Shock Compression and Chemical

Reaction of Multifunctional Energetic

Structural Materials 1st Edition - eBook
PDF
Go to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/download/shock-compression-and-chemical-reaction-of-mult
ifunctional-energetic-structural-materials-ebook-pdf/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Fundamentals of Multiscale Modeling of Structural

Materials 1st edition - eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/fundamentals-of-multiscale-
modeling-of-structural-materials-ebook-pdf/

Elements of Chemical Reaction Engineering, Global

Edition, 6th Edition H. Fogler - eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/elements-of-chemical-reaction-
engineering-global-edition-6th-edition-ebook-pdf/

Fundamentals and Properties of Multifunctional

Nanomaterials 1st edition - eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/fundamentals-and-properties-of-
multifunctional-nanomaterials-ebook-pdf/

Nanopharmaceuticals: Expectations and Realities of

Multifunctional Drug Delivery Systems: Volume 1:
Expectations and Realities of Multifunctional Drug
Delivery Systems 1st Edition Ranjita Shegokar (Editor)
- eBook PDF
https://ebooksecure.com/download/nanopharmaceuticals-
expectations-and-realities-of-multifunctional-drug-delivery-
systems-volume-1-expectations-and-realities-of-multifunctional-
Delivery of Drugs: Expectations and Realities of
Multifunctional Drug Delivery Systems: Volume 2:
Expectations and Realities of Multifunctional Drug
Delivery Systems 1st Edition Ranjita Shegokar (Editor)
- eBook PDF
https://ebooksecure.com/download/delivery-of-drugs-expectations-
and-realities-of-multifunctional-drug-delivery-systems-
volume-2-expectations-and-realities-of-multifunctional-drug-
delivery-systems-ebook-pdf/

Fundamentals of Structural Dynamics 1st Edition - eBook

PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/fundamentals-of-structural-
dynamics-ebook-pdf/

Drug Delivery Aspects: Expectations and Realities of

Multifunctional Drug Delivery Systems: Volume 4:
Expectations and Realities of Multifunctional Drug
Delivery Systems 1st Edition Ranjita Shegokar (Editor)
- eBook PDF
https://ebooksecure.com/download/drug-delivery-aspects-
expectations-and-realities-of-multifunctional-drug-delivery-
systems-volume-4-expectations-and-realities-of-multifunctional-
drug-delivery-systems-ebook-pdf/

Reaction Rate Theory and Rare Events Simulations 1st

edition - eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/reaction-rate-theory-and-rare-
events-simulations-ebook-pdf/

Sustainable Nanoscale Engineering: From Materials

Design to Chemical Processing 1st Edition - eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/sustainable-nanoscale-
engineering-from-materials-design-to-chemical-processing-ebook-
pdf/
Shock Compression and Chemical
Reaction of Multifunctional
Energetic Structural Materials
 Mechanics of Advanced Materials Series
The Mechanics of Advanced Materials book series focuses on materials- and
mechanics-related issues around the behavior of advanced materials, including the
mechanical characterization, mathematical modeling, and numerical simulations of
material response to mechanical loads, various environmental factors (temperature
changes, electromagnetic fields, etc.), as well as novel applications of advanced mate-
rials and structures.
Volumes in the series cover advanced materials topics and numerical analysis of
their behavior, bringing together knowledge of material behavior and the tools of
mechanics that can be used to better understand and predict materials behavior. It pre-
sents new trends in experimental, theoretical, and numerical results concerning
advanced materials and provides regular reviews to aid readers in identifying the main
trends in research in order to facilitate the adoption of these new and advanced mate-
rials in a broad range of applications.
Series Editor-in-Chief
Vadim V. Silberschmidt
Vadim V. Silberschmidt is Chair of Mechanics of Materials and Head of the
Mechanics of Advanced Materials Research Group, Loughborough University,
United Kingdom. He was appointed to the Chair of Mechanics of Materials at the
Wolfson School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering at Loughborough
University, United Kingdom in 2000. Prior to this, he was a Senior Researcher at
the Institute A for Mechanics at Technische Universit€at M€unchen in Germany. Edu-
cated in the USSR, he worked at the Institute of Continuous Media Mechanics and
Institute for Geosciences [both—the USSR (later—Russian) Academy of Sciences].
In 1993-94, he worked as a visiting researcher, Fellow of the Alexander-von-
Humboldt Foundation at Institute for Structure Mechanics DLR (German Aerospace
Association), Braunschweig, Germany. In 2011-14, he was Associate Dean
(Research). He is a Charted Engineer, Fellow of the Institution of Mechanical Engi-
neers and Institute of Physics, where he also chaired Applied Mechanics Group in
2008-11. He serves as Editor-in-Chief (EiC) of the Elsevier book series on Mechanics
of Advanced Materials. He is also EiC, associate editor, and/or serves on the board of a
number of renowned journals. He has coauthored four research monographs and over
550 peer-reviewed scientific papers on mechanics and micromechanics of deforma-
tion, damage, and fracture in advanced materials under various conditions.
Series Editor
Thomas B€
ohlke
Thomas B€ ohlke is Professor and Chair of Continuum Mechanics at the Karlsruhe
Institute of Technology (KIT), Germany. He previously held professorial positions at
the University of Kassel and at the Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg,
Germany. His research interests include FE-based multiscale methods, homogenization
of elastic, brittle-elastic, and visco-plastic material properties, mathematical description
of microstructures, and localization and failure mechanisms. He has authored over 130
peer-reviewed papers and has authored or coauthored two monographs.
 Series Editor
David L. McDowell
David L. McDowell is Regents’ Professor and Carter N. Paden, Jr. Distinguished
Chair in Metals Processing at Georgia Tech University, United States. He joined
Georgia Tech in 1983 and holds a dual appointment in the GWW School of Mechan-
ical Engineering and the School of Materials Science and Engineering. He served as
the Director of the Mechanical Properties Research Laboratory from 1992 to 2012. In
2012 he was named Founding Director of the Institute for Materials (IMat), one of
Georgia Tech’s Interdisciplinary Research Institutes charged with fostering an inno-
vation ecosystem for research and education. He has served as Executive Director of
IMat since 2013. His research focuses on nonlinear constitutive models for engineer-
ing materials, including cellular metallic materials, nonlinear and time-dependent
fracture mechanics, finite strain inelasticity and defect field mechanics, distributed
damage evolution, constitutive relations, and microstructure-sensitive computational
approaches to deformation and damage of heterogeneous alloys, combined computa-
tional and experimental strategies for modeling high cycle fatigue in advanced engi-
neering alloys, atomistic simulations of dislocation nucleation and mediation at grain
boundaries, multiscale computational mechanics of materials ranging from atomistics
to continuum, and system-based computational materials design. A Fellow of SES,
ASM International, ASME, and AAM, he is the recipient of the 1997 ASME Materials
Division Nadai Award for career achievement and the 2008 Khan International Medal
for lifelong contributions to the field of metal plasticity. He currently serves on the
editorial boards of several journals and is coeditor of the International Journal of
Fatigue.
Series Editor
Zhong Chen
Zhong Chen is a Professor in the School of Materials Science and Engineering,
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. In March 2000, he joined Nanyang
Technological University (NTU), Singapore, as an Assistant Professor and has since
been promoted to Associate Professor and Professor in the School of Materials Sci-
ence and Engineering. Since joining NTU, he has graduated 30 PhD students and 5
MEng students. He has also supervised over 200 undergraduate research projects
(FYP, URECA, etc.). His research interests include (1) coatings and engineered
nanostructures for clean energy, environmental, microelectronic, and other functional
surface applications and (2) mechanical behavior of materials, encompassing mechan-
ics and fracture mechanics of bulk, composite and thin film materials, materials join-
ing, and experimental and computational mechanics of materials. He has served as an
editor/editorial board member for eight academic journals. He has also served as a
reviewer for more than 70 journals and a number of research funding agencies includ-
ing the European Research Council (ERC). He is an author of over 300 peer-reviewed
journal papers.
This page intentionally left blank
Elsevier Series in Mechanics of Advanced
Materials

Shock Compression
and Chemical Reaction
of Multifunctional
Energetic Structural
Materials

Xianfeng Zhang and Wei Xiong

School of Mechanical Engineering,
Nanjing University of Science and Technology,
Nanjing, China

Editor-in-Chief
Vadim V. Silberschmidt
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States

Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about
the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright
Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/
permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the
Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment
may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating
and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such
information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including
parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume
any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence
or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained
in the material herein.
ISBN: 978-0-12-819520-8

For information on all Elsevier publications

visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Matthew Deans

Acquisitions Editor: Dennis McGonagle
Editorial Project Manager: Hilary Carr
Production Project Manager: Prasanna Kalyanaraman
Cover Designer: Matthew Limbert

Typeset by STRAIVE, India

Contents

Preface ix
Acknowledgments xi

1 Preparation and microstructures of MESMs 1

Introduction 1
Static pressing 1
Explosive consolidation 7
Casting and curing 10
Cold rolling 12
Physical vapor deposition 16
References 20

2 Hugoniot equation of state (EOS) for MESMs 23

Basic principles of shock waves 23
Hugoniot EOS for solid materials 25
Hugoniot EOS for solid multicomponent mixtures 26
Hugoniot EOS for multicomponent mixtures with porosity 32
Shock temperature of MESMs 37
References 41

3 Thermochemical modeling on shock-induced chemical

reaction of MESMs 43
Introduction 43
Mechanism of shock reaction of MESMs 44
Thermochemical model 48
Hugoniot EOS for reaction of MESMs 52
Discussion 59
References 60

4 Mesoscale modeling of shock compression of MESMs 63

Introduction 63
Mesoscale characters of MESMs 64
Mesoscale modeling of shock compression of MESMs 75
Mesoscale characters of MESMs under shock compression 80
References 94
viii Contents

5 Multiscale modeling on shock-induced reaction of MESMs 97

Introduction 97
Mass transport mechanism 98
Multiscale models based on the infinite-transport-rate assumption 101
Multiscale simulation with limited transport rate 116
Multiscale simulation with limited transport rate considering
the effects of temperature and states of stress 122
References 132

6 Mechanical testing of MESMs 135

Introduction 135
Quasistatic compression tests 135
Split-Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) compression experiments 140
Flyer plate impact experiments 147
References 158

7 Experimental studies on chemical reaction of MESMs 161

Introduction 161
DTA and DSC analysis 162
Flyer plate impact experiments 165
Two-step impact initiation experiment 166
Other experimental methods 182
References 189

8 Application of MESMs 193

Introduction 193
Reactive shaped charge liners 193
RM-enhanced warhead casing 204
Reactive fragments 222
RM-enhanced projectile used in penetration munition 223
Space debris shield structure using MESMs 225
References 231

Index 233
Preface

This book is the outcome of the authors’ more than 15 years of research on multifunctional
energetic structural materials (MESMs), which are evolving as a class of materials that
integrate desirable characteristics of high energy density and rapid energy release prop-
erties along with an ideal combination of both mechanical properties. The purpose of the
book is to provide a systematic overview of both shock compression and shock-induced
reaction of MESMs, including preparation, mechanical properties, mathematical model-
ing, and numerical simulations as well as experiments and applications of MESMs. This
book serves as a systematic reference resource by providing readers with a brief introduc-
tion to the special functions of MESMs to further specific research methods. It contains
the most existing methods and related samples on solving shock-induced chemical reac-
tion problems. The book will not only assist researchers in this area in identifying theo-
retical, numerical, and experimental methods, but it will also serve as a comprehensive
guide for new learners who are interested in this field.
Following are the contents of the book, which are described in short and presented
in logical order so as to assist the readers.
Chapter 1 introduces the main preparation methods for MESMs, which correspond
to different types and microstructures of MESMs. Following this, theoretical models
for the equation of state and shock temperature in solid or porous MESM mixtures
subjected to shock compression are introduced in Chapter 2. The calculated temper-
ature owing to shock compression serves as an important input for the thermochemical
model to calculate the chemical reaction efficiency (Chapter 3). In addition, the micro-
structures, including particle sizes, shapes, and distributions, have significant effects
on the shock wave propagation and energy release capacity of MESMs. Therefore,
Chapters 4 and 5 propose typical mesoscale modeling or multiscale modeling methods
to calculate the dynamic response and shock-induced reaction behaviors of MESMs.
Experimental and measuring methods to test the two important properties, namely
mechanical properties and energy release characteristics, under elevated strain rates
are proposed in Chapters 6 and 7. Finally, Chapter 8 is devoted to the application
of MESMs, including the structures, action principles, and experimental methods
to evaluate capacities.
The authors hope that this book will serve as a useful reference resource for readers
by providing a systematic summary of MESMs from existing research studies. Any
constructive suggestion or feedback from readers about the contents of this book is
welcome.
Xianfeng Zhang
Wei Xiong
School of Mechanical Engineering, Nanjing University of Science
and Technology, Nanjing, China
This page intentionally left blank
Acknowledgments

It took us more than 3 years to complete this book; however, it has been more than
10 years to put forward the conception of the book. We thank all the organizations
and individuals who supported us during this period.
We also thank the Nanjing University of Science and Technology (NJUST) for
offering us excellent academic resources and research platforms to refer to literature
studies, to establish theoretical or simulation models, to carry out experiments, and to
conclude the research results.
Furthermore, we thank the National Natural Science Foundation of China for
supporting us with several projects (No. 12141202, No. 12002170, and No.
10902053) to investigate the shock reaction mechanism of MESMs and to explore
their applications.
We are very grateful to the following people for offering their research support and
assistance on this book: Dr. Liang Qiao (Beijing Institute of Space Long March Vehi-
cle/China), Mr. Anshun Shi (No. 52 Institute of China North Industries Group/China),
Mr. Jiang Zhang (Ningbo Branch of China Academy of Ordnance Science/China), Dr.
Mengting Tan (NJUST, China), Dr. Chuang Liu (NJUST, China), Prof. Zhongwei
Guan (University of Liverpool, United Kingdom), Dr. Ning Du (Shenyang Ligong
University/China), Ms. Xianwei Hou (NJUST, China), Dr. Jiajie Deng (Shanghai
Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences/China), Dr. Fei Gao (NJUST,
China), Dr. Haihua Chen (Shanghai Electro-Mechanical Engineering Institute/China),
Dr. Kuo Bao (NJUST, China), Mr. Bingyu Huang (NJUST, China), Mr. Haiyang Wei
(NJUST, China), Mr. Junwei Liu (NJUST, China), Mr. Pengcheng Li (NJUST,
China), Mr. Guoqing Han (NJUST, China), Mr. Yizhou Fang (NJUST, China), Mr.
Chaoping Zhang (NJUST, China), Mr. Jiamin Wang (NJUST, China), Mr. Weijing
Sun (NJUST, China), Mr. Yuxuan Deng (NJUST, China), Mr. Pengpeng Ge (NJUST,
China), and Ms. Yi Li (NJUST, China). We also thank all the editors of this book for
their generous help.
Finally, thanks are also due to the family members of the authors—Yu Leng, Hao
Zhou, Honghao Zhang, Hongjin Leng, and Mo Zhou—for their love and continuous
support in overcoming difficulties and finishing this book successfully.

Xianfeng Zhang
Wei Xiong
School of Mechanical Engineering, Nanjing University of Science
and Technology, Nanjing, China
This page intentionally left blank
Preparation and microstructures
of MESMs 1
Introduction
Multifunctional energetic structural materials (MESMs) are a special category of
energetic materials that integrate desirable characteristics of a high energy density
and rapid energy release properties along with at least one other designed functional-
ity, for example, mechanical strength. These materials can be combinations of ther-
mites, intermetallics, metal-polymer mixtures, metastable intermolecular composites
(MICs), matrix materials, and hydrides (Thadhani, 1994). Such mixtures are inert
under ambient conditions, and the traditional initiation methods such as flame initi-
ation are not sufficient to sustain a reaction; however, they will be triggered into reac-
tions in the case of energy supplied by the passage of sufficiently strong shock waves
(Reding & Hanagud, 2009). Therefore, one of the key technical issues on application
of MESMs is to ensure them with the two typical characteristics after preparation: one
is to ensure them with enough strength to realize specific structural functions and the
other is to give them energy release capacity.
This chapter gives detailed introduction on five main preparation methods for
MESMs, namely, static pressing, explosive consolidation, casting and curing, cold
rolling, and physical vapor deposition (PVD). The first three methods are used to fab-
ricate powder composites of MESMs, and the other two methods are used to fabricate
multilayered composites of MESMs. The fabrication process, machines, and typical
microstructures of MESMs are described in this chapter.

Static pressing
Static pressing, in other words, compression molding, is one of the most commonly
methods to prepare MESMs. With this method, multicomponent MESM powder mixtures
are pressed into entities with specific densities, which are often with porosity. The prep-
aration process is shown in Fig. 1.1. Static pressing takes advantage of a less expensive and
simple process, which is applicable for most of MESMs with different reaction types.
The fabrication process of MESMs by means of static pressing can be described as
follows:

Raw powder preparation

The constituents of MESMs are essentially chosen according to their properties,
including both the mechanical properties and energy release characteristics. Further-
more, some polymer or metal additives such as magnesium (Mg), tungsten (W),
Shock Compression and Chemical Reaction of Multifunctional Energetic Structural Materials.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819520-8.00007-2
Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 Shock Compression and Chemical Reaction of Multifunctional Energetic Structural Materials

Fig. 1.1 Schematic diagram of static pressing.

No Permission Required.

Fig. 1.2 Photograph of typical raw powders.

No Permission Required.

copper (Cu), Teflon, and epoxy polymer binders are usually used to improve one or
both of the properties. All the raw powders should have a purity exceeding 99%.
Fig. 1.2 shows the photograph of typical raw powders, and Fig. 1.3 gives the initial
morphology of each metal component visualized by scanning electron microscopy
(SEM). The Al particles have relatively homogeneous (spherical) shapes and smooth
surfaces, whereas the Ni and Cu particles have arbitrary (dendritic) shapes and rougher
surfaces that may be attributed to the electrolysis production method. The Al particle
size is less than 23μm, whereas Ni and Cu particles have a size less than 75 μm.

Mixing of the powders

The raw powders were mixed with a specific mass or volume ratio. Dry powder mix-
tures were first placed in a container and then milled at room temperature in a blender.
Then, the mixture powders can be dried again at 57°C on a conductive tray for approx-
imately 24 h.
Xiong et al. (2015) fabricated three composites, namely, Al/Ni, Al/Ni/poly-
tetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), and Al/Ni/Cu with volumetric ratios of 50:50,
Preparation and microstructures of MESMs 3

Fig. 1.3 SEM of typical metal components.

From Xiong, W., Zhang, X., Wu, Y., He, Y., Wang, C., & Guo, L. (2015). Influence of additives
on microstructures, mechanical properties and shock-induced reaction characteristics of Al/Ni
composites. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 648, 540–549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jallcom.2015.07.004.

45:45:10, and 45:45:10, respectively. The SEM images of the three powder mixtures
are shown in Fig. 1.4A–C, whereas the optical microscopy (OM) image of Al/Ni/Cu
powder mixtures is shown in Fig. 1.4D. In the three mixtures, Al particles are easy to
be identified because of their smooth surface and relatively darker phase. The reddish-
brown phase shown in Fig. 1.4D is Cu, the black phase is Ni, and the white smaller
phase is Al. All the images in Fig. 1.4 show a uniform distribution of particles after
mixing.

Quasistatic pressing
The powder mixtures are then pressed into samples of a specific size using compres-
sors, as shown in Fig. 1.5. The powder mixture is measured out and then added into a
die. The weight of the powder is decided by the desired volume and density of the
sample. The pressing cycle included pressing for at least 1min at a given pressure
and then releasing.
Fig. 1.4 SEM micrographs of the powder mixtures: (A) Al/Ni, (B) Al/Ni/PTFE, and (C) Al/Ni/
Cu and OM micrographs of (D) Al/Ni/Cu powder.
From Xiong, W., Zhang, X., Wu, Y., He, Y., Wang, C., & Guo, L. (2015). Influence of additives
on microstructures, mechanical properties and shock-induced reaction characteristics of Al/Ni
composites. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 648, 540–549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jallcom.2015.07.004.

Fig. 1.5 Typical compressors: A four-column hydraulic press (left) and the universal testing
machine (right).
Preparation and microstructures of MESMs 5

Fig. 1.6 Initial power mixtures (left) and pressed samples (right): (A) Al/Ni, (B) Al/Ni/PTFE,
and (C) Al/Ni/Cu.
From Xiong, W., Zhang, X., Wu, Y., He, Y., Wang, C., & Guo, L. (2015). Influence of additives
on microstructures, mechanical properties and shock-induced reaction characteristics of Al/Ni
composites. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 648, 540–549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jallcom.2015.07.004.

The powder mixtures and the pressed samples of the three Al/Ni composites fab-
ricated by Xiong et al. (2015) are shown in Fig. 1.6. The fabricated samples have
94.3% to 98.5% theoretical material densities by the static pressing method.
The microstructure images of the corresponding pressed samples are shown in the
SEM micrographs in Fig. 1.7A–C and the OM micrograph in Fig. 1.7D, respectively.
Similarly, the smoother and darker phases shown in SEM images are Al. All the
images reveal that the spherical Al particles are surrounded by a continuous Ni matrix.
This phenomenon existing in the microstructure of the pressed sample can be
explained by the morphology of the initial powders (Wei et al., 2012). The Ni powders
are dendritic and agglomerated in the pressed samples. The Ni powders plastically
deformed and became interconnected as a continuous phase and thus surrounded
and enveloped the Al particles during static pressing. The additive PTFE was histioid
after pressing and tended to adhere to Al particles. In the case of Cu as an additive, the
continuous Ni phase was partly broken and reconnected with similar-shape Cu
particles.

Sintering
Because of the reaction characteristics, most MESMs are assembled without sintering
and melting, which are related to high temperatures. However, the sintering process is
also applied, especially for low-strength MESMs such as fluorine polymer matrix
materials, to improve their mechanical properties.
Zhang et al. (2013) fabricated Al/W/PTFE granular composites with the mass
ratios of 24:0:76, 12:50:38, and 5.5:77:17.5, respectively. The specimens from the last
step (Fig. 1.8) were relaxed at ambient pressure and temperature prior to sintering to
remove entrapped air and to remove residual stress. A relaxation dwell time of about
4 h was thought to be satisfactory for our experiments. The pressed specimens were
then inserted into a vacuum sintering oven with the temperature set at 380°C. The
sintering furnace and the temperature history in the sintering cycle are shown in
Fig. 1.9. The oven temperature was ramped up to 380°C at a rate of about 50°C/h.
6 Shock Compression and Chemical Reaction of Multifunctional Energetic Structural Materials

Fig. 1.7 SEM micrographs of the pressed samples: (A) Al/Ni, (B) Al/Ni/PTFE, and (C) Al/Ni/
Cu and OM micrographs of (D) Al/Ni/Cu sample.
From Xiong, W., Zhang, X., Wu, Y., He, Y., Wang, C., & Guo, L. (2015). Influence of additives
on microstructures, mechanical properties and shock-induced reaction characteristics of Al/Ni
composites. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 648, 540–549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jallcom.2015.07.004.

Fig. 1.8 Mixture powders and pressed samples of Al/W/PTFE granular composites. (A) Al/W/
PTFE ¼ 24:0:76, (B) Al/W/PTFE ¼ 12:50:38, and (C) Al/W/PTFE ¼ 5.5:77:17.5.
From Zhang, X. F., Zhang, J., Qiao, L., Shi, A. S., Zhang, Y. G., He, Y., et al. (2013).
Experimental study of the compression properties of Al/W/PTFE granular composites under
elevated strain rates. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 581, 48–55. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.msea.2013.05.063.
Preparation and microstructures of MESMs 7

400

320

Temperature (°C)
240

160

80

0
0 6 12 18 24
Time (hrs)
(a) The sintering furnace (b) The temperature history of a sintering cycle
Fig. 1.9 Sintering device and the temperature history.
From Zhang, X. F., Zhang, J., Qiao, L., Shi, A. S., Zhang, Y. G., He, Y., et al. (2013).
Experimental study of the compression properties of Al/W/PTFE granular composites under
elevated strain rates. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 581, 48–55. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.msea.2013.05.063.

The pressed specimens were held at about 380°C for 6 h; then, the temperature was
reduced to 310°C at a rate of 50°C/h and held for 4 h. The specimens were further
cooled to ambient temperature at an average cooling rate of 50°C/h.

Explosive consolidation
Explosive consolidation is a technique that employs shock waves to compress pow-
ders to form components under high temperature and high pressure instantaneously
and is the idiographic application of shock wave physics in engineering (Wang
et al., 2014). It should be noted that because of the high peak pressures, these powder
mixture compacts might have certain amounts of intermetallics and preexisting cracks
after shock consolidation. These intermetallics and preexisting defects may influence
the mechanical properties of the shock-consolidated powder mixtures significantly
(Wei, 2011). Therefore, explosion consolidation is rarely used in fabricating MESMs.
Wei et al. (Wei, 2011; Wei et al., 2012) prepared metal-Al powder composites by
using double-tube explosive shock consolidation. The double-tube explosive consol-
idation system is shown in Fig. 1.10, which was developed by Meyers and Wang
(1988). This setup had a cylindrical geometry with two co-axial tubes. An outer cyl-
inder isolated the inner cylinder of the inner tube, and the powder mixture was placed
in the inner tube that surrounded the Al mandrel, which helped to prevent the Mach
stem (Meyers & Wang, 1988). The inner tube containing the powder mixture was
enclosed by ammonium nitrate/fuel oil, which detonated and obtained the explosive
velocity of 2.6 km/s. The peak pressure was in the range of 4–7 GPa throughout the
entire explosive consolidation process (Du et al., 2009).
8 Shock Compression and Chemical Reaction of Multifunctional Energetic Structural Materials

ANFO

Inner AI
cylinder mandrel

Powder

Gap

Outer
cylinder
End cap

Fig. 1.10 Double-tube explosive consolidation setup.

From Wei, C. T., Vitali, E., Jiang, F., Du, S. W., Benson, D. J., Vecchio, K. S., et al. (2012).
Quasi-static and dynamic response of explosively consolidated metal–aluminum powder
mixtures. Acta Materialia, 60(3), 1418–1432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2011.10.027.

The process of explosion consolidation can be concluded as the following steps

(Wei et al., 2012):

Raw material preparation

This process is introduced in detail in “Raw powder preparation” in "Static pressing"
section. Six metal powders, namely, Al, Ni, Nb, W, Mo, and Ta, were employed for
producing metal-Al composites by Wei et al. (2012). The initial particle morphologies
of the five metals are shown in Fig. 1.11. The Ni, Al, and W powders (Fig. 1.11A, B,
and E) have relatively homogeneous shapes and particle sizes of 30–80 μm diameters.
On the other hand, Nb, Ta, and Mo (Fig. 1.11C, D, and F) have arbitrary shapes and
sizes (in a range of less than 1–50 μm diameter).

Mixing of the powders

This process is introduced in detail in “Mixing of the powders” in "Static pressing"
section.

Explosion consolidation
The powder mixtures are measured out and assembled into an explosion consolidation
device. Once the explosive is initiated, a combustion wave will load on the powder
mixtures and produce the powder compaction.
Preparation and microstructures of MESMs 9

Fig. 1.11 SEM images of original (A) Ni, (B) Al, (C) Nb, (D) Ta, (E) W, and (F) Mo powders.
From Wei, C. T., Vitali, E., Jiang, F., Du, S. W., Benson, D. J., Vecchio, K. S., et al. (2012).
Quasi-static and dynamic response of explosively consolidated metal–aluminum powder
mixtures. Acta Materialia, 60(3), 1418–1432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2011.10.027.

In Wei’s research (Wei et al., 2012), the five powder mixtures, Nb/Al, Ni/Al, Mo/
Al, W/Al, and Ta/Al, with equivolumetric ratios were placed into the inner tube of the
double-tube explosive consolidation system. By using the double-tube explosive con-
solidation, these compacts could reach very high densities, which are about 99%
theoretcical material density (TMD). These highly dense compacts had the mechan-
ical properties close to the fully densified bulk materials. The cross-sectional SEM
micrographs of the five powder compactions are shown in Fig. 1.12, which will be
described in detail in Chapter 4.
10 Shock Compression and Chemical Reaction of Multifunctional Energetic Structural Materials

Fig. 1.12 Cross-sectional SEM micrographs of consolidated mixtures: (A) Ni/Al, (B) W/Al,
(C) Mo/Al, (D) Nb/Al, and (E) Ta/Al (the darker areas represent aluminum).
From Wei, C. T., Vitali, E., Jiang, F., Du, S. W., Benson, D. J., Vecchio, K. S., et al. (2012).
Quasi-static and dynamic response of explosively consolidated metal–aluminum powder
mixtures. Acta Materialia, 60(3), 1418–1432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2011.10.027.

Specimen processing
After consolidation, the powder compactions are machined into desired sizes for
experimental or application use. For example, cylindrical rods with a diameter of
3 mm were machined to conduct the mechanical property test from the middle part
of compacts, parallel to the tube axis.

Casting and curing

Casting and curing are manufacturing processes in which a liquid material is usually
poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then
allowed to solidify. This method is commonly used in fabrication of reinforced
polymer composite materials. Fig. 1.13 gives an example for the die and product
by casting and curing.
Martin (2005) fabricated Ni/Al composites by means of epoxy casting and curing.
The fabricated process from Martin (2005) can be concluded as follows:

Raw material preparation

This process is introduced in detail in “Raw powder preparation” in "Static pressing"
section.
Preparation and microstructures of MESMs 11

Fig. 1.13 An example of casting and curing: (A) Top view cross section of the die and
(B) illustration of a casting that was produced.
From Hamasaiid, A., Dargusch, M. S., & Dour, G. (2019). The impact of the casting thickness
on the interfacial heat transfer and solidification of the casting during permanent mold casting of
an A356 alloy. Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 47, 229–237.

Mixing and drying of powders

The powder constituents are mixed according to their mass or volume ratio. Then,
the powder mixtures are heated in an open container in a 120°C furnace for several
hours, which is an important step to eliminate the moisture of the powder mixtures.
After heating, the desired amount of powder mixture was measured out and placed in
a plastic container.

Heating of the polymer and mixing with powder mixtures

In order to decrease the viscosity of the polymer, the heating process should be carried
out on it. Martin (2005) heated Epon Resin 826 at 120°C and then added the desired
amount of the resin to the powder mixture. The resin and powder were mixed for about
3min using a mixing blade mounted on a drill. The mixture was then placed back into
the 120°C furnace (Fisher Oven) for about 15min to aid the mixing by decreasing the
viscosity of epoxy.

Mixing with a hardener and solvent

After the resin and powders were fully mixed, the diethanolamine hardener (7.7 wt%
of epoxy) was added to the mixture and blended using a homemade mixing device.
The mixture was again placed in the furnace for about 15min. If this mixture was
not fluid enough that it could be poured out of the container, a small amount of toluene
anhydrous 99.8% was added as a solvent and evaporated later. After the addition of
toluene, the mixture was placed back in the furnace for an additional 15min.
12 Shock Compression and Chemical Reaction of Multifunctional Energetic Structural Materials

Next, the mixture was degassed in a desiccator for about 5min (until a pressure of
1–2 Torr was achieved) to remove air bubbles, and then, it was placed back in the
furnace for about 30min, taking care not to stir it and introduce new air bubbles.

Curing in the molds

Finally, the mixture was poured into molds (coated with grease on the inside) of a 0.600
diameter and a 600 length, and placed in a 70–80°C furnace for 48 h to cure. After the
samples had cured, they were removed from the molds. The samples were then cut and
machined into various sized rods for testing.

Cold rolling
The three above methods are all used to fabricate powder compaction of MESMs. In
recent years, the multilayered composites of MESMs have attracted widespread atten-
tion ( Ji et al., 2017; Specht, Thadhani, & Weihs, 2012; Specht, Weihs, & Thadhani,
2016). Cold rolling (Specht et al., 2012, 2016) and PVD (Kelly & Thadhani, 2016;
Knepper et al., 2009) are common methods to manufacture multilayered composites
of MESMs. Cold rolling is a process by which a metal is passed through rollers at
temperatures below its recrystallization temperature. The metal is compressed and
squeezed, increasing the yield strength and hardness of the metal. The microstructure
of the multilayered MESMs mainly depends on the manufacturing method and
manufacturing process. In most studies of multilayered composites, the bilayer spac-
ing (Knepper et al., 2009), in other words, the reactant spacing referring to the total
thickness of the two layers, is an important parameter.
Studies on the energy releasing aspect of multilayered MESMs mainly focused on
the self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS) via differential scanning
calorimetry (DSC) at normal heating rates (20–40°C/min) (Gavens, Van Heerden,
Mann, Reiss, & Weihs, 2000; Knepper et al., 2009; Kuk, Yu, & Ryu, 2015; Ma,
Thompson, Clevenger, & Tu, 1990). Ji (Hugus, Sheridan, & Brooks, 2012) studied
the shock-induced chemical reaction (SICR) characteristics of Al/Ni multilayered
composites with 4 rolling passes via two-step impact initiation experiments and ana-
lyzed the relationship between the released energy and the impact velocity. The shock
wave propagation in multilayered composites is affected by the orientation of the
material interfaces, the interfacial strength, and the bilayer spacing, according to
the mesoscale simulation by Specht et al. (Kelly & Thadhani, 2016; Knepper et al.,
2009). These simulations showed that the interfaces between component layers would
cause the dispersion and dissipation of the shock waves when the impact direction is
parallel to them.
Xiong et al. (2019) investigated the microstructural effects on the SICR behaviors
of Al/Ni composites with different manufacturing methods, namely, powder compac-
tion and cold rolling with 3–5 passes, by mesoscale simulation and two-step impact
initiation experiments. The fabrication process is illustrated in Fig. 1.14, which can be
described as follows:
Preparation and microstructures of MESMs 13

Fig. 1.14 Schematic diagram for the cold rolling process.

No Permission Required.

Original foil preparation

The stoichiometric ratio of Al to Ni in the specimens was designed nearly to 1:1 in
order to obtain the greatest chemical release capability (Wei, 2011). Al 1060 and
Ni with sizes of 200  30  0.8 mm and 200  30  0.5 mm shown in Fig. 1.15 were
chosen to fabricate the cold-rolled specimens, respectively.

First rolling pass

The initial Al and Ni foils were assembled alternately with nine layers and eight
layers, respectively. Then, the assembly was rolled to achieve sufficient deformation
by the two-roll reversible rolling mill as shown in Fig. 1.16. In order to eliminate the
residual stress during the rolling pass, the rolled composites were annealed in an inert
atmosphere at a temperature of 550°C by the box resistance furnace as shown in
Fig. 1.17. This process is referred to as one rolling pass.

Fig. 1.15 Photograph of the original foils.

No Permission Required.
14 Shock Compression and Chemical Reaction of Multifunctional Energetic Structural Materials

Fig. 1.16 Two-roll reversible rolling mill.

No Permission Required.

Fig. 1.17 Box resistance furnace.

No Permission Required.

Successive rolling
The deformed sheet was cut into two pieces and stacked by repeating the above pro-
cess. Al/Ni multilayered composites with 3–5 rolling passes were obtained to study
their SICR behaviors. The specimens were obtained by wire-electrode cutting from
the rolled foils, which are shown in Fig. 1.18. The cutting direction is perpendicular
to the surface of the foils to avoid delaminating. The average TMD % values of all the
Al/Ni composites are within a narrow range from 92.0% to 94.2%.
Fig. 1.19 shows the microstructures of Al/Ni multilayered composites man-
ufactured by cold rolling with 2–5 passes. With successive rolling passes, the Ni foils
Preparation and microstructures of MESMs 15

Fig. 1.18 Rolled multilayered composites and the specimens.

No Permission Required.

Fig. 1.19 Microstructures of Al/Ni multilayered composites manufactured by cold rolling with
2–5 passes.
No Permission Required.

were fractured into small pieces and surrounded by a continuous Al matrix. The Al/Ni
multilayered composites with 2–5 rolling passes showed a similar microstructure with
parallel Al and Ni layers. The typical layer thickness of Ni and the bilayer spacing
were measured, and the dimensions indicate that the thickness of the constituents
was reduced during the rolling passes.
Wei (2011) manufactured two kinds of Al/Ni multilayered composites by cold
rolling; one was made of a 25 μm thick Al sheet and an 18 μm thick Ni sheet, and
the other was made of a 178 μm Al sheet and a 127 μm Ni sheet. These two Ni/Al
16 Shock Compression and Chemical Reaction of Multifunctional Energetic Structural Materials

Fig. 1.20 Cross-sections of two different laminates have three distinct morphologies: The
nonuniform multilayered composite in the thicker bilayer sample (top-left inset) and the wave
form layers with isolated Ni fragments in the Al matrix in the thicker bilayer sample.
From Wei, C. T., Maddox, B. R., Stover, A. K., Weihs, T. P., Nesterenko, V. F., & Meyers,
M. A. (2011). Reaction in Ni–Al laminates by laser-shock compression and spalling.
Acta Materialia, 59(13), 5276–5287.

multilayered composites had bilayer thicknesses of 5 and 30 μm, respectively. Fig. 1.20
shows morphologies of the cross-sections of the Ni-Al multilayered composites. Because
of the high strain caused by the cold rolling process, the multilayered composites had dis-
tinguishable morphologies depending on the rolling direction, the dimension, and the
mechanical properties of the materials. The thicker bilayer samples have two different
morphologies of the cross-sections. The nonuniform multilayered structure was along
with the cold-rolling direction, and the wavy layer structure was perpendicular to the
rolling direction in the multilayered composites with a 30μm bilayer thickness. However,
for the sample with a thinner bilayer thickness (Fig. 1.19 lower insets), the micromorphol-
ogy showed only the localized homogeneous distribution of the Ni-Al binary phase.

Physical vapor deposition

PVD cases
PVD is one of the vacuum coating processes in which the film of the coating material
is usually deposited atom by atom on a substrate by condensation from the vapor phase
to the solid phase. This technology improves durability, and higher surface hardness
and increased service temperatures can be achieved from less expensive processes
(Zalnezhad & Sarhan, 2014).
Vapor deposition for multilayered MESMs, such as sputter deposition, can be used
to precisely control the layer thickness and obtain a uniform multilayered microstruc-
ture but consumes a lot of time and money. As for the vapor-deposited multilayered
composites with nanoscale thick layers, the diffusion distance and interface impurities
in multilayered composites were reduced compared to the powder-compacted
Preparation and microstructures of MESMs 17

composites (Gavens et al., 2000). Thus, the initial purpose of the studies on multi-
layered MESMs by vapor deposition was to increase the reaction velocities and to
enable self-propagating reactions in the materials. The fewer impurities also cause
metastable intermetallic phases at the interface, which dominate the reaction veloc-
ity of the multilayered composites with thin bilayers. The intermetallic layers have
little effect on the reaction velocity of thicker bilayers, which is mainly controlled by
the bilayer spacing and layer thickness (Gavens et al., 2000). Kelly and Thadhani
(2016) investigated the shock compression response of Al/Ni multilayered compos-
ites with a 150 μm thickness by laser-driven flyer impact experiments. Comparing
the high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (TEM) characterization of
recovered unreacted specimens with that of the original specimen, they suggested
that chemical reactions are most likely to be initiated at preexisting microstructural
heterogeneities.
Fig. 1.21 shows the scheme of the electron beam PVD chamber (Wolfe,
2000). The designs of PVD machines could vary greatly depending on the

Fig. 1.21 Scheme of the electron beam physical vapor.

From Wolfe, D. E., & Singh, J. (2000). Titanium carbide coatings deposited by reactive ion
beam-assisted, electron beam–physical vapor deposition. Surface and Coatings Technology,
124(2), 142–153.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ROYAL FRUIT
GELATIN SUGGESTIONS ***

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions

will be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S.

copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright
in these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and
distribute it in the United States without permission and without
paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General
Terms of Use part of this license, apply to copying and
distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the
PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept and trademark. Project
Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if
you charge for an eBook, except by following the terms of the
trademark license, including paying royalties for use of the
Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is
very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such
as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
research. Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and
printed and given away—you may do practically ANYTHING in
the United States with eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright
law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark license, especially
commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
 PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the

free distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this
work (or any other work associated in any way with the phrase
“Project Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of
the Full Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or
online at www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and

Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand,
agree to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual
property (trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to
abide by all the terms of this agreement, you must cease using
and return or destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works in your possession. If you paid a fee for
obtaining a copy of or access to a Project Gutenberg™
electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the terms
of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only

be used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by
people who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.
There are a few things that you can do with most Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works even without complying with the
full terms of this agreement. See paragraph 1.C below. There
are a lot of things you can do with Project Gutenberg™
electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement and
help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the
collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the
individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the
United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright
law in the United States and you are located in the United
States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from copying,
distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative works
based on the work as long as all references to Project
Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope that you will
support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting free
access to electronic works by freely sharing Project
Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of this
agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name
associated with the work. You can easily comply with the terms
of this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with
its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it
without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also
govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most
countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside
the United States, check the laws of your country in addition to
the terms of this agreement before downloading, copying,
displaying, performing, distributing or creating derivative works
based on this work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The
Foundation makes no representations concerning the copyright
status of any work in any country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project

Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other

immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must
appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project
Gutenberg™ work (any work on which the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” appears, or with which the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed,
viewed, copied or distributed:

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United

States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it
away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg
License included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United
States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is

derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to
anyone in the United States without paying any fees or charges.
If you are redistributing or providing access to a work with the
phrase “Project Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the
work, you must comply either with the requirements of
paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use
of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth
in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is

posted with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and
distribution must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through
1.E.7 and any additional terms imposed by the copyright holder.
Additional terms will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™
License for all works posted with the permission of the copyright
holder found at the beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project

Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files
containing a part of this work or any other work associated with
Project Gutenberg™.
 1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute
this electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1
with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the
Project Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form,
including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if
you provide access to or distribute copies of a Project
Gutenberg™ work in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or
other format used in the official version posted on the official
Project Gutenberg™ website (www.gutenberg.org), you must, at
no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a copy, a
means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
request, of the work in its original “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other
form. Any alternate format must include the full Project
Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™
works unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or

providing access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the
method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The
fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty
payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on
which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your
periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked
as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
 about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that
s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and
discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project
Gutenberg™ works.

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in
the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90
days of receipt of the work.

• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project

Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different
terms than are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain
permission in writing from the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, the manager of the Project Gutenberg™
trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3
below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend

considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on,
transcribe and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright
law in creating the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite
these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the
medium on which they may be stored, may contain “Defects,”
such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt
data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other
medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES -

Except for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in
paragraph 1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation, the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
and any other party distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic
work under this agreement, disclaim all liability to you for
damages, costs and expenses, including legal fees. YOU
AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE,
STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH
OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH
1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER
THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR
ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE
OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF
THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If

you discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of
receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you
paid for it by sending a written explanation to the person you
received the work from. If you received the work on a physical
medium, you must return the medium with your written
explanation. The person or entity that provided you with the
defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu
of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or
entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.
If the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund
in writing without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set

forth in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’,
WITH NO OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS
OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR
ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this
agreement violates the law of the state applicable to this
agreement, the agreement shall be interpreted to make the
maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by the applicable
state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any provision of
this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the

Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the
Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any
volunteers associated with the production, promotion and
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless
from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, that
arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project
Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or
deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect
you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of

Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new
computers. It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of
volunteers and donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project
Gutenberg™’s goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™
collection will remain freely available for generations to come. In
2001, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was
created to provide a secure and permanent future for Project
Gutenberg™ and future generations. To learn more about the
Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and how your
efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 and the
Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-
profit 501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the
laws of the state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by
the Internal Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal
tax identification number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the
Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation are tax
deductible to the full extent permitted by U.S. federal laws and
your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500

West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact
links and up to date contact information can be found at the
Foundation’s website and official page at
www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission
of increasing the number of public domain and licensed works
that can be freely distributed in machine-readable form
accessible by the widest array of equipment including outdated
equipment. Many small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly
important to maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws

regulating charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of
the United States. Compliance requirements are not uniform
and it takes a considerable effort, much paperwork and many
fees to meet and keep up with these requirements. We do not
solicit donations in locations where we have not received written
confirmation of compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or
determine the status of compliance for any particular state visit
www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states

where we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know
of no prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from
donors in such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot

make any statements concerning tax treatment of donations
received from outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp
our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current

donation methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a
number of other ways including checks, online payments and
credit card donations. To donate, please visit:
www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project

Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could
be freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose
network of volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several

printed editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by
copyright in the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus,
we do not necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any
particular paper edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new
eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear
about new eBooks.