Developmental

Psychology B
Session 6:
Social Development
SACAP Online Flexi campus
(Term 1, 2024)
Educator: Tamarin Epstein
 Reflection Activity:
Love and Social Networks
Think about the social networks (relationships of various kinds and
levels of closeness) which you have in your life now.

What qualities do you think make a person likeable/lovable?

In what way are your social relationships different, to those you
had 10 years ago, and 20 years ago?
Why, and in what way, do our social networks change, as we age?
Robert Sternberg’s (1986)
Triangular theory of Love
(self-disclosure, closeness, affirmation)

Affectionate/

Commitment (decision to
spend time together)

(deep physical & sexual

attraction)
 Romantic love
(Passionate love/Eros)

• High interpersonal attraction, sexual desire & heightened

arousal.
• Usually involves deep mutual absorption in each other &
infatuation (idealization) of one another.
 Intimacy – emotional affection, warmth, sharing, closeness
(connectedness) with another.
 Passion – intense physical & sexual attraction.
 Consummate love
(Mature/ideal love)

 Consummate love (ideal love) involves Romantic love (Intimacy

and Passion) plus Commitment.

• Commitment is the cognitive appraisal of a relationship, and

determination to maintain the relationship in the long-term,
even in the face of problems.
 Attachment theory
• Attachment theory is based on the innate
human need to form attachments with
others throughout life, in order to function
well.
• Attachment is a psychoanalytic term,
denoting specific love relations (enduring
affectional ties one person forms to another
specific individual).
• A child’s first object is mother/breast. This
primary attachment/”cathexis” (investment
of mental/emotional energy) forms the
prototype for all later love relations.
• Early infant-mother relations are crucial in
psychological development. A child’s first
dependency relationship is usually with
mother (or primary caregiver).
 Attachment theory
• John Bowlby was a developmental ecologist
(he believed that we are affected by, and
affect, our environment).
• Bowlby studied the animal research
literature, especially Harry Harlow's work
with infant monkeys, which supported his
theory that proximity to and close bodily
contact with a mother figure cements the
infant's attachment, rather than the giving
of food.
• Harlow’s work with monkeys showed the
emotional effects of isolating monkeys from
birth, and preventing them from forming
attachments – these isolated monkeys were
withdrawn, unable to relate to their peers,
unable to mate, and not able to care for
their babies.
 Attachment
• Bowlby understood attachment
behaviour as an important
evolutionary/survival aspect of human
behaviour (at the same basic level as
eating and sex, and as serving a
biological function of protecting the
person throughout their life).
• Bowlby found that more sensitive
parents generally had securely
attached children: children who had
learnt how to love and be loved.
 Attachment
• Mary Ainsworth was also a developmental
ecologist, like Bowlby.
• She invented a 20 minute laboratory research
experiment, called a Strange Situation:
o Babies were exposed to increasing levels of
stress, to quickly assess the quality and
security of the infant-mother attachment.
Episode (approx. 3 mins each) Persons present Change

1 Parent, infant Enter room

2 Parent, infant & stranger Unfamiliar adult joins the dyad
3 Infant, stranger Parent leaves
4 Parent, infant Parent returns, stranger leaves
5 Infant Parent leaves
6 Infant, stranger Stranger returns
7 Parent, infant Parent returns, stranger leaves
 Attachment
• Ainsworth found that mothers who responded
relatively quickly and consistently to the baby’s
crying, had babies who - by the end of the first
year - cried relatively little and were securely
attached.
• She found that mothers who were sensitively
and appropriately responsive to the baby’s
signals in general (including feeding signals)
promoted secure infant-mother attachment.
• As Bowlby had proposed, Ainsworth found that
close bodily contact with the mother
terminates intensely activated attachment
behaviour (full-blown crying): pick the baby up!
 Attachment
• Securely attached babies responded
positively to being picked up and
comforted, when they were upset; and also
responded positively to being put down,
and usually started exploring their
environment.
• Timely and appropriate close bodily
contact does not "spoil" babies, or make
them fussy and clingy.
• You cannot spoil a baby! Say No to
“Controlled crying”!
• Ainsworth found that approx. 65% of
infants are securely attached by the age of
2 years.
 Ainsworth’s
3 patterns of Attachment
1.Securely attached
Strange Situation: The baby plays comfortably when the
mother is present, and becomes visibly upset when she
leaves, but is quickly calmed by her return. The baby
didn’t cry much, unless the mother was absent or
seemed about to leave.
• Babies used the mother as a secure family base
from which to explore the world, and as a safe
space.
• This secure attachment forms a strong basis for
the baby to learn how to form positive adult
relationships: Adults with a secure internal
working model feel good about themselves and
others, and trust (do not fear being abandoned) in
relationships.
 3 patterns of Attachment
2. Insecure Anxious-ambivalent (Resistant)
Strange Situation: The baby finds it difficult to play and explore,
even when it is safe. The baby appears anxious and cries a lot,
even when the mother is near.
When the mother leaves the room, the baby protests excessively,
but is not very comforted when she returns. The baby may cling
to the mother.
• Because the child has inconsistent parents, s/he develops a
pattern of alternating between accepting and rejecting the
caregiver/child relationship.
• These individuals develop a preoccupied internal working
model: they have a positive view of others, but feel
unlovable.
• They want close relationships, but fear abandonment; so
become overly dependent (clingy) on their partners.
 3 patterns of Attachment
3. Insecure Anxious-avoidant (non-attached)
Strange Situation: The baby avoids close contact with people. The baby seeks
little contact with the mother, when she is in the room, and is not distressed,
when she leaves. The baby lingers near caregivers instead of coming to them,
when faced with a threat. The baby doesn’t come to the mother, or seek
attention from her; and mostly ignores her when she returns to the room.
• These babies are left alone for long periods by an unresponsive mother.
Their pattern of non-attachment is caused by a rejecting, impoverished
relationship (the child has been parented aggressively or harshly).
• These individuals develop a dismissing internal working model: a positive
view of self, but no trust in others. They keep partners at a distance, and
tend to withdraw and rely on themselves, rather than seek comfort from
others.
• This early experience of loss and abandonment sets up an emotional
pattern, ensuring that later in life, losses (e.g. the parents’ divorce, or the
death of a loved one) will cause this powerful sense of loss to be re-
experienced.
 3 patterns of Attachment
A 4th category of insecure attachment was added to Ainsworth’s model (later, after
further research):

4.Insecure-disorganized/disorientated (fearful):
Strange Situation: the baby behaves bizarrely, and is confused, when feeling threatened
(e.g. the baby may hide from the parent). The child is insecure, and confused about
whether to approach or avoid the mother. The baby experiences “fright without
solution”: a conflict between a desire to approach and flee from a frightening parent.
• These parents are emotionally absent/unavailable, and were abused themselves
as children.
• The child develops a fearful internal working model (negative views of both self
and others). They display a confusing, unpredictable mix of neediness and fear of
closeness.
• The child is very damaged emotionally: s/he may develop a Reactive Attachment
Disorder (either the inhibited or disinhibited type).
• Severe personality disorder and dissociative phenomena are experienced, in
adolescence/early adulthood.
 Consequences of Attachment quality
• The most important factor in determining the quality of attachment is
the interaction between parents and their babies.
• The quality of attachment has a significant effect on current and future
behaviour and development of the baby.
1. Caregiving style:
 A secure attachment is most likely to occur when caregivers respond
sensitively and consistently to their infant’s needs. Predictable,
consistent, warm, and responsive parenting promotes secure
attachment relationships because infants develop a secure internal
working model.
 In traditional, rural African societies, a child may have many caregivers.
Ainsworth found that this, as well as traditional caregiving practices like
carrying babies on the back, tended to produce a securely attached
child.
 Caregivers of insecurely attached infants tend to be irritable, rejecting,
inconsistent, abusive, and may be depressed.
2. A second factor contributing to the quality of attachment is
temperament: Babies with difficult temperaments are somewhat less
likely to form secure attachments.
 Developmental social neuroscience
and Attachment
Brain areas important in maternal attachment behaviour:
• Prefrontal cortex
• Subcortical regions of amygdala
• Hypothalamus

Hormones and neurotransmitters involved in attachment

• Oxytocin: (love hormone) a hormone produced by the
brain that acts as a neurotransmitter, and is involved in
sex, love, and social bonding. It is released during
breastfeeding, and by contact and warmth.
• Vasopressin: an anti-diuretic hormone produced by the
brain, which is also important in social behaviour,
sexual motivation, pair bonding, and maternal stress
responses.
 Social Network Theories
 Social Convoy Model of Social Relations
o Our social connections have different levels/dimensions of
closeness, and are transactional (involve exchanges in social
support). Multiple dimensions include social support, structure,
and satisfaction with support (Kahn & Antonucci, 1980).

 Social Exchange theory

o Our social behaviour represents a process of exchange.
o We weigh the potential benefits against potential risks to our
social relationships
o Relationships will be ended/abandoned, when risks outweigh
rewards.
 Social Network Theories
 Socio-emotional Selectivity theory
o A life-span theory of motivation, proposing that our perception of time
affects how selective we are, in investing our energy on social
relationships. As we age, we perceive there is less time. Consequently,
we become increasingly more selective about what goals and activities
we invest our resources into: relationships need to be emotionally
meaningful to us, for us to want to invest our limited time and energy in
them.
 Social Capital theory
o Social relationships are resources that can lead to developing and
accumulating human capital (e.g. a stable family environment can
support educational achievement and support us in developing valued
skills and credentials.
o Social capital revolves around 3 dimensions: interconnected networks of
relationships between individuals and groups (social ties/social
participation), levels of trust of these ties, and resources or benefits
gained and transferred by social ties and social participation.
 Baumrind’s (1971) Parenting Styles:

Different combinations of Warmth and Control yields 4 styles

of parenting:

1. Authoritarian parents are controlling, but

uninvolved (not warm).
o Parenting is restrictive and punitive.
o Children are expected to respect and obey.
o The parent may often spank the child, rigidly enforce rules
without any explanation of them, and show rage.
o “My way or the highway”
o There is a correlation (association) between authoritarian
parenting and increased levels of aggression in children.
o Children tend to be unhappy and fearful, and are anxious
about comparing themselves to others. They may lack
initiative and have poor communication skills.
 Baumrind’s (1971) Parenting Styles:

2. Authoritative parents are fairly controlling, but are also

responsive to their children.
o The child is encouraged to be independent, but there are
still limits and controls on their actions.
o There is much verbal exchange, and parents display
warmth, nurturance, and support towards the child.
o Children tend to develop more positively: they tend to be
happy, self-controlled, self-reliant, and oriented to
achievement.
o Children tend to have good peer relations, co-operate with
adults, and cope well with stress.
 Baumrind’s (1971) Parenting Styles:

3. Indulgent (indulgent-permissive) parents love, but

exert little control over their children.
o The parent is highly involved with the child, but
places few demands/controls on the child (lets the
child do what they want).
o The child is spoilt. S/he does not learn behaviour
control, expects to always get their own way, and is
disrespectful of others.
o Children may be domineering, egocentric,
noncompliant, and have trouble with peer relations.
 Baumrind’s (1971) Parenting Styles:

4.Neglectful (indifferent-uninvolved) parents are

neither warm nor controlling.
o The parent is uninvolved in the child’s life,
leading to social incompetence in the child,
poor self-control, and dependency, low self-
esteem, and immaturity.
o The child may be alienated from the family,
and show distrust and delinquency in
adolescence.

(Baumrind proposed the first 3 parenting

styles. This fourth “Style” – the
Neglectful/Indifferent style - was added
later by researchers: Eleanor Maccoby &
John Martin).
 References

• Louw, D. & Louw, A. (2019). Adult development and ageing (2nd ed. Ch.
5). South Africa: Haga Haga: Psychology Publications.
• Santrock, J. W. (2017). A topical approach to lifespan development (9th
ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.