate with
GUIDE TO THE TEXT them. This places considerable responsibility on parents/caregivers and teachers to consider how
they communicate with – and about – children. For teachers, particularly, it is important to reflect
on the language used when talking about children. It is also important to reflect on the words
and style of communication used when speaking with children. The manner in which adults
communicate with each other and children in preschools and classrooms is critical to inclusive
FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS
education. Consider the following versions of an exchange between two teachers discussing a
student’s behaviour.

Guided example boxes help

Example 1 you contextualise theory by
Teacher A: ‘Scott had another one of his meltdowns this morning. Then the whole session
went pear-shaped’.
providing immediate examples
Teacher B: ‘Oh no, you poor thing – that is so frustrating. He has got some real behaviour
alongside learning concepts.
issues going on.’

Teacher A: ‘It seems every time I try to get him involved in a group activity, he just loses it.
I’m sure some of it is just to get under my skin!’

Teacher B: Yeah, he’s got to learn how to get on with others.’

Teacher A: I know, and I am going to make sure that he does!’

320 PART B INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING PRACTICES

negative
reinforcement
In behavioural terms, both are negatively reinforced by the teacher reactions. By the student Important Key terms are
displaying the behaviour and the subsequent teacher actions, the teacher is negatively reinforced
This occurs when a
behaviour allows the by having peace in the room and the student out of the room. The student is negatively reinforced marked in bold in the text and
person320to escape
BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp08.indd by getting out of the work and the room. Importantly, the student has communicated that the 20/08/21 4:57 PM
from something
that they would work is beyond her ability, and this should be noted by the teacher, particularly if the student defined in the margin when
otherwise find
does not have the skill to communicate frustrations in other ways.
aversive and to
avoid an unwanted
From a social skills perspective, students who display these behaviours are considered to have
they are used for the first time.
consequence.
interfering problem behaviours (Gresham, 2017). Gresham sees these as being in three categories:
• social skills acquisition deficits – they do not have appropriate skills in their repertoire
• social skills performance deficits – they have the behaviour and either choose not to use the
behaviour, or do not realise that they need to use the skill
• social skills fluency deficits – they use the behaviour in the setting in which it is reinforced
but fail to use it in other situations.
ICONS The issues of social skills will be discussed further later in the chapter as they are critical in
ensuring the social inclusion of all students, particularly those with disabilities.

Types of behaviours causing concern

Fact sheet icons in the margins indicate where additional background information is
Teachers want to spend most of their time focusing on student learning rather than student

available on common forms of diversity. When you see this icon, ask your instructor for
behaviour. In order for this to happen, teachers want students to:
• start on time
access to the
• prepare for thefact
lesson sheet that relates to that topic.
• attend to what the teacher says
ACARA (AC)
• comply withicons indicate material from the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and
teacher directions
• strive to finish assigned tasks to the highest possible standard
Reporting Authority,
• collaborate ACARA.
constructively with other students when required, and
• work
PART B INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND without
LEARNINGdisturbing
PRACTICES others when required (Angus et al., 2009, p. 5).

Angus
PART B INCLUSIVE TEACHING et al. (2009)
AND LEARNING were studying teachers in Western Australia and their concerns about
PRACTICES
student behaviour and classroom learning at Years 2, 4, 6 and 8 (first year of secondary in
WA), and particularly in lower socioeconomic areas. They found that the behaviour of most
Summary
concern to teachers was inattention, with over 20 per cent of students identified as inattentive.
END-OF-CHAPTER
STUDY Summary
This
FEATURES
chapter has focused on the role of the regular national and jurisdictional curricula that
Unmotivated behaviour was more commonly reported in secondary than primary classes.
heavily influence mainstream classroom teaching. The approach has been to examine ways in
This chapter has the
focused on the rolestudents
of the regular
werenational and jurisdictional curricula that
STUDY
TOOLS Importantly, unmotivated not aggressive in their behaviour;
which the curriculum can be adjusted to meet the requirements of students with disability, rather
heavily influence mainstream classroom teaching. The approach has
they simply
diddeveloping
than not engage in learning.
discrete Aggressive
curricula or teachingbehaviour was
models that may lessbeen
farexacerbate to examine
common ways inproductive
than either
differences rather than
TOOLS which the curriculum can be adjusted to meet the requirements of students with disability, rather
or unmotivated
enhance behaviour
inclusion for all studentsat in
allthe
levels.
class.Angus et al.that
Strategies used thebeen
have terms ‘productive’,
examined include‘disengaged’,
the
At the end ofthan each
adjustment chapter
of individual you will
disruptive’.
materials find
adjustingseveral
Interestingly,
through only
their tools
developing discrete curricula or teaching models that may exacerbate differences rather than
‘uncooperative’, and teaching
‘low-level 40 per cent
readability andofthrough to
students
enhance inclusion for all students in the class. Strategies that have been examined include the
help
thewere seen you to review, practise and extend
asofconsistently
inclusion language andproductive, 20 perthat
reading activities centare
consistently unproductive
appropriate to the students’and the remainder
instructional levels.fluctuated
your knowledge
The difficulties ofusingyear
of the key
to school
text-based learning
year. This
materials
PART B INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING PRACTICES
inclusion of language and reading activities thatwas
objectives.
adjustment of individual teaching materials through adjusting their readability and through the
from school attributed
and the challenges
are appropriate tofinding
of
to thestudents’
the setting and
suitable the typeslevels.
alternatives
instructional and
havecontent of
been acknowledged,
instruction. considering the heavy reliance placed on them, particularly by secondary teachers.
The difficulties of using text-based materials and the challenges of finding suitable alternatives have
The rapid expansion of alternative materials through technological sources, such as the internet, is
been acknowledged, considering the heavy reliance placed on them, particularly by secondary teachers.
expanding options, but these still need adjustments in many cases for students with disability.
Summary
Unproductive behaviours
The rapid expansion of alternative materials through technological sources, such as the internet, is
Review your understanding of
The development
expanding options, ofbut
units of work
these to provide
still need a more selective
adjustments amount
in many cases forof content,
students coupled
with with focused
disability.
STUDY This
vocabularyInchapter
The development
ahas
studybeen ofsuggested
has student
focused on
of unproductive
units
behaviours
asthe role of in
theSouth
an appropriate
of work tobehaviours
provide a more
regularAustralian
approachnational
selective
schools,
and
amount
Sullivan
jurisdictional
for mainstreamed
of content,
et al. (2012,
curricula
classes. While that
such an 2014) also the key chapter topics with the
approach found
heavily that
influence
is time-consuming mainstream
for theclassroom of concern
individualteaching.
teacher, to teachers
Theinvolvement
the approach were
has
of been
groupstocoupled
largely
examine
of
with
low-level
teacherswaysfocused
disengaged
andinwhole
TOOLS vocabulary
which
faculties
approach
than
has
canthe
behaviours,
been
reduce
isdeveloping
suggested
curriculum
the
time-consuming
can be
including
burden
discrete for
as
on
an appropriate
adjusted
being
eachlate to
formeet
teacher
the individual
curricula
approach
andthe
class,
teacher,
or teaching
for
avoiding
increase
mainstreamed
requirements
thedoing
array
the involvement
models that may
of
classes.
ofschoolwork
students
adjustedwith
of groups
exacerbate
and
While suchrather
disability,
disengaging
materials
of teachers
differences
an
for later from
and whole
Summary.
classroom
use. Adjusted activities.
curriculum Other unproductive
presentation has the potentialbehaviours
to increase included
student low-level
involvement andrather
disruptive
reduce than
behaviours
faculties can reduce
enhance the for
inclusion burden
all on eachin
students teacher andStrategies
thelesson,
class. increase the thatarray
have of adjusted materials for later
disruptivesuch as disrupting
behaviour through the flow ofatthe
teaching the student talking out
instructional turnbeen
oflevel. and examined include
making distracting the noises.
use. Adjusted
adjustment curriculum presentation
of individual teachinghas the potential
materials through toadjusting
increase student involvement
their readability and and reduce
through the
Aggressive/antisocial
The more specific
disruptive behaviour adjustmentsteachingbehaviours
and modifications such as verbally
required abusing
for students other students, spreading
with high support needs rumours
inclusion of languagethrough
and reading activities at thethat
student instructional
are appropriate level.
to the students’ instructional levels.
andaexcluding
necessitate greater level peers were very
of support uncommon
for classroom for allThis
teachers. teachers.
is perhapsHence,
bestacross all years
undertaken of schooling
through
The more specific
difficulties of adjustments
using text-based and materials
modifications required
and the for students
challenges of findingwith high support
suitable needs have
alternatives
collaborative planning with specialist teachers to ensure maximum participation in classroom learning
necessitate a greater considering
been acknowledged, level of support for classroom
the heavy relianceteachers.
placed onThis is perhaps
them, best by
particularly undertaken
secondary through
teachers.
and assessment and the possible use of teacher’s assistants to supervise learning activities in the class.
240 collaborative
The rapid expansionplanning ofwith specialist
alternative teachers
materials to ensure
through maximum sources,
technological participation in classroom
such as the internet,learning
is
Finally,
and
expanding it isoptions,
assessment important
andbut
thefor the still
executive
possible
these use and staff assistants
ofadjustments
need teacher’s to support
in manyto acases
coordinated
supervise approach
learning
for students to learning
activities
with and
in the
disability. class.
teaching adjustments. The following chapter will explore further the interrelated areas of social
Finally, it is important
The development for the
of units executive
of work and staff
to provide to support
a more selectivea amount
coordinated approach
of content, to learning
coupled and
with focused
integration and management of the inclusive classroom.
teaching
vocabulary adjustments. The following
has been suggested as an chapter
appropriatewill approach
explore further the interrelated
for mainstreamed areasWhile
classes. of social
such an
integration
approach is 240
BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp06.indd and managementfor
time-consuming
Discussion questions
of the individual
inclusive classroom.
teacher, the involvement of groups of teachers and whole
faculties can reduce the burden on each teacher and increase the array of adjusted materials for later
Test your knowledge and
20/08/21 4:53 PM

use. Adjusted curriculum

Discussion questions
1 What
disruptive
topics would you
behaviour
presentation
include in a has the potential
half-day to increasesession
staff development studenton involvement and reduce
adjusting curriculum, consolidate your learning
learning, teachingthrough teachingfor
and assessment at the student
students instructional
with disability inlevel.
your mainstream school?
1 What topics would you include in a half-day staff development session on adjusting curriculum,
The more
2 learning, specific
How can you
necessitate
adjustments
makeand
teaching assessment and
assessment
modifications
tasks
forrelevant
required
studentsfor
for students
all students
with disabilityininthe
with
yourclass?high support
mainstream school?
needs
through the Discussion
3
2 What
How canareayou
greater
the types
make
level of support for
of curriculum,
assessment
classroom
learning
tasks andfor
relevant
teachers.supports
teaching This is perhaps
all students in the required best undertaken through
class? for students with high
collaborative
and assessment
planning with specialist
support needs and how can they be provided?
3 What are theand typestheofpossible
curriculum,
use of
teachers
learning
teacher’s
to
and
ensure maximum
teaching to
assistants supports
participation
superviserequired
in classroom
for activities
learning students with
learning
in thehigh
class.
questions, Individual activities,
support needs and how can they be provided?
Finally, it is important for the executive and staff to support a coordinated approach to learning and
Individual activities
teaching adjustments. The following chapter will explore further the interrelated areas of social
and Group activities.
Individual activities
1 Take a topic
integration and in your teaching
management areainclusive
of the and identify the ‘must know’ content and the vocabulary that
classroom.
should be placed in each of the three categories. Compare your results with those of a colleague.
1 Take a topic in your teaching area and identify the ‘must know’ content and the vocabulary that
2 should
Take anbe existing
placed teaching
in each ofmaterial and adjust it for use byyour
students with anthose
instructional level at
Discussion questions the three categories. Compare results with
least three grades above or below the grade level for which the teaching material was originally
2 Take an existing teaching material and adjust it for use by students with an instructional level at
of a colleague.

1 designed.
What topics would you include in a half-day staff development session on adjusting curriculum,
least three grades above or below the grade level for which the teaching material was originally
learning,
3 designed.
Draw a mapteaching
of yourand assessment
classroom, for students
including seatingwith
plan,disability
position in
ofyour mainstream
resources school?
– especially technology
CHAPTER 4 studY tOOls
2 that
How supports
can you make assessment
the learning tasks relevant
of students for all students
with additional in the
needs, and class?of students with
location
3 Draw a map of your classroom, including seating plan, position of resources – especially technology
3 disability
What are the andtypes
their specific learning
of curriculum, needs. and
learning Track where you
teaching moverequired
supports within theforcourse
studentsof most lessons.
with high
that supports the learning of students with additional needs, and location of students with
How does
support yourand
needs utilisation
how canoftheyspacebehelp to meet diverse student needs? Does your classroom space
provided?
disability and their specific learning needs. Track where you move within the course of most lessons.
Group activities
encourage diverse students to learn together, allow for targeted grouping of students within lesson
How does your utilisation of space help to meet diverse student needs? Does your classroom space
structures, etc.?
Individual activities
1 As aencourage
small group, diverse
take students
a curriculumto learn
topictogether,
and workallow for targeted
through grouping
the process of students
of identifying thewithin
criticallesson
1 structures,
curriculum
Take a topic etc.?
content, adjusting
in your teachingthearea
vocabulary
and identifyand then developing
the ‘must know’acontent
series ofandsample teaching materials
the vocabulary that
190 for the topicbethat
should demonstrate
placed in each ofthe
theimportance of adjusting
three categories. Compare curriculum, reduced
your results vocabulary
with those and
of a colleague.
appropriate presentation
2 Take an existing styles.
teaching Also prepare
material an adapted
and adjust assessment
it for use by studentstask foran
with the same topic. Share
instructional level atthe
190
outcomes withgrades
least three other groups in below
above or the same
theor different
grade level curriculum areas.
for which the teaching material was originally
2 Have each member of the group examine a different technological approach to supporting students
designed.
with disability
3 Draw a map ofthe
BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp04.indd 190in
classroom
your (e.g.
classroom, digital books,
including iPad
seating applications,
plan, position ofRead and Write
resources Gold). Discuss
– especially your
technology
20/08/21 7:00 PM

findings with the group

that supports
BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp04.indd
and how
the learning
190
they could
of students be used
with in the needs,
additional classroom.
and location of students with 20/08/21 7:00 PM
3 Discuss and identify
disability adjustments
and their required
specific learning for students
needs. withyou
Track where special
moveneeds, those
within the who areofgifted
course most lessons.
andHow
talented
doesand those
your with an
utilisation ofEAL/D background.
space help Share the
to meet diverse outcomes
student andDoes
needs? consider how these space
your classroom
differing needsdiverse
encourage can be students
met in antoinclusive classroom.
learn together, ACARA’s
allow Illustrations
for targeted groupingof of
Practice (https://www.
students within lesson
australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/student-diversity/illustrations-of-practice/)
structures, etc.? include documents
(e.g. unit overviews) showing the teaching adjustments made within the video samples. Use these as

xii 190
a comparison to your own approach. Consider how your future planning might best meet individual
learning needs within a positive, inclusive climate.
4 Examine and critique ACARA’s CASE Content – Abilities – Standards – Evaluation Planning Pathway
(https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/student-diversity/planning-for-student-diversity/
steps-to-personalise-learning-case/)
BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp04.indd 190 20/08/21 7:00 PM
 appropriate presentation styles. Also prepare an adapted assessment task for the same topic. Share the
outcomes with other groups in the same or different curriculum areas.
2 Have each member of the group examine a different technological approach to supporting students
with disability in the classroom (e.g. digital books, iPad applications, Read and Write Gold). Discuss your
findings with the group and how they could be used in the classroom.
3 Discuss and identify adjustments required for students with special needs, those who are gifted
and talented and those with an EAL/D background. Share the outcomes and consider how these
GUIDE TO THE TEXT
differing needs can be met in an inclusive classroom. ACARA’s Illustrations of Practice (https://www.
australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/student-diversity/illustrations-of-practice/) include documents
(e.g. unit overviews) showing the teaching adjustments made within the video samples. Use these as
a comparison to your own approach. Consider how your future planning might best meet individual

END-OF-CHAPTER FEATURES learning needs within a positive, inclusive climate.

4 Examine and critique ACARA’s CASE Content – Abilities – Standards – Evaluation Planning Pathway
(https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/student-diversity/planning-for-student-diversity/
PART B INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING PRACTICES
steps-to-personalise-learning-case/)

Discover high-quality online Weblinks

Paula Kluth - toward inclusive classrooms and communities blog. Rewriting History, and Nine Other Ways to

educational resources to Adapt

support your study in education
with the Weblinks lists.
ACARA Textbooks:
(Australianhttps://www.paulakluth.com/readings/differentiating-instruction/rewriting-history-and-
Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority website – Student Diversity section
nine-other-ways-to-adapt-textbooks
(includes illustrations of practice) https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/student-diversity/
Positive Partnerships
AFIRM (Autism
com.au/
on Autism
Focused Spectrum
Intervention Disorder for
Resources andteachers
Modules)and school leaders http://www.positivepartnerships.
https://afirm.fpg.unc.edu/afirm-modules
AITSL (Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership) https://www.aitsl.edu.au/research/
Queensland Curriculum & Assessment Authority. IEP: Annotated Sample https://www.qcaa.qld.edu.au/
spotlight/inclusive-education-teaching-students-with-disability
downloads/p_10/qklg_pd_iep_annoted_samp.pdf
ASDAN Education for alternative UK curriculum programs http://www.asdan.org.uk/
Spectronics – for students with learning difficulties who struggle with reading and writing but are interested
Center for Applied Special Technology http://www.cast.org
in technology; it includes an activity exchange for Clicker 4 and Clicker 5, Boardmaker, etc. http://www.
English as an Additional Language or Dialect Teacher Resource. https://docs.acara.edu.au/resources/EALD_
spectronics.com.au/
Resource_-_EALD_Learning_Progression.pdf
TIC Talks is an audio podcast that can be listened to on a variety of devices. It focuses on human rights issues,
IES – What Works Clearing House: https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/
inclusion, and sport https://itunes.apple.com/au/podcast/tic-talks-all-about-sport/id738247927?mt=2
Microsoft alternative pointers add a range of cursor styles, larger icons, the use of inverted colour and left-
VCAA: The Victorian Curriculum http://victoriancurriculum.vcaa.vic.edu.au/
handed mouses, to the Windows system http://www.microsoft.com

Extend your understanding National Assessment Program: Disability Adjustment Scenarios https://www.nap.edu.au/naplan/school-
Recommended reading
support/adjustments-for-students-with-disability/disability-adjustments-scenarios

with the suggested Boyle,

NCCDC., & Topping,Consistent
(Nationally K. (2012). What worksof
Collection
Berkshire: Open University Press.
in Data
inclusion? Kuhl, S.,with
on School Students Pagliano, P., & Boon,
Disability) H. (2015). ‘In the too hard
https://www.nccd.edu.au/
basket’: issues faced by 20 rural Australian teachers
NESA, Collaborative curriculum planning https://educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/k-10/
when students with disabilities are included in their
Recommended reading and Carson, K., & Walker, P. (2015). The Australian Curriculum:
diversity-in-learning/special-education/collaborative-curriculum-planning
Assessment practices for diverse learners. In H. Askell- secondary classes. International Journal of Inclusive
NESA, Life Skills
Williams. https://edvucationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/k-10/diversity-in-learning/
Transforming the future of learning with Education, 19, 697–709.
extensive References relevant special-education
educational research (pp. 167–187). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Loreman, T., Deppeler, J., & Harvey, D. (2nd edn). (2010).
NESA,T.,Special
Hehir, Education
& Katzman, – Year
L. I. (2012). 11 – Year
Effective inclusive schools: Inclusive education: supporting diversity in the classroom.
12 https://educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/11-
to each chapter. 12/Diversity-in-learning/stage-6-special-education
designing successful schoolwide programs. Indianapolis, Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin.
IN: Jossey-Bass.

References
Abell, M. M., Bauder, D. K., & Simmons, T. J. (2005).
Access to the general curriculum: a curriculum and
instructional perspective for educators. Intervention in
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ACARA (n.d.) CASE191
BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp04.indd Planning Pathway. Retrieved from
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Every chance to learn: curriculum framework for ACT
schools preschool to year 10. Canberra: Author. https://
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https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/ Alchin, G. (2014). Is reasonable adjustment a deficit

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to-personalise-learning-case/
ACARA (n.d.). Students with disability – illustrations of
personalised learning. Retrieved from https://www.
australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/student-
diversity/
ACARA (n.d.). Teaching resources for students from EAL/D
backgrounds https://docs.acara.edu.au/resources/EALD_
Learning_Progression_revised_February_2014.pdf
ACARA (2012). The shape of the Australian Curriculum:
health and physical education. Sydney: Author.
ACARA (2013). Student diversity and the Australian
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Melbourne: Author.
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Armstrong, F. (2007). Disability, education, and space. In
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Arthur-Kelly, M. (2017). Calibrating Professional
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acrefore/9780190264093.001.0001/acrefore-
9780190264093-e-150

END-OF-BOOK FEATURES 192

At the back of the book you will find appendices of common abbreviations and shortened forms,
BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp04.indd 192 20/08/21 7:00 PM

and one comprising a full list of fact sheets.

xiii
 Guide to the online resources
FOR THE INSTRUCTOR

Cengage is pleased to provide you with a selection of resources

that will help you to prepare your lectures and assessments,
when you choose this textbook for your course.
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xiv
 GUIDE TO THE ONLINE RESOURCES

POWERPOINT™ PRESENTATIONS
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xv
 Preface
The focus of this book is on how schools can become inclusive communities, providing optimal
learning environments for a wide diversity of students. The editors and chapter authors have
a strong view that the basis for inclusive education is good teaching. For this reason, much of
this book is about teaching rather than about differences or disability. If all teachers focus on
the needs of the individual students in their classes, inclusive educational processes will follow.
The concepts presented are about processes such as adapting curriculum to meet individual needs,
planning teaching strategies, using evidence-based practices, applying whole-school approaches,
encouraging positive interactions, ensuring smooth transitions and working collaboratively. These
concepts are as applicable in regular education as they are in ‘special’ education, and they apply
to students with a wide range of abilities (or disabilities). The book therefore focuses on the
diversity of students attending regular schools, and the strategies that can be used to optimise
the educational experiences of all students. As a result, the various chapters in this book include
reference to Indigenous students, students for whom English is an additional language or
dialect (EAL/D students), gifted and talented students, and students with a range of additional
education support needs.
The approach in this book does not generally attempt to link particular teaching strategies to
particular forms of disability or diversity. It is wrong to assume that identification of a disability
or additional need will indicate the type of teaching approach to be taken. For example, knowing
that a student has Down syndrome or cerebral palsy or spina bifida or is gifted and talented
does not tell us much about the teaching approach we need to take for that student. In some
situations, particular approaches have proven useful. For example, there are some specific
suggestions in this book about teaching students who are on the autism spectrum, but even these
should not be seen as a general recipe. As with any other student, we would want to assess an
individual student’s current attainments, skills and strengths, and set some educational goals
based on a broad-based assessment. It is also recognised that there are specialised teaching
approaches for students with significant sensory disabilities (vision or hearing loss), and
these are not covered specifically in this text. Teachers can access information about specific
disabilities when they have a student with that disability in their class, and there are fact sheets
on disability and diversity on the website. Parents are usually experts on their child’s disability or
additional needs. The internet is also a source of the most up-to-date information about particular
aspects of diversity, and website references are provided at the end of each chapter. However, for
most students, the classroom teaching approach is determined by careful assessment of their
individual educational needs.
The book is divided into four parts. The first part sets the scene by providing an overview of
concepts, principles, legislation and policy related to inclusion, with a focus on inclusive practices
in the school. The second part examines effective teaching and learning practices, including
curriculum adaptation, planning for teaching and supporting positive behaviour. The third part
deals with specific difficulties in communication, literacy and numeracy, which occur in many
students with a disability. The final section examines inclusive practice in three common school
divisions: early childhood education, primary schooling and secondary schools transitioning into
post-school options.
The book can be used as the basis for a semester-long course for undergraduate and
postgraduate students. An online instructors’ manual is available which assists lecturers and
tutors with end-of-chapter activities and within-chapter discussion questions. There are also
chapter videos and other instructor resources, and an online course website for students, provided
by the publishers.

xvi
 PREFACE

We wish all readers, whether they be teachers, administrators or prospective teachers,

successful experiences in their contribution to the development of inclusive classrooms and
schools.
Iva Strnadová, Michael Arthur-Kelly, and Phil Foreman, 2021

Note on terminology
We respectfully acknowledge that there are differences in the ways people talk about disability.
Some people with disability prefer person-first language, which emphasises the principle of
people first, disability second (e.g., a student with intellectual disability). Others prefer identity-
first language (e.g., autistic student). In this book we use person-first language, which reflects
the predominant usage in the Australian and international context, and aligns with the editors’
philosophy. However, respectful of the voices of many autistic people who believe that autism
makes them who they are, and is therefore a critical part of their identity, we use the term
‘student on the autism spectrum’, which has been recognised in the latest research (Bury et al.,
2020) as one of the more acceptable terms for this community.

Reference:
Bury, S. M., Jellett, R., Spoor, J. R., & Hedley, D. (2020). ‘It Defines Who I Am’ or ‘It’s Something
I Have’: What Language Do [Autistic] Australian Adults [on the Autism Spectrum] Prefer?
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04425-3

New to this edition

This new edition brings exciting changes. First of all, there is a stronger emphasis on Universal
Design for Learning (UDL), Response to Intervention (RTI), and evidence-based practices (EBPs)
as themes woven throughout the book. Furthermore, we have introduced a new chapter, authored
by Professor Iva Strnadová and Professor Michael Wehmeyer: Chapter 7, ‘Transitions, self-
determination and twenty-first-century skills’. This chapter details critical transitions between
early childhood education, primary and secondary schooling and developing self-determination
and self-advocacy in children.

xvii
 About the authors
Dedication
ROBERT CONWAY died in early 2020 after a short period of illness. The Editors and Contributors
of this edition wish to pay tribute to his huge contribution to the field of special and inclusive
education, and extend their condolences to his family. Bob, as he was affectionately known, was
an Emeritus Professor at Flinders University where he served as Dean of Education from 2007
to 2012. Prior to this role he was a leader in special education at The University of Newcastle,
playing several roles including Director of the Special Education Centre, with a background
as a teacher in both mainstream and special education. His main research centred on the area
of students with behaviour problems in both mainstream and specialist settings. He worked
with education systems to improve the management of students with behaviour problems,
particularly in the ways in which student management, learning and teaching could be addressed
concurrently. He also had a strong interest in the inclusion of students with a range of learning
needs in mainstream education and the ways in which schools and education systems can
become more inclusive by meeting the needs of all students. He was a member of the Australian
Government’s former Schools and Disability Advisory Council. Bob is greatly missed by all those
who knew him, and his legacy in the field is substantial.

Editors
IVA STRNADOVÁ is Professor in Special Education and Disability Studies at the University of
New South Wales, Sydney, Australia. Her research aims to contribute to better understanding
and the improvement of the life experiences of people with disabilities. Combining research with
advocacy is essential in her research program, which builds on supporting the self-determination
(including self-advocacy) of people with intellectual disabilities, and is grounded in an innovative
inclusive research approach, in which people with intellectual disabilities are included in the role
of researcher.
She has a particular research interest in the wellbeing of people with intellectual and
developmental disabilities and their families over the life span, diverse transitions in lives of
people with disabilities (particularly intellectual disabilities and autism); girls and women with
intellectual disabilities; parents with intellectual disabilities; inclusive research; issues relevant
to people with profound intellectual and multiple disabilities; and approaches giving voice to
people with intellectual disabilities (e.g., Photovoice, body mapping).

MICHAEL ARTHUR-KELLY moved into teacher education following a range of teaching

experiences in special and regular schools, working first at Charles Sturt University and then
at The University of Newcastle. He is currently a Conjoint Professor in the School of Education at
The University of Newcastle, and enjoys a balance of teaching and professional contributions to
his field and projects centred on the translation of research to leading practice. Specific areas he
has worked in include instructional design, professional development for teachers in behaviour
and communication support, and the identification of curricular and instructional approaches to
maximise engagement in students with multiple and complex additional needs.

xviii
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

PHIL FOREMAN is Emeritus Professor of Education at The University of Newcastle. He was Chair
of the NSW Institute of Teachers from 2007–2013, and was Professor and Dean of Education at
The University of Newcastle from 2002–2008. Prior to that he was Director of the University’s
Special Education Centre. He was Editor of the Journal of Intellectual and Developmental
Disability from 1992–2002, and remains an Associate Editor. He is also an Associate Editor of the
Australasian Journal of Special and Inclusive Education. He was foundation president of Newcastle
& Hunter Community Access and Disability Advocacy Service Hunter. He is a Member of the
Guardianship and Administrative Divisions of the NSW Civil and Administrative Tribunal. In
2013 he was appointed a Member of the Order of Australia (AM) for services to special education
and to people with a disability.

Contributors
THERESE M. CUMMING is a Professor of Special Education in the School of Education and
Academic Lead Education at the UNSW Disability Innovation Institute. Therese is a Scientia
Education Academy Fellow and has had extensive leadership experiences in learning and
teaching. Her teaching and research focus on promoting the use of evidence-based practices to
support the learning and behaviour of students with disabilities and the use of technology to
create inclusive, accessible, and engaging learning environments.

KERRY DALLY is a senior lecturer in the School of Education at the University of Newcastle.
She teaches in the postgraduate program in the areas of early childhood intervention, learning
difficulties, and social-emotional learning and positive behaviour support. She is a past recipient
of the Australian Resource Educators Association award for excellence in research in the field
of learning difficulties and the Australian Early Childhood Doctoral Thesis award. Her current
research interests encompass inclusive education, student self-efficacy and wellbeing, and
whole-school approaches to creating supportive learning environments.

MICHAEL DAVIES (B Econ, Grad Dip Psych, M App Psych, PhD) is Associate Professor and the
Program Leader in Counselling at the Australian Institute of Professional Counsellors and an
Adjunct Associate Professor at Griffith University in Brisbane, where he was an academic for
30 years. Prior to academia he worked for 5 years as a Counselling Psychologist with long-term
unemployed adults, those undertaking rehabilitation, and students regarding their vocational
choice. Seven years working with family members of people with disabilities, and training
residential staff supporting people with severe intellectual disabilities followed before becoming a
lecturer. Over 30 years at Griffith University he taught counselling and interpersonal psychology
among many other subject areas, especially to special education teachers in training. He was
also Program Leader in Special Education at Griffith University. Since February 2017 he has led
the team of academics at AIPC and teaches counselling skills and ethics in undergraduate and
postgraduate courses. His research includes over 70 publications across the interconnecting
themes of social skills, stress and coping, and transitions from school to post-school life and
this work has been presented to many academic and practitioner communities nationally
and internationally.

JUDITH FOGGETT is a lecturer in the School of Education at the University of Newcastle.

She program coordinates and teaches the undergraduate special education programs and is
the Program Convenor for the Master of Special and Inclusive Education for both primary and
secondary special education. Judith’s area of expertise is in the inclusion of students with
learning and behaviour problems in regular and special school settings, emotional disturbance,

xix
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

mental health and whole-school approaches. Judith has had extensive experience teaching
in mainstream and support classes in infants, primary and secondary schools in isolated,
Indigenous, rural and suburban communities. Her area of research explores links and engagement
in learning through behaviour support, the professional learning of teachers and staff
collaboration.

SARAH HOPKINS is a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Education at Monash University and has
many years of experience in primary and secondary teacher education. Her current research
is focused on understanding and addressing students’ difficulties learning mathematics and
preparing teachers for inclusive classrooms. Sarah leads a collaborative project between Monash
University and Wallara (a community-based organisation) called the Keep on Learning (KoL)
program. The KoL program involves pre-service mainstream teachers working with young adults
with intellectual disability (students) in a literacy and numeracy tutoring program. Along with
her colleagues, she has investigated the benefits of the KoL program for pre-service teachers in
terms of preparing them to teach in inclusive classrooms and the benefits for students in terms of
their learning outcomes and wellbeing.

SALLY HOWELL has been involved in the education of students with special needs both as a
teacher and special education consultant for many years. This has involved working in public,
independent and Catholic schools. Sally has worked as a special education lecturer at Macquarie
University Special Education Centre (MUSEC) in the areas of numeracy instruction, research
methods and behaviour management. Sally is currently the Principal of MUSEC School. Sally has
provided advice to the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA)
and the NSW Education Standards Authority (NESA) regarding curriculum and assessment for
students with a disability. She has expertise in assessment and programming for students with
difficulties in learning, particularly in the areas of numeracy and reading. Sally has extensive
experience working collaboratively with parents and schools to support students with special
needs in both inclusive and specialist settings. Sally’s research focus has been on number sense
as a predictor of early mathematics achievement and on schema-based instruction applied to
mathematics’ problem solving.

MARTIN HOWES has been teaching in both primary and high schools over the past eleven
years. After graduating with honours from the University of Newcastle with a Bachelor of
Teaching (Special Education)/Bachelor of Arts degree, he started his teaching career as a
learning support teacher. His varied teaching experiences have included a period of relieving
as an assistant principal of a support unit, a mainstream class teacher and a wellbeing teacher
in primary schools, as well as a special education teacher in a high school support unit setting.
He is currently an assistant principal and learning support coordinator in a primary school.
His interests are in learning support for students with additional educational needs and
technology in education.

CORAL KEMP is an experienced practitioner, consultant, program director, teacher educator, and
researcher in the field of early childhood intervention. Coral’s practical experience has included:
special educator on a transdisciplinary home-based early intervention team, preschool special
education consultant for the NSW Department of Education, and Academic Team Leader of
the Early Years programs at Macquarie University. During her time at Macquarie, Coral won a
federal grant to establish an inclusion support program for children with disabilities in childcare
centres in predominantly disadvantaged areas of Sydney. Coral is a member of the coordinating
committee for the International Society on Early Intervention, Honorary Senior Lecturer

xx
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

at Macquarie University and member of the Board of the STaR Association, which supports
children with disabilities in regular childcare. Coral has published her research on early childhood
inclusion in Australian and international peer-reviewed journals.

CARL LEONARD is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Education and Co-Coordinator of the Master
of Special and Inclusive Education Program at The University of Newcastle, Australia. He has
research interests in holistic, innovative, communication-rich leadership structures aligning a
core focus on wellbeing; teaching and learning structures embedded in implementation science;
and universal design for learning as the springboard for success. Carl worked in schools for
28 years in various teaching, leadership and consultancy positions as an advocate for public
education, inclusivity and diversity
Simultaneous to this, Carl also lectured in the postgraduate programs at The University of
Newcastle, aiming to foster the growth and development of the current and next generation
of teaching professionals. In addition to working full-time in schools up until mid-2019, Carl
has achieved significant scholarly output including one sole-authored book, a range of journal
articles and presentations at national and international conferences.

MICHELLE RALSTON has extensive experience in mainstream and special education, teaching
children from 3 years of age through to 18-year-olds. She has led whole school change in literacy
and inclusion in her roles as learning-support team coordinator, assistant principal, itinerant
communication/language disorders and learning support teacher within mainstream schools.
She lectures at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels in early childhood, primary and
secondary inclusive and special education, collaboration, learning difficulties, communication
disorders, positive behaviour support, social emotional learning, learning difficulties, disability
discrimination legislation and education policy. Her current research interests include the
Disability Standards for Education and related policies, learning and development experiences for
school staff, and the role of school leaders in promoting inclusive practice.

UMESH SHARMA is Professor in the Faculty of Education at Monash University, Australia where
he is the Academic Head of the Educational Psychology and Inclusive Education Community.
Umesh’s research programs in the area of disability and inclusive education span India, Pakistan,
China, Bangladesh, Fiji, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Samoa as well as Australia, Canada,
USA and New Zealand. He is the chief co-editor of the Australasian Journal of Special Education
and the Oxford Encyclopedia of Inclusive and Special Education. He has authored over 150 academic
articles, book chapters and edited books that focus on various aspects of inclusive education.
His co-authored book A Guide to Promoting a Positive Classroom Environment was the recipient
of the International Book Prize Award from the Exceptionality Education International. He was
recently (2019) named the top Special Education Researcher (Field Leader) in Australia based
on the impact of his work locally and internationally by the Australian Chief Scientist https://
specialreports.theaustralian.com.au/1540291/. His main areas of research are: positive behaviour
support, inclusive education for disadvantaged children and policy and practice in special and
inclusive education.

DEAN SUTHERLAND is an Associate Professor in the School of Psychology, Speech and Hearing at
the University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand. His research focuses on communication,
education and parent/teacher-child interactions, in particular supporting children and young
people (and their families) who experience difficulty developing or retaining communication skills.
This work involves working with diverse populations, including children with autism spectrum
disorder and other developmental and neurological conditions such as cerebral palsy.

xxi
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

MICHAEL L. WEHMEYER, PhD is the Ross and Mariana Beach Distinguished Professor of Special
Education; Chair of the Department of Special Education; and Director and Senior Scientist,
Beach Center on Disability; all at the University of Kansas. His research and scholarly work has
focused on issues pertaining to self-determination, positive psychology and disability, transition
to adulthood, the education and inclusion of students with severe disabilities, conceptualising
intellectual disability, and technology use by people with cognitive disabilities.

xxii
Acknowledgements
The editors, Iva Strnadová, Michael Arthur-Kelly and Phil Foreman, would like to thank the
many parents, students, teachers, principals and other professionals who so generously provided
narratives and case studies to develop and illustrate the concepts presented in each chapter.
They would also like to thank staff at Cengage, together with their fellow contributors, for their
expertise and commitment to this publication.
The authors, editors and publisher would like to thank all those who have contributed
photographs and other material for inclusion in this edition, as well as to those who have
contributed to past editions of Inclusion in Action. The editors and the authors of Chapters 2, 3
and 12 would like to acknowledge the work and contribution of the authors of earlier editions of
these chapters: Dr Ian Dempsey and Dr Gordon Lyons. The editors and authors of Chapter 9 would
also like to extend their thanks and acknowledge the contribution of Amanda Boelen, Visiting
Teacher Service, and Ms Mirna Farah, Learning and Support Teacher.
Cengage, the editors, and the author team would also like to thank the following reviewers for
their incisive and helpful feedback:
• Nadine Ballam – University of Waikato
• Jeanette Berman – University of New England
• Corey Bloomfield – Central Queensland University
• Dr Melissa Cain – Australian Catholic University (QLD)
• Karen Glasby – University of Southern Queensland
• Edwina El Hachem – Deakin University
• Rosemary Horn – University of the Sunshine Coast
• Dr Sofia Mavropoulou – Queensland University of Technology
• Sue O’Neill – University of New South Wales
• Bea Staley – Charles Darwin University
• Marion Sturges – Western Sydney University
We would also like to extend our thanks to the reviewers who provided their feedback on all
previous editions of Inclusion in Action.

xxiii
 Standards mapping grid
This book is designed to assist readers to achieve the Australian Professional Standards for Graduate Teachers.
The following grid shows how the content of particular chapters contributes to the Standards.

Professional Knowledge Standards Chapters

1. Know students and how they learn
1.1 Physical, social and intellectual development and characteristics of students 4, 6, 7, 8, 9,
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of physical, social and intellectual development and 10,11
characteristics of students and how these may affect learning.
1.2 Understand how students learn 4, 5, 6, 7, 9,
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of research into how students learn and the 11, 12
implications for teaching.
1.3 Students with diverse linguistic, cultural, religious and socioeconomic backgrounds 1, 4, 5, 7, 8,
Demonstrate knowledge of teaching strategies that are responsive to the learning strengths and 11, 12, 13
needs of students from diverse linguistic, cultural, religious and socioeconomic backgrounds.
1.4 Strategies for teaching Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students 8, 9, 12
Demonstrate broad knowledge and understanding of the impact of culture, cultural identity and
linguistic background on the education of students from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
backgrounds.
1.5 Differentiate teaching to meet the specific learning needs of students across the full 1, 3, 4, 5, 6,
range of abilities 7, 8, 9, 10,
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of strategies for differentiating teaching to meet the 11, 12, 13
specific learning needs of students across the full range of abilities.
1.6 Strategies to support full participation of students with disability 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
Demonstrate broad knowledge and understanding of legislative requirements and teaching 6, 7, 11, 12,
strategies that support participation and learning of students with disability. 13
2. Know the content and how to teach it
2.1 Content and teaching strategies of the teaching area 4, 6, 8, 9, 10,
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the concepts, substance and structure of the 11,12, 13
content and teaching strategies of the teaching area.
2.2 Content selection and organisation 4, 5, 9, 10,
Organise content into an effective learning and teaching sequence. 12, 13
2.3 Curriculum, assessment and reporting 4, 5, 9, 10,
Use curriculum, assessment and reporting knowledge to design learning sequences and 12, 13
lesson plans.
2.4 Understand and respect Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people to promote 1, 8, 12
reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians
Demonstrate broad knowledge of, understanding of and respect for Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander histories, cultures and languages.
2.5 Literacy and numeracy strategies 4, 8, 9, 10
Know and understand literacy and numeracy teaching strategies and their application in
teaching areas.
2.6 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) 3, 4, 5, 8, 12
Implement teaching strategies for using ICT to expand curriculum learning opportunities
for students.

xxiv
 STANDARDS MAPPING GRID

Professional Knowledge Standards Chapters

3. Plan for and implement effective teaching and learning
3.1 Establish challenging learning goals 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
Set learning goals that provide achievable challenges for students of varying abilities 9, 10, 11, 12,
and characteristics. 13
3.2 Plan, structure and sequence learning programs 4, 5, 6, 8, 9,
Plan lesson sequences using knowledge of student learning, content and effective teaching 10, 12, 13
strategies.
3.3 Use teaching strategies 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
Include a range of teaching strategies. 9, 10, 12, 13
3.4 Select and use resources 3, 4, 6, 8, 9,
Demonstrate knowledge of a range of resources, including ICT, that engage students in 11
their learning.
3.5 Use effective classroom communication 4, 5, 6, 8, 12,
Demonstrate a range of verbal and non-verbal communication strategies to support student 13
engagement.
3.6 Evaluate and improve teaching programs 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
Demonstrate broad knowledge of strategies that can be used to evaluate teaching programs to 9, 10, 11, 12,
improve student learning. 13
3.7 Engage parents/carers in the educative process 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
Describe a broad range of strategies for involving parents/carers in the educative process. 10, 11, 12,
13
4. Create and maintain supportive and safe learning environments
4.1 Support student participation 1, 3, 4, 5, 6,
Identify strategies to support inclusive student participation and engagement in classroom 7, 9, 10, 11,
activities. 12,13
4.2 Manage classroom activities 3, 4, 5, 6, 8,
Demonstrate the capacity to organise classroom activities and provide clear directions. 12, 13
4.3 Manage challenging behaviour 6, 8, 11
Demonstrate knowledge of practical approaches to manage challenging behaviour.
4.4 Maintain student safety 6, 8
Describe strategies that support students’ wellbeing and safety working within school and/or
system, curriculum and legislative requirements.
4.5 Use ICT safely, responsibly and ethically 4, 8
Demonstrate an understanding of the relevant issues and the strategies available to support the
safe, responsible and ethical use of ICT in learning and teaching.
5. Assess, provide feedback and report on student learning
5.1 Assess student learning 3, 4, 5, 8, 9,
Demonstrate understanding of assessment strategies, including informal and formal, diagnostic, 10,12, 13
formative and summative approaches to assess student learning.
5.2 Provide feedback to students on their learning 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
Demonstrate an understanding of the purpose of providing timely and appropriate feedback to 9, 11, 12, 13
students about their learning.
5.3 Make consistent and comparable judgements 4, 5, 10
Demonstrate understanding of assessment moderation and its application to support consistent
and comparable judgements of student learning.

xxv
STANDARDS MAPPING GRID

Professional Knowledge Standards Chapters

5.4 Interpret student data 4, 5, 6, 8, 10,
Demonstrate the capacity to interpret student assessment data to evaluate student learning and 11, 12, 13
modify teaching practice.
5.5 Report on student achievement 4, 5, 6, 11,
Demonstrate understanding of a range of strategies for reporting to students and parents/ 12
carers and the purpose of keeping accurate and reliable records of student achievement.
6. Engage in professional learning
6.1 Identify and plan professional learning needs 4, 6, 12
Demonstrate an understanding of the role of the National Professional Standards for Teachers
in identifying professional learning needs.
6.2 Engage in professional learning and improve practice 3, 4, 6, 8, 12
Understand the relevant and appropriate sources of professional learning for teachers.
6.3 Engage with colleagues and improve practice 3, 4, 6, 12
Seek and apply constructive feedback from supervisors and teachers to improve teaching
practices.
6.4 Apply professional learning and improve student learning 3, 4, 5, 6,
Demonstrate an understanding of the rationale for continued professional learning and the 8,12
implications for improved student learning.
7. Engage professionally with colleagues, parents/carers and the community
7.1 Meet professional ethics and responsibilities 1, 2, 4, 6
Understand and apply the key principles described in codes of ethics and conduct for the
teaching profession.
7.2 Comply with legislative, administrative and organisational requirements 2, 3, 4, 6, 13
Understand the relevant legislative, administrative and organisational policies and processes
required for teachers according to school stage.
7.3 Engage with the parents/carers 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
Understand strategies for working effectively, sensitively and confidentially with parents/carers. 8, 10, 11, 12,
13
7.4 Engage with professional teaching networks and broader communities 3, 4, 6, 7, 8,
Understand the role of external professionals and community representatives in broadening 10, 11, 12,
teachers’ professional knowledge and practice. 13

xxvi
PART A
INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS
1 Introducing inclusion in education

2 Legislation and policies supporting inclusive

practice

3 Practising inclusion in diverse school

communities

1
 1
CHAPTER

Introducing inclusion
in education
Iva Strnadová and Phil Foreman

This chapter aims to:

1.1 Provide an overview of principles that underlie inclusive practices
1.2 Explain the concept of disability
1.3 Identify other forms of diversity
1.4 Explain terminology and concepts related to inclusive practice
1.5 Explain the impact of the use of language about disability and diversity
1.6 Locate inclusion as part of a range of educational responses
1.7 Provide an overview of approaches to teaching students with a disability
in regular classes
1.8 Explore diversity across the lifespan
1.9 Myths and facts about disability and diversity
1.10 Explore the future of inclusion

Introduction
diversity Teachers in the twenty-first century expect to have a diversity of students in their classes.
Reflects the
The term ‘diversity’ may refer to students’ cultural backgrounds, their social and family
wide variation
in educational backgrounds, their ethnic origins, their ability level or their functional level. For classrooms to
needs of students
be optimal learning environments, teachers need to understand the diversity of their students,
in contemporary
classrooms and the and to provide appropriate programs and learning conditions. In the past, many classes in
need to be aware
Australia and New Zealand were not very diverse, often containing students from similar
of factors related
to their ethnic, backgrounds and only rarely having a student with a significant disability. However, teachers
cultural and social
are now likely to have students from many different countries, from varying religious and
backgrounds, their
special abilities and, ethnic backgrounds, and from a variety of family arrangements including nuclear families,
if relevant, their
single parent families, shared parenting families, and same-sex parent families. They are
disabilities.
also likely to, at some stage, teach students with a diagnosed disability. It is the successful
disability
The functional inclusion of a diversity of students, including in particular those who have a disability, that is
consequence of an the primary focus of this book.
impairment. For
example, because Most contemporary classrooms will include one or more students with a diagnosed
of the impairment
of spina bifida, the intellectual, physical, sensory or learning disability. The recent Nationally Consistent
disability may be that Collection of Data on School Students with Disability (NCCD, 2020) in Australia has also
a person is unable
to walk without highlighted areas of focus such as cognitive, sensory and social/emotional domains, and
the assistance of the fact that students may not have a diagnosis and yet have real and important learning
crutches.
needs (NCCD uses the term ‘imputed disability’). This inclusion of students with a range of

2
 CHAPTER 1 Introducing inclusion in education

needs that happens in regular classrooms reflects the widespread agreement that people with sensory disability
a disability have a right to participate fully in the community. Consequently, many parents of Impairment of vision
or hearing, including
students with a disability choose to send their child to their local school rather than to a special deafness and
school or unit. The prospect of having students with a disability in their classes may cause blindness.

concern for some teachers, but these concerns are often misplaced. Good teaching provides learning disability
(or difficulty)
for the individual needs of all students (see Figure 1.1), and challenges can come from many An impairment
students, including those with or without a disability. in one or more
of the processes
involved in using
spoken or written
language. This may
particularly show
itself in problems
with reading,
writing, spelling,
speaking, listening
and mathematical
calculations. (In
the UK, intellectual
disability is referred
to as ‘learning
disability’, which is a
different concept.)

FIGURE 1.1 Good teaching provides for individual needs

Some teachers will find that a child with a diagnosed disability is less challenging than other
students in the class. The example of Mia, in Narrative 1.1, illustrates this.

NARRATIVE
1.1
Mia’s considerations
Mia is a 12-year-old girl who is paralysed from the waist down as a result of a car accident
when she was 7 years old.
She is about to commence at her local high school in a large country town. She uses an
electric wheelchair. Her academic work is above average. She would like to work on web
design when she leaves school. Students with
Some planning is needed before Mia arrives. Perhaps a learning support team will be physical disability
established, with Mia, her family, the year teacher and a learning support consultant from
the school or region. Among the questions the team will consider are:
• How will Mia deal with the problem of stairs?
• Are there any obstructions to her wheelchair?

3
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Seeing this array of names, Mr Dyce may well add, when he asks,
“What ought a national collection of pictures to be?”—“extensiveness
will, I think, suggest itself as one of those characteristics.”
We are not denying that catalogues of this kind are of value—far
from it; they are parts of the history of Art; but surely a dictionary of
painters is one thing and a collection of pictures another. An army
and navy list are valuable documents, but would be rather unwieldy
national incumbrances if accompanied by each individual’s portrait
at full length—especially viewing the collection, as is the case with
this gallery scheme, “independently of merit.” It may be well said,
that it is absurd to think of such a scheme with our present building;
and it would be difficult to find a site of sufficient area for these
specimens by thousands, and at the same time provide for the
increase at the present ratio of art propagation.
We proceed to consider Mr Dyce’s pamphlet, or letter—happily not
very long—for we have seldom met with so much serious nonsense in
so few pages. He blunders on the very threshold of his work; for, as
shown, he makes extensiveness a characteristic, whereas it must be
but the accident of finding good things to collect. He considers it as a
museum, having evidently in view a collection of curiosities, the
thing above all others a National Gallery should not be. “Then, again,
as every collection has in view some definite purpose, the systematic
fulfilment of that purpose on the most enlarged basis—in other
words, systematic arrangement, and a wholeness or completeness in
relation to its particular purpose, seem necessary to the idea of a
national collection.” Words, words, words! all to envelop a
commonplace truth that no one need be told. Of course, every man,
woman, and child, having a “purpose,” should suit the matter in
hand to it. If the man had been destined to manufacture small-
clothes instead of writing about art, he wouldn’t begin at the wrong
end, and stitch on the buttons before he had cut out his shapes. Of
course, he would have had his arrangement and his “chronological”
measure too, and not put the boy’s fit on the aged father. There is no
end to writing in this style; there may be, if a writer pleases, miles of
verbiage before reaching a place of rest or tolerable entertainment,
without any prospect of the journey’s end. Then he goes on thinking,
and “thinks” what nobody ever doubted: “I think we may assume
that a public museum ought to fulfil its purpose” (so ought a pipkin)
—but more—“and, secondly, that the objects contained in it ought
not merely to be coextensive with that purpose, but illustrate it with
the greatest possible fulness and variety; that is to say, the collection
ought to be at once extensive and complete.” Extensive and complete
—or we would put it plainly, as with regard to the pipkin, that care
should be taken that as much be put into it as it will hold without
boiling over, preserving in the simmering every variety in the broth—
the meat, the bone, the fat, and the vegetables. Notwithstanding this
his very clear explanation, he immediately again gravely asks, “But
what are we to understand by the completeness of a collection of
pictures?” The reply to this question (a reply which may well
astonish any inquirer) “depends upon the view we take of its
purpose;” that is, to pursue our illustrations, whether the small-
clothes be to be made for grandson or grandfather; whether the
pipkin is to hold porridge for breakfast, or broth for supper. “Now
all, I imagine, will agree, that the object of our National Gallery is, to
afford instruction and enjoyment” (a discovery which he very shortly
annihilates, by taking out the enjoyment, and making the instruction
doubtful); “that it is, or ought to be, an institution where the learned
study art, and the unlearned enjoy it, where docti artis rationem
intelligunt, indocti sentiunt voluptatem; so that we have to consider
how that instruction and enjoyment which the gallery is calculated to
afford ought to be provided for.” Not a doubt of it. But why, Mr Dyce,
ride your poor hobby-horse round this circle? Don’t you see you
haven’t advanced ten paces beyond the stable door. In fact, you have
said but the same thing over and over again; but you have taken out
of the pack-saddle a scrap of Latin, which, however well it may
sound, and your own hobby may prick up his ears at it, is really a
piece of arrant nonsense; indeed the reverse of it is the truth; for it is
the unlearned, of course, who come to your lecture, that they may
understand, “intelligunt;” and the learned, the “docti,” they who
know something about the matter, only who can perceive, “sentiunt,”
the “voluptatem,” the pleasure of art. But we said Mr Dyce would
annihilate enjoyment, and see if he does not do the thing, and most
astonishingly. After the passage last quoted, follows: “Now, if there
be any, and at this time of day it is to be hoped there are very few,
who think that the purpose of the National Gallery will be served by
what in popular phrase is termed ‘a selection of the best works of the
best masters’” (we rejoice to find so sensible a phrase is popular), “I
will simply beg them to apply their opinion to the case of any section
of a national library to convince themselves how utterly untenable it
is.”
Now the Curiosity Museum is a Library, and a Museum of
Curiosities and a library are, ergo, moulded into one—a National
Gallery; whereas the materials will not amalgamate,—not one is a bit
like the other. To go on is really to get deeper and deeper into the
quagmire of nonsense, the only kind of depth to be met with in the
whole pamphlet. It must sadly have tired the patience of his Royal
Highness, if he did read it; and if Mr Dyce wrote it with any view of
giving his Royal Highness a lesson in the English language, which
was not needed, he has furnished as bad a “specimen” as could be
well met with. But to the matter and the argument:—“the best works
of the best masters” is as silly an idea, he thinks, as to supply a
library with the best dramatists, Shakespeare, of course, included.
He is an advocate for the worst, such as no one would read—and
why?—the very sound of it is truly asinine. “Would such a proceeding
be tolerated for a single moment? Would it be endured that they, that
any body of men, however eminent, should possess the right to
withhold from the public any attainable materials for literary
knowledge and criticism?”—for which purpose Mr Dyce does not
withhold this pamphlet. His materials it is not difficult to decide. It
certainly could never have been intended for knowledge but under
the greatest mistake; supposing it then to be for criticism, we take
him at his word, and indulge him accordingly, or, as he says, “in
relation to its particular purpose.” But he is not satisfied yet; having
nothing more to say, he must say that nothing in more words. He
continues—“that, in fact, they should have it in their power” (that is,
the any men, however eminent) “actually or virtually to pronounce a
judgment on the comparative merits of authors, the accuracy of
which could only be tested by the very comparison which the
judgment has the effect of preventing. Yet there is no difference
between such a proceeding and the restriction of the national
collection of pictures to such works as might happen to be
considered the best.” What a circular jumble of words is here!—“a
judgment on comparative merits” not to be pronounced, not to be
endured to be pronounced, because such judgment has the effect of
preventing the said judgment, which is here made at once both
desirable and undesirable.
 The reader sees how much nonsense may be comprised in less
than two pages, for we have not advanced further in the pamphlet. A
library, to be a good library, ought to contain the veriest rubbish,
even Mr Dyce’s letter, because without comparison therewith we
shall never be able to appreciate the styles of Swift, and Addison, and
Milton, nor Shakespeare’s dramas, without ransacking the
“condemned cells” of Drury Lane. And when at length, by these
forbidden comparisons, we have discovered the best works of the
best masters, it is not to be endured that “any men, however
eminent,” should prefer them to the worst, or at least not give the
worst equal honour. Our letter-writer thinks he strengthens his
argument by quotations from the evidence, which, if there be
anything in them, are quite against him, for they tend to show that
selection should be of the best: thus Mr Solly is asked, Q. 1855—“Is it
your opinion the study of these earlier masters is likely to lead to a
purer style on the part of our own painters, than of the later and
more effeminate school?”—“Certainly. I perfectly agree with the
questions that have just been put to me, and I am not aware that I
could add anything to them, as I think they comprehend all that I
should have thought of suggesting myself upon the subject.”
It would have been surprising if Mr Solly had not agreed with
questions so manufactured by epithets—for “purer” and “effeminate”
make an undeniable difference. The questioner might as well have
said, Don’t you think good better than bad? Don’t you think virtue
better than vice? This is a specimen of the art of dressing up a false
fact, to knock down with it a true one; but even here, according to the
Dycian theory, the only earthly reason for preferring the purer is that
it is the earlier; if the effeminate had by chance changed places with
it, it would have had his chronological post of honour.
In his next quotation the pamphleteer is intent on giving a blow to
his compeers of the English school. Mr Leigh confirms Mr Solly’s
view—is questioned, Q. 1913: “You say the more chaste works of the
Italian school—do you refer to an earlier era?”—“I allude to that
particular period so justly referred to in the questions put to Mr
Solly.” Q. 1914: “Do you mean the historical painters who were
contemporaneous or prior to Raffaelle?”—“Yes.” Q. 1915: “You prefer
these to the schools of Bologna?”—“Yes; it is a school whose works
we are exceedingly in want of, to enable us to correct the tendency of
the English style towards weakness of design, effeminacy of
composition, and flauntiness of colouring.” But Mr Dyce has
altogether forgotten his own rule, that it is not to be endured to give
a judgment, &c.—that is, to pronounce what is good, what is “best”
and “of the best,” and that if proved best, we have nothing whatever
to do with that accident. We have just warned the public, by showing
the probable number of specimens for this new “Old Curiosity Shop,”
to be called our National Gallery. Page 18, Mr Dyce says, “Still, if it be
remembered that only fifteen years after the commencement of the
Royal Gallery of Berlin it possessed works of all classes, from the
rude Byzantine down to productions of the last century, to the
number of nearly twelve hundred, we need entertain no great
misgiving as to the possibility of forming even a very considerable
collection within a moderate period.” The public, we hope, do
entertain a very great misgiving of the consequences of so frightful
an inundation, especially as it is to begin with the rude Byzantine.
But as the “rude Byzantine” may stand as high art, or fine art, in
comparison with still more rude beginnings; and as antiquity lore is
ever increased as it looks backward, and is not confined to country,
there may be cause for misgiving whether there may not be an
attempt to ransack China and Japan for new old schools—to discover
picture mines in Peru, for monstrosities in paint and design; for all
become legitimate sources under the ever-growing chronological
mania, this outrageous pedantry of the “The history of Art.” And here
the writer of the pamphlet, having perhaps momentary misgivings
himself as to the quality of the stuff to be collected, goes backwards
and forwards in oscillating contradictions, from best to any
specimens, and from any specimens to best, ending in such wise
conclusion as he generally comes to, that it is “best” to get the “best”
specimens we can, but no matter whether we get them or not,
provided we get any. For he insists that the one object is to have “a
collection illustrative of the history of the art, and “(in italics)” the
formation of it must be undertaken expressly with that view.”
Moreover, “secondly, that though it be desirable that all works
collected should be of the highest order—that is to say” (he loves to
explain himself thus by duplicate) “that every master should be
represented by one or more of his best works, yet as such works are
not essential to the completeness of the collection, considered as an
historical series, but serve rather to enrich it as a mere assemblage of
beautiful works,” &c. &c. Can anything show more his contempt of
mere beautiful works, as in no way being an object in collecting? In
fact, the whole pamphlet is to recommend, if not to enforce, the
gathering together an enormous mass of curiosity lumber, and
building a labyrinth of “Chambers of Horrors” to hold them. And it
must be taken into account that this absurd, this tasteless scheme, is
not confined to pictures. It is proposed, in most views of our future
gallery, that statues are to be added, and architecture is to claim its
due share as one of the Fine Arts; and where are we to begin, and
where end? Is statuary to find its rude commencement in the
“Cannibal Islands,” its progress in Tartary, its rise and deification in
joss-houses, Burmah furnishing “specimens,” even the wheels of
Juggernaut moving slowly and majestically to a new enthronement
in Kensington Gardens, or wherever our grand, national,
amalgamated museum is to be? Pagodas will yield up their
deformities to the new idolatry of chronological worshippers; the old
monsters of Nineveh will be revived; and to prove Lord Jeffrey to be
right, that there is no principle of beauty, many a hideous image will
in arrangement claim affinity to the Venus de Medicis and the Apollo
Belvidere. Really, all this is but a natural consequence of the first
step in the system. It is to be, not art, but a history of art, to be shown
by “specimens;” nor will it do to bring a brick even from Babylon as a
specimen of its architecture. The public may rejoice in its ruin, or it
would have to be brought in bodily, and a hundred or two crystal
palaces added to our wonder of the world; as it is, there must be an
“hiatus maxime deflendus.” We should have architecture, and
“specimens” of architects of all the several countries and schools, as
of pictures and painters. The English progress would be delightful to
see. Holingshed says, that within the memory of many in his days,
chimneys were rare; of course we must have “specimens.” We might
go on indeed to weary the reader with absurdities, and it would only
be following out Mr Dyce’s chronological idea in all its collateral
branches; for, getting warm in riding his hobby, his heated
imagination looks out for inconceivable vanishing points, which
recede as fast as he finds them, till he sees in the unbounded space of
art, which he thinks he has himself created, arts and sciences flying
about in every direction, and crossing each other like so many
dancing comets. The reader must look for a little incomprehensible
language and confused utterance when Mr Dyce descends, having
breathed the bewildering gas of his extraordinary sphere, to put his
thoughts on paper, and thus he writes: “What I was going to say was
in substance this—that if the idea of a complete museum of the fine
arts involved the illustration of decorative art, and of physical science
in its relation to art, to an extent which, though not unlimited, is
nevertheless indefinite, if the vanishing point” (the italics of Mr
Dyce), “so to speak, of such a museum lies somewhere in the region
of practical science, one is immediately led to consider whether, as
the reverse is true—viz., that practical science finds its vanishing
point in the region of fine art—the true idea of a museum of arts
would not be that which embraced the whole development of the
artistic faculty, and commenced, therefore, on the one hand, with
those arts which are solely, or almost solely, dependant on æsthetical
science, and terminated on the other with those which are solely or
chiefly dependant on physical science. Such an institution would
start at the one extreme from physical science, and at the other from
fine art; and these two would meet and cross one another, the
influence of each vanishing and disappearing towards the opposite
extremes.” So that, if there is anything to be understood and
unriddled from this confusion of wordy ideas, it is this, that these
arts and sciences, æsthetical and physical, do not meet to kiss and be
friends, but to cross each other, and, having simply blazed awhile in
each other’s faces, to fly off to their own vanishing points, more
distant than ever, disappearing beyond the hope of that happy
junction which, nevertheless, it had been the whole purpose of Mr
Dyce’s pamphlet to bring about, and which, perhaps, he thinks he
has brought about, or intends to bring about, unconscious of the
impossibility which he has set in their way.
Lest the reader think we have needlessly brought in this body of
architecture, we must again quote Mr Dyce. He certainly, to do him
justice, does admit that specimens of architecture may be too big; but
if he enumerates and measures his “fragmentary remains” from the
British Museum and elsewhere, “models of whole structures, or
models and casts of details,” “adequate to the great purpose of
exhibiting the development of architecture, both as it is a science and
a fine art, in all the various stages of its history,” and if some genii
could bring them all together and throw the brick and plaster down
before him, we doubt if his, or any known human agility, would
enable him to escape the being buried under the dust that would be
made by the deposit.
“But secondly, there is a peculiarity in the case of architecture
which deserves to be specially noticed. It is this:—that the examples
required to illustrate the history of architectural construction and
decoration lead us at once into the province of practical science and
of decorative art; and thus the door is opened to a more extended
view of the contents of a National Gallery of Art.” When he told us in
the commencement that extensiveness was one of the characteristics
of a National Gallery, we never thought of an extensiveness that
should have no termination. The opening of this, his one door, shows
a wearying vista—but there are so many doors to open to “complete”
his scheme, that it is past all comprehension where he will find door-
keepers, or the nation means to pay them.
Let us imagine these ten thousand chronological galleries built,
and inhabited by all the arts and sciences. Who could preside over
such a seraglio of beauties and uglinesses?—who could possibly know
anything about one-half of them? We should doubt even Mr Dyce’s
powers to interpret their languages, which would be wanted,
considering that the object in view is instruction in their history. And
yet Mr Dyce, in his scheme of government for the National Gallery,
looks to some one “coming man.” “Some officer should be appointed
to take charge of all business relating to the National Gallery, to be
responsible for the immediate management, and to whom the public
should look for the success or failure of the undertaking.” He must be
a very wonderful man indeed: if Mr Dyce has any such in his eye, he
ought to have named him; for no one besides ever saw a man on
earth equal to so much; and if he is to be general instructor too, he
would be wondered at, as when
“——still the wonder grew
That one small head should carry all he knew.”

Yet upon the appointment of this one officer Mr Dyce again insists in
the conclusion of his letter, and under the idea of his duty embracing
sculpture and architecture, as well as painting, under which heads
also are included unlimited and undefined æsthetical and practical
arts and sciences.
 In our former articles on the National Gallery, we advocated the
appointment of one responsible person; in what then, it may be
asked, do we differ from Mr Dyce? Simply, that we would confine his
attention to one thing which he might be able to know—to the
collection of pictures. Even if it were thought desirable to place
statues under the same building, we would put them under the
direction of a person specially acquainted with sculpture.
The interest of the nation has been now awakened with regard to
the National Gallery, to the pictures only, to their collection and
preservation. A national museum, such as Mr Dyce and others
propose, is far too large a subject, to discuss which seriously would
be only drawing away the public mind from that which is a pressing
necessity. As the system holds at present, we are neither able to buy
pictures properly, nor to preserve them when we have them. Mr
Dyce’s own experience in the art qualifies him to speak upon this
point, and in justice to him we add, that, excepting the times when
the chronological mania is upon him, he writes fairly and sensibly;
and we willingly add his modicum of assent to the general opinion,
upon the matters which the blue-book has brought before the public.
Indeed, in this pamphlet he has two styles of writing: the pages
might be well thought the work of two hands. Whatever relates to his
chronological scheme is redundant, confused, and ambitiously
laboured. He does not appear very clearly to know what he has to
say. He is, we suppose, in the midst of his theoretic arrangements, as
a painter of eminence visited with some misgivings as to the
worthless trash the fulfilment of his scheme would introduce. He
writes like one under an adopted whim, against his first instincts,
with the verbosity of an untutored and awkward advocate. When he
knows clearly what he is writing about, he writes like other people.
He successfully exonerates the keepers of the National Gallery,
those appointed subsequently to Mr Seguier, from much of the blame
that had been cast upon them. He shows that the responsibility had
been, for the most part, taken out of their hands, with regard to the
purchase of pictures; that the trustees superseded the keepers, and
were afterwards themselves superseded by the Treasury as to active
operations. The Lords Commissioners of the Treasury, from the
nature of their appointment, are sure to be more incompetent than
the trustees themselves. It is in evidence that the Lords of the
Treasury had no confidence in the trustees; nor, perhaps, much in
themselves. Therefore, in 1845, when the trustees recommended the
purchase of the Guido from Mr Buchanan, the Treasury do not
comply with the request unconditionally—they require Mr Seguier to
be consulted as to the condition of the picture; and also “two other
eminent judges of the merit and pecuniary value of Italian pictures.”
They even point out the individuals for selection: “Mr Woodburn and
Mr Farrer might probably be selected with advantage for the
purpose, or any others whom Mr Eastlake might consider
preferable.” The Lords of the Treasury then preferred the opinion of
two dealers in pictures to that of the trustees or Mr Eastlake; the
latter being more competent than all the others put together to
decide upon the subject. The only surprising thing is, that the
trustees, upon this slight put upon them, did not resign their
appointments, which, if honourable in other respects, were now
marked with the character of incompetency. We have already
strongly insisted that picture-dealers should in no case be consulted.
They are too much interested, and wish to keep up the value
(artificial) of pictures; and the world knows too well the nature of
their trafficking, to place implicit confidence in their decisions. We
say not that a judicious choice might not be made of skilful and
honourable men; but looking to all times, and with some knowledge
of the temptations of trade, we should be sorry to see the practice of
consulting dealers become a habit or a rule. Take the case which has
occurred—the Treasury nominate judges; at a subsequent meeting of
the trustees these very judges have pictures to be recommended—are
other trading judges to be called in? In that case decisions will have
to go the round of these dealer judges. They will either be shy of
pronouncing against the interests of each other, or be under the
temptation to give each other a good turn, or, at any rate, keep up the
market, which they themselves supply. The public have of late been
let a little too much into the secrets of picture trafficking, and of
picture manufacturing. Is there truth in the exposure that an
overbaked would-be Raffaelle was spoiled for that master, but would
make an admirable Correggio? With all the respect we owe to
individuals, we confess that there is a strong resemblance between
picture-dealing and horse-dealing. The habit of appointing dealers as
judges would certainly end in a council of dealers, who would, in
actual operation, supersede all others. The fiat of the Treasury
transferred to the fiat of Wardour Street. We are glad to quote Mr
Dyce on this subject:—“This, then, is the present state of matters.
The right to entertain a proposal to purchase any picture rests with
the trustees; the ultimate opinion of its merits, on which the
purchase depends, is not theirs, but that of certain ‘eminent judges’
of such points. The trustees decide what may be and shall be
purchased, if it be worth purchasing; the eminent judges decide
whether it be worth purchasing, and worth the money asked for it. It
may be said that this is an extreme and exaggerated case; that the
Treasury, though reposing confidence in the recommendation of the
trustees, might nevertheless think it desirable, on several accounts,
to have this recommendation fortified by the opinions of eminent
judges. True: but as it cannot be supposed that the trustees would
press a recommendation, in any case, in the face of an adverse
opinion given by the judges they had summoned to their assistance—
in other words, since they cannot make a recommendation at all
without both summoning such assistance, and obtaining a favourable
opinion—it is perfectly clear that the favourableness of opinion they
have obtained, not their concurrence in it, must be looked upon by
the Treasury as the real warrant for adopting their recommendation.
Nor, on the other hand, is it refining too much to say that the ex
officio trusteeship of the heads of the financial department of the
Government, not only annihilates the responsibility of the trustees,
but prevents the due exercise of the control which that department
ought to have over their proceedings.”... “If the trustees were to be
superseded in a matter of such importance, they surely ought to have
been consulted, not only as to the manner in which they might, with
the greatest advantage, avail themselves of professional assistance,
but as to the class of persons who were to afford it. But no discretion
was left to them; and who, let me ask, were the ‘eminent judges’ fixed
upon by the Treasury? Will it be believed that not only the class of
persons, but the very individuals chosen to give an opinion, on which
the purchase of pictures was to depend, were those who were in the
habit of offering, and actually at the time were offering pictures to
the trustees for sale? At the very meeting (held February 2, 1846) at
which the communication from the Treasury was read, I find the
trustees considering a proposal for the sale of a collection of pictures
by Mr Woodburn, one of the judges nominated by the Treasury. At
the next meeting (held March 2, 1846), I find that “the trustees again
took into consideration the offer of a picture, by Spagnoletti, for sale
by Mr Farrer,” the other “eminent judge” recommended by the
Treasury. So that, in fact, the “eminent judges” were by turns
competitors for the patronage of the trustees, and by turns sat in
judgment on one another’s wares.”
Constitutions grow—they are not made. We never knew one from
any manufactory, paper-made, that could hold together; yet we go on
with the conceit that we have consummate skill in that line; we make
ourselves, as it were, sole patentees for all people and nations, and
wonder at the folly of those who reject the commodity, and yet we
never attempt the thing on a small scale at home, or a large one
abroad, but the result is a failure. The School of Design is a parallel
case with the National Gallery. The committee of management of
that school was in the same relation with the Board of Trade as the
National Gallery with the Treasury. The action of the body was
stopped if no official representative of the Board of Trade was
present; and if present, the council felt themselves to be a nullity. Yet
the council could not at once be easily dismissed, for the
Parliamentary grant was voted for the council of the School of
Design. In 1842, therefore, this constitution is remodelled. The
School is put “under the management of a director and of a council,
subject to the control of the Board of Trade.” But here again is a
failure. The council and director cannot arrange responsibilities. The
director resigns, another succeeds: as before, there is no working
together. The constitution has to be remodelled again. The Board of
Trade takes the management, assisted by the artist members of the
old council. This fails also; and at last that is done which should have
been done at the beginning—an officer is appointed, “under the
authority of the Board of Trade, to superintend and be responsible
for the business of the schools.”
In our democratic tendencies we are jealous of one responsible
director; and, on the other hand, with our aristocratic tastes and
habits, we devolve upon men of rank and wealth, solely on account of
their rank and wealth, duties which they are not qualified to perform
(and, we think, the greater honour would consist in their declining
such positions), and which, if in other respects qualified to perform,
they will not, simply because it is not their distinct personal business,
and of a paid responsibility. And thus it is that the really qualified
persons, eminent for their knowledge in art, science, and habits of
business, are ever excluded. Can we be surprised if there be
perpetual failures?
The best boon the trustees of the National Gallery can confer upon
the nation, is to resign in a body. Surely there is now little to induce
them to remain where they are, and as they are. This step would
compel the Government to do what they have found it necessary to
do in other cases—appoint a paid and responsible minister; and, if it
be thought worth while to have a National Gallery at all, to provide
liberally the means of obtaining it. It will never do, on every trifling
occasion, to have to go to Parliament, and to be met in a huckstering
spirit. We must break some of the shackles which the modern
utilitarian school is ever imposing; we must learn to view the fine
arts as a constitutional part of the liberal arts, which must be treated
liberally, if we would have them permanently established.
We must now return for a little space to the subject which, in the
commencement of this paper, we proposed to discuss: “What are we
to collect?” We shall make a great mistake indeed, if we are led by Mr
Dyce as an authority, to pass contempt upon either the works of, or
the admiration felt for, the genius of the greatest men in art—if we
put chronological series in competition with excellence. He overdoes
his part, and can gain nothing by such language as this:—“Turgid,
unmeaning panegyrics of Raffaelle, Michael Angelo, Titian,
Correggio, and the rest.” These “and the rest” are such pre-eminently
great masters, that, in some shape or other, we would have their
works ever before the public. Where we cannot have originals, we
would have copies, and the best that either have been made and can
be acquired, or that can now be made. We cannot think a gallery
perfect without them. We would have a portion set apart especially
for copies of the best works, and also for prints. In them we might
have the designs, and the light and shade, the great and beautiful
ideas represented: and here we cannot but lament, that the
perfection to which the art of engraving has been brought should in
this country be given up to inferior and almost to worthless things.
Our engravings indicate the public taste, the causes of the low state
of which we have already remarked upon. If there be really a desire
to instruct the public—and without instruction there will not be an
encouragement for a better devotion of that beautiful art—let the
collecting the best engravings, whether old or new, be a great object
with the purveyors of a National Gallery. Nor would we have the
grand works to which we allude put away in portfolios, but glazed,
and hung upon walls specially appropriated to them. Let us have, at
least, good things—the best originals we can procure, and the next
best, copies, and engravings of the best; and not waste time and
squander means in searching out for chronological histories, the
attenuated deformities of the Byzantine schools, the hideous
performances of those predecessors in art, who had not yet acquired
the knowledge of drawing with any tolerable correctness.
We are earnest to make this protest against the chronological
scheme, and we hope it will be dissipated by the general voice,
because Mr Dyce’s pamphlet seems to have found favour in the eyes
of the commissioners. They almost adopt his language—or at least,
with little variation of phrase, his argument, and his illustration.
They too speak of an “intelligent public,” which has no existence as to
art, and is but the translation of Mr Dyce’s Latin quotation, “docti
artis rationem intelligunt.” With him, they snub the admirers of
“Raffaelle, Titian, and Correggio,” and adopt his literary illustration,
and a very bad illustration it is, for the rubbish of books in the world
is even greater in bulk than the picture rubbish. Some of the book
rubbish may indeed bear affinity to art, and come within the scope of
the scheme’s arrangement. The woodcuts of our earliest spelling-
books, of Jack the Giant-killer, of Pilgrim’s Progress, and the
“specimens” heading last dying speeches and confessions, may yet be
discovered with some pains, and no very large cost, if a
Parliamentary commission would bespeak Mr Dyce’s acceptable
labours. How gratifying to such collectors would it be to trace the rise
and progress of that particular branch of the art now so much in
fashion, from the earliest “specimens” of designs in popular editions
of Æsop’s Fables, to Mr Landseer’s last costly print. Nor should the
old glazed picture tiles, that used to amuse our early childhood, when
the glow of fire-light illuminated the “animali parlanti,” warmed our
young affections, and heated our incipient imaginings, be omitted.
The “intelligent public” might perhaps hence learn not only a little in
the history of art and its progress, but somewhat also of the history
and progress of cruelty, when they see how much artistic labour has
been bestowed, and what a large price is given, in our modern
improvement days, in getting up and in the sale of that “perfect
specimen,” Mr Landseer’s “Otter Hunt,” where the poor creature is
writhing upon the spear of the huntsman, and the howling brute
dogs are in sympathetic delight with the human bigger brute than
themselves. It will be then not uncreditable if the “intelligent public”
retrograde in their taste, and for once agree with Mr Dyce in rather
admiring the attenuated and ill-drawn deformities, which, after all
that can be said against them, were a less libel upon man and brute
than some later and more perfect “specimens.” To this extent the
chronological idea must go for completion, for Mr Dyce, the favourite
of connoisseurs and dilettanti, will not allow them to stop short of it.
“Notwithstanding appearances,” he says, “I do not imagine the
trustees of the National Gallery ever seriously contemplated the
establishment of an index expurgatorius of pictures.” Such opinions
he considers obsolete. We must have all “specimens,” however bad;
for he says, in emphatic italics—“The collection can aim at no lower
object than to exhibit the whole development of the art of painting;
the examples of which it consists must therefore range over its
whole history!” The “ςηματα λυγρα” of Zellerophon were not of a
more deadly character than would the contemplated collection be to
all true notions of the Beautiful in art—the collection of
inhumanities, the doleful horrors of saints and demons, and worse
and more awful representations which preceded perceptions of the
Beautiful.
We ought to be glad to learn from any who know better than
ourselves, but we very much question if our perpetual appeal to the
practice of foreign galleries, in the way in which it is made, is at all a
healthy sign. We are not sure that some of the examples we seek may
not rather be warnings. It is a confession of imbecility and mistrust
in themselves of trustees and commissioners. Foreign architects,
foreign directors, and foreign galleries, bear too prominent a part in
our blue-books and our pamphlets. We are confident in our own
men, if not in the “intelligent public.” We have men quite able to
devise galleries, and to know how to fill them. The misfortune has
been, not that we lack men of ability, but we do not employ them.
And why? Our governments have no better taste, no better
knowledge, no better desires, with regard to the arts, than the
“intelligent public.” They have never entertained serious views upon
the subject. In conclusion, we would ask if the series of Hogarth’s
pictures have been removed from our National Gallery, on which
they conferred an honour and importance of a kind that no other
gallery in Europe can boast of possessing, with the object of forming
a chronological series of the British school. We hope to see them
transferred to their old places. Our National Gallery should not be
deteriorated, to give a grace to Marlborough House, however much it
may want it.
 THE REFORM BILLS OF 1852 AND 1854.

The postponement of the second reading of Lord John Russell’s new

Reform Bill, until a later, and it may be a protracted period of the Session,
is suggestive of some important considerations. It shows, in the first place,
that even the author of the bill is by no means confident in his power of
carrying it through the House of Commons, else we may be perfectly
certain that no departure from the original arrangements would have
taken place. It shows, moreover, that other members of the Cabinet—or,
we should rather say, the members of the Cabinet collectively—do not
consider the provisions of this measure of so much importance as to
justify them in allowing it to interfere with the more immediate exigencies
of the state. In one sense of the word, Lord Aberdeen and his colleagues
are thoroughly conservative. They want to keep their places; and they have
no idea whatever of sacrificing themselves through the impulse of
Quixotic gallantry, or of allowing Lord John Russell’s pledges to imperil
their tenure of office. But they have an obstinate and pragmatical man to
deal with, and cannot afford to affront him. Without Lord John Russell,
the Coalition could not stand, and therefore, in some matters, they are
compelled to allow him more license than is agreeable to their own
inclination, or in accordance with the interests of the country. Thus, they
not only permitted him to prepare his measure during the recess, but they
gave it real importance, by introducing it as a material part of the
ministerial programme, as announced by her Majesty from the throne. At
that time there was no more probability of a pacific settlement of the
Eastern question than exists just now; so that every objection to the
measure, founded on the impropriety of exciting internal agitation at such
a crisis, must have been foreseen. There was still time before the
development of the measure, and the publication of its intended details, to
have postponed it without any loss of credit. No one would have blamed
the Ministry had they done so—even the most ardent reformer could
scarcely have maintained that they were bound to force it through
Parliament, just as if no war were expected, or as if the country
emphatically demanded it. But Lord John Russell would not consent to
that. He was determined that the whole details of his project should be
laid before the public; and he accordingly did so in a speech which fell flat
on the ear alike of the House and of the country. He fixed a day for the
second reading; but before that day arrived, postponed his bill until a later
period of the Session, with a statement that, even then, it would depend
upon circumstances whether he should proceed with it or not.
This is not such conduct as the country has a right to expect from the
ministers of the Crown. They were entreated, both by friends and
opponents, not to bring forward their measure in the midst of warlike
preparations, and in the total absence of any demand on the part of the
country for an immediate change in the representation. Those entreaties
were met by silly, bombastical, and vapouring speeches about the sublime
spectacle which Great Britain would afford to the world, if, while waging
war abroad, she applied her energies to the remodelment of the
constitution at home! We need not pause now to demolish that most
pitiful pretext. It has virtually been given up by the Ministry; for they now
acknowledge, that the time originally fixed for the second reading of the
English bill was not seasonable; and they indicate, that if we should be
actively engaged in war on the 27th of April, the bill will not be proceeded
with; so that the notion of the “sublime spectacle” is thrown aside, whilst
the cause of the irritation, made worse by the divulgence of the scheme in
detail, is still continued.
No really united cabinet would have ventured to act in such a manner. It
is in vain to tell us of concert and cordiality, when the public measures of
one week belie the bragging language used in that which immediately
preceded it—when bluster is followed by postponement, and extreme
recklessness by an affectation of patriotic caution. The prevalent opinion
is, that the bill will not be proceeded with; and if the Ministry had said
even so much as that, there would have been no occasion for any further
discussion; but they will not say it. Lord Aberdeen, on the 9th of March,
when urged by Earl Grey to withdraw the bill altogether, is reported to
have replied, that “the second reading of the bill had been postponed by
Lord John Russell till the 27th of April, in sincerity and good faith.
Whether it would then be proceeded with, depended upon the state of
Europe; for no one could tell what a day or an hour would bring forth.
Government, however, would act consistently with the interests of the
country, and with a due regard to their own honour.”
We cannot predict what the Government may do hereafter, but we know
what they have already done with respect to this matter; and it is our
humble but deliberate opinion, that they have neither consulted the
interests of the country nor their own collective credit. We should have
been very glad, indeed, had they allowed the subject to drop; for we
should then have been spared the necessity of criticising their conduct.
But, threatened as we are, though by no means agitated or alarmed by the
suspension of a most clumsy weapon over our heads, we must take the
liberty of reviewing the proceedings of these Dionysians.
Let us assume, which we really believe and devoutly hope to be the case,
that, notwithstanding the professions about sincerity and good faith, this
bill has been absolutely sent to limbo. Let us look upon it in the light of a
scheme abandoned. That, however, cannot acquit Ministers from the
serious charge of having played fast and loose with the country, by
embodying in the Queen’s speech, at the opening of Parliament, a distinct
recommendation of internal organic change, when war was staring us in
the face. They knew then perfectly well that there existed no probability of
the settlement of the Eastern dispute without a direct appeal to arms; and
it was their bounden duty to have interdicted the mooting of such a
question at such a time. We maintain, that no cabinet has a right to
countenance this species of deception. No specific measure should be
announced by a Ministry, much less recommended by the Crown, unless it
is seriously intended that it shall be carried through, not at some
indefinite future period, but in the course of the existing session. This is
not the first time that the country has been annoyed by this indecent and
reprehensible practice, introduced, we believe, by Lord John Russell, of
rash ministerial pledges. We do not think that even a premier is entitled,
towards the close of one session, to announce distinctly the ministerial
policy of the next, or to bind himself by a specific pledge; for even a
premier is not allowed by our constitutional custom to act autocratically—
he must carry along with him at least the majority of the Cabinet. He
cannot accurately predict who may be his colleagues at the opening of the
ensuing session—he cannot foresee what events may occur or causes arise
to render a change of the intended policy not only expedient, but
necessary. If a premier is not entitled to do this, still less is a subordinate
like Lord John Russell; and yet we see him, session after session, blabbing
about future schemes, and pledging himself unconditionally to their
introduction. This is really intolerable, and it is full time that the nuisance
should be abated. If the noble lord is of opinion that, notwithstanding all
which we have heard and seen, he has still power and reputation enough
to head an independent party—let him leave the Cabinet, and then, as a
plain member of Parliament, he may pledge himself to his heart’s content.
But while he remains a minister and servant of the Crown, he is bound to
maintain the dignity of his position, and preserve a due decorum, instead
of acting like a popularity-hunter and a partisan. Of late he has let himself
down woefully. We are not accustomed, in this country, to see ministers,
while in office, engaging in literary squabbles—and exposing themselves
to damaging rejoinders by petulant paragraphs and absolutely deplorable
sneers. Their duty is, not to write or edit gossip and scandal, but to devote
themselves, heart and soul, to the affairs of the nation and the service of
their sovereign; and, if they are not willing to abandon their favourite
pursuits, they ought at once to withdraw. With less than this the nation
will not be satisfied; and we really think we are acting a friendly part to
Lord John Russell to tell him so, in as many words. If he doubts our
sincerity, let him ask the opinion of his colleagues upon the point; and we
are ready to stake our existence that they will be unanimous in their
agreement with us. We believe also, that, if the question were fairly put
them, they would be unanimous in recommending him, for the future, so
long as he is a member of the Cabinet and acting along with them, to
abstain from that system of specific pledging, the result of which, in the
present instance, has by no means tended to raise them in the estimation
of the country.
But it may be asked, why, when the Ministry have postponed for the
present, and may abandon, the Reform Bill, we should harp upon a string
not intended, for some time at least, to vibrate in the ear of the country?
To that we reply that we have many good reasons for doing so. The
vibration has already been made. If a man is told that it was intended, by
virtue of a parliamentary act for which Ministers were to be responsible,
to make some decided change in his property or condition, but that, in
respect of certain external circumstances, it was deemed expedient to
allow him a respite—surely he is entitled to use the interval in examining
into the nature of the proposed change; and, if need be, in preparing his
defence. It would perhaps be too strong a phrase to say that we know what
is to come—for Lord John Russell is such an experimentalist, so entirely
dependent upon suggestions from others, and so utterly devoid of any
fixed principles to guide his own judgment, that no one can venture to
predict what his views may be six months from the present moment. As a
constitution-monger, the Abbé Sièyes was, in reality, less erratic. But we
know this—that his lordship in 1852 brought forward a bill for amending
the representation, which bill, owing to certain circumstances which we
need not recapitulate, went to limbo; and that in 1854 he has brought
forward another, bearing in no respect any likeness to the former one.
Indeed the issue of Banquo and of Macbeth could not have been more
dissimilar. No. 3, however, is a great deal more sweeping in its
innovations than No. 2 (for we must recollect that more than twenty years
ago the noble lord carried No. 1); and No. 4 may be still more progressive.
Heaven only knows what we shall have proposed, when the number of his