CIE 112 Fundamentals of Surveying COMPLETED

CIE 112
Fundamentals of Surveying
This document and the information thereon is the property of PHINMA Education
Syllabus
PEN Code: CIE 112 Credit: 4 units

PEN Subject Title: Fundamentals of Surveying Prerequisite: CIE 111
A. Subject Description:
Theory and practice of surveying techniques and instruments including tape, compass, transit,
theodolite and level; running a traverse and leveling, preparation of plans of survey, relocation of
boundaries and designing and setting out of curves.
This course also includes earthworks and geometric design.
B. Objectives:
At the end of the course, the students should be able to:
1. Learn the basic survey measurements using conventional survey instruments.
2. Compute horizontal distances.
3. Compute vertical distances or elevation of certain location.
4. Compute angles, bearings and azimuths.
C. Course Topics and Time Allotment:

Lesson No. Topics Week No.
1 Introduction to Surveying
Horizontal Distance Measurement
 Scale Mapping, Measuring Wheel, Tacheometry, EDM 1
2
 Pacing
 Taping
Stadia Surveying
3  Horizontal Sights
 Vertical Sights
2
Earth’s Curvature and Refraction
4  Effect of Earth’s Curvature and Refraction
 Intervisibility of Stations
5 Trigonometric Leveling
3
6 Differential Leveling
7 Reciprocal Leveling
4
8 Three Wire Leveling
FIRST PERIODIC EXAM 5
1
9 Profile Leveling
Angles, Bearings and Azimuth 6
 Azimuth
10 6
 Bearings
 Interior Angles and Deflection Angles
Traverse Computation Part 1
11  Balancing Angles
 Departure and Latitudes
7
Traverse Computation Part 1
12  Compass Rule
 Transit Rule
Area Measurement
13
Methods of Measuring Area 8
14 Missing Data
SECOND PERIODIC EXAM 9
15 Simple Curves
16 Compound Curves
Reversed Curves Part 1
17  Reversed curve with equal radii and parallel tangents 10
 Reversed curve with unequal radii and parallel tangents
Reversed Curves Part 2
18  Reversed curve with equal radii and converging tangents
 Reversed curve with unequal radii and converging tangents.
Spiral Curves
19  Elements of Spiral Curves
11
 Derived formulas for Spiral Curves
20 Symmetrical Parabolic Curves
21 Unsymmetrical Parabolic Curves
Earthworks Operation
 Prismoidal Formula
22 12
 Average End Formula
 Prismoidal Correction
23 Distribution Analysis of Earthwork - Mass Diagram
THIRD PERIODIC EXAM 13
FINAL EXAMINATION 14
D. Textbook:
1. Roy, S.K. (1999). Fundamentals of Surveying. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Private Limited
2. Minchin, M. (2003). Introduction to Surveying (2nd ed.). Western Australia: Department of Training
and Workforce Development
3. Singh, R., Artman, D., Taylor, D.W. & Brinton, D. (2000). Basic Surveying- Theory and Practice.
Oregon, US.
2
4. Schofield, W. & Breach, M. (2007). Engineering Surveying. Burlington, Canada: Elvesier Ltd
5. Rayner, W.H. (1937). Elementary Surveying. New York, USA: D. Van Nostrand Company, INC.
E. Course Requirements
Requirements Due Date
Problem Set
There will be three periodic examinations and a quiz for every periodic and passing
score for all activities/evaluation is 60%.
F. Grading System:
The Final Grade is computed as follows:
FG = (0.17xP1) + (0.17xP2) + (0.16xP3) + (0.50xFE)
The 1st Periodical Grade is computed as follows:
P1 = (0.50xEXAM) + (0.30xQAVE) + (0.20xPS)
The 2nd Periodical Grade is computed as follows:
P2 = (0.50xEXAM) + (0.30xQAVE) + (0.20xPS)
The 3rd Periodical Grade is computed as follows:
P3 = (0.50xEXAM) + (0.30xQAVE) + (0.20xPS)
G. Contact Information:
Name :
Contact Number :
Email :
3
CIE 112: Fundamentals of Surveying
Module #1 Student Activity Sheet
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________
Lesson title: Introduction to Surveying Materials:

Lesson Objectives: Calculator, Pen, Paper
At the end of this module, you will be able to: References:
1. Define surveying and list its applications. Elementary Surveying by J.P. La Putt
2. Distinguish the different types of survey.
“Make studying FUN”
Visualize yourself as the

Engineer/Architect who is
about to construct a new
building on a parcel of
land.
A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)
One of the oldest arts practiced by man is surveying. From the earliest time it has always been
necessary to mark boundaries and divide tracts of land. Through the centuries the uses of surveying
have expanded such that today it difficult to undertake any type of engineering construction that
does not involve some type of surveying. Planning and design are based on the results of surveys,
and construction is controlled by surveying. Professionals in the different fields of engineering as
well as geologists, architects, foresters, agriculturists, and geographers are concerned with
surveying as a means of planning and executing their respective projects.
This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION 1


2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)
What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1. What are those cylindrical
concrete markers we see in
the borders of our lots at
home?
2. How do we define the
relative positions of our lots
with respect to the earth?
3. Why is surveying needed
before any construction of
buildings?
B.MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)
Definition of Surveying
Surveying is the art and science of determining angular and linear measurements to establish the
form, extent, and relative position of points, lines, and areas on or near the surface of the earth or
on other extra-terrestrial bodies, through applied mathematics and the use of specialized
equipment and techniques.


Classification of Surveying
a. Plane Surveying- is that type of surveying in which the earth is considered as a flat surface,
and where distances and areas involved are of limited extent that the exact shape of the
earth is disregarded.
b. Geodetic Surveying- are surveys of wide extent which take into account the spheroidal shape
of the earth.
Types of Surveys
a. Cadastral Surveys- are usually closed surveys which are undertaken in urban and rural
locations for the purpose of determining and defining property lines and boundaries,
corners, and areas. These surveys are also made to fix the boundaries of municipalities,
towns, and provincial jurisdictions.
b. City Surveys- are surveys of the areas in and near a city for the purpose of planning
expansions or improvements, locating property lines, fixing reference monuments,
determining the physical features and configuration of the land, and preparing maps.
c. Construction Surveys- these are surveys which are undertaken at a construction site to
provide data regarding grades, reference lines, dimensions, ground configuration, and the
location and elevation of structures which are of concern to engineers, architects, and
builders.
d. Forestry Surveys- a type of survey executed in connection with forest management and
mensuration, and the production and conservation of forest lands.
e. Hydrographic Surveys- refer to surveying streams, lakes, reservoirs, harbors, oceans, and
other bodies of water.


f. Industrial Surveys- refers to the use of surveying techniques in ship building, construction
and assembly of aircrafts, layout and installation of heavy and complex machineries, and in
other industries where very accurate dimensional layouts are required.
g. Mine Surveys- are surveys which are performed to determine the position of all underground
excavations and surface mine structures, to fix surface boundaries of mining claims,
determine geological formations, to calculate excavated volumes, and establish lines and
grades for other related mining work.
h. Photogrammetric Surveys- a type of survey which makes use of photographs taken with
specially designed cameras either from airplanes or ground stations.
i. Route Surveys- involves the determination of alignment, grades, earthwork quantities,
location of natural and artificial objects in connection with the planning, design and
construction of highways, railroads, pipelines, canals, transmission lines, and other linear
projects.
j. Topographic Surveys- are those surveys made for determining the shape of the ground, and
the location and elevation of natural and artificial features upon it.


2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)
Questions:
a. What are some quantities that are measured by Surveying?
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
b. What is the difference between a Plane Surveying and Geodetic Surveying?

______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
c. Give at least two examples for each of the type of Surveys.
1. 6.
2. 7.
3. 8.
4. 9.
5. 10.
3) Activity 4: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

Student Engagement (SE) Effective Questioning
Where do you think the technical

description of your lot can be found?


C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)
Three things you learned:

1.
2.
3.
Two things that you would like to learn more about:

1.
2.
One question you still have:

1.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS:
Questions:
a. What are some quantities that are measured by Surveying?
Length (lines), area (lot), volume (earthworks)
b. What is the difference between a Plane Surveying and Geodetic Surveying?
Plane Surveying- earth is considered as a flat surface.
Geodetic Surveying-takes into account the spheroidal shape of the earth.
c. Give at least two examples for each of the type of Surveys.
1. Cadastral Survey 6. Industrial Surveys
- locating boundary of Mangaldan - construction of an aircraft carrier.
and San Fabian Municipalities - construction of a space shuttle.


- locating the site of construction

of Welcome Arch in Agoo, La
Union
2. City Surveys 7. Mine Surveys
- Determining length of drainage - construction of underground train
to be constructed along Perez station.
Blvd., Dagupan City - constructions of tunnels in the gold
- Determining area of fishponds in mines.
Lucao Dist., Dagupan City
3. Construction Surveys 8. Photogrammetric Surveys
- Development of a Subdivision - Aerial survey of the typhoon hit by
- Layout of an Airport Typhoon Yolanda.
- Aerial survey of the eruption of Mt.
Pinatubo
4. Forestry Surveys 9. Route Surveys
- Finding the total area of Coconut - construction of the arterial road bypass
Plantation in Quezon Province project (Plaridel bypass road).
- Finding area of Luzon Montane - construction of Binondo-Intramuros
Rainforests Bridge
5. Hydrographic Surveys 10. Topographic Surveys

- Determining the amount of - topographic survey for Baclaran
siltation in Pantal River. Expansion Depot.
- Determining the volume of -topographic survey on LRT Line 1 South,
water in Laguna Lake. Cavite Extension.


Lesson title: Horizontal Distance Measurement Materials:

1. Identify the different horizontal distance measuring Roy, S.K. (1999). Fundamentals of
instruments. Surveying. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of
2. Identify errors or mistakes committed during India Private Limited
measurements. Schofield, W. & Breach, M. (2007).
Engineering Surveying. Burlington,
Canada: Elvesier Ltd
Singh, R., Artman, D., Taylor, D.W. &
Brinton, D. (2000). Basic Surveying-
Theory and Practice. Oregon, US.
Study smart! It is better to study in a short period of time

each day rather than staying up all night to review. Make
a study schedule and treat it as your bestfriend to be
focused and productive.
In surveying, the distance between two points is understood to mean the horizontal distance,
regardless of the relative elevation of the two points. Frequently, the lay of the land between the
two points is not uniform or the elevation of the two points is not on the same level. Special
equipment and techniques may be needed to obtain an accurate measurement of the distance.
Various methods of determining distance are available along with special and different types of
equipment. The degree of precision required is another factor which must be considered before
measuring a distance to identify the most suitable equipment and method of measurement to be
used.
Distance is required in many instances such as:
 To give scale to a network of control points
 To fix the position of topographic detail by offset or polar coordinates
 To set out the position of a point in construction work, etc.


2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, Part 1 (3 mins)

1. What are the instruments/
methods used to measure
horizontal distance?
2. Choose at least 1 instrument/

method then list its possible
errors and mistakes during
measurement.
3. How to eliminate or minimize

the errors of the selected
instrument/method?
B. MAIN LESSON
Surveying is process of determining spatial location of points on or near the surface of the earth.
It is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical distance between objects, measuring angles
between lines, determining the direction of lines, and establishing points by predetermined angular
and linear measurements.
Types of Surveys:
Geodetic Surveying: The type of surveying that takes into account the true shape of the earth.
These surveys are of high precision and extend over large areas.
Plane Surveying: The type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth is considered
as a plane, or in which its spheroidal shape is neglected, with regard to
horizontal distances and directions.
Horizontal Distance Measurement

The common method in measuring distance includes, scaling from a map, pacing, measuring
wheel, tacheometry, electronic distance measurement and taping.


Scale Mapping
The scale mapping is the ratio of a distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the
ground.
Pacing
Pacing consists of counting the number of steps, or paces, in a required distance. The length of
an individual’s pace must be determined first.
1 Stride
(2 Paces or a Double Step)
1 Pace
(Heel to Heel)
1 Pace
(Toe to Toe)
1 Stride
(2 Paces or a Double Step)
Pace Distance Pace Factor No. of Paces

Known Length of Distance AB
Pace Factor
Mean Number of Paces of AB
Measuring Wheel


As you walk, you push or pull the device alongside. The wheel rotates and using basic rotational
kinematics, you can determine the distance between two points. The more flat the surface being
traveled along, the more accurate your measurement will be.
Tacheometry
Tacheometry is a branch of angular surveying in which the horizontal and vertical distances are
obtained by optical means as opposed to the ordinary process of chain and tape. This is done with
the help of two special type of instruments, the transit theodolite and stadia rod.
Electronic Distance Measurement

Recent scientific advances have led to the development of electro-optical and electromagnetic
instruments which are of great value to the surveyor for accurate measurements of distances.
Measurement of distance with electronic distance measuring (EDM) equipment is based on the
invariant speed of light or electromagnetic waves in a vacuum. EDM equipment which can be used
for traverse, triangulation, and trilateration as well as for construction layout is rapidly supplanting
taping for modern surveying operations except for short distances and certain types of construction


layout.
Taping
Taping involves direct measurement of the distance with steel tapes varying in
length. The precision of distance measured with tapes depends upon the degree
of refinement with which measurements are taken. Correction is then applied for
measured distance to determine the true length distance.
Errors in Measurement of Distance using Tape

1. Tape not standard length
2. Imperfect alignment of tape
3. Tape not horizontal
4. Tape not stretch straight
5. Imperfection of observation
6. Variations in temperature
7. Variations in tension
Mistakes in Measurement of Distances

1. Adding or dropping a full tape length.
2. Adding a cm usually in measuring the fractional part of tape length at the end of the line.
3. Recording numbers incorrectly, e.g 78 is read as 87.
4. Reading wrong meter mark.
Correction applied for measurement of distances

1. Temperature Correction: 𝑇𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝐴𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝐶 𝐾 𝑇 𝑇 𝐿


𝐾 0.0000116 /℃
𝑇 temperature when the length of tape is 𝐿
𝑇 temperature during measurement
2. Pull Correction Correction: 𝑇𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝐴𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑃 𝑃 𝐿
𝐶
𝐴𝐸
𝑃 actual pull during measurement
𝑃 applied pull when the length of tape is 𝐿
𝐴 cross-sectional area of tape
𝐸 modulus of elasticity of tape
3. Sag Correction: 𝑇𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦
𝑤 𝐿
𝐶
24𝑃
𝑤 weight of tape in 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 or 𝑁/𝑚

𝐿 unsupported length of tape
𝑃 actual pull or tension applied
4. Slope Correction: 𝑇𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦
ℎ
𝐶
2𝑆
𝐻 𝑆 𝐶
𝐻 horizontal distance or corrected distance

𝑆 inclined distance
ℎ difference in elevation at the end of the tape
Solve the following problems then box your final answer. If the space provided is not sufficient, you
may provide a clean sheet of bond paper. Check your answers against the Key to Corrections found
at the end of this SAS. Write your score on your paper.
Problem 1.


A line 100 m. long was paced by a surveyor for four times with the following data: 142, 145, 145.5
and 146. Then another line was paced for four times again with the following results: 893, 893.5,
891 and 895.5.
a) Determine the pace factor.
b) Determine the number of paces for the new line.
c) Determine the distance of the new line.
Problem 2:
A line was determined to be 2395.25 m when measured with a 30 m steel tape supported
throughout its length under a pull of 4 kg at a mean temperature of 35°C. Tape used is of standard
length at 20°C under a pull of 5 kg. Cross-sectional area of tape is 0.03 sq. cm. Coefficient of thermal
expansion is 0.0000116/°C, modulus of elasticity of tape is 2x106 kg/cm2.
a) Determine the error of the tape due to change in temperature.
b) Determine the error due to tension.
c) Determine the corrected length of the line.

Now answer the “What I Learned” part in Activity 1.
Short Quiz!


Problem 1:
A surveyor wanted to know his pace factor so he walked along a line 50 m long with the
following recorded number of paces: 71.50, 69, 70 and 70. He then took 465, 459, 463.5 and 468
paces in walking an unknown distance. Determine the length of the second line.
Problem 2:
Using a 50 m tape that is 0.02 m too long, the measured distance from A to B is 160.42. What is
the correct distance from A to B?
C. LESSON WRAP-UP



1.
2.
3.

1.
2.

1.
FAQs:
1. In the rules for applying tape corrections, what will be the operation to be used when the tape is
too long or too short?
Ans. In measuring distance, add the computed correction when the tape is too long and subtract
the correction if the tape is too short. On the other hand, in terms of laying out distance, subtract
the computed correction when the tape is too long and add the correction if the tape is too short.
2. In taping correction due to sag, how will you solve the problem if the weight of the tape per unit
length (w) is not given?
Ans. Weight per tape length over 1 tape length
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
Activity 3: Activity 5:


1. a) 0.691 m/pace 1. 330.748 m

b) 893.25 paces 2. 160.484 m
c) 617.236 m
2. a) 0.41677 m
b) -0.03992 m
c) 2395.627 m


Lesson title: Stadia Surveying Materials:

1. Apply the principle of stadia surveying. Rayner, W.H. (1937). Elementary
2. Establish the inclined observations into horizontal Surveying. New York, USA: D. Van
distance and difference in elevation. Nostrand Company, INC
Know when and where you study the best. It is important

to find a place that relaxes your mind to concentrate more
and a specific time where your brain is most active. It will
help you to think well and be more productive.
Conducting a survey in broken boundaries, hilly and mountain terrain and on areas covered with
stretches of water such as river, the method of taping and chaining are no longer convenient to use. It
is time consuming and tiresome. To obtain a rapid result, tacheometry is the best to adapt.
Tacheometry is the procedure by which horizontal distances and difference in elevations are
determined indirectly using subtended intervals and angles observed with the use of a transit or
theodolite on a graduated rod or scale.
Tacheometric survey is also applied in railways, roadways and reservoir, though not very accurate
but then it saves a lot time. Also, a reasonable contour map can be prepared for investigation works
within a short period of time on the basis of such survey.
The method of measurement to be used depends on the type of terrain to be measured. Similarly,
before making decisions in life we need to consider a lot of factors. We must be wise and knowledgeable
to save time and effort.
Activity 1: What I Know Chart, Part 1 (3 mins)



1. What are stadia hairs used
for?
2. What do you call the
difference between the
upper and lower readings?
B.MAIN LESSON
Stadia survey is a tacheometric form of distance measurement that relies on a fixed-angle
intercept.
The equipment for stadia measurement consists of
b. A telescope with two horizontal cross hairs, caked upper and lower cross hairs
c. A graduated rod called a stadia rod or stadia board.
Horizontal Sights
The principle of stadia method is based in the Figure 2.1, wherein the line of sight of the
telescope is horizontal and the rod is vertical.
Stadia Rod
Telescope
𝑖 𝑆
𝑐 𝑓 𝑑
Figure 2.1 Horizontal Sight
𝐷 𝐾𝑆 𝐶
𝑖 spacing between hairs
𝑐 distance from the instrument center to objective lens center


𝑓 focal length (objective lens to focal point)

𝑑 distance from the focal point to the face of the rod
𝐶 𝑓 𝑐 stadia constant
 For internal focusing telescope, 𝐶 0
 For external focusing telescope, 𝐶 0.3 m
𝐷 𝐶 𝑑 distance from the instrument center to the face of the rod
𝑆 stadia intercept or interval
𝐾 is the stadia interval factor (usually equal to 100 for most instruments)
Vertical Sight
Stadia Rod
𝑆
𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Figure 2.2 Vertical Sight
𝐷 𝐾𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐶
𝐻 𝐷𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑉 𝐷𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃


Problem 1.
A transit with a stadia constant equal to 0.30 m is used to determine the horizontal distance
between points B and C with stadia intercept reading of 1.85 m. The distance BC is equal to 182.87
m. Compute the stadia interval factor of the instrument.
Problem 2.
Using the same instrument in problem 1, it was used to determine the difference in elevation
between B and D having stadia intercept reading of 2.42 m at D at a vertical angle of +6°30’.
a) Compute the difference in elevation of B and D
b) Compute the horizontal distance between B and D
𝑆 2.42
D
𝑆 𝑉
6°30′ ∆
ℎ 𝐻




Short Quiz!
Problem 1.
A transit with an external focusing telescope has a stadia interval factor of 100.8 was set at C
on the line between points A and B, with the height of the instrument position to be 1.2 m above
point C. The following stadia reading were observed.
Position of Vertical Upper Middle Lower

Rod Angle Reading Reading Reading
Rod @ A +15°35’ 1.330 1.175 1.020
Rod @ B -8°30’ 1.972 1.854 1.736
Determine the following;
a) Find the horizontal distance from the transit to the rod held at B.
b) Find the horizontal distance from the transit to the rod held at A.
c) Difference in elevation between points A and B.
C. LESSON WRAP-UP



1.
2.
3.

1.
2.

1.
FAQs:
1. What equation can be used to solve for the stadia interval factor K if it is unknown?
Ans. We will use the equation “f/i” to compute for K (stadia interval factor).
2. How will you increase the intercept while conducting stadia surveying?
Ans. Tilt the staff away from the telescope pointing up-hill.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
1. 98.686 1. a) 23.566 m
2. a) 26.895 m b) 29.282 m
b) 236.058 m c) 12.367 m


Lesson title: Earth’s Curvature and Refraction Materials:

1. Apply the earth’s curvature and refraction correction. Roy, S.K. (1999). Fundamentals of
2. Determine whether it is an obstruction or a clearance at a Surveying. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of
certain point according to the line of sight. India Private Limited
Schofield, W. & Breach, M. (2007).
Canada: Elvesier Ltd}
Research using different means of resources. Learning the same

topic using different methods at the same time will help you to
acquire more detailed ideas and widen your understanding.
Have you ever tried mountain climbing or experienced to be on the top of a tall building? If you
already did, you could say that as you go higher your line of sight will extend to the horizon. It is due
to the earth’s curvature that conceals the view but already seen as you go to a higher altitude. On
the other hand, refraction of light is the bending of light downwards as it passes through different
layers of air with varying densities. When measuring short distances, these effects can be neglected
but working with surveys in long sights requires these two to be considered. Because errors yielded
from these phenomena increases with distance. For precise work these errors need to be calculated
and corrections will be applied for accurate data.
Due to the curvature of the earth, the points of measurement appear to be lower than they
actually are. In refraction of light, the points appear to be higher than the actually are. The effect of
curvature is always greater than that of refraction. Thus, the combined effect of these two causes
the points of measurement to be lower than its true quantity.

1. Horizontal line departs from
a level surface because of __?


2. How to eliminate the effect

of earth’s curvature and
refraction?
3. In long sights, the horizontal
line of sight doesn’t remain
straight but it slightly bends
downwards having concavity
towards earth due to __?
B.MAIN LESSON
A Vertical Angle
Vertical Datum
Geoid
Vertical Line – is a line that follows the local direction of gravity as indicated by a plumb line.
Level Surface – a curved surface that at every point is perpendicular to the local plumb line (the
direction in which gravity acts). Level surfaces are approximately spheroidal in shape. A body of still
water is closest example of a level surface. Level surfaces are also known as equipotential surface
since, for particular surface, the potential gravity is equal at every point on the surface.
Level Line – a line in a level surface – therefore, a curve line.


Horizontal Plane – a plane perpendicular to the local direction of gravity. In plane surveying, it is a
line perpendicular to the local vertical.
Vertical Datum – Any level surface to which elevations are referenced. This is the surface that is
arbitrarily assigned an elevation zero. This level surface is also known as a reference datum since
points using this datum have heights relative to this surface.
Elevation – The distance measured along a vertical line from a vertical datum to a point or object. If
the elevation of point A is 102.46 meters, A is 102.46 meters above the datum.
Geoid – A particular level surface that serves as a datum for all elevations and astronomical
observations.
Mean Sea Level – The average height for the surface of the seas for all stages of tide over a 19-year
period as defined by the National Geodetic Vertical Datum. It was derived from readings, usually
taken at hourly intervals, at 26 gauging stations of the along the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and the
Gulf of Mexico.
Benchmark (BM) – A relatively permanent object, natural or artificial, having a marked point whose
elevation above or below a reference datum is known or assumed.
Vertical Control – A series of benchmarks or other points of known elevation established throughout
an area, also termed as basic control or level control.
Earth’s Curvature and Refraction

From the figure shown below, an object actually at C would appear to be at B, due to
atmospheric refraction wherein the rays of light transmitted along the surface of the earth is bent
downward slightly.
Horizontal Line Line of Sight

A 𝐾 B
𝐾 C ℎ
Level Line ℎ
ℎ
𝑅
𝑅


ℎ 0.067𝐾
ℎ refraction correction
ℎ curvature correction
ℎ the effect of both the curvature and refraction
𝐾 the horizontal distance/level surface distance
𝑅 mean radius of the Earth, approx.. 6,400 km
Note: ℎ is in meters
𝐾 is in thousand of meters
Determination of Intervisibility of Stations
C B
ℎ
ℎ
𝑠𝑒𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙
𝐷 𝐷
0.067𝐷 0.067𝐷
𝐷 𝐷
𝐷
ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ 0.067𝐷 𝐷
𝐷 𝐷
where,
ℎ height in meters of the line of sight , at the intervening hill C, above sea level
ℎ height in meters of the station occupied at A, above sea level
ℎ height in meters of the station observed at B, above sea level
𝐷 distance in kilometers of the intervening hill C from A
𝐷 distance in kilometers of the intervening hill from B


Problem 1.
A man’s eyes 1.75 m above sea level can barely see the top of the lighthouse which is at a certain
distance away from a man.
a) What is the elevation of the top of the lighthouse above sea level if the lighthouse is 20 km away
from the man?
b) How far is the lighthouse from the man in meters if the top of the lighthouse is 14.86 m above
sea level?
c) What is the height of the tower at a distance 20 km away from the man in meters that will just
be visible without the line of sight approaching nearer than 1.75m to the water?
Problem 2.
Two hills A and C have elevations of 600 m and 800 m respectively. In between A and C is another
hill B which has an elevation of 705 m and is located at 12 km from A and 10 km from C.
a) Determine the clearance or obstruction of the line of sight at hill B if the observer is at A so that
C will be visible from A.
b) If C is not visible from A, what height of tower must be constructed so that it could be visible
from A with the line of sight having a clearance of 2 m above hill B?
c) What height of equal towers at A and C must be constructed in order that A, B and C will be
intervisible?




Short Quiz!
Problem 1.
The elevation of station Alpha is 680 m while that of Charlie is 620 m. In between stations Alpha
and Charlie is station Bravo with an elevation of 645 m. The distance from Alpha to Bravo is 12 km
and from Bravo to Charlie is 15 km.
a) Find the elevation of the line of sight at station Bravo with the instrument placed at station Alpha
such that station Charlie would be visible from station Alpha considering the effect of earth’s
curvature and refraction.
b) Assume that station Bravo will obstruct the line of sight from station Alpha while observing
station Charlie and a 4 m tower is constructed on top of station Bravo. Find the height of equal
towers at stations Alpha and Charlie in order that the three stations as observed from station
Alpha will still be intervisible.
c) Without constructing any tower at station Bravo, what height of tower must be constructed at
station Charlie so that both stations Bravo and Charlie would be visible from station Alpha?


C. LESSON WRAP-UP

1.
2.
3.

1.
2.

1.
FAQs:
1. Would you always consider the effect of earth’s curvature and refraction?
Ans. It depends if it was stated in the problem that you will consider these effects. Also, if the
distance from point to point is too far.
2. Is the constant “0.067” present in the formula for finding the effect of curvature and refraction is
always applicable?
Ans. It will only be used if the considered radius of the earth is approximately 6400 km.


KEY TO CORRECTIONS
1. a) 14.853 m 1. a) 641.273 m
b) 20.004 m b) 7.727 m
c) 28.55 m c) 8.385 m
2. a) 3.949 m
b) 10.907 m
c) 3.949 m


Lesson title: Trigonometric Leveling Materials:

1. Apply the appropriate methods in trigonometric leveling Roy, S.K. (1999). Fundamentals of
for short line measurement and long line measurement. Surveying. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of
2. Determine the elevation and difference of elevation of India Private Limited
different points of interest using trigonometric leveling. Schofield, W. & Breach, M. (2007).
Know your weaknesses as much as knowing your strengths. Test

yourself frequently, think on how your professor give exams and
quizzes. Solve problems with different levels of difficulties to
identify what areas still needs improvement and more practice.
Have you ever thought on how engineers provide a perfect slope in canals for the water to flow
freely? This is done with the help of leveling. Leveling specializes in measurement of vertical distances
to determine the elevation of points as well as their difference in elevation. It is used in surveying to
establish the elevation of a point relative to a datum or a fixed point.
Leveling operations are undertaken to provide necessary data for engineering design and
construction. The accumulated data from leveling is used to successfully plan and design every
engineering project from the beginning until its completion.

1. Site two purpose/importance
of leveling in design and
construction.
2. What are the different types
of leveling?


B.MAIN LESSON
Uses of Leveling:
a. Design highways, railroads, canals, sewers, water supply systems, and other facilities having
grade lines that best conform to existing topography.
b. Layout construction projects according to planned elevations.
c. Calculate volumes of earthworks and other materials.
d. Investigate drainage characteristics of an area.
e. Develop maps showing general ground configurations.
f. Study earth subsidence and crustal motion.
Trigonometric Leveling
Trigonometric leveling is used where difficult terrain, such as mountainous areas, precludes
the use of conventional differential leveling.
In this method the difference in elevation between two points can be determined by
a) The inclined or horizontal distance between them
b) The zenith angle or the altitude angle to one point from the other.
 Trigonometric Leveling for Short Lines D
Rod 𝑟
𝑆 𝑉
𝛼 ∆
C Horizontal E
ℎ 𝐻
A
Figure 4.1 Trigonometric Leveling for Short Lines
In the Figure 4.1, if the slope distance 𝑆 and the zenith or altitude angle between C and D are
observed,


𝑉 𝑉
cos 𝑧 or sin 𝛼
𝑆 𝑆
Alternatively, if horizontal distance 𝐻 between C and S is measured,
𝑉 𝐻
tan 𝛼 or tan 𝑧
𝐻 𝑉
The difference in elevation ∆ between points A and B in the figure shown is given by
∆ ℎ 𝑉 𝑟
where,
ℎ height of the instrument
𝑟 reading on the rod held at B when zenith angle 𝑧 or atitude angle 𝛼 is read.
 Trigonometric Leveling for Long Lines

E
Refraction
D
Rod 𝑟
𝑉
𝛼 F
𝑧
𝛼 Earth
G Curvature
𝑧 ∆
C
H
S
ℎ
A
Figure 4.2 Trigonometric Leveling for Long Lines


For a longer line, earth’s curvature and refraction must be considered. Figure 4.2 illustrates the
situation. Here an instrument is set up at C over point A. Sight D is made on a rod held at point B,
and zenith angle 𝑧 , or altitude angle 𝛼 , is observed.
∆ ℎ 𝑉 ℎ 𝑟
Problem 1.
Based from the Figure 4.2, a vertical angle of +13°45’ is read to a target 1.23 m above point B.
The measured inclined distance S is 823.29 m and the elevation of point A is 123.65 m above the
datum. The height of the instrument at A is 1.35 m. Consider the effect of earth’s curvature and
refraction.
a) Determine the difference in elevation between A and B
b) Determine the elevation of B
Problem 2.
A is a point having an elevation of 130.48 m above datum, and b and C are points of unknown
elevation, B is in between A and C. By means of an instrument set 1.22 m above B, vertical angles
are observed, that to A being -14°45’ and that to C being +8°32’. The horizontal distance AB is 547.20
and the horizontal distance BC is 923.25 m. Making due allowance for earth’s curvature and
atmospheric refraction.
a) Compute the difference in elevation between A and B.
b) Determine the difference in elevation between B and C.
c) Determine the elevation of C.




Short Quiz!
Problem 1.
A trigonometric leveling conducted by Jereza Surveying Company, the two points A and B of a
certain rough terrain are each distance 2000 m from a third point C, from which measured vertical
angles to A is +3°30’ and to B is +1°30’. Elevation at C is known to be 342.60 m above sea level. Point
C is in between A and B.
a) Compute the difference in elevation between A and B considering the effect of the earth’s
curvature and refraction.
b) Compute the difference in elevation between B and C.
c) Compute the elevation of A.


C. LESSON WRAP-UP

1.
2.
3.

1.
2.

1.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
1. a) 195.847 m 1. a) 69.96 m
b) 319.497 b) 52.638 m
2. a) 142.83 m c) 465.20 m
b) 139.81 m
c) 413.12 m


Lesson title: Differential Leveling Materials:

1. Determine the elevation and difference of elevation of Roy, S.K. (1999). Fundamentals of
different points of interest using differential leveling. Surveying. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of
2. Tell whether the survey will be repeated or not by India Private Limited
computing the allowable misclosure. Schofield, W. & Breach, M. (2007).
Focus on one task at a time. Sort your tasks, then start doing
them one by one. A research showed that it takes an average of
25 minutes to return to the original task after an interruption.
A. LESSON
PREVIEW/REVIEW
The appropriate method of leveling in controlling benchmarks, cross-sections, point elevations
is differential leveling. In addition, it is the most common procedure for determining elevations in
the field, or for locating points at specified elevations. This procedure, as its name implies, is nothing
more than finding the vertical difference between the known or assumed elevation of a benchmark
and the elevation of the point in question.

1. Define benchmark, backsight
and foresight.
2. Importance of turning points
(TP).


B.MAIN LESSON
Differential Leveling
Differential leveling is the most common method of determining difference in elevation, in this
method a telescope with suitable magnification is used to read graduated rods held on fixed
points. A horizontal line of sight within the telescope is established by means of a level vial or
automatic compensator.
BS FS
Horizontal Line of Sight
0.38 m
TP
2.58 m Elev. 102.2 m
BM Rock
Elev. 100 m
𝐻𝐼 102.58 m
Mean Sea Level 𝐷𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚
Figure 4.3 Differential Leveling
Differential leveling theory and applications can be expressed by two equations, which are
repeated over and over,
𝐻𝐼 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣 𝐵𝑆
and
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣 𝐻𝐼 𝐹𝑆
where,
𝐻𝐼 vertical distance from the datum to the instrument line of sight.
𝐵𝑆 backsight
𝐹𝑆 foresight
𝐵𝑀 benchmark
𝑇𝑃 turning points, the immediate points upon which the rod is held running a differential
leveling circuit.


Precision in leveling is increased by repeating observations. Making frequent ties to established

benchmarks, using high quality equipment, keeping it in good adjustment, and performing the
measurement process carefully. However, no matter how carefully the work is executed, errors will
exist and will be evident in the form of misclosures.
The Federal Geodetic Control Subcommittee (FGCS) recommends the following formula to
compute allowable misclosures:
𝐶 𝑚√𝐾
where,
𝐶 allowable loop or section misclosure, in millimeters.
𝑚 constant, it can be 4,5,6,8, and 12 mm depending on the classes of level or on the use of a
level
𝐾 the total length leveled, in kilometers, for loops, it is the total perimeter distance (circuit
that begin and end on the same benchmark)
Problem 1.
From the given data of a differential leveling as shown in the tabulation:
Backsight Foresight Elevation

Station
(m) (m) (m)
1 5.87 392.25
2 7.03 6.29
3 3.48 6.25
4 7.25 7.08
5 10.19 5.57
6 9.29 4.45
7 4.94
a) Find the difference in elevation of station 7 and station 5.

b) Find the difference in elevation of station 7 and station 4.
c) Find the elevation of station 3.


Problem 2.
From the given data of a differential leveling as shown in the tabulation:
Backsight Foresight Elevation

Station
(m) (m) (m)
BM12 4.64 209.65
1 5.80 5.06
2 2.25 5.02
BM13 6.02 5.85
3 8.96 4.94
4 8.06 3.22
5 9.45 3.71
6 12.32 2.02
BM14 1.98
a) Find the difference in elevation of station 5 and station 2.

b) Find the difference in elevation of station 6 and station 3.
c) Find the elevation of BM14.




Short Quiz!
Problem 1.
In the plan below shows a differential leveling from benchmark to another benchmark, along
each line represents a sight in the actual rod reading. The direction of the field works is indicated
by the number of turning points.
Use K=16 km and m=8 mm.
a. Compute the corrected elevation of TP2.

b. Compute the corrected elevation of BM2.
c. Compute the corrected elevation of TP3.


C. LESSON WRAP-UP

1.
2.
3.

1.
2.

1.
FAQs:
1. What is the main difference between backsight and foresight?
Ans. Backsights are also called plus sights because you must always add them to a known
elevation to find the height of the instrument (HI). Meanwhile, foresights are always subtracted
from HI to obtain the elevation of a point.
2. What is a benchmark?
A benchmark is a relatively permanent point of reference whose elevation with respect to an
assumed datum is known.


KEY TO CORRECTIONS
1. a) 10.09 m 1. a) 39.642 m
b) 11.77 m b) 40.935 m
c) 392.61 m c) 34.763 m
2. a) 7.57 m
b) 17.52 m
c) 235.35 m


Lesson title: Reciprocal Leveling Materials:

1. Locate the elevation of two widely separated intervisible Roy, S.K. (1999). Fundamentals of
points (between which levels cannot be set) through Surveying. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of
reciprocal leveling. India Private Limited
2. List the series of steps in performing reciprocal leveling. Schofield, W. & Breach, M. (2007).
Get sunlight! Stay away from your gadgets sometimes.

Do not let stress consume you and isolate you from your
normal life. Take a walk or exercise to refresh your mind.
Where a line of levels crosses a wide and deep ravine, or a river, it is convenient and
sometimes necessary to take sights much longer than is ordinarily permissible. For such sights
errors of reading the rod, the curvature of the earth, and the non-adjustment of the instrument
become important and special methods are employed to minimize their effects.
The error in reading the rod is reduced by using a target and taking the mean of a number of,
perhaps 2 or 10, readings. The errors due to the non-adjustment of the instrument and curvature
of the earth are eliminated by a special method called reciprocal leveling.

1. How will you continue
leveling across a river?
2. What is reciprocal
observation?


B.MAIN LESSON
Reciprocal Leveling
Sometimes in leveling across topographic features such as rivers, it is difficult or impossible to
keep back sights and foresights short and equal. Reciprocal leveling may be utilized at such
locations.
Figure 7.1 Reciprocal
As shown in the Figure 7.1, a level is set up on one side of a river at X, near A, and rod readings
are taken on points A and B. Since XB is very long, several readings are taken for averaging. Reading,
turning the leveling screws to throw the instrument out of level, releveling, and reading again, does
this. The process is repeated two, three, four or more times. Then the instrument is moved close to
Y and the same procedure is followed.
The procedure is as follows: referring to Figure 7.2 the instrument is set up a short distance from
𝐵𝑀 and readings 𝑎 and 𝑏 are taken. Obviously the near reading 𝑎 is without error and the far
reading 𝑏 is subjected to the unknown error 𝑒 due, it may be assumed, to the non-adjustment of
the level. The instrument is then set up near 𝐵𝑀 and readings 𝑐 and 𝑑 are taken. Here, the reading
𝑐 is without error and 𝑑 is subjected to the error 𝑒.


𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑏
𝑒
𝑎
𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑒 𝑑 𝑐
𝐵𝑀1
𝐵𝑀2
𝐅𝐢𝐠𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝟕. 𝟐
∆ 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣 | 𝑏 𝑒 𝑎 |
∆ 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣 |𝑐 𝑑 𝑒 |
∆ 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣 ∆ 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 ∆ 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣
2
Problem 1.
A reciprocal leveling is observed across a wide river and the reciprocal level readings were taken
between points A and B as follows. With instrument set up near A, the rod readings on A are
2.283 m and 2.285 m. The reciprocal level readings on the opposite side of the river at point B are
3.618, 3.619, 3.621 and 3.622 m. With the instrument set up near B the rod readings on B are
4.478 m and 4.476 m, and the rod readings on the on the opposite side of the river at point A, the
rod readings are 3.143, 3.140, 3.146 and 3.144.
a) Compute the difference in elevation between A and B with the instrument set up near A.
b) What is the true difference in elevation between A and B?
c) If the elevation A is 300 m, what is the elevation of B?




Short Quiz!
Problem 1.
While leveling between two points P and Q on opposite banks of a river, the level was first set
up near point P and the staff readings observed at point P and Q were 1.385 m and 3.005 m
respectively. After this level was set up near point Q and the observed readings on point P and Q
were 0.750 m and 2.320 m respectively. If the reduced level of point P was 120.00 m, determine the
reduced level of point Q.


C. LESSON WRAP-UP

1.
2.
3.

1.
2.

1.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
1. a) 1.336 m 1. 118.405 m
b) 1.335 m
c) 298.665 m


Lesson title: Three-Wire Leveling Materials:

1. Determine the elevation and difference of elevation of Roy, S.K. (1999). Fundamentals of
different points of interest using three-wire leveling. Surveying. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of
2. Site different advantages of three-wire leveling method. India Private Limited
Shake off that negative mindset! Make your mistakes and

failures as your motivation to do better next time. Remember
that there is a rainbow after the rain.
Ordinary levelling staff is read against only the middle horizontal crosshair whereas three-wire
leveling is the process of reading and recording a rod reading for each of the three horizontal cross-
hairs on each shot, then averaging the readings for agreement with the center reading. This method
is most accurate as it gives immediate results and a check/confirmation of rod reading. If a
difference is detected a check can be done on the spot, before moving on.
An electronic digital level can perform and record this process automatically, after sight of the
rod is made. Automated data collection eliminates transposition errors and data is downloaded into
a computer for complete analysis.

1. What do you think is the
edge of three-wire leveling
compared to the first three
method?
B.MAIN LESSON



Three-Wire Leveling
As implied by its name, three-wire leveling consists in making rod readings on the upper, middle
and lower crosshairs. Formerly it was used mainly for precise work, but it can be used on project
requiring only ordinary precision. This method has the following advantages:
1. Providing checks against rod readings are available.
2. Producing accuracy because averages of three readings are available.
3. Furnishing stadia measurement of sight lengths to assist in balancing backsight and foresight
distances.
In three-wire procedure the difference between the upper and middle readings is compared
with that between the middle and lower values. They must agree within one or two of the smallest
units being recorded (usually 0.1 or 0.2 of the least count of the rod graduations); otherwise the
readings are repeated. An average of three readings is used as a computational check against the
middle wire. As noted in the stadia surveying method, the difference between the upper and lower
readings multiplied by the instrument stadia interval factor gives the sight distances. In leveling, the
distances are often not important. What is important is that the sum of the back sights is about
equal to the sum of the foresights, which eliminate errors due to curvature, refraction, and
collimation errors.
A sample set of field notes for three-wire method is presented in the Table below. Back sight
readings on 𝐵𝑀 of 0.718, 0.633, and 0.550 taken on the upper, middle, and lower wires,
respectively, give upper and lower differences (multiplied by 100) of 8.5 and 8.3 m, which agree
within acceptable tolerances. Stadia measurement of the back sight length (the sum of the upper
and lower differences) is 16. 8 m. The average of three back sight readings on 𝐵𝑀 , 0.6337 m, agrees
within 0.0007 m of the middle reading. The stadia foresight length of 15.9 m at this setup is within
0.9 m of the backsight length, and is satisfactory. The HI (104.4769 m) for the first setup is found by
adding the backsight reading to the elevation of 𝐵𝑀 . Subtracting the foresight reading on 𝑇𝑃 gives
its elevation (103.4256 m). This process is repeated for each setup.




Problem 1.
From the given data of a three wire leveling as shown in the tabulation:
Point Backsight Stadia Foresight Stadia Elevation

𝐵𝑀 100.00
5.25 2.61
4.75 2.10
4.26 1.60
𝑇𝑃
9.95 7.80
9.34 7.21
8.72 6.61
𝐵𝑀
a) Find the difference in elevation of 𝑇𝑃 and 𝐵𝑀 .

b) Find the elevation of 𝐵𝑀𝐵 .

C. LESSON WRAP-UP



1.
2.
3.

1.
2.

1.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
Activity 3:
1. a) 2.65 m
b) 104.780 m


Lesson title: Profile Leveling Materials:

1. Calculate elevations using profile leveling; and Roy, S.K. (1999). Fundamentals of
2. Differentiate it to other methods of leveling. Surveying. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of
India Private Limited
“Don’t let what you cannot do interfere with

what YOU CAN do.” -John Wooden
Before engineers can properly design linear facilities such as highways, railroad, transmission
lines, canals, sewers, and water mains, they need accurate information about the topography along
the proposed routes. Profile leveling, which yields elevations at definite points along a reference
line, provides the data.

1. Site two purpose/importance
of profile leveling.
2. Compare and contrast profile
levelling with differential
levelling.


B.MAIN LESSON
Profile Leveling
Plotted profiles are used for many purposes, such as:
1. Determining the depth of cut of fill on proposed highways, railroads and airports.
2. Studying grade-crossing problems.
3. Investigating and selecting the most economical grade, location, and depth for sewers,
pipelines, tunnels, irrigation ditches, and other projects.
Sample Problem
From the given profile leveling notes.
Station BS (m) FS (m) IFS (m) Elevation (m)

BM1 0.95 225.50
1 3
2 2.3
TP1 3.13 0.64
3 2.7
4 2.8
5 3.1
6 0.5
7 0.8
TP2 2.16 1.28
8 0.9
9 1.2
10 1.7
11 2.8
TP3 0.82 2.37
TP4 1.35 3.50
12 3.0
BM2 1.24
a) What is the difference in elevation between station 5 and 2.

b) Compute the elevation of TP2.
c) Compute the elevation of BM2.


Solution:
Station BS (m) HI (m) FS (m) IFS (m) Elevation (m)

BM1 0.95 226.45 225.50
1 3 223.50
2 2.3 224.2
TP1 3.13 228.94 0.64 225.81
3 2.7 226.2
4 2.8 226.1
5 3.1 225.8
6 0.5 225.4
7 0.8 228.1
TP2 2.16 229.82 1.28 227.66
8 0.9 228.9
9 1.2 228.6
10 1.7 228.1
11 2.8 227.0
TP3 0.82 228.27 2.37 227.45
TP4 1.35 226.12 3.50 224.88
12 3.0 223.1
BM2 1.24 224.88
8.41 9.03
a) What is the difference in elevation between station 5 and 2.
∆ . 225.8 224.2
∆ . 1.6 m
b) Compute the elevation of TP2.
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣 227.66 m
c) Compute the elevation of BM2.
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣 224.88 m


Problem 1.
Arrange the following description in the form of profile level notes complete to elevation. A level
is set up and a reading of 2.995 m is taken on a bench mark the elevation of which is 12.135 m. At
the beginning of the line to be profiled, the rod reading is 2.625 m, 30 m from the beginning, it is
1.617 m, at 60 m, it is 0.702 m, at 66 m and 81 m, the rod readings are 1.281 m and 0.762 m,
respectively. On a rock that is not on the line, the rod reading is 0.555 m. The level is then removed
ahead, set up and a rod reading of 1.952 m is observed, the rod still being held on the rock. The
readings along the profile are then resumed: 90 m from the beginning of the line, the rod reading
is 1.159 m, 120 m from the beginning of the line rod reading is 1.434 m, and finally 150 m from the
beginning of the line the rod reading is 2.196 m.
a) Compute the elevation at the point 60 m from the beginning of the line.
b) Compute the elevation of the turning point.
c) Compute the difference in elevation at a point 150 m and 81 m from the beginning of the line.



C. LESSON WRAP-UP

1.
2.
3.

1.
2.

1.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
Activity 3:
1. a) 14.428 m
b) 14.575 m
c) 0.037 m


Lesson title: Angles, Bearings and Azimuths Materials:

1. Identify directions for horizontal angle measurements. Roy, S.K. (1999). Fundamentals of
2. Compute angles, bearings and azimuths. Surveying. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of
Theory and Practice. Oregon, USA
Spare one or two hour each day before or after classes and
dedicate it to recall lessons and to solve practice problems.
Repeat this routine each day to increase your speed in
solving and to train your mind to work under pressure.
In our previous lesson, you can see that horizontal and vertical angles are fundamental
measurements in surveying. Vertical angle is used in obtaining the elevation of points and in the
reduction of slant distance into horizontal. While horizontal angle is used primarily to obtain
direction to a survey control point, or to topographic detail points, or to points to be set out.

1. What is the reference for an
azimuth to give the direction
of a line?
2. What is the main difference
between azimuth and
bearing?


3. It is measured from an
extension of the back line to
the forward station.
B.MAIN LESSON
Angle is defined as the difference in direction between two convergent lines.
Interior angles are measured clockwise or counter-clockwise between two adjacent lines on the
inside of a closed polygon figure.
Exterior angles are located outside the polygon and are explements of interior angles.
Deflection angles are observed from extension of the back line to the forward station.
Angles to the right are measured clockwise from the rear to the forward station.
Azimuths are horizontal angles observed clockwise from:
 In plane surveying – north as the reference direction
 Astronomers and military – south as the reference direction
Bearing is defined as the acute horizontal angle between a reference meridian and the line. The
bearing states whether the angle is measured from the north or the south and also whether the
angle is measured toward the east or west.
Azimuth
N
Reference
D Meridian
B
S
Azimuths


Azimuths can be read directly on the graduated circle of a station instrument after the
instrument has been oriented properly.
A line’s forward direction can be given by it as forward azimuth and its reverse direction by it is
called back azimuth.
The back azimuth can be obtained by:
a. Adding 180° if the azimuth is less than 180°, or
b. Subtracting 180° if the azimuth is greater than 180°
Computing Azimuths
Most types of surveys, especially those that employ traversing, requires computation of
azimuths (or bearings). A traverse is a series of connected lines whose lengths and angles at the
junction points have been observed.
D C
E N
F
115°10’
Figure 5.1 Closed Polygon


41°35’ AB 31°51’ ED
180°00’ 135°42’
221°35’ BA 167°33’ EF
129°11’ 180°00’
350°46’ BC 347°33’ FE
180°00’ 118°52’
170°46’ CB 466°25’
88°35’ 360°00’ *
259°21’ CD 106°25’ FA
180°00’ 180°00’
79°21’ DC 286°25’ AF
132°30’ 115°10’
211°51’ DE 401°35’
180°00’ 360°00’ *
31°51’ ED 41°35’ AB
* When a computed azimuth exceeds 360°, the correct azimuth is obtained by merely subtracting 360°.


Bearing
A properly expressed bearing includes quadrant letters and an angular value.
N
D
O
W E
B
S
Bearings
Computing Bearing
One method in determining the bearing of lines is by drawing sketches. Alternate method of
computing bearings is to determine the azimuths, and then convert the computed azimuths to
bearings.
Table 5.1 Bearing of Lines in Figure 5.1


Problem 1.
Find the back azimuth of a line having a forward azimuth of 52°.
Problem 2.
The lot ABCDEF is a closed traverse (clockwise) in the form of a regular hexagon. If the bearing
of line AB is N 25° E, find the following:
a) Bearing of line FA.
b) Bearing of line CD.




Short Quiz!
Problem 1.
The interior angles of a five side traverse are as follows:
A = 117°30’ C = 142°54’
B = 96°32’ D = 132°18’
The angle E is not measured, assumed AB is due north. Compute the following:
a) Deflection angle at C.
b) Azimuth of the line CD.
c) Back azimuth of the line CD.
d) Azimuth of the line ED.
e) Back azimuth of the line EA.
f) Bearing of the line DE.
g) Bearing of the line AE.


C. LESSON WRAP-UP

1.
2.
3.

1.
2.

1.
FAQs:
1. In terms of interpreting bearings, does N60°E same as through with “60 degrees north of east”?
Ans. No. N60°E means 60 degrees east of north or 30° north of east.
2. What is the first step in determining the azimuth or bearing of a closed traverse?
Ans. The direction of at least one line within the traverse must be known or assumed.


KEY TO CORRECTIONS
1. 232° 1. a) 37°06’
2. a) N 35° W b) 120°34’
b) S 35° E c) 300°34’
3. a) 125°21’ d) 348°16’
b) S 54°39’ E e) 117°30’
f) S 11°44’ E
g) S 62°30’ E


Lesson title: Traverse Computation Part 1 Materials:

1. Enumerate and differentiate the two types of traverse. Roy, S.K. (1999). Fundamentals of
2. Adjust angles and directions to fixed geometric conditions. Surveying. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of
Connect the dots. Learn to make connections when you’re

consuming information. While studying, think critically on
how the ideas are related to one another. Always
remember the basic principle.
A traverse is a series of consecutive lines whose ends have been marked in the field whose
lengths and direction have been determine from observations.
Traverses are used to find accurate positions of a marked stations. Thus, traverses usually serve
as control surveys. When drawing construction plans, the stations can be used as beginning points
from which to lay out work.
Traverse surveys are made for many purposes to include:
 To determine the positions of exiting boundary markers.
 To establish the positions of boundary lines.
 To determine the area encompassed within a boundary.
 To determine the positions of arbitrary points from which data may be obtained for
preparing various types of maps.
 To establish ground control for photographic mapping.
 To establish control for gathering data regarding earthwork quantities in railroad highway,
utility and other construction work.
 To establish control for locating railroads, highways and other construction work.



1. What is the difference
between open and closed
traverse?
2. What are the sources of error

in traversing?
3. Name at least 1 method of

traverse adjustment.
B.MAIN LESSON
Two Kinds of Traverses:
1. Closed Traverse
a) Closed Traverse – the lines return to the starting point, forming a closed figure that is
both geometrically and mathematically closed. Closed traverses provide checks on the
observed angles and distances, which is extremely important consideration.
N
𝐴𝑧 𝑀𝑘
C B
Legend:
Control Station
D Traverse Station
A
Measured Angle
Measured Distance
Figure 6.1 Closed Traverse
b) Link Traverse – the lines on a link traverse finish upon another station that should have
a positional accuracy equal to or greater than that of the starting point. The link type
(geometrically open and mathematically closed), as illustrated in the Figure 6.2, it must
have a closing reference direction, line 𝐸 𝐴𝑧𝑀𝑘 .


𝐴𝑧 𝑀𝑘
E
Legend:
B Control Station
D
A Traverse Station
Measured Angle
N C
Measured Distance
𝐴𝑧 𝑀𝑘
Figure 6.2 Link Traverse
2. Open Traverse
An open traverse (geometrically and mathematically open) shown in the Figure 6.3 are
consists of a series of lines that are connected but do not return to the starting point or close
upon a point of equal or greater order accuracy.
Open traverses should be avoided because they offer no means of checking for
observational error and mistakes. If they must be used, observations should be repeated
carefully to guard against mistakes.
G
C D
N Legend:
E Control Station
B F
Traverse Station
Measured Angle
Measured Distance
A
Figure 6.3 Open Traverse


Sources of Error in Traversing

1. Poor selection of stations, resulting in bad sighting conditions caused by
a) Alternate sun and shadow
b) Visibility of only the rod’s top
c) Line of sight passing too close to the ground
d) Lines that are too short
e) Sighting into the sun
2. Errors in observations of angles and distances.
3. Failure to observe angles an equal number of times direct and reversed.
Mistakes in Traversing
1. Occupying or sighting on the wrong station.
2. Incorrect orientation.
3. Confusing angles to the right and left.
4. Mistakes in note taking.
5. Misidentification of the sighted station.
Traverse Computations
Procedure for Computing and Adjusting Traverses:
A. Adjusting angles or directions to fixed geometric conditions.
B. Determining preliminary azimuths or bearings of the traverse lines.
C. Calculating departures and latitudes and adjusting them for misclosures.
D. Calculating lengths and azimuths or bearings of the traverse lines after adjustments.


Based from Figure 6.4, apply the procedure for computing and adjusting traverses.
N
E
D
A
B
Legend:
Control Station
Traverse Station
Figure 6.4 Traverse
A. Balancing Angles
Angles of a closed traverse can be adjusted to the correct geometric total by applying one of the
two following methods:
1. Applying an average correction to each angle where observing conditions were
approximately the same at all stations. The correction for each angle is found by dividing the
total angular misclosure by the number of angles.
2. Making larger corrections to angles where poor observing conditions were present.
Sum of Interior Angles of a Closed Polygon
∑ 𝑛 2 180°
Sum of Exterior Angles of a Closed Polygon
∑ 𝑛 2 180°
where, 𝑛 is the number of sides or angles in the polygon


Using Method 1:
∑ 540°00’11” ∑ 11” ∑ 540°00’00”
Table 6.1 Adjusted Angles
B. Computation of Preliminary Azimuths and Bearings

After balancing angles, calculate either preliminary azimuths or preliminary bearings.
Based on the Figure 6.4, fixed azimuth of 234°17’18” for line AW, a measured angle to the right of
151°52’24” for WAE, and the angle adjustment by method 1, Table 6.1.
Compute the azimuth of course AB
𝐴𝑧 234°17’18” 151°52’24” 100°45’35” 360° 126°55’17”
126°55’17” AB 358°18’58” CB 284°35’20” DE

180°00’00” 17°12’56” 180°00’00”
306°55’17” BA 375°31’54” 104°35’20” ED
231°23’41” 360°00’00” 101°34’22”
538°18’58” 15°31’54” CD 206°09’42” EA
360°00’00” 180°00’00” 180°00’00”
178°18’58” BC 195°31’54” DC 26°09’42” AE

180°00’00” 89°03’26” 100°45’35”
358°18’58” CB 284°35’20” DE 126°55’17” AB
Table 6.2 Preliminary Azimuth


C. Departure and Latitudes

After balancing the angles and calculating preliminary azimuths or bearings, traverse closure is
checked by computing the departure and latitude of each line. Departure are sometimes called
easting or westing, while latitude is called northing or southing.
N (Y)
B
Latitude
∆𝑌
𝛼
𝐿
E (X)
∆𝑋
Departure
Figure 6.5 Departure and Latitude
Departure 𝐿 sin 𝛼
Latitude 𝐿 cos 𝛼
Based on the preliminary azimuth from Table 6.2 and the lengths shown in Figure 6.4,
∑ 751.83 ∑ 0.006 ∑ 0.026
Table 6.3 Computation of Departure and Latitude


Linear Misclosure 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

Linear Misclosure
Relative Precision
Traverse Length
For a closed polygon traverse, it can be reasoned that if all angles and distances were measured
perfectly, the algebraic sum of departures of all courses in the traverse should equal to zero,
likewise, the algebraic sum of all latitudes.
Because the observations are not perfect and error exists in the angles and distance, the
conditions just stated rarely occur. The amounts by which they fail to be met are termed
𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒 and 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒 .
Based from the tabulated data in Table 6.3,
Linear Misclosure 0.006 0.026

Linear Misclosure 0.026683 m
0.026683
Relative Precision
751.83
1
Relative Precision
28176


Problem 1.
From the field notes of a closed traverse shown below, adjust the traverse.
Lines Bearing Distances (m)
AB Due North 400.00
BC N 45° E 800.00
CD S 60° E 700.00
DE S 20° W 600.00
EA S 86°59’ W 966.34
a) Compute the linear error of closure.

b) Compute the relative error or precision.



C. LESSON WRAP-UP

1.
2.
3.

1.
2.

1.
FAQs:
1. What is main difference between latitude and departure?
Ans. Latitude is equal to the length of the line times the cosine of its BEARING. While departure is
equal to the length of the line times the sine of its BEARING.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
Activity 3:
1. a) 1.971
b) 1/1758


Lesson title: Traverse Computation Part 2 Materials:

1. Identify the difference between compass rule and transit Roy, S.K. (1999). Fundamentals of
rule; and Surveying. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of
2. Apply these two methods in traverse adjustments. India Private Limited
“If you don’t want to do something, make a deal with

yourself to do at least five minutes of it. After five
minutes, you’ll end up doing the whole thing.” – Kevin
Systrom, Co-Founder of Instagram
A traverse is adjusted, or balanced, to distribute remaining random errors back into the
measurements. There are two methods in traverse adjustment depending on how the errors are
modeled and on the computation complexity of every method. These two methods that are used
in adjusting a traverse are Compass Rule and Transit Rule.
The compass rule works well for simple traverses having minimal redundant measurements. On
the other hand, transit rule is not commonly used but best suited for surveys where traverse sides
are measured by stadia.

between compass rule and
transit rule in terms of
computation?


2. Why do we need to adjust or

balance a traverse?
B.MAIN LESSON
Traverse Adjustment
For any closed traverse, the linear misclosure must be adjusted (or distributed) throughout the
traverse to 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒 or 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 the figure.
Compass Rule
Length
Adjusted Departure Departure 𝑒
Perimeter
Length
Adjusted Latitude Latitude 𝑒
Perimeter
Transit Rule
|Departure|
Adjusted Departure Departure 𝑒
∑|Departure|
|Latitude|
Adjusted Latitude Latitude 𝑒
∑|Latitude|
Note: Carry the sign of Departure, Latitude, 𝑒 and 𝑒 .
∑ 751.83 ∑ 0.006 ∑ 0.026 ∑ 0.000 ∑ 0.000
Table 6.4 Balancing Departure and Latitudes using Compass Rule


D. Adjusted Traverse Lengths and Directions

Computation of final values for lengths and directions of traverse lines based on their adjusted
departure and latitudes listed in Table 6.4.
Table 6.5 Final Adjusted Lengths and Directions
Problem 1.
From the field notes of a closed traverse shown below, adjust the traverse.
AB Due North 400.00
BC N 45° E 800.00
CD S 60° E 700.00
DE S 20° W 600.00
EA S 86°59’ W 966.34
a) Compute the correction of latitude on line CD using transit rule.

b) Compute the adjusted distance of line EA using transit rule.
c) Compute the adjusted bearing of line CD using compass rule.


Problem 2.
From the given technical description of a lot.
AB N 48°20’ E 529.60
BC N 87° 00’ E 592.00
CD S 7°59’ E 563.60
DE S 80°00’ W 753.40
EA N 48°12’ W 428.20
a) Find the corrected bearing of line BC using transit rule.

b) Find the corrected bearing of line DE using transit rule.
c) Find the corrected distance of line EA using transit rule.




Short Quiz!
Problem 1.
From the given data of a closed traverse.
Lines Distances (m) Bearing
AB 368.76 N 15°18’ E
BC 645.38 S 85°46’ E
CD 467.86 S 18°30’ W
DA 593.00 N 77°35’ W
Using compass rule of balancing a traverse.
a) Determine the corrected bearing of BC.
b) Determine the corrected bearing of CD.
c) Determine the adjusted distance of DA.


C. LESSON WRAP-UP

1.
2.
3.

1.
2.

1.
FAQs:
1. If the angular measurements of a traverse are more precise than its linear measurements,
balancing the traverse is done by what method?
Ans. Transit Rule
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
1. a) 0.184 m 1. a) S 85°57’52.61” E
b) 967.038 m b) S 18°55’16.28” W
c) S 59°58’14.45” E c) 597.226 m
2. a) N 86°56’56.92” E
b) S 80°09’56.65” W
c) 431.521 m


Lesson title: Area Measurement Materials:

1. List the different methods of measuring area; and Roy, S.K. (1999). Fundamentals of
2. Apply these methods in area computation of a closed Surveying. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of
traverse. India Private Limited
Leave your distractions. Managing your time allows you to

finish you assigned tasks and will enhance your brain’s
ability to absorb information and helps to reduce stress.
There are a number of important reasons for determining areas. One is to include the acreage
of a parcel of land in the deed describing the property. Other purposes are to determine the acreage
of fields, lakes, etc., or the number of square yards to be surfaced, paved, seeded, or sodded.
Another important application is determining end areas for earthwork volume calculations.

1. Give at least 2 methods in
computing the area of a
closed traverse.
2. Based from your answer in 1,
differentiate the two
methods.


B.MAIN LESSON
Methods of Measuring Area
1. Division of the tract into simple figures
2. Offset from a straight line
3. Coordinates
4. Double-meridian distances
1. Area by Division into Simple Figures

A tract can usually be divided into simple geometric figures such as triangles, rectangles, or
trapezoids. The sides and angles of these figures can be observed in the field and their individual
areas calculated and totaled.
2. Area by Offsets from Straight Lines

Irregular tracts can be reduced to a series of trapezoid by observing right-angle offsets from
points along a reference line. The reference line is usually marked by stationing and positions where
offsets are observed are given by their stations and pluses. The spacing between offsets may be
either regular or irregular, depending on the conditions.


a) Regularly Spaced Offsets
ℎ ℎ
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑏 ℎ ℎ ⋯
2 2
where,
𝑏 length of a common interval between offsets
ℎ ,ℎ ,…,ℎ offsets
b) Irregularly Spaced Offsets
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎 ℎ ℎ 𝑏 ℎ ℎ 𝑐 ℎ ℎ ⋯
2
where,
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, … varying offset spaces
ℎ ,ℎ ,…,ℎ offsets


3. Area by Coordinates
In this method, coordinates of each angle point in the figure must be known.
𝑋 𝑋 Departure
𝑌 𝑌 Latitude
N
E
D
(10000,5000)
(X,Y) A
B
Legend:
Control Station
Traverse Station
Figure 6.4 Traverse


Table 7.1 Computation of Coordinates

The products noted by diagonal arrows are ascertained with dashed arrows considered plus
and solid one are minus. The algebraic summation of all products is computed and its absolute
value divided by 2 to get the area.


2 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑋 𝑌 𝑋 𝑌 𝑋 𝑌 𝑋 𝑌 𝑋 𝑌
2 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑋 𝑌 𝑋 𝑌 𝑋 𝑌 𝑋 𝑌 𝑋 𝑌
Computation of area for the closed traverse based from the coordinates listed in Table 7.1.
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 25,337.037 m
4. Area by Double-Meridian Distance Method

This procedure requires balanced departures and latitudes of the tract’s boundary lines, which
are normally obtained in traverse computations.
𝐷𝑀𝐷 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵 Departure 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵
𝐷𝑀𝐷 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝐶 𝐷𝑀𝐷 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵 Departure 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵 Departure 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝐶
Double Areas 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵 Latitude 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵 𝐷𝑀𝐷 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵
2A 50,674.072
2A 25,337.036 m
Table 7.2 Computation of Area using DMD
Area by Double-Parallel Distance (DPD) is similar to the Double-Meridian Distance method. DPD
uses latitudes of the successive courses instead of the departures.
𝐷𝑃𝐷 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵 Latitude 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵
𝐷𝑃𝐷 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝐶 𝐷𝑃𝐷 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵 Latitude 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵 Latitude 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝐶
Double Areas 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵 Departure 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵 𝐷𝑃𝐷 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵


Problem 1.
A parcel of land has been surveyed in the field and the lengths and bearings of the various sides
are shown.
Lines Bearings Distances (m)
AB N 53°27’ E 59.82
BC S 66°54’ E 70.38
CD S 29°08’ W 76.62
DA N 52°00’ W 95.75
Using compass rule of balancing a traverse.
a) Compute the error of closure for the traverse shown.
b) What is the precision of linear measurement of this traverse?
c) What is the total area included within the traverse in acres.
d) What is the total area included within the traverse in acres using area by coordinates.




Short Quiz!
Problem 1.
Given below is the technical description of a lot 2081, Cebu Cadastre.

1-2 S 32°17’ W 22.04
2-3 S 36°25’ W 10.00
3-4 N 15°47’ W 5.00
4-5 N 73°07’ E 19.95
a) Find the area of the lot by DMD method.

b) Find the DPD of line 3-4.
c) Find the area of lot by DPD method.


C. LESSON WRAP-UP

1.
2.
3.

1.
2.

1.
FAQs:
1. What is the most accurate method in closed traverse area computation?
Ans. The most accurate is area by coordinates method. The computed preceding values right after
the first step of the process are used all throughout the computation without rounding off the
values which yields to an accurate result.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
1. a) 0.051740 m 1. a) 152.622 sq. m
b) 1/5848 b) -16.39 m
c) 1.345 acres c) 152.622 sq. m
d) 1.345 acres


Lesson title: Missing Data Materials:

1. Calculate the omitted measurement or missing data; and Roy, S.K. (1999). Fundamentals of
2. Calculate the area of closed traverse. Surveying. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of
“Stop waiting for perfect conditions to launch a great project.

Immediate action fuels a positive feedback loop that drives even
more action.” - Anonymous
In a closed traverse if lengths and bearings of all lines could not be measured due to certain
reasons and circumstances, the omitted or the missing measurements can be computed. These
missing measurements is what we call missing data.

1. Write the formula for cosine
and sine law.
2. Give one specific
circumstance for having a
missing data in traverse
measurement?


B.MAIN LESSON
Sample Problem.
From the given closed traversed shown.
AB S 35°30’ W 44.37
BC N 57°15’ W 137.84
CD N 1°45’ E 12.83
DA ? 64.86
EA ? 106.72
a) Compute the bearing of line DE.

b) Compute the bearing of line EA.
c) Compute the area of the lot using DPD.
Solution:
E
D 𝛼 𝜃
12.83
C
∑ 0 ∑ 0
Distance 141.303 51.27

Distance 150.317 m


a) Compute the bearing of line DE.

141.303
Bearing tan
51.270
Bearing S 70°3 26.42" E
106.72 64.86 150.317
𝛼 cos
2 64.86 150.317
𝛼 37°46 24.47"
Bearing 180° 37°46 . 47" 70°3′26.42"
Bearing N 72°10 9.11" E
b) Compute the bearing of line EA.

150.317 64.86 106.72
𝜃 cos
2 64.86 106.72
𝜃 120°22 13.49"
Bearing 120°22 13.49" 72°10′9.11"
Bearing S 48°12 4.38” E
c) Compute the area of the lot using DPD.
2A 13913.107
2A 6956.554 m


Problem 1.
From the given technical description shown.
AB N 32°27’ E 110.8
BC ? 83.6
CD S 8°51’ W 126.9
DA S 73°31’ W ?
EA N 18°44’ W 90.2
a) Compute the bearing of line BC.

b) Compute the distance of line DE.
c) Compute the area of the lot using DMD.




Short Quiz!
Problem 1.
From the given technical description of a lot.
Lines Azimuth Distances (m)

AB --- 64.86
BC 132°06’ 107.72
CD 215°30’ 44.37
DE --- 137.84
EA 1°45’ 12.83
a) Compute the azimuth of line DE.

b) Compute the bearing of line AB.
c) Compute the area of the lot.
Problem 2.
A closed traverse has the following data:
Lines Azimuth Distances (m)

AB N 60°30’ W 68.75
BC N 80°30’ E 125.90
CA
a) Determine the length of side CA.

b) Determine the bearing of side CA.
c) Determine the area of the closed traverse.


C. LESSON WRAP-UP

1.
2.
3.

1.
2.

1.
FAQs:
1. Are there any other methods in solving the missing data without using the trigonometric
principles?
Ans. Yes, it can be solved with the help of algebra by introducing variables and making summation
of departure and latitude equal to zero. Then equate the two equations with two unknowns
making the problem solvable without using trigonometry.


KEY TO CORRECTIONS
1. a) S 71°15’18.8” E 1. a) 302°47’
b) 93.987 m b) N 71° 12 ‘ E
2
c) 16775.267 m c) 7019.625 sq. m
2. a) 84.40 m
b) S 49°40’
c) 2723.58 sq. m.


Lesson title: Simple Curves Materials:

1. Layout simple curve properly. Roy, S.K. (1999). Fundamentals of
2. Name, locate and solve the different elements of a simple Surveying. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of
curve. India Private Limited
Stay focus on your goal! Know how to zone in on what

needs to be done. Stay on track and maintain the balance
between your studies and social life.
A straight route road or track is always desirable to economize construction, transportation and
maintenance. However, if there are changes in the alignment or gradient of the road then it requires
to provide curves under the following circumstances:
1. Excessive cutting and filling can be prevented by providing the change in alignment by
curves.
2. The obstruction which came in the way of straight alignment can be made easier by providing
diversions with the help of curves.
The centerline of a road consists of series of straight lines interconnected by curves. There are
two types of curves provided primarily for the comfort and ease of the motorists in the road namely
horizontal curve and vertical curve. Horizontal curves or circular curves are laid out on the road to
change the direction or alignment of a track while vertical curves are provided to change the slope
of the road. Horizontal curve has four types, simple curve, compound curve, reverse curve and
spiral or transitional curve. On the other hand, vertical curve has two classifications, summit
curve and sag curve.



1. How does the simple curve is
formed?
2. What is the formula for arc
length?
3. What is length of one full
station in metric system?
B.MAIN LESSON
Simple Curve
A simple curve is a circular arc, extending from one tangent to the next.
PI
𝐼
𝑇 𝐸 𝑇
𝐼 𝑀
PC 2 PT
𝑅 𝑅
𝐼
2
Figure 7.1 Simple Curve


Elements of a Simple Curve

 Point of Curvature (PC)
The point of curvature is the point where the circular curve begins. The back tangent is
tangent to the curve at this point.
 Point of Tangency (PT)
The point of tangency is the end of the curve. The forward tangent is tangent to the curve
at this point.
 Point of Intersection (PI)
The point of intersection marks the point where the back and forward tangents
intersects. The surveyor indicates it one of the stations on the preliminary transverse.
 Intersecting Angle 𝐼
The intersecting angle is the deflection angle at the PI. The surveyor either compute its
value from the preliminary transverse station angles or measures it in the field.
 Radius 𝑅
The radius is the radius of the circle of which the curve is an arc.
 Length of Curve 𝐿
The length of curve is the distance from the PC to PT measured along the curve.
 Long Chord 𝐿𝐶
The long chord is the chord from PC to the PT.
 Tangent Distance 𝑇
The tangent distance is the distance along the tangents from the PI to PC or PI to PT.
These distances are equal on a simple curve.
 Central Angle 𝐼
The central angle is the angle formed by two radii drawn from the center of the circle O
to the PC and PT. The central angle is equal to intersecting angle.
 External Distance 𝐸
The external distance is the distance from the PI to the midpoint of the curve. The
external distance bisects the interior angle at the PI.
 Middle Ordinate 𝑀
The middle ordinate is the distance from the midpoint of the curve to the midpoint of the
long chord. The extension of the middle ordinate bisects the central angle.


Three Ways in which Sharpness of Curvature is express:

1. Radius
The curvature is defined by stating the length of radius. The radius is usually taken as
multiple of 100 ft or 100 m.
2. Degree of Curve / Arc Definition 𝐷
Defined as the angle subtended at the center of the curve by an arc 20 meters long. In
general, 𝐷 is the angle subtended by an arc equal in length to one full station. (In English
1
System, 100 ft)

20 𝑚
𝑅 𝑅
𝐷
𝐷 360°
20 2𝜋𝑅
1145.916
𝐷
𝑅
3. Degree of Chord / Chord Definition 𝐷
Defined as the angle subtended by a chord having a length of one full station or 20
meters in metric system. (In English System, 100 ft)
20 𝑚
𝑅 𝑅
𝐷
𝐷 10
sin
2 𝑅


Derived Formulas:
𝜋
Length of Curve:
𝐿 𝑅𝐼
180
𝐼
Tangent Distance: 𝑇 𝑅 tan
2
𝐼
Long Chord: 𝐿𝐶 2𝑅 sin
2
1
External Distance: 𝐸 𝑅 1
𝐼
cos
2
𝐼
Middle Ordinate: 𝑀 𝑅 1 cos
2
Problem 1.
A simple curve has a central angle of 36° and a degree of curve of 6°.
a) Find the nearest distance from the midpoint of the curve to the point of intersection of the
tangents.
b) Compute the distance from the midpoint of the curve to the midpoint of the long chord joining
the point of curvature and point of tangency.
c) If the stationing of the point of curvature is at 10+020, compute the stationing of a point on the
curve which intersects with the line making a deflection angle of 8° with the tangent through PC.


Problem 2.
A simple curve of the proposed extension of Mantabahadra Highway have a direction of tangent
AB which is due north and tangent BC bearing N 50° E. Point A is at the PC whose stationing is
20+130.46. The degree of curve is 4°.
a) Compute the long chord of the curve.
b) Compute the stationing of point D on the curve along a line joining the center of the curve which
makes an angle of 54° with the tangent line passing thru the PC.
c) What is the length of the line from D to the intersection of tangent AB.




Short Quiz!
Problem 1.
A simple curve having a radius of 229.18 m has a back tangent of N 28° E, and a forward tangent
of N 66° E. A property line running parallel to the back tangent crosses the centerline of the curve
at a distance of 10 m from it. The PC of the curve is located at 10+120.60.
a) What is the deflection angle at the point of intersection of the property line and the curve
measured from the tangent at station 10+120.60?
b) What is the stationing at the point of intersection of the property line and the curve?
c) Compute the chord distance from PC to the point of intersection of the property line and the
curve?


C. LESSON WRAP-UP

1.
2.
3.

1.
2.

1.
FAQs
1. Can you solve for the unknowns without memorizing the formula?
Ans. Yes. You can solve it by using trigonometry.
2. True or False. Chord basis will be used if the given problem did not indicate on how the sharpness
of curve is express.
Ans. False. Always use arc definition if the given problem did not indicate on how the sharpness
of curve is express.


KEY TO CORRECTIONS
1. a) 9.83 m 1. a) 8.49°
b) 9.35 m b) 10+188.55
c) 10+073.33 c) 67.73 m
2. a) 242.14 m
b) 20+310.46
c) 67.63 m


Lesson title: Compound Curves Materials:

1. Layout compound curve properly. Roy, S.K. (1999). Fundamentals of
2. Name, locate and solve the different elements of a Surveying. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of
compound curve. India Private Limited
Studying doesn’t have to be a chore. Indulge in some

comforts while you’re studying: listen to good music, and
drink good coffee.
In our previous lesson you learned that compound curve is a type of a horizontal curve.
Compound curve is set out where availability of land is comparatively less. These curves are
commonly used in airports to connect runway and taxiway.

1. How does the compound
curve is formed?
between a compound curve
and a simple curve?


B.MAIN LESSON
Compound Curve
Consists of two or more consecutive simple curve having different radius, but whose center lie
on the same side of the curves, likewise any two consecutive curves must have a common tangent
at their meeting point. When two such curves lie upon opposite sides of the common tangent, two
curves then turns a reversed curve. In compound curve, the point where the two curves join is
called the point of compound curvature (PCC).
PI
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼
𝑏
𝑇
𝑎
𝑇
𝐼
PCC 𝐼 𝑇
𝑇
𝑇
𝑇
PT
PC
𝐼 𝑅
𝐼 𝑂
Figure 7.1 Compound Curve
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 common tangent


Problem 1.
A compound curve has a common tangent of 84.5 m long which makes an angle of 16° and 20°
with the tangents of the first curve and the second curve respectively. The length of the tangent of
the second curve is 42 m.
a) What is the radius of the first curve?
b) Find the radius of the second curve.
c) Length of curve from PC to PT.




Short Quiz!
Problem 2.
The common tangent of AB of a compound curve is 76.42 m, with an azimuth of 268°30’.The vertex V
being inaccessible. The azimuth of the tangents AV and VB was measured to be 247°50’ and 282°50’
respectively. The stationing at A is 43+010.46 and the degree of the first curve is 4°. Use chord basis.
a) Compute the stationing of PC.
b) Compute the stationing of PCC.
c) Determine the stationing of PT.


C. LESSON WRAP-UP

1.
2.
3.

1.
2.

1.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
1. a) 302.4 m 1. a) 42+958.21
b) 238.19 m b) 43+061.55
c) 167.59 m c) 43+109.65


Lesson title: Reverse Curves Part 1 Materials:

At the end of this module, you will be able: References:
1. Layout and label reversed curve properly. Roy, S.K. (1999). Fundamentals of
2. List and assess the different types of reversed curves. Surveying. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of
Make your own organized notes. Explain and outline your

lessons the way you understand it and easy to recall
without losing the context. It will help you store and retain
the information in a longer period of time.
When there is an obstruction present on either side of the straighter road alignment at shorter
distance, it is preferred to choose a reverse curve. Reverse curves are commonly used in railway
sidings, sometimes on railway tracks and utilized on roads meant with low speeds. For safety
purposes, reverse curves are avoided as far as possible by surveyors on main lines and highways
where speeds are necessarily high.

1. How does the reverse curve
is formed?
2. How to solve station PT given
the location of the point of
intersection of the first
curve?


B.MAIN LESSON
A reverse curve is formed curve is formed by two circular simple curves having a common
tangent but lies on opposite sides.
Case 1: Reversed curve with equal radii and parallel tangents.
PC 𝑇 𝑅
𝐼
𝐼 𝑇
2 PRC 𝑃
𝐼
𝑇 2
𝑅 𝐼
𝑇 PT
Figure 9.1 Case 1

Case 2: Reversed curve with unequal radii and parallel tangents.
𝑇 𝑅
P
𝐼
𝐼 𝑇 𝑎
2 PR
𝐼 𝑃
𝑇 2 𝑏
𝑅 𝐼
𝑇 P
Figure 9.2 Case


Problem 1.
Two parallel tangents 10 m apart are connected by a reversed curve. The chord length from the
PC to the PT is equal to 120 m.
a) Compute the length of the tangent with common direction.
b) Determine the equal radius of the reversed curve.
c) Compute the stationing of the PRC if the stationing of A at the beginning of the tangent with
common direction is 3+420.
Problem 2.
In a railroad layout, the centerline of two parallel tracks is connected with a reversed curve of
unequal radii. The central angle of the first and second curve is 16o and the distance between
parallel tracks is 27.6 m. Stationing of the PC is 15+420 and the radius of the second curve is 290.
a) Compute the length of the long chord from PC to PT.

b) Compute the radius of the first curve.
c) Compute the stationing of PT.




Short Quiz!
Problem 1.
The perpendicular distance between two parallel tangents of a reversed curve is 7.5 m and the
chord distance from the PC to the PT is equal to 65 m.
a) Compute the central angle of the reversed curve.
b) Compute the common radius of the reversed curve.
c) If the station of the PC is at 4+560.40, find the stationing of the PT.
Problem 2.
Two parallel tangents 20 m apart are to be connected by a reversed curve. The radius of the first
curve at the PC has a radius of 800 m and the total length of the chord from the PC to the PT is 300
m. Stationing of the PC is 10+620.
a) Find the central angle of each curve.
b) Find the radius of the curve passing thru the PT.
c) What is the stationing of the PT.


C. LESSON WRAP-UP

1.
2.
3.

1.
2.

1.
FAQs
1. In reverse curve, is there a specific formula applicable to all cases?
Tip: It’s better to master trigonometry and algebra than memorizing formulas applied in varying
conditions. There is no specific formula because givens and unknowns vary from time to time.
2. What if the problem did not directly state what type of case are you going to solve?
Ans. Before answering a situational problem, read and understand the given problem then look
through the situated questions (e.g a), b), c)). This will help you find out what kind of case the
given problem is.


KEY TO CORRECTIONS
1. a) 60.17 m 1. a) 13°15’
b) 359.78 m b) 140.87 m
c) 3+449.99 c) 4+625.56
2. a) 198.31 m 2. a) 7°38’
b) 422.47 m b) 1456.85 m
c) 15+618.96 c) 10+920.67


Lesson title: Reverse Curves Part 2 Materials:

At the end of this module, you will be able: References:
1. Layout and label reversed curve properly. Roy, S.K. (1999). Fundamentals of
2. List and assess the different types of reversed curves. Surveying. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of
“Strive for progress, not perfection.” -Unknown
In our previous lesson, we discussed about reverse curves having equal or unequal radii with
parallel tangents. In addition to these two cases of reversed curve we also have cases where the
tangents are inclined towards each other. These reversed curves are what we call “reversed curve
having equal or unequal radii with converging tangents.”

1. How to differentiate
converging and parallel
tangents?
B.MAIN LESSON
A reverse curve is formed curve is formed by two circular simple curves having a common
tangent but lies on opposite sides.


Case 3: Reversed curve with equal radii and converging tangents.
PC 𝑇 𝑅
𝐼
PRC
𝑇
𝑅 𝐼 𝜃
𝑇 𝑇 PT
Figure 9.3 Case 3
Case 4: Reversed curve with unequal radii and converging tangents.
𝑅
PC 𝑇
𝐼
PRC
𝑇
𝑅 𝐼 𝜃
𝑇 𝑇 PT
Figure 9.4 Case 4


Problem 1.
Two tangents converge at an angle of 30°, the direction of the second tangent is due east. The
vertical distance of the PC from the second tangent is 116.50. The bearing of the common tangent
is S 40° E.
a) Compute the central angle of the first curve.
b) If a reversed curve is to connect these two tangents, determine the common radius of the curve.
c) Compute the stationing of the PT if PC is located at 10+620.




Short Quiz!
Problem 1.
A reversed curve connects two converging tangents intersecting at an angle of 30°. The distance
of this intersection from the PI of the second curve is 150 m. The deflection angle of the common
tangent from the back tangent of the first curve is 20°R. The degree of curve of the second simple
curve is 6° and the stationing of the point of intersection of the first curve is 4+450.
a) Determine the radius of the first curve.
b) Determine the stationing of PRC.
c) Determine the station of PT.


C. LESSON WRAP-UP

1.
2.
3.

1.
2.

1.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
1. a) 20° 1. a) 738.68 m
b) 200.86 m b) 4+577.81
c) 10+865.39 c) 4+744.48


Lesson title: Spiral Curves Materials:

1. Layout and label spiral curve properly. Roy, S.K. (1999). Fundamentals of
2. Summarize and apply all the formulas involved in spiral Surveying. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of
Feel free to ask your professors when you did not fully
understand the topic. Learning through questioning is an
efficient way to minimize your confusions and to avoid
misunderstandings.
A spiral curve is a geometric feature that can be added on to a regular circular curve. It makes
the road, or a track follow the same form that the vehicle naturally takes. These curves are generally
used to provide a gradual change in curvature from a straight section of a road to a curved section.
It assists the driver by providing a natural path to follow and improves the appearance of circular
curves by reducing the break in alignment perceived by drivers.
A car doesn’t go directly from a straight path to a full turn. There is transition area where you
slowly turn the steering wheel, the lateral acceleration is slowly increased as you enter through the
spiral or slowly decreased as the spiral is exited. And this greatly improves passenger comfort.
Railroad industry is where spirals are used extensively. On railroad tracks, all but very low speed
curves have spirals on both sides of the curve. One disadvantage of the use of spirals is it increases
the amount of space required for each curve and for this reason spirals are not widely used in
highways.



1. Do you have any idea about
length of throw? If yes, define
it.
2. In simple and spiral curve, is
there a difference in the
formula used to solve for the
external distance? If yes,
state the difference.
B.MAIN LESSON
𝐼
𝑆
𝐸
𝑇
𝑧 SC CS
TS 𝑅 ST
𝑅
𝐼
𝜃 𝐼 𝜃
Figure 10.1 Spiral Curve


SC 𝑥 SC
𝜃 𝑆𝑇
𝑥
𝑃
𝜃
𝑦 𝐿 𝐿
𝐿 𝐿𝑇 𝑖
𝑖
TS TS
Elements of Spiral Curve

𝑇𝑆 = Tangent to spiral
𝑆𝐶 = Spiral to curve
𝐶𝑆 = Curve to spiral
𝑆𝑇 = Spiral to tangent
𝐿𝑇 = Long tangent
𝑆𝑇 = Short tangent
𝑅 = Radius of simple curve
𝑇 = Spiral tangent distance
𝐿 = Length of spiral from 𝑇𝑆 to any point along the spiral
𝐿 = Length of spiral
𝑃𝐼 = Point of intersection
𝐼 = Angle of intersection
𝐼 = Angle of intersection of the simple curve
𝑝 = Length of throw or the distance from tangent that the circular curve has been offset
𝑥 = Offset distance (right angle distance) from tangent to any point on the spiral
𝑥 = Offset distance (right angle distance) from tangent to 𝑆𝐶
𝑦 = Distance along tangent to any point on the spiral
𝑦 = Distance along tangent from 𝑇𝑆 to point at right angle to 𝑆𝐶
𝐸 = External distance of the simple curve
𝜃 = Spiral angle from tangent to any point on the spiral


Formulas for Spiral Curves
 Distance along tangent to any point on the spiral:

𝐿
𝑦 𝐿
40𝑅 𝐿
𝐴𝑡 𝐿 𝐿 ,𝑦 𝑦 , 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠
𝐿
𝑦 𝐿
40𝑅
 Offset distance from tangent to any point on the spiral:
𝐿
𝑥
6𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑡 𝐿 𝐿 ,𝑥 𝑥 , 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠
𝐿
𝑥
6𝑅
 Length of throw:
𝑥 𝐿
𝑝
4 24𝑅
 Spiral angle from tangent to any point on the spiral (in radian):
𝐿
𝜃
2𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑡 𝐿 𝐿 ,𝜃 𝜃 , 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠
𝐿
𝜃
2𝑅
 Deflection angle from TS to any point on the spiral:
𝜃 𝐿
𝑖
3 6𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑡 𝐿 𝐿 ,𝜃 𝜃 , 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠
𝜃 𝐿
𝑖
3 6𝑅


This angle is proportional to the square of its distance

𝑖 𝐿
𝑖 𝐿
 Tangent distance:
𝐿 𝐼
𝑇 𝑅 𝑃 tan
2 2
 Angle of intersection of simple curve:
𝐼 𝐼 2𝜃
 External Distance:
𝑅 𝑃
𝐸 𝑅
𝐼
cos
2
Problem 1.
A simple curve having a radius of 280 m connects two tangents intersecting at an angle of 50°.
It is to be replaced by another curve having 80 m spirals at its ends such that the point of tangency
shall be the same.
a) Determine the radius of the new circular curve.
b) Determine the distance that the curve will be nearer the vertex.
c) Determine the central angle of the circular curve.
d) Determine the deflection angle at the end of the spiral.
e) Determine the offset from tangent at the end point of the spiral.
f) Determine the distance along the tangent at the midpoint of the spiral.




Short Quiz!
Problem 1.
A spiral curve was laid out in a certain portion of the Manila-Cavite Coastal Road. It has a length
of spiral of 80 m and an angle of intersection of the two tangents of 40 degrees. If the degree of
curve is 6 degrees, determine the following element of the spiral curve to be laid out.
a) Length of long and short tangent.
b) External distance.
c) Length of throw.
d) Maximum velocity that a car could pass thru the curve without skidding.


C. LESSON WRAP-UP

1.
2.
3.

1.
2.

1.
FAQs
1. Do you really need to memorize all the derived formulas provided in the module for problems
involving spiral curve?
Ans. You don’t need to if you know how to manipulate equations and interpret formulas. For
example, in the derived formula for xc , Ls is present while in the derived formula for xp ,L is
present. To lessen the formulas you need to memorize, you just need to remember the derived
formula for xp and bear in mind to substitute Ls to L in computing xc. The rest is up you to figure
out.
2. Is the length of spiral (Ls) is always given in the problem?

Ans. It is not given all the time. In transportation engineering, there is a derived formula provided


to solve for the length of spiral.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
1. a) 192.84 m 1. a) 26.84 m
b) 21.461 m b) 53.4 m
c) 26°13’37” c) 15.08 m
d) 3°57’41.77” d) 1.395 m
e) 5.53 m e) 75.15 kph
f) 39.99 m


Lesson title: Symmetrical Parabolic Curves Materials:

1. Locate the elevations of the required stations. Roy, S.K. (1999). Fundamentals of
2. List and establish the different elements of a parabolic Surveying. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of
Being a remote student is a marathon, not a sprint. Pace yourself and

make sure to take study breaks while studying. A power nap, twenty
minutes preferable, will relax and refresh your mind and body in the
same way a regular sleep do.
As you have learned in our previous lessons, horizontal curves are used in highway work are
generally in the arcs of circle. On the other hand, vertical curves are usually parabolic and that’s why
it is also called as parabolic curve. Parabolic curves are used to connect stretches of road that go up
or down at a constant slope. These lines of slope are called grade tangents. The rate of slope is
called gradient or simple grade which is usually in terms of percent.
These curves provide a smooth transition between two vertical tangent roads. The longer the
curve, the more gradual the transition will be from one grade to next; the shorter the curve the
more abrupt change will be. There are two types of vertical curves namely symmetrical curve and
unsymmetrical curve. Symmetrical curve is symmetric at the point of intersection of tangent lines
at the curve. Meanwhile, unsymmetrical curve has unequal horizontal projections of the tangents.



1. What is the length of one full
station?
2. If you can recall the squared
property equation of
parabola, write Yes and
provide the equation.
B.MAIN LESSON
Symmetrical Parabolic Curve
PI
ℎ
𝑔 𝐻 𝑦
𝑔
ℎ
PC
PT
𝑆 𝑆
𝐿 𝐿
2 2
𝑥
Figure 9.4 Symmetrical Parabolic Curve
ℎ 𝑥𝑔 ℎ 𝑆 𝑔
𝑦 𝐻
𝑆 𝐿
2
𝐿
𝐻 𝑔 𝑔
8
 Location of the highest or lowest point of the curve:


a) 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑃𝐶:
𝑔𝐿
𝑆
𝑔 𝑔
b) 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑃𝑇:
𝑔 𝐿
𝑆
𝑔 𝑔
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒, 𝑟
𝑔 𝑔
𝑟
𝑛
where, 𝑛 no. of station of curve
Problem 1.
A symmetrical vertical summit curve has tangents of +4% and -2%. The allowable rate of change
of grade is 0.3% per meter station. Stationing and elevation of PT is at 10+020 and 142.63 m
respectively.
a) Compute the length of curve.
b) Compute the distance of the highest point of curve from the PC.
c) Compute the elevation of the highest point of curve.



Short Quiz!
Problem 1.
A vertical parabolic sag curve of Lapulapu underpass has a grade of -4% followed by a grade of
+2% intersecting at station 12+150.60 at elevation 124.80 m above sea level. The change of grade
of the sag curve is restricted to 0.6%.
a) Compute the length of curve.
b) Compute the elevation of the lowest point of the curve.
c) Compute the elevation at station 12+125.60.


C. LESSON WRAP-UP

1.
2.
3.

1.
2.

1.
FAQs
1. How can you compute the length of the curve after computing the no. of stations?
Ans. Length of curve= one full station × no. of stations. In metric system, if the problem didn't
indicate the length of one full station, use 20 m.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
1. a) 400 m 1. a) 200 m
b) 266.67 m from PC b) 126.14 m
c) 143.97 m c) 126.64 m


Lesson title: Unsymmetrical Parabolic Curves Materials:

1. Distinguish the difference between symmetrical and Roy, S.K. (1999). Fundamentals of
unsymmetrical parabolic curve. Surveying. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of
2. Locate the elevations of the required stations. India Private Limited
3. List and establish the different elements of a parabolic Schofield, W. & Breach, M. (2007).
curve. Engineering Surveying. Burlington,
“There are no shortcuts to any place worth going.”-Beverly Sills
In our previous lesson, you learned about symmetrical parabolic curve where a parabolic arc
that connects two tangents wherein their (tangents) horizontal projections are equal. Meanwhile,
unsymmetrical parabolic curve is characterized by two unequal tangents, resulting in an unequal
division of the curve at the PI. The rates of change of the slope of the two sections of the curve under
the two tangents are different and the point under the PI forms the transition between the two
rates.
Unsymmetrical curves may be permitted in situations with constrained geometrics-roadways
with multiple control points, freeway ramps, and grade-separated structures where a minimum
vertical clearance between two roadbeds must be provided.

1. What is the main difference
between symmetrical and
unsymmetrical parabolic
curve?


B.MAIN LESSON
Unsymmetrical Parabolic Curve
PI
ℎ
𝑔 𝑦 𝐻
ℎ 𝑔
PC
PT
𝑆 𝑆
𝐿 𝐿
𝑥
Figure 9.4 Unsymmetrical Parabolic Curve
ℎ 𝑥𝑔 ℎ 𝑆𝑔
𝑦 𝐻
𝑆 𝐿
𝐿 𝐿 𝑔 𝑔
𝐻
𝐿 𝐿 2
 Location of the highest or lowest point of the curve:
a) 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑃𝐶: b) 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑃𝑇:

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛,
𝑔𝐿 𝑔𝐿
𝐻 𝐻
2 2
𝑔𝐿 𝑔 𝐿
𝑆 𝑆
2𝐻 2𝐻


Problem 2.
An unsymmetrical parabolic curve has a forward tangent of -8% and a back tangent of +5%. The
length 6+780 and has an elevation of 110 m. An outcrop is found at station 6+800 has an elevation
of 108.40 m.
a) Compute the height of fill needed to cover the outcrop.
b) Compute the elevation of curve at station 6+820.
c) Compute the elevation of the highest point on the curve.




Short Quiz!
Problem 1.
A forward tangent having a slope of -4% intersects the back tangent having a slope +7% at point
V at stations 6+300 having an elevation of 230 m. It is required to connect the two tangents with an
unsymmetrical parabolic curve that shall pass through point A on the curve having an elevation of
227.57 m at station 6+270. The length of curve is 60 m on the side of the back tangent.
a) Determine the length of the curve on the side of the forward tangent.
b) Determine the stationing of the highest point of the curve.
c) Determine the elevation of the highest point of the curve.


C. LESSON WRAP-UP

1.
2.
3.

1.
2.

1.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
1. a) 2.21 m 1. a) 40 m
b) 110.44 m b) 6+315.76
c) 110.642 m c) 228.89 m


Lesson title: Earthworks Operation Materials:

1. Perform earthwork computations. Roy, S.K. (1999). Fundamentals of
2. Calculate the volume of earthworks using several Surveying. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of
methods of volume measurement. India Private Limited
Refrain from multi-tasking. Concentrate on what needs to

get done in the present and avoid anything too far-off.
Arrange your tasks in order of importance and pay
attention on crucial tasks that require the most effort.
Earthwork operations and computations are key elements in the overall route location
procedure. It consists of the movement of materials to establish a predetermined surface for the
construction of public and private works and determination of the volume of materials moved. It
involves processes such as excavating, hauling, dumping, crushing and compacting of soil or
unformed rock. These activities are done primarily with heavy construction equipment, such as
bulldozers, graders, etc.
Before any fieldwork operation start, there is a procedure to follow to execute the construction
properly. These are as follows; (1) field work involves acquisition of terrain data (usually profile and
cross sections) and setting points (grade stakes and slope stakes) to guide construction on site,
(2) office work involves acquisition of terrain data from maps or by photogrammetric methods,
processing terrain data, calculating volumes of excavated or embanked materials, and
(3) determination of the most economic procedure for performing the excavation and
embankment.



1. Do you remember the
prismoidal formula used in
solid geometry? If yes, write
it.
2. What is the importance of
calculating the volume of
earthworks?
B.MAIN LESSON
Prismoidal Formula, 𝑉
𝐿
𝐴 2
𝐿
𝐴 2
𝐿
𝑉 𝐴 4𝐴 𝐴
6
Average-End Area Formula, 𝑉

𝐿
𝑉 𝐴 𝐴
2


Prismoidal Correction, 𝑉
The difference between the volumes obtained by the average-end-area formula and the
prismoidal formula is called the Prismoidal Correction VCP.
𝐷 𝐷
𝐶
𝐶
𝐴 𝐴
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝐿
𝑉 𝐶 𝐶 𝐷 𝐷
12
Problem 1.
The following is a set of notes of an earthworks of a road construction which is undertaken by
the Bureau of Public Works.
Station Cross Section
_9.0_ _4.5_ _4.5_ _6.0_
1+020 +2.0
+3.0 +4 +1.5 +1.0
_7.5_ _4.5_ _4.5_ _9.0_

1+040 +4.0
+2.0 +5.0 +2.0 +3.0
The base of the road way is 9 m which conforms with the BPWH standards.
Side slope is 1.5:1.
a) Compute the cross-sectional area at sta. 1+020.
b) Compute the cross-sectional area at sta. 1+040.
c) Compute the volume between the two stations using end area method.




Short Quiz!
Problem 1.
Given the cross section notes of an earthwork between station 10+100 to 10+200. Assume both
stations to have the same side slope and width of the base.
STA. 10+100
Left Center Right
_6.45_ __0__ _4.5_
+2.3 +1.5 +1.0
STA. 10+200
_6.0_ __0__ _6.9_
+2.0 x +2.6
a) Compute the width of the base.
b) Compute the value of x at station 10+200 if it has a cross sectional area of 14.64 m2.
c) Compute the volume between stations 10+100 and 10+200 using end area method with
prismoidal correction.


C. LESSON WRAP-UP

1.
2.
3.

1.
2.

1.
FAQs
1. What is the advisable technique/method in solving for the cross-sectional area of cut and fill?
Ans. The simpler way to compute the cross-sectional area of cut and fill is to divide the cross
sections into triangles or trapezoids.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
2
1. a) 31.5 m 1. a) 6 m
2
b) 45.75 m b) 1.2 m
3
c) 772.5 m c) 1395 m3


Lesson title: Distribution Analysis of Earthwork Materials:

1. List and define the different terms involved in earthworks Roy, S.K. (1999). Fundamentals of
distribution. Surveying. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of
2. Classify and apply the methods in analyzing earthworks India Private Limited
distribution. Schofield, W. & Breach, M. (2007).
Study multiple subjects a day to boost your learning. Start

with a subject that you find comes more easily to you then
move to a course subject that you find to be a bit more
complicated. Lastly, focus on the subject that you find
Distribution analysis calculates the accumulation of excavation obtained and embankment
required, station by station over the length of the project. This technique helps the designer to
determine if the earthwork is going to be borrowed or wasted. It also determines the final grades
to balance the cut and fill and plans the most economical movement of material.
Earthwork contracts usually allow payment for earthwork by lump sum or on the basis of volume
of materials moved. Thus, for a given job the contractor needs to know the volumes of cut and fill,
where these quantities are located, and the distances materials must be moved. Preparatory to
detailed discussions concerning distribution analysis, first consider some definitions related to the
movement of cut and placing of fill or embankment.

1. What do you think is the
importance of earthwork
computations?


2. What do you call the process

of constructing a road
whereby the amount of
material from cuts roughly
matches the amount of fill?
B.MAIN LESSON
Definition of Terms:
 Excavation
- is a pay quantity consisting of materials in cut which are transported to another location
and placed in fill or embankment.
 Haul Distance / Haul
- it is the distance that a cubic unit of material is transported from cut to fill.
 Free-Haul Distance
- a distance a contractor can haul a cubic unit of excavated material and placed it in fill
without extra cost above the cost for excavation.
 Overhaul
- any haul distance beyond free haul, for which there is an extra charge.
 Waste
- material excavated but not use for fill.
 Borrow
- material needed for fill but not obtained from the roadway grading.
Use of the Mass Diagram

The following points may be noted when using the mass diagram.
1. Points beyond which it is not feasible to haul material define the limits of a mass diagram. A limit
point may be the beginning of a project, the end of a project, the bank of a river or an edge of a
deep ravine where a bridge will be constructed.
2. Since the ordinates to. the diagram represent the algebraic sums of the volumes of excavation
and embankment referred to the initial ordinate, the total volumes of the excavation and
embankment will be equal where the final ordinate equals the initial ordinate. If the final
ordinate is greater than the initial ordinate, there is an excess of excavation, if it is less than the
initial ordinate, the volume of embankment is greater and additional material must be obtained
to complete the embankments.


3. Grade line is usually fixed keeping in mind that it should not exceed the permissible limit.
Balancing lines should be drawn over moderate distances. Long balancing line though ensures
balancing of earthwork may mean long overhaul distances and more cost. In such a case it may
be economical to waste material at one place and obtain the volumes necessary for filling from
borrow pits located along the right of way.
4. Costing of earthwork may be computed by using a mass diagram. The limit of economic haul
(LEH) is the distance beyond which it is cheaper to borrow or waste material. It is determined
from the following:
𝐶 𝐶
𝐿𝐸𝐻 𝐹
𝐶
𝐶 = cost to borrow 1 unit volume

𝐶 = cost for overhaul per station unit
𝐹 = free haul distance, stations
𝐿𝐸𝐻 = limit of economic haul, stations
𝐶 = length of station interval
Problem 1.
The earthworks data of a proposed highway shown on the tabulated data.
Length of economic haul = 450 m
Stationing of limits of economic haul = 2+498.03 and 2+948.03
Stationing of limits of free haul = 2+713.12 and 2+763.12
Free haul distance is 50 m.
Assume the ground surface to be uniformly sloping.
Area
Station
Cut Fill
2
2+440 50 m
2+740 0 Balancing Point
3+040 70 m2
a) Compute the overhaul volume.
b) Compute the volume of waste.
c) Compute the volume of borrow.




Short Quiz!
Problem 1.
The given data of a proposed Manila-Cavite Coastal Road is tabulated below. The free haul
distance is 50 m and the cost of borrow is P420 per cu. m., cost pf excavation is P350 per cu. m. and
the cost of haul is P21 per meter station. The ground surface is assume to be uniformly sloping.
Area
Station
Cut Fill
2
10+160 41.13 m
10+401.97 0 Balancing Point
10+610 47.85 m2
a) Compute the limit of economic haul.
b) Compute the free haul volume.
c) Compute the overhaul volume.


C. LESSON WRAP-UP

1.
2.
3.

1.
2.

1.
FAQs
1. In metric system, what will be the assumed value for the length of station interval if it is not
specified in a given problem?
Ans. If the problem did not specify the length of station interval, always use 20 m.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
3
1. a) 4819.10 m 1. a) 450 m
b) 2620.92 m3 b) 61.42 m3
c) 5451.06 m3 c) 4915 m3

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CIE 112

PEN Code: CIE 112 Credit: 4 units

C. Course Topics and Time Allotment:

Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Lesson title: Introduction to Surveying Materials:

“Make studying FUN”

Visualize yourself as the

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION 1

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2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

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Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION 3

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Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

b. What is the difference between a Plane Surveying and Geodetic Surveying?

c. Give at least two examples for each of the type of Surveys.

3) Activity 4: Check for Understanding (5 mins)

Where do you think the technical

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Three things you learned:

Two things that you would like to learn more about:

One question you still have:

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- locating the site of construction

5. Hydrographic Surveys 10. Topographic Surveys

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Lesson title: Horizontal Distance Measurement Materials:

Study smart! It is better to study in a short period of time

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION 1

Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, Part 1 (3 mins)

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

2. Choose at least 1 instrument/

3. How to eliminate or minimize

Horizontal Distance Measurement

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Pace Distance Pace Factor No. of Paces

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Electronic Distance Measurement

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Errors in Measurement of Distance using Tape

Mistakes in Measurement of Distances

Correction applied for measurement of distances

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Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

2. Pull Correction Correction: 𝑇𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝐴𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑

3. Sag Correction: 𝑇𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦

𝑤 weight of tape in 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 or 𝑁/𝑚

4. Slope Correction: 𝑇𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦

𝐻 horizontal distance or corrected distance

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